.,...,:",.,.

•~~ ~

f~};~ACIO~~
.\

ROTARY DRILLING SE ,

ROTARY DRILLING SERIES

Unit I: The Rig and Its Maintenance

Lesson 1: The Rotary Rig and Its Components
Lesson 2: The Bit
Lesson 3: Drill String and Drill Collars
Lesson 4: Rotary, Kelly, Swivel, Tongs, and Top Drive
Lesson 5:
Lesson 6:
Lesson 7:
The Blocks and Drilling Line
The Drawworks and the Compound
Drilling Fluids, Mud Pumps, and Conditioning Equipment
Casing and
Lesson 8: Diesel Engines and Electric Power
Lesson 9:
Lesson 10:
The Auxiliaries
Safety on the Rig Cementing
Unit II: Norm.al Drilling Operations
Lesson 1: Making Hole Unit II, Lesson 4
Lesson 2: Drilling Fluids Third Edition
mmaJA..ii..,mr.\ffe.'5:!!.!!--. • " ~
Lesson 3: Drilling a Straight Hole
Lesson 4: Casing and Cementing UN Sa.
Lesson 5: Testing and Completing INVENTARIO
PATRIMONIO
Unit ill: Nonroutine Operations Orden N°.
Lesson r: Controlled Directional Drilling
Lesson 2: Open-Hole Fishing
Lesson 3: Blowout Prevention

Unit IV: Man Management and Rig Management

By William E. Jackson
Unit V: Offshore Technology
Lesson 1: Wind, Waves, and Weather Published by
Lesson 2: Spread Mooring Systems
FEIEX. PETROLEUM EXTENSION SERVICE
Lesson 3: Buoyancy, Stability, and Trim
THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN
Lesson 4: Jacking Systems and Rig Moving Procedures
Division of Continuing & Innovative Education
Lesson 5: Diving and Equipment
Austin, Texas
Lesson 6: Vessel Inspection and Maintenance
Lesson 7: Helicopter Safety
Lesson 8: Orientation for Offshore Crane Operations
Originally produced by
Lesson 9: Life Offshore INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION
Lesson Io: Marine Riser Systems and Subsea Blowout Preventers /UKiversiJad .fJcchn~! de Salta OF DRILLING CONTRACTORS
B BB LB 0 ·1.. ~ C A
Houston, Texas
N•. INT,
·----------
f~CIIA DE INGRESO
2001
-------
'flf.OCEDENCIA ......_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
nmICACION _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
 Figures
Tables
V

VIII
Contents
Foreword vn
Acknowledgments 1x

Units of Measurement x
Introduction 1

Casing 3
Casing Strings 4
Types of Casing 5
Conductor Pipe 6
Surface Casing 7
Intermediate Casing 7
Liner String 8
Production Casing Io
To Summarize 11

String Design 12
Design Criteria: Primary Forces 12
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Design Criteria: Secondary Forces 15
Design Criteria: Downhole Environment
Feder,Judy, 1950-
To Summarize 16
Casing and cementing / by Judy Feder. - 3rd ed.
p. cm. - (Rotary drilling series; unit 2, lesson 4) Setting the Casing 17
ISBN 0-88698-191-3 (alk. paper) Preparation 17
1. Oil well casing. 2. Oil well cementing. I. Title. II. Series. Running the Casing 22
TN871.22.F44 2001 Stabbing, Making Up, and Lowering 2 7
622'.3381-dc21 2001000765 Landing 32
CIP API Standards 36
To Summarize 41
Casing Threads and Couplings 42
©2001 by The University of Texas at Austin Proprietary or Premium Connections 45
All rights reserved To Summarize 48
First Edition published 1968. Second Edition 1982.
Third Edition 2001. Third Impression 2011 Changing Technology 49
Printed in the United States of America Cementing 51
This book or parts thereof may not be reproduced in any form without Primary Cementing Basics 52
permission of Petroleum Extension Service, The University of Texas at To Summarize 54
Austin.
Oilwell Cements and Additives 55
Brand names, company names, trademarks, or other identifying symbols Additives 57
appearing in illustrations and/or text are used for educational purposes only Special Cements 62
and do not constitute an endorsement by the author or the publisher. To Summarize 64
Catalog no. 2.20430
Mixing 66
ISBN 0-88698-191-3
Water Quality 66
Water Quantity 66
No state tax funds were used to publish this book.
Types of Mixers 67
The University of Texas at Austin is an equal opportunity employer.

III
 Pumping These joints of casing are ready to be run into the well, where
70
Figures
1.

Displacing the Drilling Mud 70 they will serve at least seven important functions. 3
Pumping the Cement 71 2. Most wells require several strings of casing, each of which serves
Casing Accessories 73 a specific purpose important to the completion of the well. 5
To Summarize 79 3. Conductor pipe in offshore operations extends the "hole" from
Cement Volume Requirements 81 the seafloor, up through the water, to a point in the air just below
Calculating Open-Hole Capacity 82 the drilling deck. 6
To Summarize 83 4- A liner is a relatively short string of casing that extends from the
Considerations After Cementing 84 bottom of the open hole, up into another string. 8
Waiting on Cement 84 5. Liner strings are nearly always suspended from the upper string
Checking the Cement Top 85 by means of a liner hanger. 8
Pressure Testing 87
6. A tie-back string from the liner to the surface may be used if an
To Summarize 87
existing casing string has been weakened by drilling. 9
Glossary 89 7. Whether on or offshore, preventive maintenance is key to pro-
Review Questions IOI tecting casing as it is prepared to run into the well. 17
Answers 109 8. A thread protector should be in place any time a joint of casing is
handled. 18
9. Casing resting on stringers 19
10. Before casing is run, threads are inspected for damage that may
have occurred during shipping and racking. 20

r 1. Pipe is tallied three times: when it is shipped, when it arrives at

location, and after the casing string has been run. 22

12. Running casing 23

13. Stabbing casing 24

14. Special bucket and sling arrangement raise a joint of casing to
the rig floor 27

1 5. Thread compound may be applied over the entire surface of the

casing threads just before stabbing. 28
16. Hydraulic power tongs are placed around a joint of casing to
make it up to a predetermined torque. 29
17. Casing elevators and casing spider support the casing as it is be-
ing lowered into the well. 31
18. Landing the casing involves transferring the casing string weight
to the wellhead, usually with a casing hanger that seats in the
casinghead and seals the annulus between the outer and inner
strings. 32
19. Downhole casing hangers are used to relieve some of the load on
the casinghead. 35
20. Casing with a coupling (A) and a threaded end (B) 42
2 .1. Examples of API-threaded connections 43
22. Examples of premium-threaded connections 45
2 3. Halliburton cementing equipment from the 1920s 51

V
 24- Primary cementing is performed immediately after the casing
has been run in the hole, to seal and separate each zone, and to
protect the pipe. 53
2 5. Cementing trucks transport dry cement blends to the well

26.
site. 55
High-energy recirculating mixers provide thoroughly mixed slur-
Foreword
ries at a wide range of densities and rates. 67
2 7. Internal operation of a recirculating mixer 68
2 8. The demands and expense associated with offshore operations
have led to the development of sophisticated, high-tech mixing
and data acquisition systems. 68
29.
30.
Internal operation of a batch mixer
A primary cementing job 71
69
F or many years, the Rotary Drilling Series has oriented new
personnel and further assisted experienced hands in the rotary
drilling industry. As the industry changes, so must the manuals in
3 1. Wiper plugs are placed in the cementing head to wipe mud this series reflect those changes.
off the inside of the casing and keep it separated from the ce- The revisions to both the text and illustrations are exten-
ment. 72 sive. In addition, the layout has been "modernized" to make the
32. A typical casing string with accessories 73 information easy to get; the study questions have been rewritten;
33. A guide shoe 74 and each major section has been summarized to provide a handy
34- An automatic fill-up shoe 74
comprehension check for the reader.
PETEX wishes to thank industry reviewers-and our readers-
35. A float collar prevents backflow of cement during the cementing
for invaluable assistance in the revision of the Rotary Drilling Series.
operation. 75
Casing and Cementing introduces rig crew members to the
36. Multistage cementing devices are used to cement two or more concept of casing string design and the procedures for properly
separate sections behind a casing string. 76
handling pipe while it is on the rack, being picked up, made up
37. Bow (A) and solid body (B) centralizers 77 into a string, and cemented in the hole. This manual covers types
38. Scratchers (A) and wipers (B) help remove filter cake and gelled of pipe usually employed, string design considerations, running
mud from the well as the casing is run. 78 techniques, cementing procedures, casing liner use, liner setting,
39. Temperature survey showing the top of cement outside the cas- and cement strength determination.
ing 85 Although every effort was made-to ensure accuracy, this
manual is intended only as a training aid; thus, nothing in it should
be construed as approval or disapproval of any specific practice
or product.

Fluid Displacement of Casing 25 Ron Baker

Tables 1.

2. Volume Gains in the Mud Pit from Casing Displacement 25

3. API Length Ranges of Casing 36

4. Specification for Casing and Tubing-AP! Casing List 37
5. Specification for Casing and Tubing-Tensile and Hardness
Requirements 39
6. Distance Between Plates for Electric Weld Flattening
Tests 40
7. Effects of Some Additives on the Physical Properties of
Cement 58

VI VII
 Acknowledgments
......
...
he author expresses a sincere appreciation to the numerous
T people who have helped with the preparation of this edition
of Casing and Cementing. In particular, special thanks go to Rick
Covington of Halliburton Energy Services, and Ed Banker of
Marubeni Tubulars, Inc. Their time and patience reviewing the
manuscript and updating information was invaluable.
Thanks also go to Monte Montague, Betsy Mott, and Dave
Rees of Halliburton, as well as Anjali Prasad andJohn Greenip of
Hydril, for locating and providing illustrations and photographs
for use in the manual. John Greenip was most helpful in providing
assistance in reviewing the text.
All who have contributed time, thought, and effort into this
book have worked to make this new edition a success in providing
the most complete information about casing and cementing.

IX
 English-Units-to-SI-Units Conversion Factors
Quantity Multiply To Obtain
or Property English Units English Units By These SI Units
Length, inches (in.) 2 5·4 millimetres (mm)
depth, 2 ·54 centimetres (cm)
or height feet (ft) 0.3048 metres (m)
Units of Measurement yards (yd)
miles (mi)
0.9144
1609.344
1.61
metres (m)
metres (m)
kilometres (km)
Hole and pipe diameters, bit size inches (in.) millimetres (mm)
Drilling rate feet per hour (ft/h) metres per hour (m/h)
Weight on bit pounds (lb) decanewtons (dN)
Nozzle size 3 mds of an inch o.8 millimetres (mm)
barrels (bbl) 0.159 cubic metres (m3)
1 59 litres (L)
gallons per stroke (gal/stroke) 0.00379 cubic metres per stroke (m3/stroke)

T hroughout the world, two systems of measurement dominate:

the English system and the metric system. Today, the United Volume
ounces (oz)
cubic inches (in. 3)
cubic feet (ft3)
29·57
16.387
28.3169
millilitres (mL)
cubic centimetres (cm3)
litres (L)
States is almost the only country that employs the English sys- cubic metres (m3)
0.0283
tem. quarts (qt) o.9464 litres (L)
The English system uses the pound as the unit of weight, the gallons (gal) 3.7854 litres (L)
gallons (gal) 0.00379 cubic metres (m3)
foot as the unit of length, and the gallon as the unit of capacity. In pounds per barrel (lb/bbl) 2.895 kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m 3)
the English system, for example, 1 foot equals 12 inches, I yard barrels per ton (bbl/tn) 0.175 cubic metres per tonne (m 3/t)
equals 36 inches, and I mile equals 5,280 feet or 1,760 yards. gallons per minute (gpm) 0.00379 cubic metres per minute (m3/min)
Pump output gallons per hour (gph) o.oo379 cubic metres per hour (m 3/h)
The metric system uses the gram as the unit of weight, the and flow rate barrels per stroke (bbl/stroke) 0.159 cubic metres per stroke (m3/stroke)
metre as the unit of length, and the litre as the unit of capacity. barrels per minute (bbl/min) 0.159 cubic metres per minute (m3/min)
In the metric system, for example, I metre equals rn decimetres, Pressure pounds per square inch (psi) 6.895 kilopascals (kPa)
0.006895 megapascals (MPa)
mo centimetres, or I ,ooo millimetres. A kilometre equals I ,ooo
OF - 32
metres. The metric system, unlike the English system, uses a Temperature degrees Fahrenheit (°F) degrees Celsius (0 C)
I.8
base of rn; thus, it is easy to convert from one unit to another. To Thermal gradient 1°F per 60 feet 1°C per 33 metres
convert from one unit to another in the English system, you must ounces (oz) grams (g)
28.35
memorize or look up the values. Mass (weight) pounds (lb) 453.59 grams (g)
In the late 1970s, the Eleventh General Conference on Weights 0-4536 kilograms (kg)
tons (tn) 0.9072 tonnes (t)
and Measures described and adopted the Systeme International pounds per foot (lb/ft) 1.488 kilograms per metre (kg/m)
(SI) d'Unites. Conference participants based the SI system on Mud weight pounds per gallon (ppg) 119.82 kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3)
the metric system and designed it as an international standard of pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3) 16.0 kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3)
measurement. Pressure gradient pounds per square inch
per foot (psi/ft) 22.621 kilopascals per metre (kPa/m)
The Rotary Drilling Series gives both English and SI units. Funnel viscosity seconds per quart (s/qt) 1.057 seconds per litre (s/L)
And because the SI system employs the British spelling of many of Yield point pounds per mo square feet (lb/ mo ft 2
) 0.48 pascals (Pa)
the terms, the book follows those spelling rules as well. The unit Gel strength pounds per mo square feet (lb/mo ft2) 0-48 pascals (Pa)
of length, for example, is metre, not meter. (Note, however, that Filter cake thickness 3 mds of an inch o.8 millimetres (mm)
the unit of weight is gram, not gramme.) Power horsepower (hp) 0.75 kilowatts (kW)
To aid U.S. readers in making and understanding the conver- square inches (in. 2) 6.45 square centimetres (cm2)
sion tC? the SI system, we include the following table. square feet (ft2) 0.0929 square metres (m2)
Area square yards (yd 2) 0.8361 square metres (m2)
square miles (mi2) 2.59 square kilometres (km2)
acre (ac) 0-40 hectare (ha)
Drilling line wear ton-miles (tn•mi) 1 4·3 1 7 megajoules (MJ)
1.459 tonne-kilometres (t•km)
Torque foot-pounds (ft• lb) newton metres (N•m)

X XI
/

Introduction

asing and cementing are essential to drilling oil and gas wells.
C Lining a hole with casing keeps it from caving in after it is
drilled, sealing the wellbore from encroaching fluids and gasses.
Cementing the casing in place attaches it firmly to the wellbore wall
and stabilizes the hole. Casing and cement both serve additional,
important functions in the well. These functions will be addressed
later in this manual.
Casing and cementing procedures have grown more sophis-
ticated in recent years as the search for new hydrocarbon-bearing
reservoirs takes wells deeper and into more hostile environments
(i.e., deep water, high pressures and temperatures, and sour gases).
Engineers and metallurgists work continually to refine casing or
cementing designs and procedures to handle the challenges as-
sociated with offshore and remote locations, extreme depths, and
severe conditions.
During the days of cable-tool drilling, numerous strings of
casing had to be set as a well was drilled. With the advent of rotary
drilling came better quality muds with greater ability to control
well pressures. As a result, much more open hole could be drilled.
Casing is now generally set to serve a specific purpose and is neither
arbitrary nor compulsory for any hole conditions.

I
 Casing

C asing and tubing account for r 5 to 20 percent of the com-

pleted cost ofa well-often the greatest single item of expense
on the well. Failure of casing or tubing results in expensive rework
and may lead to loss of the well, or worse, loss of life. Selecting
casing sizes, weights, grades, and types of threaded connections for
a given situation presents an engineering and economic challenge
of considerable importance.
Casing is strong steel pipe used in an oil or gas well to ensure
a pressure-tight connection from the surface to the oil or gas
reservoir. Casing serves at least seven important functions in the
well (fig. r):
r. It prevents the hole from caving in or washing out.
2. It protects freshwater sands from contamination by fluids
from lower zones.
3. It keeps water out of the producing formation.
4. It confines production to the wellbore.

Figure 1. These joints ofcasing are ready to be run into the well,
where they will serve at least seven important functions.

3
 CASING AND CEMENTING CASING

5. It contains formation pressures and prevents fracturing Because casing serves several different functions, itis usually neces- Types of Casing
of upper and weaker zones. sary to install more than one string of casing. Typically, a well will
6. It provides an anchor for surface and artificial lift equip- require at least three concentric strings of casing: conductor pipe,
ment. surface casing, and production casing (fig. 2). Depending on the
7. It provides a flow path for produced fluids. formations encountered, it may also require intermediate casing.
In some cases a liner string may be set and tied back to the surface
In offshore operations, casing also provides a conduit from the
to form a production string. Each type of casing serves a specific
seafloor to a bottom-supported drilling unit, such as a jackup, on
the surface of the water. purpose important to the completion of the well.

/ /
Casing Strings Casing is manufactured in joints that range in length from r 6 to 48
feet (ft) or 4.9 to 14.6 metres (m). It ranges in diameter from 4.5 to
48 inches (in.) or r 14 to 122 millimetres (mm) or more. Joints of
casing are either screwed or (occasionally) welded together as they
are lowered into the hole. Several joints of casing, when joined,
constitute a casing string.
Casing strings are run concentrically, from the surface through
the lowest interval with hydrocarbon-bearing potential. The bit
drills the hole to a certain depth, then casing is run in to line it and, I~- SURFACE
CASING
in most cases, cement is pumped in to bind the casing firmly to the ,1141,:1---- INTERMEDIATE
1
walls of the hole. (Note, however, that there are instances when "'1'------...:C=ASING
casing is intentionally left uncemented.) Drilling continues to the _:'.•~ -
next specified depth, and casing is once again run and cemented.
This process is repeated until the rig reaches total depth.

Figure 2. Most wells require several strings ofcasing, each ofwhich

serves a specific purpose important to the completion of the well.

4 5
 CASING AND CEMENTING
Conductor Pipe Conductor pipe is the first string of casing installed in the well. It
prevents erosion of the hole around the base of the rig, and also
provides the conduit to raise the circulating fluid high enough
above ground level to return it to the mud pit.
The conductor string is usually not more than 2o to 5o ft (6. r
to r 5 m) long. Conductor pipe for onshore applications is usually
16 to 20 in. (406 to 508 mm) in outside diameter. For offshore
applications, outside diameter generally ranges from 30 to 48 in.
(762 to 1,219 mm).
Conductor pipe sometimes provides for attachment of a
blowout preventer in situations where gas sands may be en-
countered at very shallow depths. The conductor pipe protects
subsequent casing strings from corrosion. It may also be used to
support some of the wellhead load on locations where ground
support is inadequate.
When a well is drilled in a swamp or offshore, the conduc-
tor pipe is generally driven into the ground with a pile driver. In
offshore operations, when drilling from bottom-supported rigs,
the conductor pipe not only provides stability to the part of the
hole that is near the seafloor, but it also extends the hole from the
seafloor, up through the water, to a point in the air just below the
drilling deck of the rig (fig. 3).
Figure 3. Conductor pipe in offshore operations extends the "hole"from the seafioor, up through the
water, to a point in the air just below the drilling deck.
6 7
CASING
Surface casing is set deep enough to: Surface Casing
• prevent loose formations from caving in or washing out;
• seal off weak zones from abnormal formation pressures;
• protect freshwater formations from contamination by oil,
gas, or salt water from deeper producing formations;
• provide solid support for blowout preventers (BOPs);
• provide pressure integrity in the event of blowouts or kicks;
and
• comply with government environmental regulations.
(NOTE: State and federal regulations for the protection of
underground reservoirs offresh water are usually quite specific
about the setting depth of surface casing.)
The surface casing is the starting point for the casinghead
and other fittings that will remain on the completed well.
The outside diameter of surface casing is slightly less than
that of the conductor pipe. Minimum setting depth is usually IO
percent of the expected total depth of the well, or 500 ft (152 m),
whichever is greater. However, surface casing may be set several
thousand feet deep, depending on local conditions encountered.
Intermediate casing may be 5 to 13%in. (127 to 340mm) in diameter Intermediate Casing
and may be set anywhere from the surface to total depth. When an
intermediate casing string is run, it is usually for one of two reasons:
1. to seal off weak zones from abnormal formation pres-
sures or heaving shales; or
2. to minimize hazards from lost circulation zones.
Sometimes an intermediate string of casing is used to seal off
older producing zones in order to drill for deeper production.
The usual function of the intermediate string is to protect
against loss of circulation in shallow formations when heavyweight
mud is needed for high-pressure zones at some depth. Intermediate
casing is sometimes set through high-pressure zones so that lighter
drilling fluid can be used to drill deeper. The intermediate string
affords better protection against well pressure than the surface string
because its smaller diameter holds more pressure and because it
will not wear out from abrasion by the drill string.
When intermediate casing is used, it should be set deep enough
to reach formations able to hold the mud weight expected when
drilling deeper. This depth may be 5,000 ft (1,524 m) or more.
The number of intermediate strings set depends on the depth of
the well and the problems encountered in drilling.
 CASING
CASING AND CEMENTING

Liner String A liner is a relatively short string of casing that extends from the The principal advantage of a liner is the lower cost of a short
bottom of the open hole up into another casing string. The upper string of pipe versus a complete string back to the surface. Liner
string overlaps the liner for about 100 ft (30. 5 m) at its lower end strings offer several additional advantages in deep wells.
(fig. 4). Unlike other casing strings, which are anchored from the 1. They provide a means of testing a lower zone at less
CASING surface, liners are nearly always suspended from the upper string cost than with a full string of pipe.
by means of a hanger device (fig. 5). They are often cemented in 2. They lessen the risk of becoming stuck off bottom be-
place, but production liners are sometimes suspended in the well cause running time is shorter than for a full string.
without cementing. 3. If an existing string of casing has been weakened by
LINER drilling, additional pipe may be tied from the top of the
PACKER liner back to the surface to form a continuous casing
AND ~ RUNNING-IN STRING
HANGER string to the wellhead (fig. 6).
A liner is sometimes run as a protective string, serving the
same function as an intermediate string.

LINER

CEMENT

TIE-BACK CASING
CASING STRING STRING

Figure 4. A liner is a
relatively short string of
casing that extends from the TIE-BACK
SECTION
bottom of the open hole, up LINER HANGER
into another string.

LINER

LANDING COLLAR
Figure 6. A tie-back string
from the liner to the suiface
may be used ifan existing
Figure 5. Liner strings
casing string has been
are nearly always suspended
weakened by drilling.
from the upper string by
means ofa liner hanger.

8 9
CASING AND CEMENTING
Production Casing The production casing, or oil string, is the last string of casing run
in the well. Its purpose is to isolate the producing reservoir from
undesirable fluids in the producing formation and from other zones
penetrated bythewellbore. Production casing forms the protective
housing for the tubing and other equipment used in a well. Pro-
duction casing may also be referred to as the long string because
it is the longest (and heaviest) casing string in the well, running
continuously from the surface to the producing formation.
Production casing should be the best quality for the conditions
involved, as it is usually subjected to maximum well pressures and
to high pressures from the formation. Similarly, because even a
small leak can develop into a blowout, the oil string's threaded con-
nections should be appropriate for the pressures likely to develop.
The casing joints should be carefully made up as the pipe is run
into the well to guard against future leaks. Finally, the production
casing must be carefully cemented in place to ensure an absolutely
pressure-tight bond between the formation and the pipe.
IO
CASING
To summarize-
Casing
• prevents the hole caving in or washing out
• protects freshwater sands from contamination
• keeps water out of producing formations
• confines production to the wellbore
• contains formation pressures and prevents fracturing of
upper, weaker zones
• provides an anchor for surface and artificial lift equipment
• provides a flow path for produced fluids
Types of casing
Conductorpipe-prevents hole erosion around rig and serves as a con-
duit to raise circulating fluid high enough to return to mud pits
Suiface casing-prevents loose formations from caving; seals offweak
zones; protects freshwater formations; gives a firm base on which
to install the BOP stack; provides pressure integrity in the event
of blowouts or kicks; is installed to comply with regulations
lnternzediate casing-seals off weak zones from abnormal formation
pressures or heaving shales; minimizes hazards from lost circula-
tion zones
Production casing-isolates the producing reservoir from undesirable
fluids in the producing formation and from other zones
Liner-a relatively short string of casing that extends from the
bottom of the open hole up into another casing string
II
CASING AND CEMENTING
String Design The goal of tubular design is to reach a target formation with a speci-
fied size of tubing. The size of tubing depends on the volume of oil
or gas to be produced and the manner in which it will be produced.
For example, a high-volume gas well and a pumping oilwell have
different size requirements. After tubing size has been selected, the
expected depth and pressure profile of the well dictate the number
of casing strings and the pressure requirements of each.
Well environment may limit material selection.For example,
sour service requires special grades. Casing design engineers usually
select several potential weights or grades of casing to make up a given
string, then base final casing selection on availability and cost.
Design Criteria: Engineers primarily design casing strings to withstand three forces:
Primary Forces • tension;
• collapse pressure; and
• burst pressure.
Pipe is rated to withstand a certain amount of each of these forces.
Almost all pipe is made of steel. In the U.S., its strength is ex-
pressed in load per unit area (pounds of force per square inch, or
psi. Elsewhere, its strength is expressed in kilopascals or kPa). The
accepted industry standard is the American Petroleum Institute
(API) Specification 5C2, Bulletin onPeiformance PropeniesofCasing,
Tubing, and Drill Pipe. Good engineering practice is to decrease
the rating by a safety factor or design factor (these terms are used
interchangeably), so that a failure will not occur if the actual load
is slightly greater than the expected load.
Tension
Tension is the downward pull of the weight of the casing string on the
pipe body and on the couplings. The uppermost joint ofpipe in a string
must support the weight of all sections of pipe below it. Therefore,
tension is significant in all strings except the conductor string. Obvi-
ously, tension is most important at the top of the string.
In the case of API connections, the connection is the weakest
part of the casing string. Joint strength is the amount of hanging
weight that can be placed on a connection without failure. API
joint strength is the calculated failure load of the connection.
Collapse Pressure
Collapse pressure is the amount of pressure required to cause the
wall of the casing to collapse. Collapse occurs when the pressure
outside a joint of casing is greater than the pressure inside the pipe.
12
CASING
Ensuring Safety
To assure an adequate margin ofsafety, most casing strings
are designed with a safety (or design) factor of I. 50 to
2.oo for tension. The most commonly used tension fac-
tor is 1.80. The tension design factor is the ratio of the
connection joint strength to the applied axial load. The
following example illustrates the use of a safety factor.
Diameter= 7¼-inch (194-mm)
Steel grade = N-80
Weight= 26-4 psi (597 kPa/m 3)
Connection: API Long threaded and coupled LT&C
Joint Strength = 490,000 pounds (lbs) or 2 r 8,050
decanewtons (dN); can support a suspended load
of 490,000 lbs (218,050 dN)
Using a safety factor of 1.8 limits the load that can be
supported safely to 272,222 lbs (121,139 kPa/m 3).
490,000 lbs+ 1.8 = 272,222 lbs
(218,050 dN + 1.8 = 121,139 kPa/m3).
Design factors for tension should take into account the
strength of the couplings, which is frequently lower than
the strength of the pipe body. Tension calculations are
based primarily on load per unit of cross-sectional area
for the grade of steel used.
Collapse pressure results from external hydrostatic pressure, and
it is significant in all strings except the conductor string. It is the
most important consideration at the bottom of the casing string,
where the pipe can be subjected to the pressure of the outside pres-
sure gradient. One of the most common collapse failures occurs
during a cement squeeze job.
Normally, designers apply a safety factor of r. I 25 to the API
collapse rating. For example, 7¼ in., 26-40 pounds per foot (ppf),
or 194 mm, 39.28 kilograms per metre (kg/m). N-80 casing has a
collapse pressure of 3,400 psi (23,443 kPa/m). For a normal hydro-
static head of o. 5 psi per ft of depth ( I 1. 3 kPa), this casing could be
used at a depth of 6,800 ft (2,073 m) without a safety factor. Using
a design factor of r. r 25, the depth is reduced to 6,800 ft + r. r 25 =
6,044ft(2,073 m+ 1.125 = 1,842 m). Calculations are based on the
maximum weight of the column of fluid on the outside of the pipe,
minus the weight of the column of fluid on the inside of the pipe.
CASING AND CEMENTING
Collapse Resistance: More or Less
Several factors can reduce the collapse rating of pipe.
Pipe in tension has reduced resistance to collapse, while pipe
in compression has greater resistance. The API recognizes
the reduction of collapse resistance due to axial tension
(Section 2.r.5, API Bulletin 5C3, Bulletin ofFormulas and
Calculations for Casing, Tubing, and Drill Pipe).
Ovality reduces collapse resistance. A perfectly round,
thin-walled tube, if deformed by r percent out-of-round,
will have its resistance to collapse lowered by 25 percent.
Thus, the slightest crushing by tongs, slips, or downhole
conditions diminishes the collapse resistance of the tube
considerably.
Burst Pressure
Burst pressure is the pressure difference when the fluid pressure
inside the pipe is greater than the fluid pressure outside the pipe.
The burst pressure rating is actually the internal yield pressure of
the pipe; i.e., the pressure at which the pipe body begins to per-
manently deform. Burst pressure is greatest at the top of a casing
string because the external pressure on the casing is reduced to zero
at this point. Burst pressure is important where wellhead pressures
are relatively high, as in high-pressure gas wells.
Burst strength, or minimum internal yield pressure, for the 7%
in. x 26-40 ppf, (194 mm x 39.28 kg/m) N-80 casing considered
in previous examples is 6,020 psi (42 kPa). Using a safety factor of
1.r will permit a safe internal pressure of 5,470 psi (37,716 kPa).
A more conservative safety factor is r .2 5, which results in a safe
working pressure of 4,810 psi (33,165 kPa). Determining internal
pressure is possibly the most difficult part of casing design. For this_
reason, many designers use the more conservative design factor.
Maximum shut-in surface pressure to which casing will be
subjected makes a good internal pressure requirement. However,
determining the maximum shut-in pressure prior to completion is
arbitrary and often depends on experience in a given area. Many
times it is set equal to the working pressure rating of the surface
equipment. Normally, when the surface pressure is used as the
internal load limit, the designer assumes that the hole remains full
of mud and that the mud density inside and outside the casing is
CASING
equal (i.e., that the hydrostatic pressure acting inside the casing
is equal to the pressure acting on the outside of the casing at all
points of the casing string, from top to bottom). In high-pressure
or deep wells, design engineers will assume either partial or full
evacuation to better simulate a "worst-case" scenario. As with col-
lapse pressure capacity, tong marks or other damage to the outside
of the casing can greatly reduce the burst strength.
In addition to tension, collapse, and burst pressures, casing string Design Criteria:
engineers may have to consider buckling stress, axial compression, Secondary Forces
bending, and torsion when designing a casing string.
Buckling stress is stress on the pipe that causes it to bend.
Buckling may occur due to deviation of the hole and primarily af-
fects the conductor and surface strings. An exception is a situation
where the land shifts and causes the casing string to shear.
Bending occurs when tension is increased on one side of the
pipe while compression is increased on the other. Casing may bend
because of the angle of the hole or because of a dogleg (an abrupt
deviation in hole angle).
Axial compression is compression of the pipe that occurs as a
result ofpressure that is parallel with the cylinder axis.For example,
if the casing hits a deviation in the hole or a sticky spot and stops,
the force pushing down on the pipe produces axial compression.
In geothermal and steam injection applications, if the casing is
fixed on each end, an increase in temperature will cause the steel
to expand and tend to push against itself from either end, exerting
an axial compression stress.
Torsion is a twisting deformation of the casing about its axis such
that lines that were initially parallel to the axis become helices. Torsion
is produced when part of the pipe turns or twists in one direction
while the other part remains stationary or twists in the other direction.
Cementing the casing helps protect it from torsional stress.
An important consideration when designing production casing Design Criteria:
and liner strings is the downhole environment. If the pipe will be Downhole
exposed to carbon dioxide, sulfur, salt, or high temperatures, special Environment
consideration must be given to selection of the grade of steel used
in the casing or liner. For example, if the casing will be exposed
to hydrogen sulfide (H S), the steel must be rated for H S service.
2 2
Steel manufactured to withstand exposure to H S complicates well
2
design, because such steel has limited tensile strength. In some
cases, expensive stainless steel casing is used.
CASING AND CEMENTING CASING

The process of setting casing involves preparation, running, stab- Setting the Casing
To summarize- bing, making up, lowering, and landing.

Casing strings must withstand

• tension Several preparatory steps are necessary before casing is run in the Preparation
well (fig. 7). During these procedures, it is important to protect the
• collapse pressure
threads and the pipe itself from damage. "Preventive maintenance"
• burst pressure
goes a long way toward ensuring this protection.
Tension is the downward pull of the weight of the casing string on
the pipe body and couplings.
Collapse pressure is the amount of pressure required to cause the
wall of the casing to collapse.
Burst pressure is the amount of pressure inside the casing required
to permanently deform the pipe body.
Secondary forces that act on casing
• buckling
• bending
• axial compression
• torsion

Figure 7. Whether on or
offshore, preventive mainte-
nance is key to protecting
casing as it is prepared to
run into the well. (Courtesy
of Hydril)

16 17
CASING AND CEMENTING
CASING

Preventive Measures Place adequate spacers, or stringers, such as wooden two-by-

The first thing to remember about casing is that it should have fours, between each layer of casing on the pipe rack so that the
thread protectors in place any time it is handled. The thread protec- joints of the upper layers can be easily rolled to the catwalk (fig.
tor is a threaded cap or lightweight collar that is screwed onto the 9). Align the stringers both vertically and horizontally to keep in-
ends of pipe, casing, or tubing to protect the threads from damage dividual casing joints parallel to one another and to prevent them
(fig. 8). Another protective measure is to avoid placing hooks in from rolling and making side-to-side contact that could damage
the ends of the pipe, even if thread protectors are in place. the connections. The number of stringers must be adequate to
To prevent excessive rusting, all machined areas of the casing prevent bending the pipe or compressing the lower stringers.
should be coated with a thin layer of oil after inspection is complete.
Keep the thread protectors on the casing when rolling it off the
rack and pulling it into the derrick. If the couplings are removed,
or if a coupling appears to be loose, tighten the couplings carefully
before pulling the pipe into the derrick.
Rack casing at least 18 in. (457 mm) off the ground. As crew
members roll the casing onto the pipe rack, inspect each joint, arid
if it ·has any dents or scars, set it aside. Place rope slings around
pipe being rolled down skids to control and prevent it from being
dropped or shock loaded. This is particularly true for higher grades
of steel, which are particularly susceptible to damage from shock
or impact loading. Avoid using fabricated buckets placed over the
pipe ends to lift the pipe, and keep your hands off the pipe as it
rolls down the skids.

Figure 8. A thread protector should be in place any time a joint of

casing is handled. Figure 9. Casing resting
on stringers

18
CASING AND CEMENTING
Crew members must run casing into the hole in the proper order.
A misplaced joint may cause complete failure and loss of the well.
For this reason, any joint of casing that cannot be clearly identi-
fied should be set aside until its weight, grade, and type can be
positively identified.
If a graded or mixed string is being used, the pipe should be
placed on the pipe rack in reverse order to the order in which it will
be run into the well. The last joint to be stacked on the rack will
be the first to go into the well. If the casing string includes pipe of
different thread forms, the crossover lengths should be accessible
on the rack so that matching threads will fit properly.
The individual lengths of pipe in a casing string should be
numbered in the order in which they are to be run into the well.
Different weights or grades should be clearly marked, as well as
the length of each joint.
Inspection
In some situations, specialists are called in to inspect and test cas-
ing. Otherwise, thread protectors from both ends of pipe in the
top layer of casing are removed, and the threads are cleaned and
inspected for damage that may have occurred during shipping and
racking (fig. rn).
Figure Io. Before casing is run, threads are inspected for damage
that may have occurred during shipping and racking. (Courtesy of
Hydril)
20
CASING
First, remove the thread protectors. Then, clean off the ship-
ping thread compound with a solvent and a soft-bristle brush. Use
isopropyl alcohol, methanol, or 1, 1, I-trichloroethane as solvents,
especially in subfreezing temperatures. Do not use diesel fuel or
kerosene as a solvent because it can dilute the thread compound if
it is left in the thread grooves. After cleaning the threads, dry them
with compressed air, if it's available. A tool called a rabbit (with
the same OD as the casing ID) is run inside each joint of casing.
This is called drifting. This is to make sure that no joint of casing
is bent or scaled. If the rabbit does not go through the inside of
the casing, that joint should be taken out and not used.
Mark and lay aside any damaged connections found during
this inspection so they will not be run. After drying the threads on
the good joints, apply fresh thread compound and install clean, dry
thread protectors. This inspection procedure should be repeated
for each row of pipe in the stack as it is uncovered.
Measuring Pipe
Although depth of producing formations and perforating intervals
are usually determined by electric log measurements, an important
part of every casing job is the measurement, or tally, of the pipe.
Each casing joint must be measured, preferably with a graduated
steel tape that shows feet, tenths, and hundredths of a foot (or
metres, centimetres, and millimetres). The tape should be read to
the nearest hundredth of a foot (millimetre) from the top end of
the coupling to the first scratch of the run-out for round-thread
casing, or between the shoulders for extreme-line casing. Record
these measurements on a tally sheet and block them in groups of
ten. Then, add columns of ten. Inspecting these totals quickly re-
veals addition errors and where they occurred, for the group totals
should approximate ten times the average length of each joint.
21
CASING AND CEMENTING CASING

Knowing how much casing is run into the hole is important and circulation is started. The mud should be pumped through the
because it provides valuable information about casing depth. Cas- -well atleast twice while the mud engineer observes weight, viscosity,
ing depth can be verified by multiplying the average length of the and fluid loss. If mud treatment appears necessary, circulation must
casing, according to the tally, by the number of joints of casing be maintained while slowly rotating and working the pipe until
run into the hole. One common error when making this calcula- the mud engineer is satisfied that the fluid is in suitable condition
tion is to accidentally omit or add a joint. Less frequently, mo-ft for running casing (fig. 12). A sweep of thick mud is sometimes
(30-m) mistakes are m~de. The more attention paid to measuring recommended to bring out any cuttings left in the hole.
the pipe, the less likely these mistakes are to occur.
The most important aspect of pipe measurement is determin-
ing exactly how many lengths are on the job. This measurement
is made three times (fig. u):
1. The shipper counts the lengths of pipe when itis shipped
to the location.
Figure I 1. Pipe is tallied 2. The number oflengths is counted again when the casing
three times: when it is is received at the well site.
shipped, when it arrives 3. The lengths of pipe remaining after the casing string
at location, and after the has been run are counted.
casing string has been run.
The number of joints of casing in the hole must be the dif-
(Courtesy ofHydril)
ference between the total number of joints that came into the loca-
tion (less any that may have been shipped away) and the number
of joints on hand at the end of the casing run.

Running the Casing Hole Conditioning

Before running and cementing casing, the driller should be sure that
the hole is in good shape and relatively free of cuttings and excess
filter cake. Failure to condition the hole thoroughly or to treat the
mud properly can cause stuck pipe, poor cementing, or costly cement
squeeze work, and may even result in having to redrill the hole.
Usually, drill pipe will have been out of the hole for 12 to 24
hours while surveys and other information are obtained prior to
the decision to set casing. Enough filter cake may have built up on
the permeable sections of the hole to close the annulus and form
an obstruction that could cause the casing to stick or make circula-
tion impossible. Cuttings or sloughed shale may have settled in the
hole to such an extent that casing cannot be run to bottom without
circulation. General procedure for hole conditioning is to lower one
stand of drill collars and a used bit into the hole, just in case bridges
are encountered.
When conditioning the hole, drill pipe measurements should
be carefully checked, even to the extent of obtaining new figures and
totaling them again. Once on bottom, total depth is double-checked, Figure I 2. Running casing

22 23
CASING AND CEMENTING
CASING

Filling the Casing representative of the displacement volume of the casing should
Normally, the driller fills each casing joint with drilling mud as the be obtained as each joint of casing is lowered into the well. The
crew runs it into the well, unless automatic fill-up float equipment is amounts of fluid displaced, external volume only, per joint of pipe
being used. Casing should be filled as it is run for three reasons: added for typical sizes are given in table I.
I. If the casing is filled as each joint is added, there will
be less time for the string to be motionless and become Table 1
stuck while completely filling when the pipe is near the Fluid Displacement of Casing
bottom of the hole.
2. Large-diameter casing may collapse if run too far into Fluid Displaced by One
Casing Size, OD 42-Foot Length of Casing
the hole before being filled, due to greater pressure on
inches (millimetres) barrels (cubic metres)
the outside of the pipe.
3. For the buoyancy factor of the casing as it may float in 5 (127) r.24 (.20)
the mud and is harder to get to bottom.
7 (177.8) 2.01 (.32)
A lightweight fill-up line with a quick-opening valve is com-
8¼ (219.1) 3.5o (.56)
monly used to fill each joint of casing while the next length is being
picked up and prepared for stabbing (fig. r 3). IO (254) 4-73 (.75)

Mud returns should be carefully observed as each length of

casing is lowered into the hole to ensure circulation when the string
reaches total depth. Mud gain in the pit should equal the volume
of steel in the string of casing lowered into the well. The values
in table 2 give some idea of the mud gain obtained when a string
of casing is run into a well and completely filled up. For example,
a 12,000-ft (3,658-m) string of 7-in. (177.8-mm) OD casing dis-
places 12 x 8.38 bbl= mo bbl, (16 m 3) and the pits will show that
amount of gain if there has been no fluid loss.

Table 2
Volume Gains in the Mud Pit from Casing Displacement

Fluid Displacement
Size and Weight Volumes of Casing and Couplings

5 in., 17 lbs/ft 7.27 bbl/r,ooo ft

Figure I 3. Stabbing casing (Courtesy ofHydril) (127 mm, 25.3 kg/m) (r.16 m 3/300 m)
7 in., 2 3 lbs/ft 8.38 bbl/r,ooo ft
Fluid Displacement (178 mm, 34.2 kg/m) (1.33 m3/300 m)
8¼ in., 3 2 lbs/ft l r.64 bbl/1,000 ft
When conventional versus automatic-fill types of float shoes and
(219.1 mm, 47.6 kg/m) (r.85 m 3/300 m)
collars are used, the amount of fluid displaced from the hole as
IO in., 40.50 lbs/ft 14.42 bbl/1,000 ft
each joint of casing is added to the string should equal the volume
(254 mm, 60.3 kg/m) (2.29 m 3/300 m)
of the external diameter times the length of the joint. Fluid returns
CASING AND CEMENTING CASING

Running Speed Moving the casing string by reciprocation or rotation, either

Because many casing connections are not designed to withstand with or without scratchers, commences as soon as possible after all
the same drag forces as drill pipe connections, casing cannot be the casing .has been run and continues during circulation. Some
run at the same speed as drill pipe. Under normal conditions, operators use a system that can rotate and reciprocate the pipe
casing may be lowered into the hole at rates of r,200 to 2,000 ft simultaneously. Movement usually continues until the cement is
per hour (ft/hr) or 336 to 610 m per hour (m/h) in hard rock and placed outside the string. If scratchers and centralizers are used,
about r,ooo ft/hr (305 m/h) in soft formations. If there is a pos- the usual practice is to continue circulating and working the pipe
sibility oflost circulation, these speeds may be reduced by 3o to 50 until wall cake and cuttings have virtually stopped coming out of
percent, depending on the experience of the operator and his or the hole. One disadvantage of rotating casing is that it may not
her assessment of mud quality and hole condition. Most operators withstand the torsional stress and may bend or twist if it is rotated
run casing equipped with scratchers and centralizers more slowly with too much force.
than they run bare casing to avoid risking formation breakdown
and subsequent loss of drilling fluid. Before a length of casing is stabbed, made up, and lowered, crew Stabbing, Making Up,
members lift it from the catwalk to the rig floor with an air hoist and Lowering
Pressure Surges line (fig. 14).
Once at floor level, a crew member uses a length of soft line
Casing in a wellbore is like a piston in a cylinder. The faster the run across the V-door opening to catch the bottom of the joint
piston moves through the cylinder, the more the pressure builds and slow its swing toward the rotary table.
up. If a downhole formation is weak and fractures easily, pressure
surges can break it down. '-Vb.en this happens, mud is lost, and
expensive, time-consuming corrections must be made before op-
erations continue. These problems can be avoided by preventing
pressure surges.
Low pumping rates minimize pressure surges. Therefore,
pumping rates should be reduced immediately whenever there is
any indication of lost returns.
In areas where mud quality may not be good, lowering the
casing very slowly should minimize pressure surges and prevent lost
circulation. Another preventive measure is not to run the pump too
fast when lowering casing while circulation is being established.

Circulation
By circulating fluid through the casing string after reaching bot-
tom, an operator can test the surface piping system, condition
the mud in the hole, and flush out cuttings and wall cake prior to
cementing. Although most operators circulate prior to cement-
ing, the length of circulating time varies from as little as 5 or ro
minutes to as much as 4 hours. Adequate circulation distributes
an amount of fluid equal to the volume inside the casing before
cement is started into the well. This ensures that no objects that
could plug the string during cementing are dropped into the cas-
ing while it is being run. Figure 14. Special bucket and sling arrangement raise ajoint of casing to the rig floor.

26 27
CASING AND CEMENTING
Stabbing
Stabbing is the process of guiding the end of the pipe into a coupling
or tool joint when making up a connection. "When stabbed, the cas-
ing should be lowered carefully to avoid damaging the threads.
Casing should be stabbed vertically, preferably with the assis-
tance of the derrickhand on the stabbing board. If the pipe misses
the coupling or tool joint, it should be lifted and stabbed again.
Attempting to roll the pin into the box or coupling may damage
the threads or seals and jeopardize the connection.
Drilling engineers recommend removing mill-installed cou-
plings from the bottom four to six joints of casing prior to stabbing,
then thoroughly cleaning the threads and reinstalling the cou-plings
with a good thread compound to prevent joint back-off.
If necessary, thread compound should be applied over the
entire surface of the casing threads just before stabbing (fig. 15).
Figure 15. Thread
compound may be applied
over the entire suiface of the
casing threads just before
stabbing.
CASING
Thread compound, also known as pipe dope, consists of solid particles
of copper, zinc, or graphite suspended in a lubricant. The lubricant
acts to prevent galling, or fusion of metal due to excessive friction.
Applying thread compound may be necessary because even when
couplings are assembled as tightly as possible, a small channel
sometimes occurs between the top of the thread and the bottom of
the groove into which it fits. Fluid may be able to leak through this
channel if it runs the length of the connection. Thread compound
blocks the channel and forms a complete seal in the connection.
Thread compound is mixed on the job site immediately prior
to running casing. The paste-like mixture hardens quickly. After
the compound is spread on the first two-thirds of a casing joint's
male threads, the joint is tightened to specified tightness. "When
the thread compound hardens, breaking the connection becomes
four times harder than making it up. Thread compound is applied
with a brush, which should be kept free of foreign matter. The
compound should not be thinned.
Making Up
One of the most important steps in running casing is makeup.
After a joint of casing has been stabbed, conventional or power
casing tongs are used to make it up, or screw it into another joint
and tighten it to a predetermined torque (fig. 16). Applying the
Figure I 6. Hydraulic
power tongs are placed
around a joint ofcasing
to make it up to a
predetermined torque.
(Courtesy ofHydril)
CASING AND CEMENTING

proper torque to the connection is one of the key factors to suc-

cessfully running a casing string. The joint should be made up at
least three turns beyond the hand-tight position for sizes 4½ to 7
in.(114 to 178 mm), and at least 3½ turns (89 mm turns) for sizes
7¾ in. (194 mm) or larger. Making up the casing slowly at first
will ensure that the threads are properly engaged.
Most casing tongs are powered hydraulically, but some are
run by compressed air. The power tong dies should be clean and
sharp to prevent the pipe body from slipping and tearing. The dies
should be cleaned and inspected periodically during running.
Recommendations for casing makeup are published in API RP
5C1, Care and Use of Casing and Tubing, 18th Edition, issued May
1999. Therecommendations cover makeup with both conventional
and power tongs. The specifications also cover recommended
makeup torques and procedures for pulling a string of casing.

Lowering
Casing should be lowered into the well one joint at a time. For
long casing strings, slip elevators (spiders) are recommended (fig.
17). The spiders should be clean, sharp, and extra long for heavy
casing strings.
Once a joint is resting in the V-door, the box protector may
be removed from collared pipe. An elevator plug, when used,
should be left in the box until the joint is made up and lowered to
the floor. The protector or elevator plug should be removed from
the box in the rotary. The box should then be thoroughly doped
with a suitable thread compound.
When an automatic fill-up shoe is used, its operation should
be checked to verify proper functioning. Lowering the casing string
should never be stopped abruptly, because the dynamic loads as-
sociated with braking quickly increase the total load on the string.
Nor should the slips be used to slow down and stop pipe, because
that could damage both pipe and slips.
Figure 17. Casing elevators and casing spider support the casing as it
is being lowered into the well.

30
CASING AND CEMENTING CASING

Landing Landing the casing involves transferring the casing string weight The effects of slack-off on collapse or burst resistance must
to the wellhead, usually with a casing hanger that seats in the cas- also be considered. Casing is in tension at the wellhead when it is
inghead and seals the annulus between the outer and inner strings cemented, and it is subject to stretch as a result of its own weight.
(fig. r 8). Keys to successful landing are minimizing the amount An API committee on casing landing practices recommended
of stress placed on the other casing strings and the effects on the that when casing is landed, the weight on the casing hanger should
string of casing being slacked off. be the same as the weight supported by the elevator (i.e., no weight
The hanging load (the amount of weight transferred to the should be slacked off or picked up). This recommendation has been
casinghead) must take into account the strength of the outer casing applied to all wells where:
strings and the load-carrying capacity of the casinghead and casing • mud weight was less than r 2. 5 pounds per gallon (ppg) ( r ,498
hanger. The amount of slack-off must take into account the pos- kilograms per cubic metre, kg/m3);
sibility of buckling the string. Similarly, the tensile strength of the • standard design factors of tension and compression were
casing must be considered if additional pull-up strain is taken. employed;
• wellhead equipment could support the load without damage
to the casing; and
TUBING
• the surface casing could withstand the loads in compression
HANGER without failure, taking into consideration additional loads
TUBING brought about by future operations.
HEAD This analysis requires some estimate of the future produc-
TUBING
ing conditions in the well. The committee recognized that special
cases require special engineering analyses and special treatments
CASING depending on the circumstances involved.
HANGER
Considering the amount of slack off or pickup is particularly
INNER
important when landing casing in a deep well, because hanging-
CASING HEAD
2
CASING loads are greater, m~re stretch is involved, and temperature changes
INTERMEDIATE can be excessive.
CASING

SEALING
MEDIUM

CASING
HANGER

CASING HEAD
1

OUTER
CASING

Figure I 8. Landing the casing involves transferring the casing string

weight to the wellhead, usually with a casing hanger that seats in the
casinghead and seals the annulus between the outer and inner strings.

32 33
CASING AND CEMENTING CASING

Most larger sizes of conductor and surface casing can handle

sizable compressive loads, particularly if they have been cemented
How Temperature Affects Landing Casing
or driven into place properly. Most API casing is assumed to be
When tubing or casing is hanging in a well, if the strings able to carry as much load in compression, when laterally sup-
are fixed at both ends, for every degree Fahrenheit change ported, as its rating in tension. If for some reason the compression
in the temperature of the pipe, there will be a 207-psi load is too much and the full weight of the inner strings cannot
(1,427-kPa) change in metal stress for each square inch of
be supported by the outer strings, one or more of the following
cross section. For example, consider 7-inch (178-mm), 26
procedures should be considered:
lb/ft (38.7 kg/m) casing landed with 200,000 pounds (lbs)
(90,720 kg) on the casinghead and an average temperature r. slack off part of the weight of the inner string and hang
of r 50°F (65.5°C). This size and weight of pipe has a cross only part of the weight;
section of 7. 55 square inches (in. (49 square centimetres
2
) 2. attempt to cement the inner string back to the surface,
or cm If the casing cools off 40°F (4.4°C), the string will
2
). so as to have cement to support the load;
contract and the load on the casing hanger will increase 3. use a downhole hanger in order to hang some of the
by an amount equal to weight on the outer string down the well and the re-
40°F x 7.55 in.2 x 207 psi= 62,500 lbs mainder at the casing hanger (fig. 19); or
(4.4°C X 49 cm X 1,427 kPa = 28,350 kg)
2
4. consider running the lower part of the string as a liner,
This amount should be added to the load on the hanger, and tie back the upper section that would be lighter than
for a total load of 262,500 lbs (r 19,070 kg) on the casing the original whole string.
hanger. APIJ-5 5 couplings have a yield strength of 367 ,ooo
lbs ( r 6,647 kg), so the pipe will not pull apart. However,
the safety factor in tension will be lowered considerably. ALL INTERMEDIATE 9%-INCH ONLY ENOUGH WEIGHT
CASING WEIGHT INTERMEDIATE HANGS HERE TO KEEP TOP
On the other hand, if hot salt water is produced through OF STRING STRAIGHT
the string and the temperature rises 40°F (4.4°C), the same HANGS HERE -/--_- - _-_-_-_- __-_ CASING
, · .· 13%-INCH
- . SURFACE
numerical change of tension will occur but in the opposite CASING
direction. Tension at the wellhead in this instance will be
VERY SOFT
200,000 lbs (90,720 kg) less 62,500 lbs (28,350 kg). This SURFACE
FORMATION
change in tension will tend to reduce the stretch in the
pipe and could conceivably cause the string to buckle if it
is not fully supported by cement. E PIPE MAY MOST WEIGHT
AUSEOF HANGS HERE
ADS, LACK WHERE CEMENT
RAL IS GOOD AND
T SURFACE PIPE
HAS LATERAL
SUPPORT

It is impossible to completely anticipate all the physical changes that PIPE DOES
may occur during the life of a producing well. For this reason, the KLES NOT BUCKLE
SE WEIGHT BECAUSE IT
API recommends landing the casing at the wellhead in exactly the LACKED OFF WAS LANDED
CEMENTING. AS CEMENTED
same position as when it was cemented. The usual design factors OCCUR EASILY.
for tension, burst, and collapse have sufficient safety margins to
CEMENT
handle most of the load changes that occur. If casing is being run
in a very deep well where temperature or pressure may fluctuate SUBSEQUENT SUBSEQUENT
Figure 19. Downhole
widely, technical experts should be consulted. DRILLING IN THIS HOLE DRILLING DOES NOT casing hangers are used to
MAY DAMAGE CAUSE UNUSUAL WEAR
BUCKLED CASING. OF STRAIGHT CASING. relieve some of the load on·
the casinghead.

34 35
CASING AND CEMENTING

API Standards The American Petroleum Institute (API) publishes specifications Table 4
for casing, tubing, and drill pipe. These specifications are designed Specification for Casing and Tubing (U.S. Customary Units)
only as a guide to help purchasers obtain standardized equipment API Casing List
and materials. They are not designed to discourage purchase or
production of casing made to other specifications. API casing may (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (II) (12)
be of either seamless or electric-resistance welded steel. Seamless Type of
End Finish•
casing is produced by running a solid square length of steel through
Outside Wall Grade Grade Grade
a series of rollers and mandrels that form it into a straight, round Designationb Diameter Thickness Grade J55 Grade L80 Grade C9Qd Grade Grade
Size Weight• (in.) (in.) H40 K55 M65 C95 NBO T95d P110 Q125
cylinder called a billet. The billet is formed to an exact, specified
outside diameter, then pierced lengthwise to form a hollow tube. 4½ 9.50 4.500 0.205 PS PS PS
Welded pipe is produced by forming sheets of metal into hollow 4½ 10.50 4.500 0.224 PSB PSB
4½ 11.60 4.500 0.250 PSLB PLB PLB PLB PLB PLB
tubes. The edges of the tubes are welded together, and rollers 4½ 13.50 4.500 0.290 PLB PLB PLB PLB PLB
are used to straighten the pipe and size it to the proper outside 4½ 15.10 4.500 0.337 PLB PLB
diameter. 5 11.50 5.000 0.220 PS PS
5 13.00 5.000 0.253 PSLB PSLB
5 15.00 5.000 0.296 PSLBE PLB PLBE PLBE PLBE PLBE
Length and Thickness 5 18.00 5.000 0.362 PLB PLBE PLBE PLBE PLBE PLBE
5 21.40 5.000 0.437 PLB PLB PLB PLB PLB PLB
Minimum allowable wall thickness for casing is 87.5 percent of 5 23.20 5.000 0.478 PLB PLB PLB PLB PLB
the nominal wall thickness. API casing is designated by the length 5 24.10 5.000 0.500 PLB PLB PLB PLB PLB
range of each joint (table 3). API Specification 5CT designates 5½ 14.00 5.500 0.244 PS PS PS
casing by outside diameter, weight per foot, grade of steel, wall 5½ 15.50 5.500 0.275 PSLBE PSLB
5½ 17.00 5.500 0.304 PSLBE PLB PLBE PLBE PLBE PLBE
thickness, and type of threads (table 4). Casing is most often run 5½ 20.00 5.500 0.361 PLB PLBE PLBE PLBE PLBE PLBE
in range 3 lengths. 5½ 23.00 5.500 0.415 PLB PLBE PLBE PLBE PLBE PLBE
5½ 26.80 5.500 0.500 p
5½ 29.70 5.500 0.562 p
5½ 32.60 5.500 0.625 p
Table 3 p
5½ 35.30 5.500 0.687
API Length Ranges of Casing 5½ 38.00 5.500 0.750 p
5½ 40.50 5.500 0.812 p
Maximum 5½ 43.10 5.500 0.875 p
Length Minimum Length 13% 48.00 13.375 0.330 PS
Range, Length, Variation, 13% 54.50 13.375 0.380 PSB PSB
Range ft (m) ft (m)* ft (m) 13% 61.00 13.375 0.430 PSB PSB
13% 68.00 13.375 0.480 PSB PSB PSB PSB PSB PSB
I 16-25 18 6 13% 72.00 13.375 0.514 PSB PSB PSB PSB PSB
(4-9-7.6) (5.5) (1.8) 16 64.00 16.000 0.375 PS
16 75.00 16.000 0.438 PSB PSB
2 25-35 28 5 16 84.00 16.000 0.495 PSB PSB
16 109.00 16.000 0.656 p p p p p
(7.6-rn.6) (8.5) (1.5)
18% 87.50 18.625 0.435 PS PSB PSB
3 35-48 36 6
(rn.6-14-6) (II) (1.8) 20 94.00 20.000 0.438 PSL PSLB PSLB
20 106.50 20.000 0.500 PSLB PSLB
20 133.00 20.000 0.635 PSLB
*Range length for 9 5 percent or more of a carload.
Source: AP! Specification 5CT • P = plain-end; S = short round thread; L = long round thread; B = buttress thread; E = extreme-line
b Designations (columns 1 and 2) are shown for the purpose of identification in ordering.
c The densities of martensitic chromium steels (180 types 9Cr and 13Cr) are different from carbon steels. The weights shown are therefore

not accurate for martensitic chromium steels. A weight correction factor of 0. 989 may be used.
d Grade C90 and Grade T9 5 casing shall be furnished in sizes, weights, and wall thicknesses listed above or as shown on the purchase order.
CASING AND CEMENflNG

Yield and Tensile Strength Table 5

Steel used in API casing must conform to specifications covering Specification for Casing and Tubing (U.S. Customary Units)
chemical and physical properties. Steel is an elastic material that Tensile and Hardness Requirements
stretches as longitudinal stress is applied. If the longitudinal stress
(r) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
is less than yield strength (the amount of force needed to perma-
nently distort the pipe), the steel will return to its original length Yield Tensile Specified Allowable
when the stress is removed. On the other hand, if the longitudinal Strength Strength Hardness Wall Hardness
Maximum Maximum Minimum Maximuma Thickness Variation
stress is greater than the yield strength, the steel will be plastically Group Grade Type (psi) (psi) (psi) HRC BHN (inches) HRC
deformed and will not return to its original size and shape.
Tensile strength is the greatest longitudinal stress a substance 1 H40 40,000 80,000 60,000
can bear without tearing apart. Casing is tested at the mill for ]55 55,000 80,000 75,000
K55 55,000 80,000 95,000
chemical composition and yield and tensile strength. For testing, N80 80,000 110,000 100,000
yield strength is defined as the longitudinal stress required to pro-
duce a total elongation of o. 5 percent of the length. Certain grades 2 M65 65,000 85,000 85,000 22 235
must be tested for other qualities such as hardness, grain siz~, and L80 1 80,000 95,000 95,000 23 241
L80 9Cr 80,000 95,000 95,000 23 241
toughness. API specifications for tensile strength requirements
L80 13Cr 80,000 95,000 95,000 23 241
are given in table 5. C90 1, 2 90,000 105,000 100,000 25.4 255 0.5000 3.0
or less
Flattening C90 1,2 90,000 105,000 100,000 25.4 255 0.501 to 4.0
0.749
Welded pipe requires flattening tests. These tests are performed C90 1,2 90,000 105,000 100,000 25.4 255 0.750 to 5.0
on each heat of steel used when producing welded pipe, on either 0.999
C90 1, 2 90,000 105,000 100,000 25.4 255 1.000 and 6.0
a full section of pipe or a strip cut from the pipe. Strip specimens
above
must be a specified size depending on the size of the pipe, and C95 95,000 110,000 105,000
must be taken from a section of pipe representing the full wall T95 1, 2 95,000 110,000 105,000 25.4 255 0.5000 3.0
thickness of the pipe. The strip specimens should be tested without or less
flattening. T95 1, 2 95,000 110,000 105,000 25.4 255 0.501 to 4.0
0.749
T95 1, 2 95,000 110,000 105,000 25.4 255 0.750 to 5.0
0.999

3 PllO 110,000 140,000 125,000

4 - Q125 1-4 125,000 150,000 135,000 0.5000 3.0

or less
Q125 1-4 125,000 150,000 135,000 0.501 to 4.0
0.749
Q125 1-4 125,000 150,000 135,000 0.750 and 5.0
above

• In case of dispute, laboratory Rockwell C hardness tests shall be used as the reference method.
Source: AP! Specification 5CT
 CASING
CASING AND CEMENTING

The flattening test consists of placing the pipe between par-
allel plates, with the weld at the point of maximum bending, and
flattening the pipe until opposite walls meet. Flattening tests are
performed on rings of pipe at least 2 ½ in. (63. 5 mm) long, cut from
each end of each length of pipe. API specifications for flattening
tests are listed in table 6.
Table 6
Distance Between Plates for Electric Weld Flattening Tests
Leakage
API specifies that each length of casing be tested for leakage to a
given hydrostatic pressure. The test pressure on casing up to 10¾
in. (2 73 mm) in diameter must be sufficient to. produce a fiber
stress equal to 80 percent of the minimum yield strength of the
steel. Pipe larger than ro¾ in. (273 mm) is subjected to test pres-
sure that is sufficient to produce a fiber stress equal to 60 percent
of the minimum yield strength. ·

(1) (2) (3)

To summarize-
Die Ratio Min. Distance Between
Running casing
Grade in. (mm) Plates,in. (mm)
• keep thread protectors in place until ready to stab casing
H40 16 and over 0.5 D • do not use pointed hooks to lift casing
(406 and over) (12.7) • clean and inspect all threads and couplings
Less than 16 D - 0.830-0.0206 Dlt
• use rope slings to control pipe as it is rolled down skids
(Less than 406) (21.1-.52 32)
• place adequate spacers (stringers) between layers of casing
]55 & K55 16 and over 0.65 D
(406 and over) (16.51) while on rack
3.93 to 16 D - 0.980-0.0206 Dlt • measure (tally) the length of each joint and number it prior
(100 to 406) ( 24,9-.5 232) to running
Less than 3.93 D- 1.104-0.0518 Dlt • run a rabbit (a drift) through each joint to ensure that it is
(Less than 1oo) (28.04-1.316)
not bent or scaled
M65 All D- 1.074-0.0194 Dlt • condition the hole prior to running casing
(2 7.28--493)
• fill each joint of casing with mud as it is lowered into the well
N8ob 9 to 28 D- 1.074-0.0194 Dlt
• check to ensure that each casing joint displaces the correct
(229 to 711) (27. 28-.493)
volume of mud when it is lowered into the hole
L8o 9 to 28 D- 1.074-0.0194 Dlt
(229 to 7u) (27 ·28-.493) • lower casing into the hole slowly
C95b 9 to 28 D- 1.074-0.0194 Dlt
• periodically circulate mud through the casing as it is run
(229 to 7u) (2 7, 28-.493) into the hole
P110 All D - 1.086-0.0163 Dlt • apply thread compound to casing shoe, casing float coll~r,
(2 7 .6-.414) and first few joints of casing above float collar to prevent its
Q125c All D - 1.092-0.014 Dlt being backed off as the shoe is drilled out
(2 7.74-.356) • apply proper torque when making up casing joints
• when landing casing, do not overload the casing hanger
a D - the specified outside diameter of pipe, in in. (mm); t = the specified wall
thickness of the pipe, in in. (mm)
b If the flattening test fails at r 2 or 6 o'clock, the flattening shall continue until
the remaining portion of the specimen falls at the 3 or 9 o'clock position. Pre-
mature failure at r 2 or 6 o'clock shall not be considered basis for rejection.
c See SRII . Flattening shall be at least 0185D.

Source: API Specification 5CT

41
CASING AND CEMENTING CASING

Casing Threads API casing is available with either plain or threaded ends, with or Casingcouplingsareusuallyscrewedontothepipepower-tight
without the following couplings (fig. 20): (fig. 21). However, they may be screwed on handling-tight (that is,
and Couplings
1. round short; tight enough that a wrench must be used for removal) to make it
easier to remove them for cleaning and inspecting threads and
2. round long;
applying fresh thread compound before the pipe is used.
3. buttress;
4. buttress S.C. (short couplings);
5. X-line.

i-..--_... _ _-----_

Power-Tight Handling-Tight
Makeup Makeup
API ROUND

I
c:... - ~ - - - -
-~ J
Power-Tight Handling-Tight
Makeup Makeup
APIBUTTRESS

C.. 7
API ROUND-THREAD CASING

~--= FLUSH JOINT CASING

L,..-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __:"':::~"":;;;;J-J"""'\.....__ ___.

FLUSH JOINT INTEGRATED

~--,___=-'
________________:J
r-----~c:~=-~-------------------------
INTEGRATED SWAGED
-

INTEGRATED SWAGED
--~
Figure 20. Casing with
a coupling (A) and a Figure 21. Examples ofAPI-threaded connections (Courtery ofHydril)
threaded end (B)

42 43
 CASING

As wells are drilled deeper and downhole pressures become higher, Proprietary or

=
standard API connections do not always have the pressure capac- Premium Connections
ity, strength in tension, or outer diameter clearance that well de-
-------------------------==::::_-,.::1:;J.--.. . . . . . ______. sign engineers require. To meet these special needs, a number of
INTEGRATED SWAGED proprietary, or premium connections have been developed (fig. 22).

C = = ~~--:1---..,..c----~ = d
COUPLED

------- ~----------------_-_-_
INTEGRATED SWAGED
-____.-
--..:::::a..--
HYDRIL SERIES 500 TYPE 503

HYDRIL WT
FLUSH-JOINT INTEGRAL

...- ....
_Jr-.,...__ ___,
---------- 6-

=-..,.__
HYDRIL SERIES 500 TYPE 511

INTEGRATED SWAGED

:_J ________. . ,
Figure 21. Continued ------------------------
HY DR IL MAC-II

r-----=c;;;;;:;~=------------------ ___ __,

HYDRIL SERIES 500 TYPE 521

C = ~ - -~_----
1..,________________
~ =d
_________________,
HYDRIL SERIES 500 TYPE 563 TUBING

--------------------------======-_J...--.. _____
. _
HYDRIL SUPREME LX

HYDRIL CS, PH-6, PH-4

Figure 22. Examples ofpremium-threaded connections (Counery of Hydril)

45
CASING AND CEMENTING CASING

Tubing Connections
Tubing connections fall into one of two categories:
• Coupled design-uses couplings to join two pin-threaded pipe
ends.
HYDRIL SERIES 500 TYPE 563 CASING • Integral upset design-uses hot-forged upsets on pipe ends, one
pin-threaded and one box-threaded, to connect two joints.

----::J-l
HYDRIL SERIES 500 TYPE 533
----- Casing Connections
There are three types of premium casing connections:
-------- =---------------_-:_-_-_-.. • Coupled design-uses couplings to join two pin-threaded pipe
ends. This type of connection usually is as strong as the pipe
HYDRIL SERIES 500 TYPE 501 body in tension and exhibits internal and external pressure
resistance.
C
~~----
HYDRIL SERIES 500 TYPE 553
JL_ ] • Flush-joint-the threaded connection is machined into
the wall of the pipe body. This design is used in situations
where diametrical clearance is very critical, such as drilling
liner applications. This type of connection is only about 50
⇒ percent as strong as the pipe body.
HYDRIL SERIES S00TYPE 513 • Slim-line integral design-uses a hydraulic press to cold-form
c::;
-~
_______________________:::~=====;;;..;.~. . . . ._________.
HYDRIL SERIES 500 TYPE 523
both box and pin, to expand the box and reduce the pin di-
ameters. This technique allows a connection with outer and
inner diameters very nearly that of the pipe body, and with
between 60-80 percent of the strength of the pipe body.

Large OD Connections
Figure 22. Continued
Larger-diameter casing, such as conductor pipe and surface cas-
ing, requires special connections with different design criteria.
These connections can be machined directly onto the pipe or onto
These connections generally are distinguished from standard API forgings and welded on the pipe body. Design criteria for these
connections by one or more of the following features: connections include high collapse and pressure ratings, and in the
• metal seals, case of conductor pipe, the ability to be driven rather than simply
• torque shoulders, lowered into a predrilled hole.
• specialized thread forms,
• O-ring seals, Riser Connections
• tight machining tolerances. The development of subsea completion technologies and floating
Premium connections are designed specifically to offer greater drilling and production facilities require connections that have fatigue
tension capacity or improved diametric clearance, and better leak strength as well as tension strength and pressure resistance. Connec-
resistance than API connections. Premium connections can be tions on casing and tubing that run between the seafloor and a floating
grouped by application and design. vessel are subjected to wave motion and must be able to function after
experiencing millions of cycles of wave-induced motion.

47
CASING AND CEMENTING CASING

Premium connections require special handling and running As drilling and completion technologies have advanced, require- Changing
techniques to prevent damaging metal seals and determine cor- ments for tubular design have become more stringent. Slim-hole Technology
rect makeup torques. They offer improved performance over API applications, which make use of flush and slim-line connections
connections but at increased cost. to minimize hole and pipe size, can save money. However, these
applications require more careful design of the ·tubular string to
avoid failures. Other types ofwell development have spurred tubular
connection development. Wells are now commonly drilled with
To summarize- horizontal sections. Multilateral wells have multiple horizontal
Casing couplings and threads include sections that reach into different production zones. Extended-
• round short reach wells have very long horizontal sections. These types of well
• round long designs place additional stresses on the casing.
• buttress The simple design techniques presented here are rudimentary.
• buttress short couplings (SC) Much more sophisticated (and complicated) design techniques are
• X-line available. These techniques use methods such as t:riaxialstress analysis
to calculate the combined loads that a casing or tubing string may
Premium connections feature
experience throughout the service life of the well. (Triaxial analysis
• metal seals uses the theory of conservation of volume, which recognizes that
• torque shoulders a change in axial, radial, or hoop stress changes the capacity of
• specialized threads the material to react to stress in one or both of the other principal
• 0-ring seals directions.) Finite Element Analysis (FEA) can model the reaction
• high machine tolerances of the pipe body or the connection to the forces estimated to be
Casing connections include in a well environment.
• coupled design These techniques require experienced and specially trained
• flush joint engineers, as well as computers, for they are all computationally
• slim-line integral design demanding. To be economically feasible, the extra costs involved
in sophisticated casing design must result in savings in time, mate-
rial, and reduced failures in the field. As drilling and completion
technology continues to evolve, more and better engineering of
connections will continue.

49
 Cementing

0 ilwell cementing is the process of mixing and placing a

cement slurry in the annular space between a string of casing
and the open hole. The cement sets, bonding the casing to the wall
of the wellbore for additional stability.
The practice of cementing began around 1903 in California.
Early methods of mixing cement and placing it in the hole were
quite crude. Modern cementing practices debuted in 1920, when
Erle Halliburton cemented a well in Oklahoma's Hewitt Field for
W.G. Skelly (fig. 2 3). Today, the Halliburton jet mixer remains a
basic device for rapid mixing of drilling mud, although it is seldom
used for mixing cement slurry.
In 1903 there was only one type of cement and no additives.
Today there are eight classes of cement and more than 40 different
additives. Bulk-cement handling is standard practice, and blends
are tailored to specific jobs. Waiting-on-cement time has been
reduced from IO days to less than 24 hours.

Figure 23. Halliburton cementing equipment from the r920s (Courtesy ofHalliburton)
CASING AND CEMENTING

There are three types of oilwell cementing. Primary cement-

ing is performed immediately after the casing has been run into
the hole, to seal and separate each zone, and to protect the pipe.
Secondary cementing is performed after the primary cement job,
usually as part of a well servicing or workover operation. Plug-
ging back to another producing zone, plugging a dry hole, and
formation squeeze cementing are examples of secondary cement-
ing procedures. Squeeze cementing involves forcing cement to the
bottom of the casing and up the annular space between the casing
and the wall of the borehole to seal off a formation or plug a leak
in the casing. Squeeze cementing was introduced in the 1930s and
is now a common procedure for plugging perforations or shut-
ting off water. The discussion in this book is limited to primary
cementing.

Primary Cementing Although several methods of primary cementing exist, single-stage

Basics and multistage cementing are the most commonly used. Single-
stage cementing, the most common cementing procedure, consists
of pumping a calculated volume of slurry into casing, after pipe has
been landed at the desired depth, and displacing the slurry around
the shoe and into the annulus in a circulating mode with another
fluid (i.e., water, mud, or completion fluid) (fig. 24). Multistage
cementing consists of pumping cement into the well in two or more
separate stages, or batches, behind a casing string. This procedure
is used in wells that have critical fracture gradients or that require
good cement jobs on long casing strings.
Several functions of primary cementing are:
1. to structurally support and restrain casing;
2. to seal the annulus between pipe and formation against
fluid movement from one zone to another and to restrict
fluid movement between formations and the surface;
3. to provide well control by weight and rapid curing after
protective mud is displaced;
4. to prevent pollution of freshwater formations;
5. to protect the casing's exterior from corrosion; and Figure 24. Primary
6. to protect intermediate casing and liner pipe from torque cementing is performed
and shock loads when drilling deeper. immediately after the casing
has been run in the hole,
to seal and separate each
zone, and to protect the pipe.
(Courtesy of Halliburton)

52
CASING AND CEMENTING
To summarize-
Cement
• supports and restrains casing
• seals the annulus to restrict fluid movement
• provides well control
• prevents pollution of freshwater formations
• protects the casing from corrosion
• protects previously run casing strings from torque and shock
loading when drilling deeper
Five factors are important to a good cementing job
• cleaning the annulus without gouging, enhancing cement
bonding to the wellbor~;
• centering the casing in the hole in order to form a uniform
sheath ofcement around the casing and minimize the chances
of a channeling effect on the cement job;
• strengthening the cement in the annular space to allow for
proper perforation in the producing zone;
• bonding the cement to the casing surface to eliminate the
possibility of a microannulus; and
• providing the necessary pipe movement, either rotation or
reciprocation, to increase turbulence, improve circulation,
and provide complete displacement of the drilling fluid with
cement.
54
CEMENTING
Oilfield cements differ from construction concrete in that they Oilwell Cements
contain no coarse sand or gravel. The dry cement is finely ground and Additives
and available from manufacturers in various grades for different
downhole app4cations. To make the cement pumpable, water is
added. The resulting mixture isslurrythathas predictable rheological,
curing, and final strength properties, assuming it is uncontaminated.
Theoretically, only 10 to 20 percent water by weight (compared to
dry cement) is required to set and harden cement. However, 30 to
40 percent is usually used to prepare a pumpable slurry.
All oilwell cements are manufactured in essentially the same
way. The differences are in the fineness ofthe grinds. Portland cement
is the most widely used cement in oilwells. It is produced according
to specifications set by the American Petroleum Institute.
Portland cement is manufactured by taking raw materials such
as limestone, clay or shale, and iron ore, grinding and mixing them,
and feeding them into a kiln. In the kiln, high temperatures fuse,
or melt, the raw materials into a substance called cement clinker.
This clinker is then ground into a powdery mixture and combined
with small amounts of gypsum or other compounds for specific
improvement of the basic material. By varying the proportions
and chemistry of the raw materials, manufacturers can produce
different classes of portland cement.
Cement compositions are broadly classified as either neat or
tailored mixtures. Neat cement is cement without any additives that
may take up to 24 hours to harden. Tailored cement mixtures are
made at bulk storage and blending facilities located near oilfields.
The dry cement blends are conveyed to the rig by cementing trucks
(fig. 2 5). Tailored mixtures are popular because of their lower cost
and their improved characteristics for performing effectively in
deeper and hotter wells.
Figure 2 5. Cementing
trucks transport dry cement
blends to the well site.
(Courtesy ofHalliburton)
55
CASING AND CEMENTING
API Classes of Cement
There are eight classes of oilwell cement, all of which are produced according to API
standards. Different cements are made to accommodate different downhole conditions.
For instance, API Class A cement sets very quickly and can be used to cement conductor
or surface pipe. Classes G and H cements, which have characteristics that allow them to
be used at different depths, are the most often used classes of oilwell cement. In fact, 65
percent of all the oilwell cement used in the U.S. is Class H portland cement. The eight
classes of API portland cement are:
Class A: intended for use from the surface to 6,000 ft of depth (1,829 m) when special
properties are not required; available only in ordinary type.
Class B: intended for use from the surface to 6,000 ft of depth (1,829 m) when conditions
require moderate to high sulfate resistance; available in both moderate and high-sulfate-
resistance types.
Class C: intended for use from the surface to 6,000 ft of depth (1,829 m) when conditions
require high early strength; available in ordinary, moderate, and high-sulfate-resistance
types.
Class D: intended for use from 6,000--10,000 ft of depth (1,829-3,048 m) under conditions
of moderately high temperatures and pressures; available in both moderate and high-sul-
fate-resistance types.
Class E: intended for use from 10,000--14,000 ft of depth (3,048-4,267 m) under condi-
tions of high temperatures and pressures; available in both moderate and high-sulfate-
resistance types.
Class F: intended for use from 10,000--16,000 ft of depth (3,048-4,877 m) under condi-
tions of extremely high temperatures and pressures; available in both moderate and high-
sulfate-resistance types.
Class G: intended for use as a basic cement from the surface to 8,000 ft of depth (2,438 m)
as manufactured, or to be used with accelerators and retarders to cover a wide range of
well depths and temperatures; no additions other than calcium sulfate or water or both
'
shall be interground or blended with the clinker during manufacture of Class G cement;
' reaching its final placement. A retarder prolongs setting time so the
available in moderate and high-sulfate-resistance types.
Class H: intended for use as a basic cement from the surface to 8,000 ft of depth (2,438 m)
as manufactured, and to be used with accelerators and retarders to cover a wide range of
well depths and temperatures; no additions other than calcium sulfate or water, or both,
shall be interground or blended with the clinker during manufacture of Class H cement;
available in moderate and high (tentative) sulfate-resistance types.
Class]: intended for use from 12,000--16,000 ft of depth (3,658-4,877 m) under condi-
tions of extremely high temperatures and pressures, or to be used with accelerators and
retarders to cover a range of well depths and temperatures; no additions of retarder other
than calcium sulfate or water, or both, shall be interground or blended with the clinker
during manufacture of Class J cement.
CEMENTING
Additives are used with basic cements to alter setting time, change Additives
slurry density, lower water-loss characteristics, improve flow proper-
ties, or improve the strength of the bond with the pipe. Table 7 shows
the effects of some additives on the physical properties of cement.
Proper selection of cement and additives involves choosing
an economical material that
• may be satisfactorily placed with the equipment available;
• achieves satisfactory strength soon after placement;
• after placement, retains the properties necessary to isolate
the zones behind the casing; and
• supports and protects the pipe.
Cement may be one of the API grades without additives, or
a basic cement to which chemicals and other substances are added
to satisfy specific conditions. Most additives should be blended at
a bulk-cement facility because, otherwise, it is difficult to disperse
the materials throughout the dry cement. When using small quan-
tities of chemical additives, they may need to be dissolved in the
mixing water. Liquid additives, which provide the ability to easily
alter slurry composition on location, can be premixed directly into
the entire mixing water volume or metered into the mixing water
flow stream at the cement mixing unit.
Among types of cement additives are retarders, accelerators,
fluid loss additives, heavyweight and lightweight additives, extend-
ers, and bridging materials.
Retarders
In high-temperature formations, cement may thicken and set before
cement can be pumped into place without thickening prematurely.
Lignins, sugars, large amounts ofsodium chloride, and cellulose deriv-
atives all retard the cement's setting time. Commercial retarders in-
clude chemicals similar to mud thinners, such as lignosulfonates.
When mixing retarders with cement, it is important to be sure
that the retarder is compatible with all the other substances in the
slurry. Particles that absorb water easily can also absorb some of
the retarder and limit or negate its effectiveness.
The API has established Classes G and Has basic cements
to be used specifically with retarders. However, if neither of these
cements is used, or if more than one additive is used in the slurry,
it is a good idea to test the retarder with other substances before
pumping it downhole.
57
 CEMENTING

Table 7 Accelerators
Effects of Some Additives on the For low-temperature formations, an accelerator may be used to
Physical Properties of Cement speed up setting time. The accelerator acts as a catalyst, causing
the cement to absorb or react with the water more quickly. The
en
-; -;en faster the cement absorbs the water and crystallizes, the faster it
·c ·c
Q.) Q.) sets and develops strength. Among the most frequently used ac-
.1-J .1-J

'E
('d ('d
-; celerators are calcium chloride, sodium chloride (table salt), and
('d Q.) ,jc ~ ~
~
"'O
Q.)
en 0
u certain forms of gypsum.
·c0 ·c "'O en
cu en
0
i:::::
0 1-1

-
en ·p
~
('d
::l ~ ..c: Another way to make cement set faster is to use less water
:a ..c:0
-0
('d
0
Q.)
u
I-<
::l u u
i:::::
¢l +
I-<
Q.) "Su u when mixing the slurry. However, reducing the water makes the
~
"Sen u
0 Q.) .1-J "'O

- s
i:::::

- ~ a
('d .1-J I-<
'E s ('d
~ ·p ~
Q.)

·o::l §
Q.) .1-J
slurry thicker and harder to pump into place. So if less water is
--~ ~
('d ('d
0 0 Q) 0 cu
8 ·c s -; :.a0 ~ -t
('d

-
.1-J N .1-J en
~
.1-J
.5:l en used, a dispersant may be added to the cement to chemically wet
GQ
i::::: I-< ('d N Q.)
Q)
cu 0 0 0
~
Q.) ('d
~ ~ Q ~ cJ.i ~ ~ u J Cf) ~ ~
the cement particles in the slurry and allow it to flow easily without
Decreased ® ® ® X X much water.
Density
Increased ® ® X X X

Fluid Loss Additives

Water Less ®
Required Fluid loss, or water control, additives prevent or minimize water loss
More ® X ® X X X X X X
into the formation during slurry placement. As fluid is forced out
Decreased X ® of the cement, the density of the slurry increases and changes the
Viscosity
Increased X X X X X X X X X X slurry characteristics. If a large volume of water is lost, the slurry
® ® becomes too viscous, or dense, to pump. The cement particles left in
Thickening Accelerated X

Time
the annulus form a residue, or filter cake. This filter cake can bridge
Retarded X ® ® ® X X
the space between the casing and the formation and form blocks
Setting Accelerated X ® ® that prevent the rest of the cement from being properly placed.
Time Retarded X X X X ® ® ® X If the filtrate, or water that filters into the formation, comes
in contact with water-sensitive clay, the clay absorbs the water and
Early Decreased X X X X X X ® ® ® X X X
expands or swells to block the flow of formation fluids. Fluid loss
Strength Increased ® ® additives such as dispersants and organic cellulose trap the filtrate in
Final Decreased X X ® X X ® X X X the slurry and prevent the flow-stopping blocks from forming.
Strength Increased ® X Dispersants are added to cement slurries to improve both
flow and surface mixing properties. Dispersants reduce viscosity
Decreased X X X X X
and improve flow rates and mud displacement efficiency. Because
Durability
Increased ® ® X dispersants allow the slurry to flow easily without much water, they
Decreased ® ® X ® X may also be used instead of accelerators, heavyweight additives,
Water Loss and filtration-control additives. Some of the most frequently used
Increased X X X X X
dispersants include calcium lignosulfonate, salt, polymers, and
x Denotes minor effect organic acids.
® Denotes major effect and/or principal purpose for which used.
* Small percentages of sodium chloride accelerate thickening. Large percentages may retard API class A cement.
+ Carboxymethyl hydroxyethyl cellulose

59
CASING AND CEMENTING
Heavyweight Additives
Heavyweight additives are weighting agents added to cement to
make it dense enough to use in high-pressure zones. When drill-
ing through these zones, heavy drilling muds are sometimes used
to help keep the well under control and prevent it from blowing
out. When cementing these wells, the cement slurry must be at
least as heavy as the drilling mud. Heavyweight additives include
substances such as barite, sand, and hematite. Barite is barium
sulfate, which is also used as a weighting agent in drilling muds.
Hematite is an iron oxide.
A heavy cement slurry may also be produced by using disper-
sants. The maximum cement slurry density that may be obtained
using dispersants is about 17.5 ppg (2,097 kg/m3). By carefully se-
lecting the dispersant ratio and weighting materials, slurryweights
up to 25 ppg (2,996 kg/m 3) may be mixed and still be thin enough
to be pumped downhole.
Lightweight Additives
Lightweight additives reduce the weight of the slurry so the cement
can flow past low-pressure zones or soft formations without losing
part of the slurry or damaging the wellbore.
One way to reduce the weight of the slurry is to add more
water to it, since water is lighter than cement. However, adding too
much water will permanently reduce the strength of the cement.
Excess water may also settle out of the slurry and form undesirable
channels or water pockets in the set cement. Lightweight additives
prevent the water from settling out. Bentonite is a lightweight
additive that reacts chemically to hold the water and keep it from
settling out, and also increases volume to produce a lighter, more
versatile slurry. Other examples of lightweight additives include
pozzolans, silicates, hollow spheres, foam, diatomaceous earth,
expanded perlite, and natural hydrocarbons.
Extenders
The volume of slurry that can be mixed per sack of dry cement is
called the yield of the cement. Any additive that helps generate a
greater yield from a sack of cement is called an extender. Extenders
increase the amount of water required to mix the cement. Since
water is lighter-weight and less expensive than cement, the ad-
ditional water lightens the slurry and increases the yield per sack
of cement, making it less expensive.
60
CEMENTING
Bridging Materials
Bridging materials are fibrous, flaky, or granular materials added
to cement slurry to prevent excessive loss of cement into zones of
lost circulation. The most common bridging materials are Kolite,
Gilsonite, and Clinton Flake. Kolite™ and Gilsonite™ are coarsely
ground hydrocarbon materials, while Clinton flake is finely shred-
ded cellophane.
Other Additives
In addition to the additives described above, other special additives
may be used to solve various problems encountered in cementing a
well.For example, fine sand helps control strength loss encountered
in set cement at temperatures above 230°F (ur°C). A powdery
additive called silica flour helps stabilize the cement to keep it strong
in high-temperature formations. Silica flour also helps the cement
provide an effective barrier between formations. Antifoam agents
control the foaming tendencies of some cements.
Radioactive materials can be added to slurries to locate the
cement behind the casing. Special logging instruments lowered
into the casing after the cement has set detect the radioactive
material.
Sodium chloride, or salt, is a very versatile additive. Used in
small amounts, it accelerates the setting time of cement. Used in
large amounts, it retards the setting time. When used with other
additives, such as bentonite, it works as a mild dispersant. When
cementing through salt zones, using saturated saltwater to mix the
slurry will allow a better seal to form between the casing and the
wellbore and will not enlarge the hole, as will a freshwater slurry.
Many more special additives are available to control special or
unusual conditions present in a well.
61
CASING AND CEMENTING
Special Cements Special cements such as pozzolanic cements, gypsum cements, ce-
ments for permafrost regions, and refractory cements have been
developed for special environments.For example, in arctic regions,
permafrost cements bond the casing to the frozen wellbore. In
geothermal or fireflood wells where temperatures may reach as
high as 2,000°F (1,093°C), special formulations or refractory ce-
ments are used.
Thixotropic Cement
Thixotropic cements are blends of portland cement and calcium sul-
fate hemihydra te designed primarily for cementing lost circulation
zones and porous or fractured formations. A thixotropic slurry
becomes semisolid and thick like gelatin when it is not moving, but
flows like a liquid when it is moved or agitated. The gel state of a
thixotropic cement may be broken repeatedly (up to 15 minutes
after being formed) by resuming displacement.
Bentonite gives the slurry thixotropic properties, and helps
keep it in the annulus and out of porous formations. Bridging
substances such as GilsoniteTM or walnut hulls may also be used to
make a slurry lighter and help seal certain zones. It is quite com-
mon to use both GilsoniteTM and bentonite with API Class G and
H cements to plug fractured zones.
Pozzolan Cement
Pozzo/an cement consists of a blend of Class A or H cement and a
natural or artificial siliceous material called pozzolan. Pozzolan
cement mixtures produce lightweight slurries that are stronger
than portland cement. Iron oxide or other heavyweight materi-
als can be added to form high-density pozzolan cement slurries.
Water loss can be reduced by adding bentonite or powdered
cellulose.
CEMENTING
Pozzolan cement can be used at all depths and temperatures.
Other advantages include:
• a wide range of water ratios;
• predictable thickening time and compressive strengths;
• increased resistance to deterioration by sulfates;
• resistance to strength retrogression at high temperatures;
and
• economy.
The primary disadvantage ofusing pozzolan cement is that its
compressive strengths are lower than those of portland cement.
Expanding Cement
Expanding cement is cement that expands as it sets to form a tighter
bond with the casing and the formation. Poor bonding ofthe cement
to the formation or the casing often occurs as a result of expan-
sion and contraction of the casing due to changes in temperature
and pressure. Expansion may occur during cementing and while
the cement is setting. As the casing contracts back to its normal
size, it may pull away from the cement in the annulus, leaving a
space called a microannulus. Expanding cement compensates for
this casing contraction.
Self-stress expanding cement swells while it is still pliable,
after its initial setting but before it has developed complete com-
pressive strength. The expanded cement exerts pressure against
the casing and conforms to the irregularities of the formation to
provide a positive seal and reduce the possibility of fluid migration
between zones.
Self-stressed cement can be prepared from most brands of
portland cement and is compatible with conventional retarders
and other additives. An added benefit is that the expansive reaction
provides resistance to attack by sulfate waters.
CASING AND CEMENTING
To summarize-
API classifies eight cements to accommodate different downhole
conditions. The classes are:
A - for use from surface to 6,000 ft (r,829 m)
B - for use from surface to 6,000 ft (r,829 m) when sulfate
resistance is required
C - for use from surface to 6,000 ft (1,829 m) when high-early
strength is required
D - for use from 6,000 to ro,ooo ft (r,829 to 3,048 m) under
moderately high pressure and temperature
E - for use from ro,ooo to 14,000 ft (3,048 to 4,267 m) under
high pressure and temperature
F - for use from ro,ooo to 16,000 ft (3,048 to 4,877 m) under
extremely high pressure and temperature
G - for use from 8,000 ft (2,438 m) as manufactured or with
accelerators or retarders; no additions other than calcium
sulfate, water, or both shall be blended with the clinker
during manufacture
H - for use from 8,000 ft (2,438 m) as manufactured or with
accelerators or retarders; no additions other than calcium
sulfate, water, or both shall be blended with the clinker
during manufacture; moderate to high (tentative) sulfate
resistance
J - for use from u,ooo to 16,000 ft (3,658 to 4,877 m) under
high pressure and temperature; may be used with retarders
and accelerators
Additives
• alter setting time
• change slurry density
• lower water-loss characteristics
• improve cement flow properties
• improve strength of bond with casing
CEMENflNG
Additives include
• Retarders, which prolong setting time so cement can be
pumped without thickening prematurely
• Accelerators, which speed up setting time in low-temperature
formations
• Fluid-loss additives, which prevent or minimize water loss
into the formation
• Heavyweight additives, which increase the density of cement
to contain formation pressure
• Lightweight additives, which reduce slurryweight to prevent
formation fracture and loss of cement into formations
• Extenders, which increase the volume (yield) of cement
obtained from dry cement by increasing the volume ofwater
required to mix the cement
• Bridging materials, which prevent excessive loss of cement
into lost circulation zones
• Other additives include
(r) fine sand to control strength loss at high temperatures
(2) silica flour stabilizes cement in high-temperature for-
mations
(3) antifoam agents control foaming tendencies in some
cements
(4) radioactive materials allow cement to be located behind
casmg
(5) sodium chloride (salt) in small amounts is an accelerator;
in large amounts, it is a retarder
Special cements include
• Pozzolanic cements, which produce lightweight slurries
stronger than portland cement
• Thixotropic cements, which are blends of portland cement
and calcium sulfate hemihydrate and are used in lost circula-
tion zones and in porous or fractured formations
• Expanding cements, which swell, or expand, as they set to
form a tighter bond with the casing and formation
• Self-stressing cements, which expand after they initially set
but before they develop complete compressive strength
CASING AND CEMENTING
Mixing Cement hydration (reaction with water) begins when water is
added to powdered cement. The cement gradually sets to a solid
as hydration continues. All brands of a given class of cement are
chemically similar, but minor variations may be enough to alter
the desired response when used with certain additives; therefore,
cements should be tested under simulated well conditions to obtain
the best results.
Physical properties such as setting time, compressive strength,
and tensile strength are primarily functions of cement composition,
fineness of grind, water-cement ratio, temperature, and pressure.
Both heat and pressure over 3,000 psi (20,685 kPa) shorten the
setting time.
Water Quality The cleanest water available should be used to mix slurry. Any
water fresh enough to drink is suitable for cement; but there must
be enough to mix all the cement for the job. If water from local
lakes or rivers is used, setting time should be tested before it is
pumped downhole. Impurities such as humic acid, chlorides, or
silt can affect setting time, particularly at hole depths of 10,000 ft
(3,048 m) or more. Rig water, too, should be checked before it is
used to mix slurry. It may contain phosphates, tannates, or other
thinners used for mud treating. These chemicals can seriously
retard the setting time of cement. If there is any question regard-
ing water quality, samples should be chemically tested on some of
the cement to be used.
Water Quantity An effective cement job requires enough water to properly mix
the slurry, plus an allowance for pump priming, line testing, and
pump cleanup. All slurries are different; however, a common wa-
ter-cement ratio is about 5. 5 gallons (gal) or 2 I litres (L) per sack
of cement. Based on this ratio, a 500-sack cement job would have
a base requirement of 2,750 gal (1,041 L) of water. An additional
500 gal (1,893 L) for priming, testing, and cleanup, and 500 gal
(1,893 L) as a minimum safety margin to allow for human error
brings the minimum water requirement for the 500-sack job to
3,750 gal (14,195 L).
66
CEMENTING
The hydraulic jet mixer was the first system used widely for mixing Types of Mixers
cement. It is seldom used today for cement mixing but remains a
vital piece of equipment for mud mixing operations. The recircu-
lating mixer, which produces a smoother and more homogeneous
slurry, is now the most common system for cement mixing (fig.
26). It operates by forcing dry cement and water into a mixing
chamber. The dry cement is wetted and mixed with the water. Then
the wet cement is then mixed with recirculated slurry. Circulation
with the slurry is provided by an eductor and an agitating jet. After
the cement and water are thoroughly mixed with the recirculated
slurry, part of the mixture is pumped to the displacement pumps,
and part of the mixture, which is now slurry, is recirculated to be
mixed with more dry cement and water (fig. 27).
The demands and expensive rig time associated with offshore
operations (fig. 28) have led to the development of sophisticated,
high-tech mixing and data acquisition systems that mix slurries
far more thoroughly than conventional systems, at a wide range
of densities and rates. These systems use water jets, high slurry
recirculation rates, and high-horsepower agitators to improve the
slurries' rheological properties. Automatic density control systems
control slurry density to within o. I ppg ( I 2.o kg/m 3) of the targeted
value throughout the cementing job. Special electronic systems
automatically control the proportioning of liquid additives for
the cement slurry, and continuous metering systems deliver liquid
additives to the mixing water in precise amounts.
Figure 26. High-energy
recirculating mixers provide
thoroughly mixed slurries
at a wide range ofdensities
and rates. (Courtesy of
Halliburton)
 CEMENTING

The batch mixer is another type of cement mixer that is oc-

BULK CEMENT
CONTROL VALVE casionallyused when a specified volume of cement is required. The
mixing tank in the batch mixer is filled with enough water for the
specified amount of cement. A mixing turbine agitates the water
as centrifugal pumps circulate the slurry through a prehydrator.
Then, dry cement is added through the prehydrator to achieve the
desired slurry density and volume. The prehydrator helps minimize
dust problems and improves mixing (fig. 29).
Some batch mixers have recirculating mixing units mounted
onto the trailer with the batch tanks, enabling continuous mixing
into the batch mixer. Another application for the batch mixer is
using it as an averaging tank by mixing into the batch tank with
a recirculating mixer unit while the downhole pump pulls slurry
from the tank. This allows for more uniform slurry properties on
difficult-to-mix slurries or in cases where multiple mixing units are
mixing at the same time. Disadvantages of a batch mixer include
volume limitations and the need for a separate downhole pump.
TURBINE
AGITATORS

SLURRYTO
DISPLACEMENT PREHYDRATOR
PUMPS
Figure 27. Internal RECIRCULATING
operation ofa recirculating CENTRIFUGAL
PUMP
mixer
TURBINE
AGITATOR

BAFFLES

BATCH
- - - - - MIXING
TANK
WATER
INLET
Figure 28. The demands
and expense associated with
-+
offshore operations have RECIRCULATING
led to the development of CEMENT SUCTION
sophisticated, high-tech
mixing and data acquisition Figure 29. Internal operation ofa batch mixer
systems.
CASING AND CEMENTING CEMENTING

Pumping When casing is run into a well, the hole is usually full of drilling Figure 30 shows the progression of a typical primary cementing job. Pumping the Cement
mud. To displace this mud, itis common to pump ro to 50 bbl (r.6 Before the cement can be pumped, a cementing head, or plug con-
Displacing the Drilling to 8 m 3) of specially formulated fluids known as flush or weighted tainer, is attached to the top joint of casing to provide a connection
Mud spacers before pumping the cement slurry. Spacers are thick fluids from the cementing pumps that enables cement to be circulated.
that displace the drilling mud ahead of the cement in a slug or
piston-like manner. Flush fluids are much thinner and work through
a combination of turbulent and surfactant action to separate the
drilling mud from the cement being pumped downhole while si-
multaneously removing the coating of mud left on the formation.
The spacer or flush removes wall cake and flushes mud ahead of
the cement, thereby lessening contamination and helping to ensure
a good bond between the cement and the wall.
Water constitutes an excellent flush fluid because it is easy to
obtain, it can be put into turbulent flow at low circulation rates,
and it does not affect the setting time of the cement. Most mud
thinners will retard or entirely preclude cement setting. Acetic acid
( r o percent) with a corrosion inhibitor and surfactant is sometimes
used as a flush fluid. It is fairly effective and normally does not cause
casing corrosion. Hydrochloric acid (5 to r o percent) is sometimes
employed, but corrosion is possible even though a water spacer is
used between the acid and cement. Viscous, weighted spacers are
commonly used in applications where a reduction in fluid hydro-
static pressure caused by low-density flushes cannot be tolerated.
The density of the flush or spacer must be considered in the job
design to ensure that well control is properly maintained.

GUIDE SHOE JOB IN

PROGRESS

Figure 30. A primary cementingjob

70 71
CASING AND CEMENTING
Figure 3 I. Wiper plugs
are placed in the cementing
head to wipe mud off the
inside of the casing and
keep it separated from
the cement. (Courtesy of
Halliburton)
72
CEMENTING
A discharge line from the cementing pump is attached to the Casing accessories help guide casing into the hole, centralize it, Casing Accessories
cementing head on the rig floor. Wiper plugs are also placed in and scrape mud off the wall of the hole (fig. 32). Among casing
the cementing head to wipe mud off the inside of the casing and accessories are guide shoes, collars, multistage cementing devices,
keep it separated from the cement (fig. 31). First, a bottom plug is centralizers, and scratchers and wipers.
installed. As the cement slurry from the pump discharge reaches
the cementing head, the bottom plug starts down the casing with
slurry behind it. When the bottom plug reaches the float collar, it
stops. Pump pressure increases and ruptures the diaphragm in the
plug. The slurry goes through the open valve in the float collar,
out the guide or float shoe, and into the annular space between
the casing and the hole. BOW CENTRALIZER
During this time, the casing string is being reciprocated or
rotated to help displace the mud. Once the calculated volume of
cement has been pumped, a retainer pin is pulled to release the top
plug from the cementing head. The top plug follows the cement SOLID STRAIGHT
into the casing and wipes cement off the inside walls. It also helps BLADE CENTRALIZER
prevent the cement from mixing with the displacement fluid that
is pumped behind it. This plug is solid, so no fluid can flow past
it. As a result, when it seats, or bumps, on the bottom plug at the
float collar, pump pressure increases. The increased pressure signals SPIRAL STANDOFF
that all the cement slurry has been displaced from the casing above CENTRALIZER
the top plug. At this point, the pump is shut down and pressure is
bled off. With the pressure released in the casing, the valve in the NON ROTATING
FLOAT COLLAR
float collar closes to keep cement from backing up.
After cement is in place, pressure should be relieved from
the inside of the casing before the cement starts to set. If trapped FLOAT SHOE
pressure is maintained while the cement outside sets up, the casing
will remain in an expanded state. If this pressure is then relieved
after the cement is set up, the casing will contract and pull away
from the hardened cement, potentially damaging the cement bond.
Displacement of cement out of the casing should progress
as fast as possible in order to create turbulence in the annulus
and remove the maximum amount of mud. The operator should Figure 3 2. A typical casing string with accessories (Courtesy of
use good judgment in determining the rate of flow and take into Halliburton)
account the physical limitations involved. Computer simulators
should be used to ensure that the equivalent circulating density
(ECD) on the formation does not exceed the formation fracture
gradient. Too much pressure on the casing and surface connections
may cause a rupture; too much flow (or pressure) in the annulus
may cause circulation loss due to formation breakdown; and too
much flow in the annulus may waste mud by overflowing the bell
nipple at the top of the well.
73
CASING AND CEMENTING
Guide Shoes
A guide shoe or casing shoe is a heavy collar with a rounded nose that
is installed on the first joint of casing to be lowered into the hole,
to guide it around obstructions (fig. 33). Regardless of whether
other casing accessories are used, a guide shoe is always used. It
has an opening in the bottom that allows drilling mud to enter
the casing as it is lowered. Cement later exits through the same
opening. Three kinds of guide shoes may be used: the plain guide
shoe, the combination float and guide shoe, and the automatic
fill-up guide shoe.
Combination float and guide shoes are often used, particularly
on very long, heavy, expensive strings of pipe, to float casing into
the hole and ease some of the load on the rig derrick. The float
Figure 33. A guide shoe device is actually a back-pressure valve. As the casing is lowered
(Courtesy ofHalliburton)
into the mud-filled hole, the mud cannot get past the closed valve.
However, the valve opens when mud is pumped through the casing.
If the casing is empty and drilling mud is in the hole, the casing
tends to float, much like a boat floats in water. However, if the cas-
ing remains totally empty, it can collapse under the pressure of the
mud in the hole. For this reason, it is crucial to keep just enough
mud inside the casing to allow flotation yet prevent collapse.
A variation of the guide and float shoe is the differential, or
automatic, fill-up shoe (fig. 34). This type ofshoe allows a controlled
amount of fluid to enter the bottom of a casing string while it is
being run into the hole. The valve in this shoe keeps mud from
getting into the casing at first, but only to a point: As the casing
and differential fill-up shoe go deeper into the hole, mud pressure
causes the valve to open and mud to enter the casing. However,
the mud pressure in the casing finally closes the valve. The valve
closes before the casing is completely filled so that all the flotation
will not be lost. As the casing string lengthens and goes deeper into
the hole, the valve opens again, allowing more mud into the casing
until the valve closes again. Opening and closing are repeated as the
casing is run. Automatic fill-up equipment protects low-pressure
formations from pressure surges while the casing is being run. This
Figure 34. An automatic not only lowers the risk oflost circulation, but also eliminates the
fill-up shoe (Courtesy of need for filling the casing as each joint is made up.
Halliburton)
74
CEMENTING
Float Collars
A float collar is similar to a float shoe in that it allows the casing to
float into the hole, byvirtue of the casing being partially empty. The
outside fluid column exerts a pressure that closes the float collar's
back-pressure valve and prevents fluid from entering the casing
as it is lowered into the hole (fig. 35). The amount of flotation
depends on the amount of fluid placed inside the casing string as it
is filled from the surface. Mud and cement can be pumped through
the valve because it opens with pressure from above. When the
casing has been run to the desired depth, circulation is established
through the casing and float valve.
A float collar may be installed on top of either the first, second,
or third joint of casing to go into the hole. Most operators place
a float collar one or more lengths above the casing shoe to leave
space inside the casing for contaminated cement.
The valve in the float collar also serves as a check valve in the
string to prevent back.flow of cement after it is pumped outside
Figure 3 5. A float collar
the string. The float collar serves as a stop for the top plug when
prevents backflow of cement
cement is displaced, enabling a quantity of slurry to stay inside during the cementing
the string at the casing shoe and providing reasonable assurance operation. (Courtesy of
of good quality cement outside the casing at that point. Halliburton)
Some operators use a float shoe and baffle collar combination
instead of a float collar in shallow applications. The purpose of the
baffle collar, which resembles a float collar without a back-pressure
valve, is to stop the wiper plug and leave one or more joints of
casing filled with cement.
Float collars and shoes are generally attached to the casing
with thread-locking compounds rather than by welding, which
can weaken the casing and cause standard float shoes and collars
to fail. Thread-locked joints, when properly prepared, withstand
greater torque before breaking out than tack-welded casing. The
thread-locked joints may be broken out if the pipe has to be pulled
by heating them to around 6oo°F (316°C) and applying left-hand
torque.
J-5 5 grade pipe should not be welded except under very care-
fully controlled conditions, and higher-grade material not at all.
75
CASING AND CEMENTING
Multistage Cementing Devices
Multistage cementing devices are used to cement two or more
separate sections behind a casing string, often in jobs with weak
lower formations (fig. 36). The lower section of casing is cemented
in the usual manner, using plugs that can pass through the stage
collar without opening the ports. The multistage tool is then
opened hydraulically by special plugs, and fluid is circulated to
the surface. Cement for the upper section is placed through the
ports, which are subsequently closed by the final plug pumped
behind the cement. Most commercially available stage collars are
designed to leave a full bore after cement remaining in the string
has been drilled out.
Figure 3 6. Multistage cementing devices are used to cement
-two or more separate sections behind a casing string. (Courtesy of
Halliburton)
CEMENTING
Centralizers
Centralizers are cylindrical, cage-like devices fitted to the casing as
it is run in the hole to keep it centralized in the borehole (fig. 37).
Centralizers, which are particularly useful in deep or deviated holes,
serve several purposes:
r. to allow uniform cement flow around the casing to help
protect it at all points;
2. to obtain a complete seal between the casing and the
formation to prevent migration of fluids from permeable
zones;
3. to hold the casing away from the wall of the hole and thus
prevent differential-pressure sticking of the pipe; and
4. to remove wall cake and prevent cement channeling in
the annulus.
There are two types of centralizers: bow and solid body.
Bow centralizers are widely used. Solid body centralizers are used
primarily in deviated or horizontal holes.
Centralizers must have sufficient restoring force (the force
exerted by a centralizer against the borehole to keep the pipe away
from the borehole wall) to center the casing in the hole. They must
have enough space to allow free passage of the circulating fluid, yet
they must be spaced close enough together to prevent the casing
from contacting the formation wall, even in deviated holes.
Some centralizers are hinged and latch over the casing cou-
plings. Others are held in position by stop collars or set screws.
Figure 37. Bow (A) and
A B solid body (B) centralizers
(Courtesy ofHalliburton)
77
CASING AND CEMENTING
B provides reinforcement in the annular space by lacing the cement
Figure 38. Scratchers (A)
and wipers (B) help remove
filter cake and gelled
mud from the well as the
casing is run. (Courtesy of
Halliburton)
CEMENTING
Scratchers and Wipers
Scratchers are mechanical wall-cleaning devices that are attached To summarize-
to casing to help remove filter cake and gelled mud from the well
Cement mixing considerations include
as the casing is run (fig. 38). They are available in either recip-
rocating or rotating versions. Using scratchers provides better • Water quality-use cleanest available and test to ensure it
bonding for the cement and helps isolate one zone from another is suitable
in the cemented area. • Water quantity-use enough to properly mix the slurry, plus
Wipers are basically scratchers with a pattern of closely spaced, an allowance for pumping
looped cable. This pattern strengthens the cement sheath and
Types of mixers include
with steel cable. • hydraulic jet mixers, including high-tech offshore mixing
Scratchers and wipers may be welded to the casing but are devices
usually attached with mechanical stop collars or clamps. Normally, • batch mixers, some of which include recirculating mixing
solid or split scratchers are installed while the pipe is on the rack units
prior to being run. Hinged centralizers and scratchers are usually
Pumping considerations include
clamped on the casing after it is made up and as it is run into the
• proper displacement of drilling mud using spacers, which
hole.
are thick
Reciprocating scratchers are generally spaced at 15- to 20-ft
(5- to 6.1-m) intervals throughout the formations of interest and • proper displacement ofdrilling mud using flush fluids, which
for 50 to mo ft (15 to 30 m) above and below. Rotating scratchers are thin
are usually placed throughout the entire pay zone and are activated
To pump cement, use
by rotating the casing. Using rotation rather than reciprocation
eliminates the chance of sticking the casing off bottom. • a cementing head (plug container)
Casing equipped with reciprocating wall cleaners is worked • wiper plugs, bottom and top
up and down for a distance of 5 to 3 5 ft ( 1. 5 to 11 m), depending
on the spacing of the devices on the pipe. Casing should not be
lowered too fast on the downstroke, since the displacement of the
pipe and circulation of the fluid can produce excessive pressure
surges and cause formation breakdown. Usually the frequency of
reciprocation is about two minutes per stroke.
Casing fitted with rotating scratchers is supported by slips
in the rotary and turned at a speed of about 8 to 15 rpm. Limiting
rotation speed prevents damage to the casing from torsional stress.
Rotating pipe in deviated holes may cause the string to flex and
damage the couplings with each turn of the pipe. If there are a large
number of centralizers or scratchers on the casing, it can become
stuck if it is rotated or reciprocated while pumping cement.
79
CASING AND CEMENTING
Casing accessories include
• guide shoes, which, when installed on the bottom of the first
joint of casing to go into the well, guide the casing around
obstructions in the hole
• float collars, which, when installed three to five joints above
the first casing joint, controls the amount of mud allowed to
enter the casing as it is run; note that empty casing will float
in buoyant drilling mud, which tends to ease the amount
of weight on the rig hoisting system. However, also note
that the casing must have drilling mud inside it as it is run
because the hydrostatic pressure of the mud in the hole can
crush casing if it is empty
• multistage cementing devices, which are used to cement two
or more separate sections behind the casing string
• centralizers, which, when installed on the casing string,
prevent the wall of the casing from contacting the wall of
the hole, thus avoiding areas of cement voids
• scratchers, which, when installed on the casing string and
when the string is rotated or reciprocated, remove filter cake
and gelled mud from the wall of the hole; removing cake and
mud ensures that the cement will bond better with the hole
80
CEMENTING
An important part of planning a cementing job is determining the Cement Volume
volume of slurry that will be required to achieve a predetermined Requirements
"height" in the annulus. Oilfield slurries range in density, depend-
ing on the amount of mixing water and additives in the cement and
the amount of slurry contamination from drilling mud or other
foreign material. The volume of cement required for a particular
job is based on calculated volumes, field experience, and regula-
tory requirements.
The most elementary method of estimating the top of cement
behind the casing and the amount of cement needed to reach a
certain point is to subtract the displacement volume of the pipe from
the volume calculation of the open hole. Handbooks available from
cementing service companies list tables ofhole capacity and volume
between casing and hole, and between tubing and casing.
Calculated or handbook volumes between casing and a larger
string of pipe are quite accurate. On the other hand, volume de-
terminations between pipe and open hole may be very inaccurate
because of hole enlargement from washout, or hole closure from
wall cake buildup. Using bit gauge diameter plus an extra margin
(calculated on the basis ofexperience) for possible hole enlargement
should give a reasonable estimate of volume requirement through
an interval of open hole.
Logging companies may run open-hole caliper logs to ac-
curately measure true borehole geometry. However, even when a
caliper survey is available, additional cement slurry is needed for
complete fill because of fluid loss by filtration. This excess factor
varies with local field conditions, drilling methods, types of drilling
fluid, and admixes used with the cement.
CASING AND CEMENTING
Calculating Open-Hole A rule-of-thumb method for calculating the capacity of an open
Capacity hole is to multiply the diameter in inches times itself, the result
beingthenumberofbarrels(bbl)per 1,oooft(305 m). For example,
the volume capacity of a rn-in. (2 54-mm) hole is approximately
rn x rn, or rno bbl (15.9 m 3), per 1,000 ft (305 m). The method
may be extended to calculate volume between hole and casing by
multiplying the casing diameter times itself and subtracting this
number from the figure obtained for hole capacity. For example:
Given 7-in.(178-mm)ODcasingina rn-in. (254-mm)diameterhole,
the casing will displace 7x7, or 49 bbl (8 m 3) per 1,000 ft (305 m).
rno bbl (15.9 m 3) (the hole capacity per 1,000 ft (305 m) in a rn-in.
(254-mm) diameter hole) minus 49 bbl (8 m 3) (volume displaced
by casing)
51 bbl (8.1 m 3) (volume between hole and casing for 1,000 ft (305
m) of annular space)
*NOTE: When using the diameter-squared method, it is generallyfound
satisfactory to use a slightly larger diameter than bit or casing size, that
is, round off the diameter to the nearest whole inch larger.
Multiplying the number of barrels by 5.6 gives the number
of cubic feet. These approximations are useful for open-hole deter-
minations because most drilled holes are not true gauge. Instead, they
are usually enlarged as a result of one or more of the following:
• the bit running slightly off center;
• hole washout; and/or
• sloughing shale.
After calculating the space to be filled, the cement slurry
volume must be determined to establish the volume of materials
to be employed in the slurry. Ratio of mixing water to cement,
type of cement, and amount of additional additives included in the
slurry formulation are all factors in this calculation. The cement
supplier usually provides the ratio of mixing water to cement.
After determining the unit volume of the cement slurry being
used, comparing the total slurry volume with the volume of space
behind the casing will yield an estimate of the top of the cement
behind the casing.
CEMENTING
The calculated top of cement is not a precise figure because
exact fill-up is seldom achieved. Calculated tops of cement are
more applicable in hard-rock areas where hole conditions are more
predictable than in the Gulf Coast and similar areas.
Filtration loss ·is considerable in areas where there are nu-
merous zones of high permeability. In these areas, proper additives
will reduce slurry water loss and afford higher fill-up per sack.
Selecting the proper amount of excess cement to use depends
on the reliability of hole volume data and prior experience. Usu-
ally 15 to 25 percent excess cement is used when a caliper log is
available; this amount should be raised to 50 to mo percent when
·the true hole diameter is not known.
To summarize-
To determine cement volume requirements (in English units only)
1. multiply hole diameter times itself to obtain hole capac-
ity in barrels per 1,000 ft (round off hole size to nearest
in. upward-e.g. 12½ in.= 13 in.)
2. multiply casing diameter times itself and subtract this
number from hole capacity
3. divide hole depth by 1,ooo
4. multiply (3) by (2) to obtain volume in bbl
Example:
13%-in. casing in 17-in. hole; hole depth is 3,328 ft
Casing capaci-ty, bbl per I ,ooo ft
1. 13.625 x 13.625 = 185.64 or 186 bbl per 1,000 ft
Hole capacity, bbl per 1,000 ft:
2. 17 x 17 = 289 bbl per 1,000 ft
Thus:
289 - 186 = 103 bbl per 1,000 ft between casing and hole
To determine volume between casing and hole in a hole 3,328-ft deep
3· 3,328 + 1,000 = 3.328
4. 3.328 x 289 = 961.8, or 962 bbl, volume between casing
and 3,328-ft hole
CASING AND CEMENTING CEMENTING

Considerations During cement pumping, the density of the cement is normally
higher than the density of the fluid displacing it from inside the
After Cementing
casing. This produces a pressure differential seen as surface pres-
sure. The surface pressure required to displace the wiper plug
to the float collar normally increases as cement rises in the an-
nulus. After bumping the plug, the pressure is increased 500 to
1,000 psi (345 to 6,895 kPa) above the final pumping pressure to
confirm that the plug is at the float collar and that all the slurry
has been displaced into the annulus. This amount of pressure will
significantly expand the casing. The expansion will have little or
no consequence as long as the pressure is released immediately
after testing is complete, and before the cement sets. However,
if the cement hardens before the pressure is released, contraction
of the casing as a result of pressure release will severely damage
the bond between the casing and the cement. For this reason, the
first thing that must occur after the cementing pumps have been
shut down is to bleed off pressure.
After the cementing practices and procedures in a given area have Checking the
been established, the top of cement for regular hole and pipe sizes Cement Top
with a given slurry volume may be fairly consistent. If there is any
question of the height of cement in the annulus, the top should be
checked, usually by running a temperature survey or by running
a cement bond log.
Temperature Surveys
A temperature survey is an excellent meth9d of locating the top of
cement. As cement sets, it gives off heat. Therefore, the tempera-
ture survey should be run 12 to 24 hours after mixing, when the
heat of the setting cement is most apparent. To locate the cement
top, an instrument is lowered into the well to make a temperature
log. Figure 39 shows a typical temperature log. The temperature
5500

Waiting On Cement After bleeding pressure, the time comes for waiting on cement, or
WOC. This is the time required for the cement to harden and
become strong enough to: ~ ... - COLLAR LOG
1. anchor the casing and withstand the shocks ofsubsequent
operations; and 5600
2. seal permeable zones to prevent formation fluids from APPROXIMATE TOP OF CEMENT
migrating to other zones.
Tests prove that tensile strength of 8 psi (5 5 kPa) is sufficient
t-
to anchor the pipe to the formation in most situations; similar tests w
w
u..
have shown that a compressive strength of 130 psi (896 kPa) is I

sufficient to provide hydraulic isolation between zones. :c 5700

t-
woe time begins when the plug bumps the float collar and C.
w
ends when the cement plug is drilled out. Most U.S. woe re-
C
..J
..J
quirements leave the waiting time open if a float valve is included w
3:
in the string, but require 8 to 12 hours of waiting time if there is
no float valve in the string. The usual waiting time before drilling
out is I 2 hours. 5800

100° 110° 120° 130° 140° 150° 160°

TEMPERATURE - °F

Figure 39. Temperature survey showing the top of cement outside the casing
CASING AND CEMENTING
is recorded on the scale at the bottom of the chart, and depth is
recorded on the scale on the left vertical side of the chart. Start-
ing at the top (5,500 ft, or 1,676 m, for the example in Figure 33),
the curves increase gradually with depth. However, about halfway
down, at 5,650 ft (1 ,722 m), the curve shows a sudden temperature
increase. This point of this sudden increase represents the top of
the cement.
Problems may occur if the actual cement top is considerably
below or above the expected top. A low cement top (possibly the
result of a large washed-out section that has consumed a lot of
cement) may allow formation fluid to enter the annulus above the
cement, resulting in the need for a remedial cement job. Ahigher-
than-expected top may mean that cement channeling around gelled
drilling mud has left an uncemented area where fluids or gas may
communicate between zones.
Bond Logs
Bond logs are most often used to determine the quality of the
cement-to-casing bond, but they may also be used to determine
cement tops. Interpretation of these logs is very important. Gener-
ally, if a bond log shows a good bond, the primary cement job can
be assessed as satisfactory. On the other hand, a poor bond job does
not necessarily indicate a poor cement job. Single-curve bond logs
do not evaluate the cement-to-formation bond.Acementjobshould
be assumed to be satisfactory unless good evidence exists to the
contrary. Radioactive tracer surveys are occasionally employed to
obtain special engineering information or for research purposes.
86
CEMENTING
Casing and cementing jobs are almost always pressure-tested be- Pressure Testing
fore drilling ahead. In most areas, casing is pressure-tested after
the casinghead and blowout preventers have been installed. State
regulations regarding the amount of pressure to be applied vary.
However, the maximum pressure is limited by the API rating of the
casing. If possible, the test is carried to the maximum anticipated
pressure that the pipe and surface fittings will have to withstand
. .
m service.
General practice is to use the rig pumps to apply approximately
1,500 psi (rn,343 m) and hold it for 30 minutes. A pressure drop
of 50 psi (345 k.Pa) during this time frame is considered satisfac-
tory. In some areas, particularly where high-grade casing is used,
the .test is certified by using specially contracted pressure-testing
equipment.
Some state regulations require perforating an imperme-
able formation near the casing shoe and running a drill stem test
to prove water-free production. If a liner is to be set below the
shutoff string, or if open-hole production is anticipated, a few
feet are drilled below the cemented string, and the open hole is
tested. Usually, water shutoff tests of this type are witnessed by a
representative from the state office.
To summarize-
Considerations after cementing
• Immediately after pressure-testing to ensure bottom plug is
at float collar, release the pressure so that cement does not
set with pressure on it
• Give enough time for cement to set so that:
(1) casing is well anchored and can withstand subsequent
operations
(2) permeable zones are well sealed
• If required, run a temperature survey to locate cement top
• If required, run a cement bond log to confirm quality of
cement-to-casing bond
• Pressure-test casing and cement before drilling ahead to
ensure good cement job
 Glossary

accelerator n: a chemical additive that reduces the setting time of cement. See A
cement, cementing materials.
additive n: 1. in general, a substance added in small amounts to a larger amount of
another substance to change some characteristic of the latter. In the oil industry,
additives are used in lubricating oil, fuel, drilling mud, and casing cement. 2. in
cementing, a substance added to cement to change the cement characteristics
to satisfy specific conditions in the well. A cement additive may work as an ac-
celerator, retarder, dispersant, or other reactant.
API gravity n: the measure of the density or gravity of liquid petroleum prod-
ucts in the United States; derived from relative density in accordance with the
following equation:
API gravity at 60°F = [ 141. 5 + relative density 6o/6o°F] - 13 1. 5

automatic fill-up shoe n: a device that is installed on the first joint of casing
and that automatically regulates the amount of mud in the casing. The valve
in this shoe keeps mud from entering the casing until mud pressure causes the
valve to open, allowing mud to enter the casing.
axial compression n: pressure produced parallel with the cylinder axis when
casing hits a deviation in the hole or a sticky spot and stops. The force pushing
down on the pipe causes axial compression.

bending n: occurs when tension is increased on one side of the pipe while com- B
pression is increased on the other.
billet n: a solid steel cylinder used to produce seamless casing. The billet is
pierced lengthwise to form a hollow tube that is shaped and sized to produce
the casing.
boot n: a tubular device placed in a vertical position, either inside or outside
a larger vessel, through which well fluids are conducted before they enter the
larger vessel. A boot aids in the separation of gas from wet oil. Also called a
flume or conductor pipe.
bottom wiper plug n: a device placed in the cementing head and run down
the casing in front of cement to clean the mud off the walls of the casing and to
prevent contamination between the mud and the cement.
CASING AND CEMENTING
break out v: 1. to unscrew one section of pipe from another section, especially
drill pipe while it is being withdrawn from the wellbore. During this operation,
the tongs are used to start the unscrewing operation. 2. to separate, as gas from
a liquid or water from an emulsion.
breakout cathead n: a device attached to the catshaft of the drawworks that is
used as a power source for unscrewing drill pipe; usually located opposite the
driller's side of the drawworks. See cathead.
bridging material n: the fibrous, flaky, or granular material added to cement
slurry or drilling fluid to aid in sealing formations in which lost circulation has
occurred. See lost circulation, lost circulation material.
buckling stress n: bending of the pipe that may occur due to deviation of the
hole. The pipe may bend because of the angle of the hole or because of an abrupt
deviation such as a dogleg.
burst pressure n: the internal pressure stress on casing or other pipe. Burst
pressure occurs when the pipe's internal pressure is greater than its external
pressure, causing the pipe to burst.
burst pressure rating n: the pressure at which a manufacturer has determined
that a pipe or vessel will burst from internal pressure.
burst strength n: a pipe or vessel's ability to withstand rupture from internal
pressure.
casing n: steel pipe placed in an oil or gas well as drilling progresses to prevent
C the wall of the hole from caving in during drilling, to prevent seepage of fluids,
and to provide a means of extracting petroleum if the well is productive.
casing centralizer n: a device secured around the casing at regular intervals to
center it in the hole. Casing that is centralized allows a more uniform cement
sheath to form around the pipe.
casing shoe n: see guide shoe.
casing string n: the entire length of all the joints of casing run in a well. Most
casing joints are manufactured to specifications established by API, although
non-API specification casing is available for special situations. Casing manufac-
tured to API specifications is available in three length ranges. A joint of range
1 casing is 16 to 2 5 feet (4.8 to 7.6 metres) long; a joint of range 2 casing is 2 5
to 34 feet (7.6 to IO. 3 metres) long; and a joint of range 3 casing is 34 to 48 feet
( IO. 3 to 14.6 metres) long. The outside diameter of a joint of API casing ranges
from4½ to 20 inches (11.43 to 50.8 centimetres).
cathead n: a spool-shaped attachment on the end of the catshaft, around which
rope for hoisting and moving heavy equipment on or near the rig floor is wound.
See breakout cathead, makeup cathead.
catline n: a hoisting or pulling line powered by the cathead and used to lift heavy
equipment on the rig. See cathead.
cement n: a powder, consisting of alumina, silica, lime, and other substances
that hardens when mixed with water. Extensively used in the oil industry to bond
casing to the walls of the wellbore.
GLOSSARY
cement channeling n: an undesirable phenomenon that can occur when casing
is being cemented in a borehole. The cement slurry fails to rise uniformly be-
tween the casing and the borehole wall, leaving spaces devoid of cement. Ideally,
the cement should completely and uniformly surround the casing and form a
strong bond to the borehole wall.
cement clinker n: a substance formed by melting ground limestone, clay or shale,
and iron ore in a kiln. Cement clinker is ground into a powdery mixture and
combined with small amounts of gypsum or other materials to form cement.
cement hydration n: reaction with water that begins when water is added to pow-
dered cement. The cement gradually sets to a solid as hydration continues.
cementing n: the application of a liquid slurry of cement and water to various
points inside or outside the casing. See primary cementing, secondary cementing,
squeeze cementing.
cementing head n: an accessory attached to the top of the casing to facilitate
cementing of the casing. It has passages for cement slurry and retainer chambers
for cementing wiper plugs.
cementing materials n pl: a slurry of portland cement and water and sometimes
one or more additives that affect either the density of the mixture or its setting
time. The portland cement used may be high early strength, common (standard),
or slow setting. Additives include accelerators (such as calcium chloride), retard-
ers (such as gypsum), weighting materials (such as barium sulfate), lightweight
additives (such as bentonite), and a variety of lost circulation materials (such as
mica flakes).
centralizer n: also called casing centralizer. See casing centralizer.
Clinton flake n: finely shredded cellophane used as a lost circulation material
for cement.
collapse pressure n: the amount of force needed to crush the sides of pipe until
it caves in on itself. Collapse occurs when the pressure outside the pipe is greater
than the pressure inside the pipe.
compressive strength n: the degree of resistance of a material to a force act-
ing along one of its axes in a manner tending to collapse it; usually expressed in
pounds of force per square inch (psi) of surface affected or in kilopascals.
conductor pipe n: 1. a short string of large-diameter casing used to keep the
wellbore open and to provide a means of conveying the up-flowing drilling fluid
from the wellbore to the mud pit. 2. a boot. See boot.
density n: the mass or weight of a substance per unit volume. For instance, the D
density of a drilling mud may be 1o pounds per gallon (ppg), 74.8 pounds per
cubic foot (lb/ft3), or 1,198.2 kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3). Specific grav-
ity, relative density, and API gravity are other units of density. See API gravlty,
relative densiry, specific graviry.
91
CASING AND CEMENTING
dispersant n: a substance added to cement that chemically wets the cement
particles in the slurry, allowing the slurry to flow easily without much water.
dogleg n: I. an abrupt change in direction in the wellbore, frequently resulting
in the formation of a keyseat. 2. a sharp bend permanently put in an object such
as a pipe, wire rope, or a wire rope sling.
dope n: a lubricant for the threads of oilfield tubular goods. v: to apply thread
lubricant.
drift diameter n: 1. in drilling, the effective hole size. 2. in casing, the guaran-
teed minimum diameter of the casing. The drift diameter is important because
it indicates whether the casing is large enough for a specified size of bit to pass
through.
drill pipe n: heavy seamless tubing used to rotate the bit and circulate the drilling
fluid. Joints of pipe approximately 30 feet (9 metres) long are coupled together
by means of tool joints.
dump bailer n: a bailing device with a release valve, usually of the disk or flap'-
per type, used to place or spot material (such as cement slurry) at the bottom
of the well.
[ expanding cement n: cement that expands as it sets to form a tighter fit around
casing and formation.
extender n: 1. a substance added to drilling mud to increase viscosity without
adding clay or other thickening material. 2. an additive that assists in getting a
greater yield from a sack of cement. The extender acts by requiring more water
than that required by neat cement.
f filler material n: a material added to cement or ce:rp.ent slurry to increase its yield.
filter cake n: 1. compacted solid or semisolid material remaining on a filter after
pressure filtration of mud with a standard filter press. Thickness of the cake is
reported in thirty-seconds of an inch or in millimetres. 2. the layer of concentrated
solids from the drilling mud or cement slurry that forms on the walls ofthe borehole
opposite permeable formations; also called wall cake or mud cake.
filtrate n: 1. a fluid that has been passed through a filter. 2. the liquid portion
of drilling mud that is forced into porous and permeable formations next to the
borehole.
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) n: can show the reaction of a pipe body or the
connection to forces estimated to be in a well environment.
flash set n: a premature thickening or setting of cement slurry, which makes it
unpumpable.
float collar n: a special coupling device, inserted one or two joints above the
bottom of the casing string, that contains a check valve to permit fluid to pass
downward but not upward through the casing. The float collar prevents drilling
92
GLOSSARY
mud from entering the casing while it is being lowered, allowing the casing to
float during its descent and thus decreasing the load on the derrick. A float collar
also prevents backflow of cement during a cementing operation.
float shoe n: a short, heavy, cylindrical steel section with a rounded bottom, at-
tached to the bottom of the casing string. It contains a check valve and functions
similarly to the float collar but also serves as a guide shoe for the casing.
fluid loss n: the undesirable migration of the liquid part of the drilling mud
into a formation, often minimized or prevented by the blending of additives
with the mud.
fluid-loss additive n: a compound added to cement slurry or drilling mud to
prevent or minimize fluid loss.
flush fluids n pl: thin fluids that work through a combination of turbulent
and surfactant action to separate drilling mud from the cement being pumped
downhole, while simultaneously removing coatings of mud left on the forma-
tion. Flush removes wall cake and flushes mud ahead of the cement, thereby
lessening contamination and ensuring a good bond between the cement and
the wall.
galling adj: the result of the sticking or adhesion of two mating surfaces of metal, G
not protected by a film of lubricant, and tearing due to lateral displacement.
Gilsonite™ n: trade name for asphaltum mined, manufactured, or marketed
by or for American Gilsonite Company.
graded, or mixed, string n: a casing string made up of several weights or grades
of casing, and designed to take into account well depth, expected pressures, and
weight of the fluid in the well.
guide shoe n: a short, heavy, cylindrical section of steel, filled with concrete and
rounded at the bottom, which is placed at the end of the casing string. It prevents
the casing from snagging on irregularities in the borehole as it is lowered. A
passage through the center of the shoe allows drilling fluid to pass up into the
casing while it is being lowered and allows cement to pass out during cementing
operations. Also called casing shoe.
handling-tight coupling n: a coupling screwed onto casing tight enough so H
that a wrench must be used to remove the coupling.
hanging load n: the amount of weight transferred to the casinghead.
heavyweight additive n: a substance or material added to cement to make it
dense enough for use in high-pressure zones. Sand, barite, and hematite are
some of the substances used as heavyweight additives.
hydration n: reaction of cement with water. The powdered cement gradually
sets to a solid as hydration continues.
93
CASING AND CEMENTING
intermediate casing string n: the string of casing set in a well after the surface
I casing is set to keep the hole from caving and to seal off troublesome formations.
The string is sometimes called protection casing.
joint strength n: the amount of hanging weight that can be placed on a con-
J nection without failure.
KoliteTM n: coarsely ground hydrocarbon materials.
K used as a power source for screwing together joints of pipe. It is usually located on
land casing v: to install casing so that it is supported in the casinghead by slips.
L The casing is usually landed in the casinghead at exactly the position in which
it was hanging when the cement plug reached its lowest point.
landing depth n: the depth to which the lower end of casing extends in the hole
when casing is landed.
last engaged thread n: the last pipe thread that is actually screwed into the
coupling thread in making up a joint of drill pipe, drill collars, tubing, or casing.
If the pipe makes up perfectly, it is also the last thread cut on the pipe.
lightweight additives n pl: reduce the weight of the slurry so the cement can
flow past low-pressure zones or soft formations without losing part of the slurry
or damaging the wellbore.
lightweight cement n: a cement or cement system that handles stable slurries
having a density less than that of neat cement. Lightweight cements are used in
low-pressure zones where the high hydrostatic pressure of long columns of neat
cement can fracture the formation and result in lost circulation.
lignosulfonate n: an organic drilling fluid additive derived from by-products of
a paper-making process using sulfite; added to drilling mud to minimize fluid
loss and to reduce viscosity of the mud.
liner n: 1. a string of casing used to case open hole below existing casing. Liner casing
extends from the setting depth up into another string of casing, usually overlapping
about 100 feet (30.5 metres) above the lower end of the intermediate or oil string.
Liners are nearly always suspended from the upper string by a hanger device. 2. in jet
perforating guns, a conically shaped metallic piece that is part of a shaped charge. It
increases the efficiency of the charge by increasing the penetrating ability of the jet.
3. a replaceable tube that fits inside the cylinder of an engine or a pump.
liner hanger n: a slip device that attaches the liner to the casing. See liner.
lost circulation n: the quantities of whole mud lost to a formation, usually in
cavernous, fissured, or coarsely permeable beds, evidenced by the complete or
partial failure of the mud to return to the surface as it is being circulated in the
hole. Lost circulation can lead to a blowout and, in general, reduce the efficiency
of the drilling operation. Also called lost returns.
lost circulation material n: a substance added to cement slurries or drilling mud
to prevent the loss of cement or mud to the formation. See bridging material.
94
GLOSSARY
lost circulation plug n: cement set across a formation that is taking excessively
large amounts of drilling fluid during drilling operations.
make up v: 1. to assemble and join parts to form a complete unit (e.g., to make
M
up a string of drill pipe). 2. to screw together two threaded pieces. Compare
break out. 3. to mix or prepare (e.g., to make up a tank of mud). 4. to compensate
for (e.g., to make up for lost time).
makeup cathead n: a device that is attached to the shaft of the drawworks and
the driller's side of the drawworks. Also called spinning cathead. See cathead.
mandrel n: a cylindrical bar, spindle, or shaft, around which other parts are
arranged or attached or which fits inside a cylinder or tube.
microannulus n: a space that is left as casing contracts back to its normal size
after pulling away from cement in the annulus.
multistage cementingn: the action of pumping cement into the well in stages or
separate batches behind a casing string; a procedure used in wells that have critical
fracture gradients or that require good cement jobs on long casing strings.
multistage cementing tool n: a device used for cementing in two or more separate
stages behind a casing string, usually for a long column that might cause formation
breakdown if the cement were displaced from the bottom of the string.
neat cement n: a cement with no additives other than water.
N
oil string n: the final string of casing set in a well after the productive capacity
of the formation has been determined to be sufficient. Also called the long string
0
or production casing.
plug-back cementing n: a secondary-cementing operation in which a plug of p
cement is positioned at a specific point in the well and allowed to set. Compare
squeeze cementing.
plug container n: see cementing head.
portland cement n: the cement most widely used in oilwells. It is made from
raw materials such as limestone, clay or shale, and iron ore.
power-tight coupling n: coupling screwed on casing tightly enough to be
leakproof at the time of makeup.
pozzolan n: a natural or artificial siliceous material commonly added to port-
land cement mixtures to impart certain desirable properties. Added to oilwell
cements, pozzolans reduce slurry weight and viscosity, increase resistance to
sulfate attack, and influence factors such as pumping time, ultimate strength,
and watertightness.
95
CASING AND CEMENTING
pozzolan-cement mixture n: a mixture of pozzolan and cement.
premium connections n pl: proprietary connections generally distinguished
from standard API connections by any of the following features: metal seals,
torque shoulders, specialized thread forms, O-ring seals, and tight machining
tolerances.
primary cementing n: the cementing operation that takes place immediately
after the casing has been run into the hole; used to provide a protective sheath
around the casing, to segregate the producing formation, and to prevent the
undesirable migration of fluids. See secondary cementing, squeeze cementing.
production casing n: a string of casing set deeper than the surface casing to
protect a section of the hole and to permit drilling to continue to a greater depth.
Sometimes called intermediate casing string.
psi abbr: pounds per square inch.
quick-setting cement n: a lightweight slurry designed to control lost circula-
Q tion by setting very quickly.
R reciprocation n: a back-and-forth movement (as the movement of a piston in
an engine or pump).
relative density n: r. the ratio of the weight of a given volume of a substance at
a given temperature to the weight of an equal volume of a standard substance
at the same temperature. For example, if I cubic inch of water at 39°F (3.9°C)
weighs r unit and I cubic inch of another solid or liquid at 39°F weighs 0.95
unit, then the relative density of the substance is 0.95. In determining the relative
density of gases, the comparison is made with the standard of air or hydrogen.
2. the ratio of the mass of a given volume of a substance to the mass of a like
volume of a standard substance, such as water or air.
restoring force n: the force exerted by a centralizer against the borehole to
keep the pipe away from the borehole wall.
retarder n: a substance added to cement to prolong the setting time so that the
cement can be pumped into place. Retarders are used for cementing in high-
temperature formations.
s scratcher n: a device that is fastened to the outside ofcasing and that removes
mud cake from the wall of a hole to condition the hole for cementing. By rotat-
ing or moving the casing string up and down as it is being run into the hole, the
scratcher, formed of stiff wire, removes the cake so that the cement can bond
solidly to the formation.
GLOSSARY
secondary cementing n: any cementing operation after the primary cementing
operation. Secondary cementing includes a plug-back job, in which a plug of
cement is positioned at a specific point in the well and allowed to set. Wells are
plugged to shut off bottom water or to reduce the depth of the well for other
reasons.
silica flour n: a silica (Si O 2 ) ground to a fineness equal to that of portland ce-
ment.
single-stage cementing n: a common cementing procedure; consists of pump-
ing a calculated volume of slurry into casing after pipe has been landed at the
desired depth, and displacing the slurry around the shoe and into the annulus in a
circulating mode with another fluid, such as water, mud, or completion fluid.
slip elevator n: a casing elevator containing segmented slips with gripping teeth
inside. Slip elevators are recommended for long strings of casing because the
teeth grip the casing and help prevent casing damage from the weight of long,
heavy strings hanging from elevators. Slip elevators may also be used as slips.
slurry n: a plastic mixture of cement and water that is pumped into a well to
harden; there it supports the casing and provides a seal in the well bore to prevent
migration of underground fluids.
spacers n pl: thick fluids that displace drilling mud ahead of the cement in a
slug or piston-like manner.
specific gravity n: see relative density.
squeeze cementing n: the forcing of cement slurry by pressure to specified
points in a well to cause seals at the points of squeeze. It is a secondary cement-
ing method that is used to isolate a producing formation, seal off water, repair
casing leaks, and so forth. Compare plug-back cementing.
stab v: to guide the end of a pipe into a coupling or tool joint when making up
a connection.
stabbing board n: a temporary platform erected in the derrick or mast some 20
to 40 feet (6 to 12 metres) above the derrick floor. The derrickman or another
crew member works on the board while casing is being run in a well. The board
may be wooden or fabricated of steel girders floored with anti-skid material
and powered electrically to be raised or lowered to the desired level. A stabbing
board serves the same purpose as a monkeyboard but is temporary instead of
permanent.
stress n: a force that, when applied to an object, distorts or deforms it.
stringer n: an extra support placed under the middle of racked pipe to keep the
pipe from sagging.
sulfate resistance n: the ability of a cement to resist deterioration by sulfate ions.
surface pipe n: the first string of casing (after the conductor pipe) that is set in
a well, varying in length from a few hundred to several thousand feet (metres).
Some states require a minimum length to protect freshwater sands. Compare
conductor pipe.
97
CASING AND CEMENTING
GLOSSARY

tensile strength n: the greatest longitudinal stress that a metal can bear without
T tearing apart. Tensile strength of a metal is greater than yield strength.
tensile stress n: stress developed by a material bearing a tensile load. See stress.
tension n: the condition of a string, wire, pipe, or rod that is stretched between
two points.
thixotropic cement n: a blend of portland cement and calcium sulfate hemi-
hydrate designed primarily for cementing lost circulation zones- and porous or
fractured formations.
thixotropy n: the property exhibited by a fluid that is in a liquid state when flowing
and in a semisolid, gelled state when at rest. Most drilling fluids must be thixotropic so
that the cuttings in the fluid will remain in suspension when circulation is stopped.
thread compound n: see dope.
thread protector n: a metal or plastic device that is screwed onto or into pipe
threads to protect them from damage when the pipe is not in use.
wiper n: a circular rubber device with a split in its side that is put around drill
pipe to wipe or clean drilling mud off the outside of the pipe as the pipe is pulled
from the hole.
wiper plugs n pl: rubber-bodied, plastic- or aluminum-cored devices used to
separate cement and drilling fluid as they are being pumped down the inside of
the casing during cementing operations. Wiper plugs also remove drilling mud
that adheres to the inside of the casing.
WOC abbr: waiting on cement; used in drilling reports.
yield n: the number of barrels of a liquid slurry of a given viscosity that can be y
made from a ton of clay. Clays are often classified as either high- or low-yield.
A ton of high-yield clay yields more slurry of a given viscosity than a low-yield
clay.
yield pointn: the maximum stress that a solid can withstand without under-

tie-back string n: casing that is run from the top of a liner to the surface. A going permanent deformation either by plastic flow or by rupture. See tensik
strength.
tie-back string is often used to provide a production casing that has not been
drilled through. yield strength n: a measure of the force needed to deform tubular goods to the
extent that they are permanently distorted.
top wiper plug n: a device placed in the cementing head and run down the cas-
ing behind cement to clean the cement off the walls of the casing and to prevent
contamination between the cement and the displacement fluid.

torsion n: twisting deformation of a solid body about an axis in which lines that
were initially parallel to the axis become helices. Torsion is produced when part
zone of lost circulation n: a formation that contains holes or cracks large z
enough to allow cement to flow into the formation instead of up along the an-
of the pipe turns or twists in one direction while the other part remains station- nulus outside of the casing.
ary or twists in the other direction.
triaxial stress analysis n: a method used to calculate the combined loads that a
casing or tubing string may experience throughout the service life of the well.

viscous adj: having a high resistance to flow.

V

w waiting on cement adj: pertaining to the time when drilling or completion

operations are suspended so that the cement in a well can harden sufficiently.
water-cement ratio n: the ratio of water to cement in a slurry. It is expressed
as a percentage, indicating the number of pounds of water needed to mix mo
lb (30.5 metres) of cement.
water control n: additives used to prevent or minimize water loss into a forma-
tion during slurry placement.
weighting material n: a material that has a high specific gravity and is used to
increase the density of drilling fluids or cement slurries.

99
 Review Questions
LESSONS IN ROTARY DRILLING
Unit II, Lesson 4: Casing and Cementing

Multiple Choice
Pick the best answer from the choices and place the letter of that answer in the blank provided.
r. Casing and tubing often account for what percentage of the total cost of the
well?
a. r to 5 percent
b. ro to 15 percent
c. r 5 to 20 percent
d. 2 5 to 50 percent
2. Casing-
a. prevents the hole from caving in.
b. contains formation pressures and prevents fracturing ofupper and weaker
zones.
c. confines production to the wellbore.
d. all of the above
3. Conductor pipe-
a. is usually the first string of casing installed in the well.
b. conducts produced fluids from the reservoir.
c. prevents erosion of the hole around the .base of the rig.
d. both a and c
4- Surface casing-
a. is usually the last string of casing run into the well.
b. provides a surface for the rig to rest on.
c. protects freshwater zones from contamination.
d. is usually run inside a liner.
5. Intermediate casing-
a. seals off weak zones.
b. minimizes hazards from lost circulation zones.
c. both a and b
d. neither a nor b
6. Aliner-
a. is a string of casing that runs from the surface to total depth.
b. is usually suspended from an upper string by means of a hanger.
c. prevents surface formations from caving in.
d. lines the blowout preventer stack.

IOI
CASING AND CEMENTING REVIEW QUESTIONS

7. Production casing- Fill in the Blanks

a. forms a protective housing for the tubing and other equipment used in a Fill in the blanks with an appropriate word or phrase. Pick the correct term from those listed
well. below. Some of the terms or phrases may not be used.
b. is usually the first string of casing to be run into the well.
c. keeps surface formations from caving in. axial compression balloon pressure
d. none of the above bending buckling
burst pressure collapse pressure
Identify compression buckling strongest
On the drawing below, identify the numbered parts. tension torsion
weakest
8. I I.
r 3. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ is the downward pull of the weight of the casing string
12. on the pipe body and couplings. In the case of API connections, the connection is the
9·
part of the string. r 5.
IO.

is the amount of pressure required to cause the wall of the casing to collapse.

r 6. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ is the pressure difference when the fluid pressure inside

the pipe is greater than the fluid pressure outside the pipe. r 7. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

is stress on the pipe that causes it to bend. 18. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ occurs when

tension is increased on one side of the pipe while compression is increased on the other.

19. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ is compression of the pipe that occurs as a result of pres-

sure that is parallel with the cylinder axis. 20. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ is a twisting

deformation of the casing about its axis such that lines that were initially parallel to the axis

become helices.

True or False
Put a T for true or an F for false in the blank next to each statement.

2 r. It is usually not necessary to use thread protectors on casing joints as they are
being unloaded from a truck or boat at the rig.
22. Avoid placing sharply pointed hooks in the ends of the pipe, even if the thread
protectors are in place.
2 3. Stringers separate layers of casing on the pipe rack.

102 103
CASING AND CEMENTING
REVIEW QUESTIONS

24. Usually, it is not necessary to number the joints of casing run into the well. Multiple Choice
25. Rabbiting, or drifting, a casing joint is done to determine if a casing joint is Pick the best answer from the choices and place the letter of that answer in the blank provided.
dented, bent, or has excessive amounts of scale built up inside.
41. In 1903-
26. The length of each joint of casing to be run into the well shou_ld be measured, a. several classes of cement were available.
or talleyed. b. waiting on cement time was measured in hours.
27. Generally speaking, it is not all that important to condition the hole prior to c. only one type of cement was available.
running casing. d. several additives were available.

28. Normally, each joint of casing is filled with mud as it is run into the hole. 42. Secondary cementing is-
a. performed immediately after the casing has been run into the well.
29. Usually, casing joints are not lowered into the hole as fast as drill pipe joints b. performed after the primary cement job.
are lowered into the hole.
c. the forcing of cement behind the casing to seal off a formation or plug a
30. Pressure surges created by lowering the casing too fast can cause formation leak.
breakdown and lost circulation. d. none of the above
31. Apply thread locking compound to the threads of the first several joints of 43. Single-stage cementing consists of-
casing to prevent them from backing off during later drilling operations. a. pumping a calculated volume of cement slurry into the casing.
b. displacing the slurry around the shoe and into the annulus.
32. Usually, power tongs are used to make up casing joints.
c. both a and b
33· Landing the casing involves transferring the weight of the casing string to the d. neither a nor b
wellhead.
44. Primary cementing-
34· A downhole casing hanger is usually not used to relieve some of the load on a. structurally supports and restrains casing.
the casinghead. b. seals the annulus between the pipe and formation.
35. The maximum yield strength of an API K5 5 joint of casing is 55,ooo psi. c. prevents pollution of freshwater formations.
d. all of the above

Matching 45· Neat cement-

a. is cement with several additives.
Write the letter of the correct definition in the blank next to each term. b. is an especially tailored mixture.
36. Uses couplings to join two pin-thread pipe ends. c. is cement without additives.
d. usually costs more than tailored mixtures.
37. The threaded connection is machined into the wall of the pipe body.
46. A well is 12,342 ft (3,762 m) deep and is a high-temperature, high-pressure
38. Uses a hydraulic press to cold-form both box and pin, to expand the box and
well. Most likely, this well would be cemented with a class-
reduce pin diameters. a. D cement.
39. Connections are machined directly on the pipe or onto forgings and welded b. E cement.
to the pipe body. c. F cement.
d. Gcement.
40. Require special handling and running techniques.
4 7. A cement retarder is designed to-
a. large OD connections d. premium connections a. lengthen the time it takes for a cement to set.
b. shorten the time it takes for a cement to set.
b. slim-line integral design e. flush-joint
c. strengthen the cement.
c. coupled design d. weaken the cement.

105
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
CASING AND CEMENTING

48. A cement accelerator is designed to- Identify

a. lengthen the time it takes for a cement to set. On the drawing below, identify the numbered parts.
b. shorten the time it takes for a cement to set.
61.
c. strengthen the cement.
d. weaken the cement. 62. 65.
66.
49. Fluid loss additives are designed to-
a. increase the amount of water loss to a formation.
b. extend the yield of the cement.
c. control the amount of water lost to a formation.
d. increase the thickness of the filter cake.

50. Heavyweight additives-

a. increase the weight of the cement to break down weak formations.
b. make the cement heavy enough to flow on its own.
c. increase the weight of the cement to control high formation pressures.
d. increase the cost of barium sulfate.

True or False
Put a T for true or an F for false in the blank next to each statement.

5 I. The water used to mix a cement slurry should be as clean as possible.

52. A common water.:.to-cement ratio is about 5.5 gal or 21 L per sack of ce-
ment.
53. A recirculating cement mixer is not used very often.

A batch mixer has the advantage of being able to handle very large volumes
54·
of cement.
Wiper plugs wipe mud off the outside of the casing and keep it separated from
55·
the cement.

56. A float collar prevents backflow of cement during the cementing operation.
Centralizers are designed to keep the casing string centered in the wellbore.
57·
58. Scratchers and wipers are usually welded to the outside of the casing string.
WOC is the time required for cement to harden, anchor the casing, and seal
59·
permeable zones.

60. Temperature surveys can locate the bottom of the cement.

107
106
 Answers to Review Questions
LESSONS IN ROTARY DRILLING
Unit 11, Lesson 4: Casing and Cementing

i. b 34· F
2. d 35· T
3· d 36. C
4· C 37· e
5. C 38. b
6. b 39· a
7. a 40. d
8. conductor casing 41. C

9. surface casing 42. b

rn. intermediate casing 43· C
1 1. production casing 44· d
12. cement 45• C
13. Tension 46. b
14. weakest 47· a
15. Collapse pressure 48. b
16. Burst pressure 49· C
1 7.Buckling stress 50. C
18. Bending 51. T
19. Axial compression 52. T
20. Torsion 53· F
21. F 54· F
22. T 55· F
23. T 56. T
24. F 57· T
25. T 58. F
26. T 59· T
27. F 60. F
28. T 61. plug container
29. T 62. top plug
30. T 63. bottom plug
31. T 64. float collar
32. T 65. centralizer
33· T 66. guide shoe

109