Research Tools

ECE0041 Module 2
 Subtopic # 1
Data Collection &
Instrumentation
At the end of the course, you
should be able to
- Define the methods in data collection
- Determine the importance of data
collection in research
 INTRODUCTION
Today businesses and organizations are connected to their
clients, customers, users, employees, vendors, and sometimes
even their competitors. Data can tell a story about any of these
relationships, and with this information, organizations can
improve almost any aspect of their operations.

Although data can be valuable, too much information is

unwieldy, and the wrong data is useless. The right data
collection method can mean the difference between useful
insights and time-wasting misdirection.

6/3/2020 4
 DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Interviews
Questions and Surveys
Observations
Document and Records
Focus Groups
Oral Histories

6/3/2020 5
 QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION
METHODS
Some of the methods covered here are
quantitative, dealing with something that can be
counted. Others are qualitative, meaning that
they consider factors other than numerical
values. In general, questionnaires, surveys, and
documents and records are quantitative, while
interviews, focus groups, observations, and oral
histories are qualitative. There can also be
crossover between the two methods.


6/3/2020 6
 Qualitative Data Collection Methods
.
Data analysis can take various formats. The method
you choose depends on the subject matter of your
research.

Quantitative methods, such as surveys, large-scale

benchmarks, and prioritization, answer the question
“How much?” But these methods can leave the
question “Why?” unanswered. This is where
qualitative data collection methods come into play.
6/3/2020 7
 Quantitative Data Collection Methods

Marketers, scientists, academics, and others may

start a study with a predetermined hypothesis, but
their research often begins with the collection of data.
Initially, the collected data is unstructured. Various
facts and figures may or may not have context. A
researcher’s job is to make sense of this data, and
the choice of data collection method often helps.

6/3/2020 8
 Secondary Data Collection Methods
Since most research involves the collection of data,
there are several methods for direct, or primary, data
collection, including surveys, questionnaires, direct
observations, and focus groups.

While primary data collection is considered the most

authoritative and authentic data collection method,
there are several instances where secondary data
collection methods can provide value.
6/3/2020 9
 Understanding Secondary Data Collection
What is secondary data collection, and why would a researcher employ
it in addition to primary data? Think of secondary data as second-hand
data. It’s someone else’s research, another person’s original bank of
knowledge.

Second-hand data can add insight to a research project, and using

secondary data is more efficient and less expensive than collecting
primary data. So how can someone else’s research be valuable to your
independent study? Answering this question involves understanding
how a lot of research is initiated today.

6/3/2020 10
 The Role of the Government in Statistical Research
For a variety of reasons, lots of governmental entities and agencies collect
demographic and other information on people. Governments collect data
through various means, sometimes as part of other activities. The census is a
primary example of valuable governmental primary data collection that can be
used as a secondary data collection method in other research studies.

Several nonprofit and governmental entities specialize in collecting data to

feed the efforts of other researchers.

Research from public sources is usually free.

6/3/2020 11
 Subtopic # 2
Statistical Methods
At the end of the course, you
should be able to
- Define the statistical methods.
- Determine the importance of statistical
methods.
 INTRODUCTION
Statistical methods are mathematical formulas,
models, and techniques that are used in
statistical analysis of raw research data. The
application of statistical methods extracts
information from research data and provides
different ways to assess the robustness of
research outputs.

6/3/2020 14
 METHODS FOR STATISTICAL DATA ANALYSIS
Mean
Standard Deviation
Regressions
Sample Size Determination
Hypothesis Testing

6/3/2020 15
 Role of Statistical Research
For a variety of reasons, lots of governmental entities and agencies
collect demographic and other information on people. Governments
collect data through various means, sometimes as part of other
activities. The census is a primary example of valuable governmental
primary data collection that can be used as a secondary data collection
method in other research studies.

Several nonprofit and governmental entities specialize in collecting data

to feed the efforts of other researchers.

Research from public sources is usually free.

6/3/2020 16
 Data Collection: Sampling
Sampling theory is part of the mathematical discipline of
probability theory. Probability is used in mathematical statistics
to study the sampling distributions of sample statistics and, more
generally, the properties of statistical procedures. The use of any
statistical method is valid when the system or population under
consideration satisfies the assumptions of the method. The
difference in point of view between classic probability theory
and sampling theory is, roughly, that probability theory starts
from the given parameters of a total population to deduce
probabilities that pertain to samples. Statistical inference,
however, moves in the opposite direction—inductively inferring
from samples to the parameters of a larger or total population.

6/3/2020 17
 Experimental and Observational Studies
Basic Steps of Statistical Experiments:
- Research Plan
- Design Experiments
- Performing the Experiments
- Examining the Data
- Documentation
- Presentation of result

6/3/2020 18
 Observational Studies
An example of an observational study is one that explores the
association between smoking and lung cancer. This type of study
typically uses a survey to collect observations about the area of
interest and then performs statistical analysis. In this case, the
researchers would collect observations of both smokers and non-
smokers, perhaps through a cohort study, and then look for the
number of cases of lung cancer in each group. A case-control study is
another type of observational study in which people with and without
the outcome of interest (e.g. lung cancer) are invited to participate and
their exposure histories are collected.
6/3/2020 19
 Statistical Methods: Descriptive Statistics
A descriptive statistic is a summary statistic that
quantitatively describes or summarizes features of a
collection of information, while descriptive statistics in the
mass noun sense is the process of using and analyzing those
statistics. Descriptive statistics is distinguished from
inferential statistics, in that descriptive statistics aims to
summarize a sample, rather than use the data to learn about
the population that the sample of data is thought to
represent.

6/3/2020 20
 Statistical Methods: Inferential Statistics
Statistical inference is the process of using data analysis to
deduce properties of an underlying probability distribution.
Inferential statistical analysis infers properties of a
population, for example by testing hypotheses and deriving
estimates. It is assumed that the observed data set is
sampled from a larger population. Inferential statistics can be
contrasted with descriptive statistics. Descriptive statistics is
solely concerned with properties of the observed data, and it
does not rest on the assumption that the data come from a
larger population.
6/3/2020 21
 Null and Alternative Hypothesis
Interpretation of statistical information can often involve the
development of a null hypothesis which is usually (but not
necessarily) that no relationship exists among variables or
that no change occurred over time. The best illustration for a
novice is the predicament encountered by a criminal trial.
The null hypothesis, H0, asserts that the defendant is
innocent, whereas the alternative hypothesis, H1, asserts
that the defendant is guilty..

6/3/2020 22
 Null and Alternative Hypothesis
The indictment comes because of suspicion of the guilt. The
H0 (status quo) stands in opposition to H1 and is maintained
unless H1 is supported by evidence "beyond a reasonable
doubt". However, "failure to reject H0" in this case does not
imply innocence, but merely that the evidence was
insufficient to convict. So the jury does not necessarily
accept H0 but fails to reject H0. While one can not "prove" a
null hypothesis, one can test how close it is to being true
with a power test, which tests for type II errors. What
statisticians call an alternative hypothesis is simply a
hypothesis that contradicts the null hypothesis
6/3/2020 23
 Error
Working from a null hypothesis, two basic forms of error are
recognized:

- Type I errors where the null hypothesis is falsely rejected

giving a "false positive".
- Type II errors where the null hypothesis fails to be
rejected and an actual difference between populations is
missed giving a "false negative".

6/3/2020 24
 Error
- Standard deviation refers to the extent to which individual observations in
a sample differ from a central value, such as the sample or population
mean, while Standard error refers to an estimate of difference between
sample mean and population mean.
- Statistical error is the amount by which an observation differs from its
expected value, a residual is the amount an observation differs from the
value the estimator of the expected value assumes on a given sample (also
called prediction).
- Mean squared error is used for obtaining efficient estimators, a widely used
class of estimators.
- Root mean square error is simply the square root of mean squared error. a
variety of reasons, lots of governmental entities and agencies collect
demographic and other information on people.
6/3/2020 25
 Well Known Statistical Test and Procedure
- Analysis of Variance
- Chi-Square Test
- Correlation
- Factor Analysis
- Regression Analysis
- T and Z test
- Time Series Analysis
- Conjoint Analysis
- Mean Square Weighted Division

6/3/2020 26
 Subtopic # 3
Quantitative Methods
At the end of the course, you
should be able to
- Define the quantitative methods in
statistical research
- Determine the importance of
quantitative in research
 INTRODUCTION
Marketers, scientists, academics, and others may start a study
with a predetermined hypothesis, but their research often
begins with the collection of data.

Initially, the collected data is unstructured. Various facts and

figures may or may not have context. A researcher’s job is to
make sense of this data, and the choice of data collection
method often helps.

6/3/2020 29
 Using data to determine values
 One of the most widely used methods of collecting information for
research purposes is quantitative data collection. Quantitative analysis
relates to evaluating a numerical result. A classic example is a survey,
which asks questions to collect responses that shed light on trends,
preferences, actions, opinions, and any other element that can be
counted.

 Quantitative data collection methods are popular because they are

relatively straightforward. Using these methods, researchers ask questions
to collect sets of facts and figures. Quantitative data is measurable and
expressed in numerical form.

 While this seems like a fairly simple concept, like many aspects of
research, there are various approaches to quantitative data collection that
depend on the particular research being conducted.me of the methods
covered here are quantitative, dealing with something that can be
counted.

6/3/2020 30
 Different Quantitative Researches Approaches
.
Descriptive research seeks to collect data that shows
relationships between different occurrences. A positive
correlation is one in which two variables either
increase or decrease at the same time. A negative
correlation is when an increase in one variable means
a decrease in another.

6/3/2020 31
 Different Quantitative Researches Approaches
.
Experimental research also known as “true
experimentation,” uses the scientific method to
determine the cause-and-effect relationship between
variables. This method uses controls for all of the
crucial factors that could potentially affect the
phenomena of interest. Using the experimental
method, researchers randomly assign participants in
an experiment to either the control or treatment
groups.
6/3/2020 32
 Different Quantitative Researches Approaches
.
Quasi - Experimental research also known as “causal-
comparative,” is similar to experimental research. Since
it’s often impossible or impractical to control for all
factors involved, quasi-experimental methods don’t
control for some factors but otherwise follow the
scientific method to establish a cause-and-effect
relationship.

6/3/2020 33
 Application of quantitative methods in practice
There. are a number of ways researchers can put different types of
.
quantitative data collection into action without using experiments.

Quantitative surveys enable researchers to ask closed-ended questions

with a provided list of possible answers. This method is easier for
respondents, as they just pick from a list of responses. It’s an ideal solution
for larger-scale studies that could become unwieldy with the type of open-
ended questions often associated with qualitative surveys.

Because the questions and answers are standardized, researchers can use
the results to make generalizations. Closed-ended questions, however, can
be limiting. A respondent may not see their answer in the given choices.

6/3/2020 34
 Quantitative Data Collection Methods

Marketers, scientists, academics, and others may

start a study with a predetermined hypothesis, but
their research often begins with the collection of data.
Initially, the collected data is unstructured. Various
facts and figures may or may not have context. A
researcher’s job is to make sense of this data, and
the choice of data collection method often helps.

6/3/2020 35
 Subtopic # 4
Qualitative Methods
At the end of the course, you
should be able to
- Define the qualitative methods in
statistical research
- Determine the importance of
qualitative in research
 QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Data analysis can take various formats. The method you choose
depends on the subject matter of your research.

Quantitative methods, such as surveys, large-scale

benchmarks, and prioritization, answer the question “How
much?” But these methods can leave the question “Why?”
unanswered. This is where qualitative data collection methods
come into play.

6/3/2020 38
 UNDERSTANDING THE QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION

Qualitative data collection looks at several factors to provide a

depth of understanding to raw data. While qualitative methods
involve the collection, analysis, and management of data,
instead of counting responses or recording numeric data, this
method aims to assess factors like the thoughts and feelings of
research participants. Qualitative data collection methods go
beyond recording events to create context.

6/3/2020 39
 WITH QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION, RESEARCHER’S CAN:

- Describe the environment. Understanding where

observations take place can add meaning to recorded
numbers.
- Identify the people involved in the study. If research is
limited to a particular group of people, whether
intentionally or as a function of demographics or other
factors, this information can inform the results.
- Describe the content of the study. Sometimes, the specific
activities involved in research and how messages about the
study were delivered and received may illuminate facts
about the study.
6/3/2020 40
 WITH QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION, RESEARCHER’S CAN:

- interact with study participants. Interactions between

respondents and research staff can provide valuable
information about the results.
- Be aware of external factors. Unanticipated events can
affect research outcomes. Qualitative data collection
methods allow researchers to identify these events and
weave them into their results narrative, which is nearly
impossible to do with just a quantitative approach.

6/3/2020 41
 Qualitative Research Methods
Ethnography comes from anthropology, the study
of human societies and cultures. Ethnography
seeks to understand how people live their lives.
Through this method, researchers veer away
from the specific and practical questions that
traditional market researchers use and instead
observe the participants in a nondirected way.
This approach is intended to reveal behaviors
from a subject’s perspective rather than from the
view of the researchers.

6/3/2020 42
 Qualitative Research Methods
Grounded theory arose when sociological
researchers sought to provide a level of
legitimacy to qualitative research — to ground
it in reality rather than assumptions. Before
this method, qualitative data analysis was
actually done before any quantitative data
was collected, so it was disconnected from the
collection and analysis process.

6/3/2020 43
REFERENCES

• https://www.jotform.com/data-collection-methods/
• bigskyassociates.com/blog/bid/356764/5-Most-Important-
Methods-For-Statistical-Data-Analysis
• Barbara Illowsky; Susan Dean (2014). Introductory Statistics.
OpenStax CNX. ISBN 9781938168208.
• David W. Stockburger, Introductory Statistics: Concepts,
Models, and Applications, 3rd Web Ed. Missouri State
University.
ASK ANY QUESTION RELATED TO
OUR TOPIC FOR TODAY.

Methods of Research