Political Theory and Feminist Social Criticism Brooke A. Ackerly |CAMBRIDGE ‘UNIVERSITY PRESS‘The Pia Busting, Teampingo Srey, Cambege, Usted Kinga ‘Teen Pang, Comoe, CB22RUUK se Sen Nee NY 111-4211, USA, 0 Sy Ho, Oh Mourne 166 Asta “Trishook ia opi Subject story exenadrine “Mra cot eng recon epson am ‘ihepne wouter perma fae: User Pr ‘Prod ne Usd Kango Une Pe, Cards ‘rpetin Placa 3p A cab rf hot aa fo he Bh aay of Cong Canoging i Pain de "Sata ind ein soc ee Bone A, Att aso A000 18N0321 3964 pape For Anniyn and her worldPolitical Theory and Feminist Socal Criticism In Pelial Theory and Feminist Saal Cts, Brooke Ackerly emonsate the shortcomings of contemporary deberasse demo ‘Suue Desc tetra and testa fo peding he peste of Social cetcm in the fel imperfect Work Drawing theoevcl {Splctons fon the serie of Third World feminists who help ting tn public nidencr the noice of women sence by Serco, the proves prctcabe model of socal etic, She pues tha feminist fave managed tO achieve in. pracice wht other ‘theorist do only incompletely In theory Complemented by The ‘Wor feminist socal csi, delibernive democrats theory becomes caleal eory ~ acdonsble, coherent, abd selfeeectve ‘While complement to dames heey Ted Word fens ‘rl lo address the problem in feist theory asecnted ith Semper to deal ith identity poles Tai Work Emin scl ‘cc dhs aks feminist theory Beyond the cca impaste of te ‘Son between antl and snt-etenta emit ery [BROOKE ACKERLY i Vising Anitant Profesor in the Pita ‘Sslence Depurunen at Univesity of California Los AnglesContemporary Political Theory Sere ior Ian Shapiro Baitrial Board Russell Hardin Stephen Holmes Jeffrey Isaac Joh Keane Fliabeth Kiss Susan Okin Philipe Van Pars Philip Petit ‘As the eweny-festcentury aproathesy eno new oll challenges poluclasocauon remain unresolved. The cops of communis ‘als, yetin many of the western counees ha nurture those aes {here tv evere ples fun day cam and vaca conic and Tallng politcal leptiney. Enduring global lnjustice and eal sccm compounded enirsnmentl problems, ease, he opps ‘of women, rai, ethnic and religous minries, aad the flendest ‘gowth ofthe orld’ population fn such crcumtancs, the acoder resting aout the fndamenaso¢ aman poli asecon ‘Santee Tis new seve = contemporary poe theory tended foter sch ystemate normative efecto, “The series proceeds inthe ble tthe tne ie fora essen of the mportince of eoblem-drven polticl doy His ongered, at ih works tha are motte by the impue wo understand ink stay about, and des the probes inthe work, rth: than issues that are tos up primary nade debate. Books i the Sexes may te neabcipinary in character, Aging FE ses one ‘enonaly deal with im psorophy, ow, story and the human ‘Snces. The ane of mates nd the methods of proceeding shoul te diced bythe problem at hand, aot he coctennal debate plinay divsons of academia, ‘ter book inthe series Ian Shapiro and Caine Hacker Cordon (es) Democracy’ Value lan Shar and Caine Hacke-Condin es)Contents Acknoredgements page x 1 Silent voices and everyday ites: problems in political theory, ‘solution from Third Word feminist socal encom 1 2 AThied Word feminist theory of social rtcism 3 3. Method: skeptical scrutiny, guiding criteria, and deliberative inquiry in concert B Roles social rtcim and selt-crtcsm ry Qualifications: everyday critics, multi-site critics, and multiple erties 150 (6 “Third World ferinist sociales as ferninism 178 Bibiogaphy 208 Index 230Acknowledgements ‘The problems associated with inequality and she inability of some people in a sociery to attain a public sudience have interested me eademically since college. Therefore my primary intllecval debts are to Profesor of Economics Henry Bruton and Roger Bolton of Willams College who oversaw my frst look into problems of inequality in “Malaysia and istiled in me a pasion for academic inguy Next I owe tremendous peronal and intellectual debts to those everyday critic in Bangladesh who educated me and to thote develop- ‘ent professionals who enabled my work with so many village women tnd development workers i Kustia, Tangail, and Brabmantria. In particular, wish to thank Tom and Lisa Kr for inviting me to bate my research in Bangladesh. Elke Kraus gave me my fist home in Dhaka, introduced me to my closest fends in Bangladesh, and enabled me 0 spend formative ime in Kustia with the women’s savings group members fom Tanga. My ntlletaal debt to her and them is obwiows from the fst pages ofthis book. BY sharing their home ife with me during their ‘ime of family eres, Adil and Nau Shaf let me experience thet needs and concerns a if they were my own, Finals, Iam gratefl to Dorothy “Bina” D'Costa who, with the help of Jagadindra "Bppi” Majumder, twansformed me from an outside observer to a mulisited crt. Thave learned much from our continued deliberative exchange over the years (My intllectal debts to Joshua Cohen, Martha Nussbaum, and “Michael Walzer are evidenced by these theorists’ central presence in this book: Though generally eticl oftheir conclusion, Ind their scholar ship engaging and important, I consider my own work to complement and forthe, noe refute, theirs. Tam greefl tothe academic communities at Stanford Yale, and ‘UCLA that provided stimulating environments during the developrnent and polishing of the ideas inthis Book. In addition, ongoing conversa- ‘ons with Elsabeth Friedman, Bina D'Costa, and Anne Mare Goetz ‘throughout eis project have Rejped me cantinde to see thie workin is Actoomledzements s larger content of poi World women’s adam, Dring the weting of the book, audiences at Wellesley Collgs the University of Araons, andthe annvsl meeting ofthe American Political Science Association eifered provocative questions that pushed me to clarify parts of the argument. Percular among these vier questions {for Joel Kreger, Cary Negecman, Chery Hall, and Melisa Lane, In sedition, Victor Wolfenstein and Iris Marion Young offered thoughtful ‘commentary based on the text of thore remarks that poshed me to situate my workin the context of postmodernism and relativism. The text ise has benefited from many readers, Mack Tunick offered ‘careful stention to carly dfs and made an inspiring investment in he ‘ality of my wring Debra Satz and Jim March asked provocative ‘heoretial questions in response to early drafts. Elisabeth Hansot provided thoughtful and chorough comments on the organization and frgument ofthe book. lan Shapiro ofered suggestions aboot emphasis nd organization that were extent os current frm, Nancy Hisseh= ‘mann read the manuscript crially and constructively ewice. Her ‘vice pied it reorganization and her comments improved it overall ‘quality Any errors and vagaries that remain do so despite their ‘houghefl effors For comic relief early on and atention tothe readability ofthe final manuscript, Rebecca Tedd deverves special thanks. For ushering the book through the editorial process with the right combination of discipline and cheer 1am grateful to John Haslam, Others have read part of the mandseript. Phils Barnes gave an ingpred ead of the Bist ‘Chapter, Michael Goodhart offered thoughiful commen on chapter ‘sro. Elisabeth Friedman provided critical commentary on the dscus- ‘on of the women's rights movement in chapter four. In addition £0 ‘heir thoughtful commentary, these readers have identified a fay or endearing eature ofthe book no chapter stands on is own. In my effort to explicate my ideas wile acknowledging my intellectual debts 1 have had to make decisions about the order of dacussons. The reader may ‘ot like my choices, On occasion Lefer te reader to other chapters but expect the impatient reader to make good use ofthe index to find the cussion that interest her For encouragement I thank my family who have been 2 personal resource throughout this project. Specifaly, Katherine Stevenson, ‘Chris Stevenson, Ann Jacobs, Car Jacobs and Rick Ackerly epr the oad o completion paved and plowed 'A J. Willam Fulbright Research Fellowship funded the Bangladesh theory, development practice, nd Thieli Acknowledgements research and the American Assocation of Univesity Women American Fellowship funded the ery writing process. Finally and most importants, I owe special thanks toro people who in different and complemergary ways have helped strengthen me as a solar and sprig. Sushi has Senay hougt deveop fon feemingly unrelated reflecons on Arstoe and efforts articulate fespectfl feminist erticism of power dynamics in families under the ‘economic stress of poverty into # coherent manuscript. Her confidence has been motivational from the beginning, Moreover, her careful and respectful though critical readings of others, coupled with a clear ‘heorecal message of her own and an enduring cancer about injustice in the world, make each piece ofher scholarship 4 model. il Zinke has ikewise winetsed the development n my thought, He has been convinced since its earist articulations that ‘Third World feminist social ericim is relevant to eniticam beyond the scope of feminist concerns and this misnamed. I agree; feminist social eric ‘political theory. While sil hold to the label Ihave chosen for reasons explained ia the text, I hank him for considering every deliberative ferchange about feminism an opportunity to envision feminism as mais, ‘Martha Nussbaum, Paltical Theory (20,2), p. 222, copyright ©) 1992 by Sage Publications, In. Reprinted by Permision of Sage Publication, Inc 1 Silent voices and everyday critics: problems in political theory, solutions from Third ‘World feminist social criticism ‘When youre inthe water, you dost argu withthe coco ao pet) Prologue Io Regain in Sober 1998, Lasonpaned up ‘eto Tanei at ne neater oS Cs ouen hr i al won of Kas me eters Eft mone cng pre! Onte tees day stvoabed fom sto wanes np sos meng ven women pop oar ssa en a Sh component cher ordi bg Te Shon ga an adn ne trey nherpsnai raree cpd k ESS cpesonad Smee snes ad ed him on ea ‘ie St id “Do nds ec dh wie inoue cx Sane ao tame, eet ought eas” ae a ithe we ony bf el sen wer ep geik Rngat nd etg hw ey oc Smaps "Sete ten Une met wemennii ND Si Swine Sevier pias hopes Scare natu ero Evginn te shout maetgtasrtessour Src ‘temen, bot ceca dowoyreated tenia a Seth, angie pened enemneminsne hina canreranttne Sugibowene Gaiemnnne noua dar SSE! ier tg Se see eh {iti wena geen condi vale dowry now Pid iea nda a vos mar'ap Wien bmw worpned rly Fs2 Polke Thor and Feminist Socal Ces “why do men hit thelr wives?” Tasked, “Because they hada bad da. Because they ae poor” answered Sahara. "Because the rice i 00 hot, for ther is act enough rice,” said Apa, a woman from Kota, Then she Sided, "A good husband does nor beat his wife even when they ate “Then Jshanara,agother Tangail woman overhearing out conversation, told the story of er women’s group which went as a group tothe house of 2 member who was being abused and asked ber husband to stop beating her. This reminded another Tanga woman waking ahead of us of another group's effort to get a members husband £0 allow their laughter to continue in school even though he was eady to arrange her ‘marriage. They staged asitin at the member's home "Although separtely they had used thei groupe as bases of collective ction, before thir walk together in Kusta, the Tangail women's groups ‘were unaware ofeach others collective actions. Together they recog. nized that ther collective action cased the husband’ pub embaeriss- ‘ment and brought public attention to ther views on domes violence land gir’ education. By the time we arsved atthe meeting place, the ‘women were energized by their stories. Through their dialogue, the ‘Kustia and Tangal women recognized that the examples of group action were not jolted, They identied collecive action as a tried and ‘effective method of breaking out of coerced silence ia order 10 voice social enticism and to influence social decision making. And they eared they possessed the means ofan effective form af activism “The main purpose of the emp was for Save the Children to tin its “Tangail women's groups in leadership and group management sil 40 that they could sustain themselves when Save the Children ceased ‘working in Tanga. Save the Children was inthe process of focusing their eflors inthe more economically challenge region of Nasrinagar, to the northeast. The conventional approach to such 2 taining Would have been to bring leadership trainers from elsewhere in Bangladesh to “Tangall However, the principal program officer proposed the waning bbe conducted by Soptagram leadership trainers in Kusta for a number of reasons. The journey to Kosta would provide the Tangall women with a life experience that would make them unique in thei vilages ‘Women and most poor men do not travel beyond thei villages except (or women) to marry. The experience of bierh (“reign”) travel would Strengthen their postion inthe community, beneting the women and their groups. ‘The women were fequited to get thelr husband?” per- ‘mission forthe trip. Having one's wife go was «source of status for most tty por Matis racic tins a 20% Sent voices and everday ice 2 men, so they granted their support for their wives’ trips and correspond ingly, for their wives ongoing participation in the groups. "The purpore of bringing the Tanga women to Kutta (an all-day journey) for a week was to allow women from diferent backgrounds ‘who had been participating in women's groups sponsored by Save the (Children in Tanga and Soptagram sn Kusta to learn from each others experiences The program officer expected that, together, nin hibited by family pressures, the women would speak fcey about their lives and honesty about dhe potential for their famalies to inhibit the success of the groups. By locating the wining in Kustia, Save the ‘Children would remove the women fom thet families and community temporarily and thereby ee them fem some socal constraints thet, ‘might otherwise inhibit dei interactions. In addition Save the Children ‘identified Soptagram asthe ideal partner for this trsining as they had their own women's groups and shared the goal of women’s empovre ‘ment. Both Soptagram and Save the Children thought their groups ‘would be strengthened by meeting eachother. They did not know what ‘the Tangail and Kusta Women would learn from each other, but Save ‘the Children hoped that the Tangail women would learn that they ‘ould be seireliant and that chy did not need Save the Children t0 beep thee groups sustained. “The groups’ activism before coming to Kosta and ther sharing their ‘experiences in Kusta are examples of social criticism in a context of coercive gender hierarchy. The deliberation in Kustia between Tanga fnd Kista women was a form of deliberation that resulted inthe shared learning among the women in an environment secure from potentially harmful gender inegualy. The activism of the Tangal women of aging sins to infvence their husbands is an example of eritis eying tonake an otherwise insecure environment one in which thei voices are heard. Before a background of gender inequality, these women demen- strate delieraton a8 important social ccm. Ignoring the Bengal proverb these women have ound a means ro argue with the crocodiles, ‘The ancedote and social criticism Although this aneedote does not give us complete account of Third ‘World feminist socal erties, it provides an ilustration and a starting point for my subsequent discussion. While it seems ike a story about » Sara G Whe poses he uc the Font in ring th he Cr (882) ‘cma aoa nt cote of ner ea [than 105 fra mor pec so pai econ4 Petal Theory an Fein Socal Crim particule women, the story actually reveals the enical components of Bay piilosopy of socal crtcam. ‘This anecdote rises three sets of (questions abou soil ertcs and socal ciiism in everyday life: how Ap soci crite do sei eric? what do social ees do? and who is {social cre? A philosophy of socal eritcism needs to give a general, fecount ofthe metjod, roles, and qualiieations of social erties. “Through this alecdote I offer a glimpse of the method of socal critic practiced by women activists. Having discussed the problems ‘of domestic lence among themselves the women on the walk ident ‘lective action a8 a potendal means of making their socal criticism heard, Being heard is no guarantee that their social criticism, once ‘made will sccesflly influence socal change, These women lve under familial, social, politcal, and. economic vais, practices, and norms that enforce women’s slence.* However, they have identified a way to ‘break that slence with each other and to force thee husbands to hear them. As cries these women challenge the common practice of wife ‘battery and they ater a daughter right to an education. Their method {sto inform themecives through collective dialogue, to challenge gener aly accepted values practices, and norms, and t0 advocate for those ‘things they believe women showld have, in this ase safer in their homes and an edacation. "The aritcs in my anccdote also demonstrate the multiple roles of social critics. Crises promote inquiry. The foreign researcher asked (questions: “What's going on?” and “Why do men hic their wives?” Critics promote deliberation. By asking questions I facilitated inquiry mong the women, Individal women shed their understandings of the cates of domestic violence. The women described using collective action to enable their participation in deliperaton about the values, practices, and norms that affect thei ves Cries promote institutional ‘Change. By bringing the women together inthe fst place, Save the CCilren under the initiative of its program officer acted as a socal rite by offering a unique insiationsl environment for dhe women. I eall this, fn insiutional change because it changed (temporariy) the conven- ‘ional context of women's interaction with each other and crated a * Dp nl ee ine em ean ant tas tse tig formal a leptons [gee ocr, ional pass ike dang abd pacer rch Tend mil oes paca an te puny Sen acl ocr Bsa Toler o he fama Ahough reer to thea cay we, prc tn rT dt enw ep ty ae top wfc cane Silent voles and everday eis 5 tmnique opporniisy for interaction since poor rural women rarely exchange experiences with strangers. The process might promote further inquiry, deliberation, and institutional changes when the women, fs bome to thee communities all three roles of ericr can overland all dhree can be diected a visible practices such as domestic valence oF ‘St more foundational social valves and norms suchas gendered power Inequalities, By promoting inquiry, deliberation, and instietiona change inan otherwise coerive and oppressive environment, eres may promote socal change that is mor informed, collec, and uncoeree, [By informed, I mean tha all views aze heard and given the respect of tical attention, By collective, I mean that perspectives are shared 50 ‘that together society has more information though some information ‘can be misleading). And by uncoesced I mean that views ee expressed freely and speakers are uninhibited by norms of behavior o by specific threat from other Finally the anecdote demonstrates thatthe qualifications of social critie ae not exclusive, The critics in the story are real people, doing ‘heir obs and living theres. They are a foreign researcher who asked ‘8 question, a woman who experiences domestic violence in her home, Ssnother who i familia with i in her neighborhood, ewo groups of women who acted in concert to voice thet eniticism of wife abuse and their desire to edueste their daughters, the Save the Children program officer, and the two development orpanizasons. They ae individuals and collectvites they are foreigners, locals, and people who cannot ‘neatly be categorized as either; they have thought about these issues alone, bat they workin concert foe social change. Who among these are {ocial critics? All are ‘Everyday people walking in an everyday place, undocumented by reporters snot what people commonly think of when they picture social critics of activi. Bot, I argue that thee women are active in thei ‘octal critciam and by example offer a model of socal ctcsm eppro- Date for thore otherwise silenced by the value, precios, and norms of fhcr daly ves. This i not to say tat, when using the method I outline todo the oles I describe, the eis Identify willbe able to effect social change, Socil crscism is one way to counter, mitigate, or undermine power inequalities, bur whether « particular critical effort wil be ‘ective is a matter of polis. Social ceticism and political theory Contemporary deliberative Hiveral democratic theory provides the ‘context fr the theory of social etiam I propose. Deliberative theorists } I6 Pca Theory and Feminist Soil Ct ‘nave outlined principle for feming dscusion, designed instuions for promoting fee and equal discussion, and even brought to life a mode, Selberatie forum. Explicit and implicit in thee work is eniticism of a Society in src politcal power e unevenly disbursed and an argument {har more inclusive public deliberation wil enhance the legimacy of politcal decision making even while those decisions remain largely in he hands of epresmtatives ‘Despite erties! implications, deliberative theorists have yet o show how to use deliberation in everyday life to bring into practice the sesumptions, principles, insctutions, and models tht are the substance fof ther theories. An account of socal eis i an essential comple ‘ment to deliberative theory if the later is o be a credible atack on power inequalities. ‘Were deliberative theorists to give greater attention to the sources of inequality and. misioterprtation in the real world, they might also ‘eeognizs that an account of socal eriscim it valuable component of ' politcal philosophy, Educative deiberaton ~ tha is, dlberaion for ‘he purposes of contributing to a society's collective learning process, tlscovery, nd knowledge ~ is the basi of the complementary pho Sophy of socal ericiem I propore, Given the importance of educative {eliberation to socal decision making, the ert’ role sto promote it, ‘ris from variety of perspectives contribute to i good cies make ‘se oft in their methodology. Tn the exposition of their political theories democratic theorists provide an account of how citizens generally participate in demecratic Society and decision making as they desribe it They give accounts of the education required to participate thus, and they give examples ofthe insctutions hat wil enable citizens to participate as described. And yet, ‘when it comes fo socal criticism (0 giving an account of how those ‘ame citizens can participate in Bringing about the polity they descebe— ‘hee theorists are silent. At most they give an account of the role ofthe political theorist ar socal erie. Bu poiscal dheorsts are ot the most !inportant politcal actor sn bringing about socal change; certainly, we ‘ought not base ur hopes for seeing greater democracy realized onthe theorists’ ability to make a sound argument. Really, social change toward greser or wore democracy is brought about by those same ‘zens who wil pariipate in the improved polity once achieved. And ‘0 it makes sense that 3 democratic poical theory should have some~ thing to say about how soci criticism might influence social decision ‘making such that social change toward # more democratic societ) (however envisioned) is possible. The theorist or philosopher of social ‘erteum cannot predict how effective a given practice of socal etc ‘Stent voices and everyday tsa 7 ‘willbe ~ hati a matter of actual politics but an account of etizens roles in bringing sbout pliteal change i mitsing constitutive clemest ‘ofcontemporary democratic theory. Some Hera! democratic theorists have made speaking, lsering, ‘exchanging argumenis, and thinking critically essential vo Uni views of public decision making? These deliberative theorists might be expected to give a similar accoune of socal ercism as being 8 function of a it’s speaking with ad listening 1 other, thinking eritaly about {theie and her own ideas and exchanging arguments with others. More= ‘over, one might expec them to argue thatthe crt’ job o promote such activity inthe political forum. As uch, one might expect tht they ‘consider how a erie goes about promosing such debberation under the ircumstance of real world inequality, exclusivity of political fora, advantage of elite politeal actos, and coercion of noneite actors However, the more common approach among politcal theorists iso fer socal ericism as an explicit or implied extension oftheir politi Philosophy: Whether thet oun social etic sexplic or implied the elberaive theorists do not offer a general account of what socil eitiism shouldbe Toha Dewey, a forefather of deliberative democratic theory, has been plicit in incorporating a philosophy of social csi into his polite theory. Hs philosophy of human learning foundational to his political theory and theory of social criticism. Dewey argucs that people and society Jaen by listening to one another's ideas and then playing ext their imagination all ofthe posible scenarios 40 which following one suggestion would lead [Deliberation i a dramatic seheanal in imagination) of various competing osble ines of action Thought rune ahead! and forves outcomes, and ‘ete aos navng to awat he instruction of actual fue este (1983 {us2) 132-133) Individuals and societies make decisions simialy. Bods have an interes, Jn making the bet decisions as measured by ther ability to reconcile ‘competing understandings (1983 [1922]: 134 and 1989 [1944] 273) According to Devey's political philosophy, for individuals o participate ‘equally and freely im democracy, they must have the inllctul capaci pars ethers dept sory mle fp M Bost 980 me ‘Biman (100) oan Cob (10mm 8 Broce (850 fon Ear 0 anal ean (03), Eo (it) Any anne nd Dens Pan (3b ace Kia i ame Jar 1996 ess Mn 1) ane More Soe 90, 06h, rank Etec (166), Dr ie 192) Pom 8 Syms (1980) Com Sunes (1588 an Alt area)(8 Polen Thor and Feminist Soci Crim to do 10. They must be able to think ee, undictated thoughts 10 dsoover and learn with others (1983 (1922): 9-11, 134 and 1989 {1odep| 220. In addition, dlfberaton requires the ability to imagine ~ te fistine the responses that ones actions wil elce om others and to imagine the possible consequences of one's actions (1989 (1922: 134, Tide 217), And people must value the collective le that fcltates the ual and fee pertpation ofall (1989 [1942]: 174, 178-9). Then, in ‘Dewey view, deliberation sat once the means of developing in people the ablity to participate equally, foaly end valualy in their collective Iie, and itis the end of eollecive life. Dewey's politel philosophy emphasizes the developmental role of deliberauon in individuals’ abi {ie to contribute ocileeive He and in the society's ability to fanction scoring to the collected understandings of te cizens The role ofthe foclal enti, according to Dewey's political philosophy, is to educate fanare citizens to be crite thinkers. OF equal import, the ci must inspire current citizens to reflect thoughtfully on the existing or emer- fing values, practices, and norms of thei society such as increasing Inequality in industializing society (1980 (19166) and 1982 (1919]) tnd totabtarianism (1989 (1942) because they may othewite under ‘ine the freedom and equality of liberal democracy (1980 (19163) and. 1980 (1916b)). No deliberative theorist since Dewey has appreciated the role of deliberation in bringing about the condiions for deliberative democracy "The implied social eri of deliberative theorists tends o focus on «society's institusonal and socal preconditions, and procedures of deliberative democracy. For example, Amy Gutmann and Joshua Cohen, articulate a politieal philosophy of deliberative democracy according to Which, despite moral daagreement, citizens debate political issues and. each political consensus Such a view requires that citizens tolerate ‘opposing views, listen to each other respectfully and make their deci sions bated on their thoughtful evaluation of the arguments presented, ‘According tothe deliberative theorists, deiberatve democracy requires land reinforces an ideal environment for deliberated social decision ‘making that includes slfrerpect, mutual respect, equality, and an. ‘agreed-upon definition of what conritutes reasonable argument inthe Public sphere, According t ther view, where societies suficenty ‘pproximate the ideal environment, deliberative democracy wil perpe- ‘ate that environment and eld lepiimate politcal consensus (© ‘Cohen 19892). The implied socal eticism stat societies should Work 4 promote the idea! deliberative environment and its corresponding * See Guman 1995) Gemana & Thompn 986,44 Caen (1088. Sent voices and veda rit ° necessary institutions. Cohen and co-author Jocl Rogers argue that associations ae such necesaryineiutons for deliberave democracy and they offer an idealized account of those asociations, bat do not offer a complementary account of how to bring about such institutions (Cohen & Rogers 1992). Gutmann impies through her disession of ‘Mozert v. Haushins and. Wisconsin v. Yor that socal criticism should promote an educational system that teaches critical thinking such thet people lean to old thet views nor dogmatically, but based on thei having respectflly considered alternative ews and having chosen thei ‘wn views as being mos promising (Gutmann 1995; se also Gutmann, Thompson 1996). The socal cxtism she ofes i= implied rather than explicit. She offers examples of what constitete (in het view) convincing arguments shout what eduction should enti, but there ro complementary account of how society might bring about euch a ‘educational system, Both Cohen end Gutmann (and their co-authors) offer an acount of Aelperative democracy tha is based on the strong assumptions of sel respect, mutual respec, equality, and an agreed-apon definition of what constitutes reasonable ergument preexisting inthe society in question ‘But such preconditions are lacking in most societies (and one might be suspicious of how widespread they ar in 2 society thet someone claims ‘neatly approximates thove preconditions)” In the rel word inequal- ites are to pressing, o to invisible, forthe implied socal ertcism of deal political theory to be relevant Deliberation i essential to eheir politcal vision, but dhey have no employed i for soci criticism where the preconditions of deliberative democracy are lacking, Moreover they require that a society agree on the form of argument that ill be acceptable in deliberative fora and they describe that form a8 narrowly consistent with legal oem of argumentation. Following this paradigm, Social ertcsm would be very similr to what a judge does and very isi to the actions and ofsage voices of sent crits. ‘Benjamin Barber comes closer to Destey in incorporating a theory of social criticism into his politcal theory. In Song Democracy, Batber Includes in his anpument for participatory democracy an argument bout what socal ers needs to be in order to bring about such participatory democracy, For Barber, strong democracy isan ongoing form of political fe where people participate in public decision making 235 fee ciizens and who, trough sell-legisation, together resalve con Act despite lack of common ground (1984: 117-138, 151). Social * dk Kit and Jans Jon sabe dt deere dey see“ ‘orf Stn pt a sae ae ny ca joc wcrc rls en 88 FH HOcriticism complements and promotes strong democracy according to urbe, Socal criti an ongoing incremental process leading toward ‘rong democracy by taking advantage of existing practices and insti {dane haar supportive of strong democracy (1084: 262). Ofthe specie {asuttions he proposes, some, such a5 teevsionfeciitated national owen meetings" andthe national referendum process have been tie in some form (1984; 274-278). Barber offers explicit soil eriticisms hat ‘Se consistent wih his polis! philosophy and ae intended to bring i bout, Bur note, these are speci eicims offered by him. He does for tellus how he arsved at thse suggestions and not others. Tn my views stzong democracy implies a philosopby of social eri according to which many socal etc from a varity of riteal perspec tives exchange thei ideas of what constittes appropiate socal ent {Gom, Barber hat articulated that sil critic shouldbe incremental nd ongoing, bur then he offers ist of suggestions that, tobe consistent ‘with strong democrac, should be offered asthe result of «deliberative ‘xchange among a variety of socal crits. One might argue thatthe research leading up to his publishing this Hist included deliberative changes with oer socal scientists, but he does not tell us why he ‘recommends these, and not other, suggestions Tam not ctitclang Barber for not doing what he did not promise to bo, Rather, Tuse him as an example of a deliberative theorist who offers 's partial sketch of what soil criticism generally should bein order to be consistent with his account of strong democracy. Bu social criticism feeds to be more than incremental, practicable, and leading toward strong democracy; i alo needs o specify the roles, qualifications, and ‘method of socal xtes. Recognizing that we live in an imperfect word, " Se nrmaton shou te crocs of wf bute came fom snaiern ie vilage women, The rile women aso dcssed that, seSteommon they topic wie bey me se acceptable Further, ‘Rome Sed appropate mean for challenging husbands who beat eras wnce stoping sini home bing mburassing pubic Senin toa better, "Tn Save te Chiden and is program ofcer offered sci cet dha eter te ouside norte nies could fer. Mos of {he Sve we Chen progam workers wste Banglades the prose ‘ce eas «German woman fat in Benga andthe fnding ae {brane tip was te US Ageny fr Interatnal Development. Clie Shedstore fom mule perspectives sought to femove the Sen nwt tila ssl coven Tey i {S ncoing to acerpable practices y eqoring the wes to ask thei Sudbands’ permision, They promod increment oa change, cal Teging the orm of womesconstsined moby whe flowing the Ghetto ef mens autor over hws Alhoush they id not fave preceaceieddons about wha the women would experince tine woringtpeher ina spec cote hey expected tht he es ‘ould te the uninable sewn of te women's proups. The ancedote ies exmpe of ous ci anid crite and etics whose etal reece cannot be sing deine by te ee og. all his ast oup smulrsted” crite to refs he mile pesecties of such Ei and I eapan te em tern chante 5 ‘Aough enemy be acne 0 vew teat perspective eine fant cic te inner andthe ote ler ra pespecsives thar be mulated ce sr no share Cri frm a singe perspec: She cannot suffi bring about more informed cole, and cocreed socal deckion making for. However, where cries om Smite ponpecuves conte to socal cis sa decison Taking foray become more informed, cole, and wncoeced. “Tir Word feminism relics on makpie every ei fom aid eal penpectves A Third World feminist philosophy of social criticism Social criticism is more comprehensive ini analysis than complaint ‘because itis systematic, Inthe ral world people complain about vals, Sent oes and everyday rice s practices, norms, and each other without intending 1 be socal eis, Complaints can be directed at individual ciramstances or a general ircumstances, but whether individual or general complaints are not systematic, they are particular. For an example of individual complain, 4 wife could complain about her husband's abuse. Such a compl particularizes the complainer and particularzes the accused. Change i subject to the ability of the complniner to voice her complain at to argue wel. Iris doubsfl tha the woman living in the crocodile infested waters could effectively voice her own ecism or even that a represen ‘ative could interpret her silence. But even where welhargued complaint is effective in speci individual circumstances, because itis specific t0 the individual circumstances, the argument dacs not affect those in salar circumstances. Another approach to social rtciam, equally ad hoe but intended to bhave broader benefit, is generalized complaint, For example, an activist ‘might complain about domestic violence against women ~ partculatly ‘ew rides ~in rural Bengledesh. In this cate, the complaint generalizes about women’s physical abuse in manage, ot even more generally about women’s vulnerability in martiage. As in the case of individual complaint, however, even where wellargued complaint i effective at ‘ising awareness of rural women’s vulnerability in Bangladesh the contextspecifciry of the argument inhibits related benefits fom sc- rung to others who are also bur diferenty vulnerable, for example widows and unmarved girs. Whether particular or generalized, such compint is too specific to be sca ert, In order to have an impact onthe values, practices, and norms of a society which perpetuate the particular harms identified by dhe compl ners and those they have not idensied, socal erccsm needs 10 be systematic and make respectful and informational use of complaint. Social criticism is distinguished from complaint in that the former recognizes oppression as systematic, The social ei ee inequalities as problems with the organization of society not merely as obstacles (0 achieving her ova interes. ‘One systematic approach to sci cricim i offered by Raymond ‘Geuss in his review of critical theory i has been developed by the Frankfurt school, with Marx sis forefather and Habermas as its best ‘known spokesperson (1981). As Geust deseibes i, a crtieal theory poses epistemological challenges to traditional views. Man's social xiticism, for example, provides a revolutionary account of the ature of knowledge. Without reviewing that Iterture, I borrow the features of critical theory Geuss identifies and add others Iangue are essential for a philosophy of social etic tha is practicable inthe real world126 Poles Theory and Feminist Socal Coe “The three fetures consistent with Geuss's account ofa crea theory 1, Socal criticism should guide human aeton. 2 Ieshould be coherent and consistent And, 5, Sockl eri should be “refleesse"; that is tes shouldbe able A aniticze the values, practices, and norms ofa soiesy according to jpencipis which are themselves open texts. (Geuss 1981 55-95) “Tose are important criteria of sexta theory, but there nohing in these etra that rues a theorist to be enc of real world values, practices, and norms (though & particular crital chery such 5 Mars ‘ay bo). A society might have a coherent explanation for the exploit ‘don of certain groups within st such that twas not cial of practices that exploit or dsriminate agaiast them, In the real world where inequales frequently exhibit coberent patterns, crite theory needs ‘ore than the entra of atonabliry, consistency, and self-reflection. It feeds to be ental. Ae Mare encourages, in order tobe critical a political, Philosophy needs to wrestle seth “dhe strugues and wishes” of ral people (1967 [1843]: 215). “Though systematic, the framework of critical theory outlined by ‘Geass does not systematically regite crits’ attention to the sugges fand silent wishes of the oppressed. For example, Nancy Fraser argues that Habermas fils to incorporate into his theory analysis of the ‘truggls of women, In her eeiticism of Habermas, Fraser draws aten~ ton to Marx's mandate suggesting that in order for critical theory 0 be ‘Sia! must wrestle with the stroggles and wishes of women. Thus, ‘Shere socal estcism is most necesary, Habermas's critical theory is hot ecal (Fraser 1991). "Feminist theorists have consistently paid attention tothe practical and critieal import of political theory forthe seugges and wishes of women, ‘From a iseral perspective, Susan Okin ersczes contemporary theories of junice for assuming an idealized just family, To complement the Rewnan assumption of equality s the original position, Okin artes lates erieigue of vulnerability created through socal practices (1989) From 1 poststucturalst perspective, Chris Weedon argues that by ‘offering feminists evtgue of the epistemological power of language, possuructuralsm is a useful complement to feminism (1997). By ‘Contras, Meiduls Udayagiet argues that postmodern femigism is not Siected at social change and embodies language of power alls own, (G95), Sharing somewhat both views, Susan Bordo argues that post modernism provides tool but that i is itadequate as feminist theory Sent vies and everyday ise n (1990). These feminists and others have erally axe theory and developed ts mee tobe more appropriate pas Saar eek. Another feminine approach has been 0 ckamine wonees sn or octal and pa ae approach resemble both pond nd ant posenoders. ret espe but devs on Third Wor fama ce theoreti fos. However, I ake the cans of arenas ie iss against obvining diferences and of thet vscy nana Beng See my foe, eat Gd ed os min acts) share wth nessa hors sin peopl to know best the experience, and recognition Ut despite appacet sili, ferences among people and thie expences se Par ‘kul informative. However, ike many Gender and Developeren theorists and practioner 1 and other Third Wel feminist aces) a ot wt or rect info man lm hat present obstacles fo women's activism. Poleal Beary ete to be Drocically and experiential grounded so that seed rlernce Gonctte an ei mpicons reaiable: The Third Word int modelo cl runs an mjrianconpenent'o Seo cory and, beet tis an eraplaton om the el wel act ‘Third Weld women, resizable “ers me {propose tha, By defing the methodology, rls and ology, ole, nd quinone of scaly the following adiona sing cia of enon of sec ccm atl requ ei dese’ se tin to those exploitative or potently epltveineguie that sc ‘perpetuated through its values practice, and norms: oe 4, Social critics must follow a methodology intended tobe sensitive 10 the realty of an imperfect world where power inequalities enable oer ad pte explant sens some win sce and to impede social criticism and social change. a 5. Theses ete he ae 9s, sd norms soci Thin my require Heng acl vice a a epeetate of ‘ten vole, cag be weil eom of ebee Gaby Oy ° Many ie, a ani bee concen hot dco et fois ya omer hes sod emerge sacs ian ey Srp ed pesca Caine Mee Ween ‘to, als ers ewer sap mares re 9960 ly elaing to “antrum” T mem to tt wo the who. fom ee owutracrabst or poxmederst perpectie crcar the camclng of coer Seog rt puto wh tm ny bot st iene, Om foes, tel anew ae Catal28 Poles Tory and Feminist Social Cec cringe pce fr ton who are exacted or Suiboang rol crsom recy ne «6 Mae 0 consi oe rg ees a gut one 9 Tea sen eon gues lle ces fom 2 cot orin an cnt pspestves 1 speciing the methodol, sols nd guiing pepsi of eB Sti ce es aoa! ote eure tt nc rn ‘Sony te sewpps at len ws of mage ino Be cae sea Said ber woxty Sse chen ae pcemay 0 tastorm SEREacoy tom on sles! projet wo te pace of so etary pce and ors ea net er Wir nu re pe tar poner ay ot pes acres cen Sogh ean rl, pc, arms ii BEE Dus cee ney dese Where ae poe who ie ‘Sleds Yo rcs pacer, andor hey see onal o ae ssc icon ing not infmes coco, and uncured. Thor smal econ mang mow hibeme, cette and Sr nei ean Ry npr sl ny rong So ahng tis conte cson td aepeene soil Seoean Start repose caing hve tho te te Sea ineed wae rt noel Secbion aking ado ‘atunce soa hangs Outine of chapters “The book is organized to give theoretical coherence to Third World women ecvist” practice of soil criticism and to propose this feminist, theory of social critcism a8 a necessary complement to contemporary Selberative democratic theory, « development of feminist theory and lan improvement over Walzer's and Nussbaum’ theories of social rit- Sum. Third World feminist socal cricism offers a complementary ‘model of social crccism that enables political theory tobe experiential {rounded and elevantin a variety of contexs. In chapter 2 1 dives the theoretical problems that deliberave democratic theorists face when confronted wit the real world obstacles to deliberative democracy. Third World feminist theory and activin ‘offer a practicable solution. Using the example of SEWA, I demonstrate ‘hat deliberation i important ro social xtc aba means of gathering Inowiedge (facta! information, the understanding of one another preferences, and the sks for ssing deberavon to continue asquiring Sit voles nd everyday ete » the fist swo kinds of knowledge) In edition to fostering this educative process, deliberation is mportant to soci critiism beatae proses {the ongoing discussion and evaluation of exiting values, practice, and ‘norms such that no topic i immune to potential eiiciam Thos those that are coercive or that exploit power inequities come under scrutiny Finally, deiberaon enables soci eitciam to have cial teeth Becatae it enables erties and society to develop ctiteria with which to ass ‘whether existing or proposed values, practices, and norms are (oF potentially ae) coercive or exploitative, Thus deliberation unde per fect conditions enables bringing about nea-deal conditions, Delibera. tom is foundational o Third Wold feminism’ method of social rts ‘and has implications force roles and qualifications of socal erties, ‘When western political theorists do attempe to offer an account of social eri (that is, an account of how ta bring about the political contrat they advocate, they must provide an account of how their, version of social enticsm would negotiate the competing pressures ‘oward cultural relavism and essentaism, In chapter 3, [discuss two such attempts in contemporary politcal theory those of Michael Wace and Martha Nussbaum. Though promising, Wales methodological, flaw allows the social cxtc to accept existing and harm practices as shared and Nussbaum's methodological fw allows the socal crite to ‘ake incompletely informed proposal for social change, Feminists are particulary invested inthe relativs-esentaist debate bbeeause frequently the cultural practices under seruiny are those thet have different effects on women and men. The Gender and Develop ‘ment (GAD) literature has been particslarly seleconscious, Western !uthors writing from outside the contexts ofthe practices they cricize hhave been accused of esentalizing about all women's experiences based fon westem women’s experiences. Other western authors have withheld iticism in the interest of idemiving what women value in or ein fom ‘those practices that seem oppresive to women. Some nonwestern ‘uthors have been able to avoid over generalized or vacuous observa ‘ons by basing thee ertism on inmate knowledge withthe practice snd using thei critical perspective (that of one whe as insider know ledge) to remove from thei esis of the practice any exclusive foundation in either western of local cultural understandings, Some feminists inclding Norma Alarcon (1990), J. Oloka-Onyango and Sylvia Tamale (1995), and Jane Flax (1995), ciution that some white feminists have taken note of the work of women of color and, rather tha ‘recognized the diferences among the theories proposed by these authors, ‘sed them as local perspectives that validated white western womens cwperiences and ignored the subwtance of thir critical perspectives