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Šƒ’–‡”ͳ
Š›•‹…ƒŽ‘”Ž†
Š‡™‘”†…‹‡…‡‘”‹‰‹ƒ–‡•ˆ”‘–Š‡ƒ–‹˜‡”„…‹‡–‹ƒ‡ƒ‹‰‘to know’
Š‡™‘”†Š›•‹…•…‘‡•ˆ”‘ƒ
”‡‡™‘”†‡ƒ‹‰ƒ–—”‡Ǥ

…‹‡–‹ˆ‹…‡–Š‘†
…‹‡–‹ˆ‹…‡–Š‘†‹˜‘Ž˜‡•–Š‡ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰•–‡’•ǡ
ͳǤ›•–‡ƒ–‹…‘„•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘•ʹǤ‘–”‘ŽŽ‡†‡š’‡”‹‡–•͵Ǥ—ƒŽ‹–ƒ–‹˜‡ƒ†“—ƒ–‹–ƒ–‹˜‡”‡ƒ•‘‹‰
ͶǤƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹…ƒŽ‘†‡ŽŽ‹‰ͷǤ”‡†‹…–‹‘ƒ†˜‡”‹ˆ‹…ƒ–‹‘‘”ˆƒŽ•‹ˆ‹…ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡‘”‹‡•

…‘’‡ƒ†š…‹–‡‡–‘ˆŠ›•‹…•
ƒ•‹…ƒŽŽ›ǡ–Š‡”‡ƒ”‡–™‘†‘ƒ‹•‘ˆ‹–‡”‡•–ǣƒ…”‘•…‘’‹…ƒ†‹…”‘•…‘’‹…Ǥ
Š‡ƒ…”‘•…‘’‹…†‘ƒ‹
Š‡ƒ…”‘•…‘’‹…†‘ƒ‹‹…Ž—†‡•’Š‡‘‡ƒƒ––Š‡Žƒ„‘”ƒ–‘”›ǡ–‡””‡•–”‹ƒŽƒ†ƒ•–”‘‘‹…ƒŽ•…ƒŽ‡•ǤŽƒ••‹…ƒŽ
Š›•‹…•†‡ƒŽ•ƒ‹Ž›™‹–Šƒ…”‘•…‘’‹…’Š‡‘‡ƒǤ
Š‡„”ƒ…Š‡•‘ˆ…Žƒ••‹…ƒŽ’Š›•‹…•Ǧ‡…Šƒ‹…•ǡŽ‡…–”‘†›ƒ‹…•ǡ’–‹…•ƒ†Š‡”‘†›ƒ‹…•Ǥ
▪ ‡…Šƒ‹…•founded on Newton’s laws of motion and the law of gravitation . It is concerned with the
‘–‹‘‘ˆ’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡•ǡ”‹‰‹†ƒ††‡ˆ‘”ƒ„Ž‡„‘†‹‡•ǡƒ†‰‡‡”ƒŽ•›•–‡•‘ˆ’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡•Ǥ
▪ Ž‡…–”‘†›ƒ‹…•†‡ƒŽ•™‹–Š‡Ž‡…–”‹…ƒ†ƒ‰‡–‹…’Š‡‘‡ƒƒ••‘…‹ƒ–‡†™‹–Š…Šƒ”‰‡†ƒ†ƒ‰‡–‹…
„‘†‹‡•Ǥ
▪ ’–‹…•†‡ƒŽ•™‹–Š–Š‡’Š‡‘‡ƒ‹˜‘Ž˜‹‰Ž‹‰Š–Ǥ
▪ Š‡”‘†›ƒ‹…•†‡ƒŽ•™‹–Š•›•–‡•‹ƒ…”‘•…‘’‹…‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—ƒ†‹•…‘…‡”‡†™‹–Š…Šƒ‰‡•‹
‹–‡”ƒŽ‡‡”‰›ǡ–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡ǡ‡–”‘’›ǡ‡–…Ǥǡ‘ˆ–Š‡•›•–‡–Š”‘—‰Š‡š–‡”ƒŽ™‘”ƒ†–”ƒ•ˆ‡”‘ˆŠ‡ƒ–Ǥ
Š‡‹…”‘•…‘’‹…†‘ƒ‹
Š‡‹…”‘•…‘’‹…†‘ƒ‹‹…Ž—†‡•ƒ–‘‹…ǡ‘Ž‡…—Žƒ”ƒ†—…Ž‡ƒ”’Š‡‘‡ƒǤŽƒ••‹…ƒŽ’Š›•‹…•‹•‹ƒ†‡“—ƒ–‡–‘
Šƒ†Ž‡–Š‹•†‘ƒ‹ƒ†—ƒ–—Š‡‘”›‹•…—””‡–Ž›ƒ……‡’–‡†ƒ•–Š‡’”‘’‡”ˆ”ƒ‡™‘”ˆ‘”‡š’Žƒ‹‹‰
‹…”‘•…‘’‹…’Š‡‘‡ƒǤ
—†ƒ‡–ƒŽ ‘”…‡•‹ƒ–—”‡
Š‡”‡ƒ”‡ˆ‘—”ˆ—†ƒ‡–ƒŽˆ‘”…‡•‹ƒ–—”‡Ǧ
”ƒ˜‹–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ ‘”…‡ǡ‡ƒ—…Ž‡ƒ” ‘”…‡ǡŽ‡…–”‘ƒ‰‡–‹… ‘”…‡
ƒ†–”‘‰—…Ž‡ƒ” ‘”…‡


ƒ–—”‡‘ˆŠ›•‹…ƒŽƒ™•
▪ Š‡’Š›•‹…ƒŽ“—ƒ–‹–‹‡•–Šƒ–”‡ƒ‹—…Šƒ‰‡†‹ƒ’”‘…‡••ƒ”‡…ƒŽŽ‡†…‘•‡”˜‡†“—ƒ–‹–‹‡•Ǥ
▪ ‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡‰‡‡”ƒŽ…‘•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘Žƒ™•‹ƒ–—”‡‹…Ž—†‡–Š‡Žƒ™•‘ˆ…‘•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘‘ˆƒ••ǡ‡‡”‰›ǡ
Ž‹‡ƒ”‘‡–—ǡƒ‰—Žƒ”‘‡–—ǡ…Šƒ”‰‡ǡ’ƒ”‹–›ǡ‡–…Ǥ
▪ ‘‡…‘•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘Žƒ™•ƒ”‡–”—‡ˆ‘”‘‡ˆ—†ƒ‡–ƒŽˆ‘”…‡„—–‘–ˆ‘”–Š‡‘–Š‡”Ǥ
▪ ‘•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘Žƒ™•Šƒ˜‡ƒ†‡‡’…‘‡…–‹‘™‹–Š•›‡–”‹‡•‘ˆƒ–—”‡Ǥ›‡–”‹‡•‘ˆ•’ƒ…‡ƒ†–‹‡ǡ
ƒ†‘–Š‡”–›’‡•‘ˆ•›‡–”‹‡•’Žƒ›ƒ…‡–”ƒŽ”‘Ž‡‹‘†‡”–Š‡‘”‹‡•‘ˆˆ—†ƒ‡–ƒŽˆ‘”…‡•‹ƒ–—”‡Ǥ
1

2 Thelima Edu Help Programme | Higher Secondar y National Ser vice Scheme
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Šƒ’–‡”ʹ
‹–•ƒ†‡ƒ•—”‡‡–
—†ƒ‡–ƒŽƒ†‡”‹˜‡†—ƒ–‹–‹‡•
▪ Š‡’Š›•‹…ƒŽ“—ƒ–‹–‹‡•ǡ™Š‹…Šƒ”‡‹†‡’‡†‡–‘ˆ‡ƒ…Š‘–Š‡”ƒ†…ƒ‘–„‡‡š’”‡••‡†‹–‡”•‘ˆ‘–Š‡”
’Š›•‹…ƒŽ“—ƒŽ‹–‹‡•ƒ”‡…ƒŽŽ‡†ˆ—†ƒ‡–ƒŽ“—ƒ–‹–‹‡•Ǥ
‰ǣŽ‡‰–Šǡƒ••ǡ–‹‡Ǥ
▪ Š‡’Š›•‹…ƒŽ“—ƒ–‹–‹‡•ǡ™Š‹…Š…ƒ„‡‡š’”‡••‡†‹–‡”•‘ˆˆ—†ƒ‡–ƒŽ“—ƒŽ‹–‹‡•ƒ”‡…ƒŽŽ‡††‡”‹˜‡†
“—ƒ–‹–‹‡•Ǥ‰ǣ˜‘Ž—‡ǡ˜‡Ž‘…‹–›ǡˆ‘”…‡

—†ƒ‡–ƒŽƒ†‡”‹˜‡†‹–•
▪ Š‡—‹–•ˆ‘”–Š‡ˆ—†ƒ‡–ƒŽ‘”„ƒ•‡“—ƒ–‹–‹‡•ƒ”‡…ƒŽŽ‡†ˆ—†ƒ‡–ƒŽ‘”„ƒ•‡—‹–•ǤŠ‡—‹–•‘ˆƒŽŽ
‘–Š‡”’Š›•‹…ƒŽ“—ƒ–‹–‹‡•…ƒ„‡‡š’”‡••‡†ƒ•…‘„‹ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆ–Š‡„ƒ•‡—‹–•Ǥ
▪ Š‡—‹–•‘ˆ–Š‡†‡”‹˜‡†“—ƒ–‹–‹‡•ƒ”‡…ƒŽŽ‡††‡”‹˜‡†—‹–•Ǥ
›•–‡•‘ˆ‹–•
Š‡„ƒ•‡—‹–•ˆ‘”Ž‡‰–Šǡƒ••ƒ†–‹‡‹–Š‡•‡•›•–‡•™‡”‡ƒ•ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™•ǣ
▪ 
•›•–‡Ǧ…‡–‹‡–”‡ǡ‰”ƒƒ†•‡…‘†Ǥ
▪ •›•–‡Ǧˆ‘‘–ǡ’‘—†ƒ†•‡…‘†Ǥ
▪ •›•–‡Ǧ‡–”‡ǡ‹Ž‘‰”ƒƒ†•‡…‘†Ǥ

Š‡–‡”ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ›•–‡‘ˆ‹–•
•›•–‡–Š‡”‡ƒ”‡•‡˜‡„ƒ•‡—‹–•ƒ†–™‘•—’’Ž‡‡–ƒ”›—‹–•Ǥ





‡ƒ•—”‡‡–‘ˆƒ”‰‡†‹•–ƒ…‡•Ǧƒ”ƒŽŽƒš‡–Š‘†


2

Thelima Edu Help Programme | Higher Secondar y National Ser vice Scheme 3
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ƒ‰‡•‘ˆ‡‰–Š

‡ƒ•—”‡‡–‘ˆƒ••
Š‹Ž‡†‡ƒŽ‹‰™‹–Šƒ–‘•ƒ†‘Ž‡…—Ž‡•ǡ—‹ˆ‹‡†ƒ–‘‹…ƒ••—‹–ሺ—ሻǡ‹•—•‡†Ǥ
ͳ—‹ˆ‹‡†ƒ–‘‹…ƒ••—‹–ൌͳ—
ൌሺͳȀͳʹሻ‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ••‘ˆƒƒ–‘‘ˆ…ƒ”„‘Ǧͳʹ
‹•‘–‘’‡ሺ 126 𝐶𝐶) ‹…Ž—†‹‰–Š‡ƒ••‘ˆ‡Ž‡…–”‘•
ͳ—ൌͳǤ͸͸šͳͲǦʹ͹‰

Š‡†‹‡•‹‘ƒŽˆ‘”—Žƒ‡‘ˆ•‘‡†‡”‹˜‡†“—ƒ–‹–‹‡•
”‡ƒǦL2   ‘Ž—‡ǦL3 
−3
‡•‹–›ǦML   ‡Ž‘…‹–›ǦLT −1 
……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘ǦLT −2   ‘‡–—ǦMLT −1 
−2
 ‘”…‡ǦMLT  ‘”‘”‡‡”‰›ǦML2 T −2 
2 −3
‘™‡”ǦML T   ‘”“—‡ǦML2 T −2
−1 −2
”‡••—”‡ǦML T   –”‡••ǦML−1 T −2
‘†—Ž—•‘ˆ‡Žƒ•–‹…‹–›ǦML−1 T −2



3

4 Thelima Edu Help Programme | Higher Secondar y National Ser vice Scheme
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ͳǤŠ‡…–Š‡†‹‡•‹‘ƒŽ…‘””‡…–‡••‘ˆ–Š‡‡“—ƒ–‹‘•ൌ—–൅ͳȀʹƒ–ʹ

 
‹…‡‡ƒ…Š–‡”Šƒ•–Š‡•ƒ‡†‹‡•‹‘ǡ–Š‹•‡“—ƒ–‹‘‹•†‹‡•‹‘ƒŽŽ›…‘””‡…–Ǥ

ʹǤŠ‡…–Š‡†‹‡•‹‘ƒŽ…‘””‡…–‡••‘ˆ–Š‡‡“—ƒ–‹‘Φ˜ʹൌ‰Š




‹…‡‡ƒ…Š–‡”Šƒ•–Š‡•ƒ‡†‹‡•‹‘ǡ–Š‹•‡“—ƒ–‹‘‹•†‹‡•‹‘ƒŽŽ›…‘””‡…–Ǥ

͵ǤŠ‡…–Š‡†‹‡•‹‘ƒŽ…‘””‡…–‡••‘ˆ–Š‡‡“—ƒ–‹‘ൌ…ʹ

‹…‡‡ƒ…Š–‡”Šƒ•–Š‡•ƒ‡†‹‡•‹‘ǡ–Š‹•‡“—ƒ–‹‘‹•†‹‡•‹‘ƒŽŽ›…‘””‡…–Ǥ

ͳǤ‡”‹˜‡–Š‡‡“—ƒ–‹‘ˆ‘”‹‡–‹…‡‡”‰›ሺሻ‘ˆƒ„‘†›‘ˆƒ••‘˜‹‰™‹–Š˜‡Ž‘…‹–›˜

Thelima Edu Help Programme | Higher Secondar y National Ser vice Scheme 5
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”—‡˜ƒŽ—‡‘”‡ƒ˜ƒŽ—‡‘”˜‡”ƒ‰‡˜ƒŽ—‡
—’’‘•‡–Š‡˜ƒŽ—‡•‘„–ƒ‹‡†‹•‡˜‡”ƒŽ‡ƒ•—”‡‡–•ƒ”‡𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎3 , … … , 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 Š‡ƒ”‹–Š‡–‹…‡ƒ‘ˆ–Š‡•‡
˜ƒŽ—‡•‹•–ƒ‡ƒ•–Š‡”—‡˜ƒŽ—‡Ǥ
𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏 + 𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏
𝒂𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 = 
𝒏𝒏
„•‘Ž—–‡””‘”
Š‡ƒ‰‹–—†‡‘ˆ–Š‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡„‡–™‡‡–Š‡–”—‡˜ƒŽ—‡‘ˆ–Š‡“—ƒ–‹–›ƒ†–Š‡‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ‡ƒ•—”‡‡–˜ƒŽ—‡
‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†–Š‡ƒ„•‘Ž—–‡‡””‘”‘ˆ–Š‡‡ƒ•—”‡‡–Ǥ
𝛥𝛥𝑎𝑎1 = |𝑎𝑎1 − 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 |

‡ƒ„•‘Ž—–‡””‘”
Š‡ƒ”‹–Š‡–‹…‡ƒ‘ˆƒŽŽ–Š‡ƒ„•‘Ž—–‡‡””‘”•‹•–ƒ‡ƒ•–Š‡ˆ‹ƒŽ‘”‡ƒƒ„•‘Ž—–‡‡””‘”Ǥ
𝜟𝜟𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏 + 𝜟𝜟𝜟𝜟𝟐𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝜟𝜟𝜟𝜟𝒏𝒏
𝜟𝜟𝒂𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 = 
𝒏𝒏
‡Žƒ–‹˜‡””‘”
Š‡”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡‡””‘”‹•–Š‡”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡‡ƒƒ„•‘Ž—–‡‡””‘”𝜟𝜟𝒂𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎–‘–Š‡‡ƒ˜ƒŽ—‡𝒂𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 ‘ˆ–Š‡“—ƒ–‹–›
‡ƒ•—”‡†Ǥ
𝜟𝜟𝒂𝒂
 δaൌ 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 
𝒂𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎


5

6 Thelima Edu Help Programme | Higher Secondar y National Ser vice Scheme
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‡”…‡–ƒ‰‡””‘”
‡Žƒ–‹˜‡‡””‘”‡š’”‡••‡†‹’‡”…‡–‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†‡”…‡–ƒ‰‡””‘”Ǥ
𝜟𝜟𝒂𝒂
 ‡”…‡–ƒ‰‡””‘”ൌ 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝒙𝒙 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏%
𝒂𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎

šƒ’Ž‡
𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 2
Š‡…‡–”‹’‡–ƒŽˆ‘”…‡‘ˆƒ„‘†›‹•‰‹˜‡„› ൌ .”‹–‡ƒ‡š’”‡••‹‘ˆ‘”’‡”…‡–ƒ‰‡‡””‘”‹
𝑟𝑟
…‡–”‹’‡–ƒŽˆ‘”…‡Ǥ
ΔF Δm Δv Δr
 F x 100%ൌ m x 100%൅ 2 x v x 100%൅ r x 100%


”‹–‡–Š‡—„‡”‘ˆ•‹‰‹ˆ‹…ƒ–ˆ‹‰—”‡•‹ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰—„‡”•
ͲǤͲʹ͵ͺͲǦͶ
ʹ͵ǤͲͺǦͶ
ʹ͵ǤͺͲǦͶ
ʹ͵ͺͲǦ͵
Ͷ͵ǤͲͲǦͶ
Ͷ͵ͲͲǦʹ
ͶǤ͹ͲͲൈ102 ǦͶ
ͶǤ͹ͲͲൈ10−3ǦͶ







 














Thelima Edu Help Programme | Higher Secondar y National Ser vice Scheme 7
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Šƒ’–‡”͵
‘–‹‘‹ƒ–”ƒ‹‰Š–‹‡
ƒ–Š‡‰–Šሺ‹•–ƒ…‡”ƒ˜‡ŽŽ‡†ሻ
Š‡–‘–ƒŽŽ‡‰–Š‘ˆ–Š‡’ƒ–Š–”ƒ˜‡ŽŽ‡†„›ƒ‘„Œ‡…–‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†ƒ–Š‡‰–ŠǤ

‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–
‹•’ƒŽ…‡‡–‹•–Š‡…Šƒ‰‡‹’‘•‹–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡‘„Œ‡…–Ǥ
‡–šͳƒ†šʹ„‡–Š‡’‘•‹–‹‘•‘ˆƒ‘„Œ‡…–ƒ––‹‡–ͳƒ†–ʹǤ
Displacement, Δx, = xʹǦšͳǡ

‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡•„‡–™‡‡†‹•–ƒ…‡ሺ’ƒ–ŠŽ‡‰–Šሻƒ††‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–
ͳǤ‹•–ƒ…‡‹•ƒ•…ƒŽƒ”ǡ™Š‹Ž‡†‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–‹•ƒ˜‡…–‘”Ǥ
ʹǤ ‘”ƒ‘˜‹‰’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡†‹•–ƒ…‡…ƒ‡˜‡”„‡œ‡”‘‘”‡‰ƒ–‹˜‡™Š‹Ž‡†‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–…ƒ„‡œ‡”‘ǡ’‘•‹–‹˜‡‘”
‡‰ƒ–‹˜‡Ǥ
͵Ǥ ‘”ƒ‘˜‹‰’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡ǡ†‹•–ƒ…‡…ƒ‡˜‡”†‡…”‡ƒ•‡™‹–Š–‹‡™Š‹Ž‡†‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–…ƒǤ‡…”‡ƒ•‡‹
†‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–™‹–Š–‹‡‡ƒ•–Šƒ––Š‡„‘†›‹•‘˜‹‰–‘™ƒ”†•–Š‡‹‹–‹ƒŽ’‘•‹–‹‘Ǥ
ͶǤ‹•–ƒ…‡‹•ƒŽ™ƒ›•‰”‡ƒ–‡”–Šƒ‘”‡“—ƒŽ–‘†‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–

˜‡”ƒ‰‡‡Ž‘…‹–›
˜‡”ƒ‰‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‹•†‡ˆ‹‡†ƒ•–Š‡”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–‘–ƒŽ†‹•’Žƒ…‡‡––‘–Š‡–‘–ƒŽ–‹‡‹–‡”˜ƒŽǤ
𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝
˜‡”ƒ‰‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›ൌ 
𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢
𝐱𝐱𝟐𝟐 −𝐱𝐱 𝟏𝟏 ∆𝐱𝐱
𝐯𝐯̅ = ൌ 
𝐭𝐭 𝟐𝟐 −𝐭𝐭 𝟏𝟏 ∆𝐭𝐭
˜‡”ƒ‰‡•’‡‡†
˜‡”ƒ‰‡•’‡‡†‹•†‡ˆ‹‡†ƒ•–Š‡”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–‘–ƒŽ’ƒ–ŠŽ‡–Šሺ†‹•–ƒ…‡–”ƒ˜‡ŽŽ‡†ሻ–‘–Š‡–‘–ƒŽ–‹‡‹–‡”˜ƒŽǤ
𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥
˜‡”ƒ‰‡•’‡‡†ൌ 
𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓 𝐭𝐭𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞

‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡•„‡–™‡‡ƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡•’‡‡†ƒ†ƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›
ͳǤ˜‡”ƒ‰‡•’‡‡†‹•ƒ•…ƒŽƒ”ǡ™Š‹Ž‡ƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‹•ƒ˜‡…–‘”“—ƒ–‹–›Ǥ
ʹǤ ‘”ƒ‘˜‹‰„‘†›ǡ•’‡‡†…ƒ‡˜‡”„‡œ‡”‘‘”‡‰ƒ–‹˜‡™Š‹Ž‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›…ƒ„‡œ‡”‘ǡ’‘•‹–‹˜‡‘”‡‰ƒ–‹˜‡Ǥ
͵Ǥ’‡‡†‹•ƒŽ™ƒ›•‰”‡ƒ–‡”–Šƒ‘”‡“—ƒŽ–‘˜‡Ž‘…‹–›Ǥ

•–ƒ–ƒ‡‘—•˜‡Ž‘…‹–›
Š‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›ƒ–ƒ‹•–ƒ–‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†‹•–ƒ–ƒ‡‘—•˜‡Ž‘…‹–›ƒ†‹•†‡ˆ‹‡†ƒ•–Š‡Ž‹‹–‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›ƒ•
the time interval Δt becomes infinitesimally smallǤ
𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝
˜ൌ 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 ൌ 
𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫→𝟎𝟎 𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝

𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝
˜ൌ 
𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝
•–ƒ–ƒ‡‘—••’‡‡†
•–ƒ–ƒ‡‘—••’‡‡†‘”•‹’Ž›•’‡‡†‹•–Š‡ƒ‰‹–—†‡‘ˆ˜‡Ž‘…‹–›Ǥ

‹ˆ‘”‘–‹‘
ˆƒ‘„Œ‡…–‘˜‹‰ƒŽ‘‰–Š‡•–”ƒ‹‰Š–Ž‹‡…‘˜‡”•‡“—ƒŽ†‹•–ƒ…‡•‹‡“—ƒŽ‹–‡”˜ƒŽ•‘ˆ–‹‡ǡ‹–‹••ƒ‹†–‘„‡‹
—‹ˆ‘”‘–‹‘ƒŽ‘‰ƒ•–”ƒ‹‰Š–Ž‹‡Ǥ
—‹ˆ‘”‘–‹‘˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‘ˆ–Š‡‘„Œ‡…–”‡ƒ‹•…‘•–ƒ–Ǥ
‘–‡–Šƒ–ˆ‘”—‹ˆ‘”‘–‹‘ǡ˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‹•–Š‡•ƒ‡ƒ•–Š‡ƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›ƒ–ƒŽŽ‹•–ƒ–•Ǥ
‘•‹–‹‘Ǧ–‹‡‰”ƒ’Š
‘–‹‘‘ˆƒ‘„Œ‡…–…ƒ„‡”‡’”‡•‡–‡†„›ƒ’‘•‹–‹‘Ǧ–‹‡‰”ƒ’ŠǤ ‘”‘–‹‘ƒŽ‘‰ƒ•–”ƒ‹‰Š–Ž‹‡ǡ•ƒ›Ǧƒš‹•ǡ
‘Ž›šǦ…‘‘”†‹ƒ–‡˜ƒ”‹‡•™‹–Š–‹‡ƒ†™‡Šƒ˜‡ƒšǦ–‰”ƒ’ŠǤ



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‘•‹–‹‘Ǧ–‹‡‰”ƒ’Šˆ‘”ƒ‘„Œ‡…–‘˜‹‰™‹–ŠǣǦ
ሺƒሻ—‹ˆ‘”’‘•‹–‹˜‡ሺ„ሻ—‹ˆ‘”‡‰ƒ–‹˜‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›ሺ…ሻƒ–”‡•–Ǥ


Š‡•Ž‘’‡‘ˆ’‘•‹–‹‘Ǧ–‹‡‰”ƒ’Š‰‹˜‡•–Š‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›


‡Ž‘…‹–›Ǧ–‹‡‰”ƒ’Šˆ‘”—‹ˆ‘”‘–‹‘
—‹ˆ‘”‘–‹‘ǡ˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‹•–Š‡•ƒ‡ƒ–ƒ›‹•–ƒ–‘ˆ‘–‹‘ǤŠ‡”‡ˆ‘”‡ǡ–Š‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›Ǧ–‹‡‰”ƒ’Š‹•ƒ•–”ƒ‹‰Š–
Ž‹‡’ƒ”ƒŽŽ‡Ž–‘–Š‡–‹‡ƒš‹•Ǥ
Š‡ƒ”‡ƒ—†‡”–Š‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›Ǧ–‹‡‰”ƒ’Š‹•‡“—ƒŽ–‘–Š‡†‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–‘ˆ–Š‡’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡Ǥ

 
……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘
—’’‘•‡–Š‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‹–•‡Žˆ‹•…Šƒ‰‹‰™‹–Š–‹‡Ǥ‘”†‡”–‘†‡•…”‹„‡‹–•‡ˆˆ‡…–‘–Š‡‘–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡ǡ™‡
”‡“—‹”‡ƒ‘–Š‡”’Š›•‹…ƒŽ“—ƒ–‹–›…ƒŽŽ‡†ƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘ǤŠ‡”ƒ–‡‘ˆ…Šƒ‰‡‘ˆ˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‘ˆƒ‘„Œ‡…–‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†
ƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘Ǥ

˜‡”ƒ‰‡……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘
Š‡ƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡ƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘ƒ‘˜‡”ƒ–‹‡‹–‡”˜ƒŽ‹•†‡ˆ‹‡†ƒ•–Š‡…Šƒ‰‡‘ˆ˜‡Ž‘…‹–›†‹˜‹†‡†„›–Š‡–‹‡‹–‡”˜ƒŽǤ
𝐯𝐯 −𝐯𝐯 ∆𝐯𝐯
𝐚𝐚̅ = 𝐭𝐭𝟐𝟐−𝐭𝐭 𝟏𝟏ൌ 
∆𝐭𝐭
𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏

‹ˆ‘”ƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘
ˆ–Š‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‘ˆƒ‘„Œ‡…–…Šƒ‰‡•„›‡“—ƒŽƒ‘—–•‹‡“—ƒŽ‹–‡”˜ƒŽ•‘ˆ–‹‡ǡ‹–Šƒ•—‹ˆ‘”ƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘Ǥ

•–ƒ–ƒ‡‘—•ƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘
Š‡ƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆƒ’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡ƒ–ƒ›‹•–ƒ–‘ˆ‹–•‘–‹‘‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†‹•–ƒ–ƒ‡‘—•ƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘Ǥ

‘•‹–‹‘Ǧ–‹‡‰”ƒ’Šˆ‘”‘–‹‘™‹–Š
ሺƒሻ’‘•‹–‹˜‡ƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘ሺ„ሻ‡‰ƒ–‹˜‡ƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘…ሻœ‡”‘ƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘

 
‡Ž‘…‹–›–‹‡‰”ƒ’Š‘ˆƒ„‘†›–Š”‘™˜‡”–‹…ƒŽŽ›—’™ƒ”†•ƒ†”‡–—”•–‘‰”‘—†

 

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‹‡ƒ–‹…“—ƒ–‹‘•ˆ‘”‹ˆ‘”Ž›……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‡†‘–‹‘
‘•‹†‡”ƒ„‘†›‘˜‹‰™‹–Š—‹ˆ‘”ƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘ǤŠ‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›––‹‡‰”ƒ’Š‹•ƒ••Š‘™‹ˆ‹‰—”‡

   
ሺͳሻ‡Ž‘…‹–›––‹‡”‡Žƒ–‹‘
 ”‘–Š‡‰”ƒ’Šǡƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘ൌ•Ž‘’‡
BC
ƒൌ  AC
v−u
ƒൌ 
t
˜Ǧ—ൌƒ–
˜ൌ—൅ƒ–ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͳሻ
ሺʹሻ‘•‹–‹‘Ǧ–‹‡”‡Žƒ–‹‘
‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–ൌ”‡ƒ—†‡”–Š‡‰”ƒ’Š
•ൌ”‡ƒ‘ˆ൅”‡ƒ‘ˆ
•ൌ—–൅Φሺ˜Ǧ—ሻ–
—–ˆ”‘‡“—ƒ–‹‘ሺͳሻ
˜Ǧ—ൌƒ–
•ൌ—–൅Φƒ–š–
•ൌ—–൅Φƒ–ʹǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺʹሻ
ሺ͵ሻ‘•‹–‹‘–˜‡Ž‘…‹–›”‡Žƒ–‹‘
‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–ൌ˜‡”ƒ‰‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›š–‹‡
v+u v−u
•ൌ ( )( )
2 a
v2 −u2
•ൌ ( )
2a
2 2
v − u ൌʹƒ•
𝐯𝐯 𝟐𝟐 = 𝐮𝐮𝟐𝟐 ൅ʹƒ•ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺ͵ሻ

–‘’’‹‰†‹•–ƒ…‡‘ˆ˜‡Š‹…Ž‡•
Š‡„”ƒ‡•ƒ”‡ƒ’’Ž‹‡†–‘ƒ‘˜‹‰˜‡Š‹…Ž‡ǡ–Š‡†‹•–ƒ…‡‹––”ƒ˜‡Ž•„‡ˆ‘”‡•–‘’’‹‰‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†•–‘’’‹‰†‹•–ƒ…‡Ǥ
𝑣𝑣 2 = 𝑢𝑢2 ൅ʹƒ•
0 = 𝑢𝑢2 ൅ʹƒ•
−𝑢𝑢2 ൌʹƒ•
−𝒖𝒖𝟐𝟐
•ൌ 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 

‘–‹‘‘ˆƒ‘„Œ‡…–—†‡” ”‡‡ ƒŽŽ
ሺƒሻƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘‘ˆƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘™‹–Š–‹‡ሺ„ሻƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ˜‡Ž‘…‹–›™‹–Š–‹‡ሺ…ሻƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ†‹•–ƒ…‡™‹–Š–‹

 

‡Žƒ–‹˜‡‡Ž‘…‹–›
‘•‹†‡”–™‘‘„Œ‡…–•ƒ†‘˜‹‰—‹ˆ‘”Ž›™‹–Šƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–‹‡•
˜ƒ†˜‹‘‡†‹‡•‹‘ǡ–Š‡
Š‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‘ˆ‘„Œ‡…–”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡–‘‘„Œ‡…–‹•˜ൌ˜–˜
Š‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‘ˆ‘„Œ‡…–”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡–‘‘„Œ‡…–‹•˜ൌ˜–˜

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Chapter 4
Motion in a Plane
Scalars and Vectors
A scalar quantity has only magnitude and no direction. It is specified completely by a single number, along with
the proper unit.
 Eg. distance ,mass , temperature, time .

A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction and obeys the triangle law of addition or the
parallelogram law of addition. A vector is specified by giving its magnitude by a number and its direction.
Eg.displacement, velocity, acceleration and force.

Equality of Vectors
Two vectors A and B are said to be equal if, and only if, they have the
same magnitude and the same direction.
(a) Two equal vectors A and B.




(b) Two vectors A ′ and B ′ are unequal eventhough they are of same length





Null vector or a Zero vector
A Null vector or a Zero vector is a vector having zero magnitude and is represented by O or Ō . The result of
adding two equal and opposite vectors will be a Zero vector
Eg: When a body returns to its initial position its displacement will be a zero vector.
The main properties of Ō are :
Ā+Ō=Ā
λŌ=Ō
ŌĀ=Ō
Unit vectors
A unit vector is a vector of unit magnitude and points in a particular direction.
 It has no dimension and unit. It is used to specify a direction only.
Unit vectors along the x-, y- and z-axes of a rectangular coordinate system are denoted by î , ĵ and k̂ ,
respectively.

Since these are unit vectors, we have
| 𝐢𝐢̂ | = |̂𝐉𝐉 | = | 𝐤𝐤̂ | = 𝟏𝟏



These unit vectors are perpendicular to each other and are called orthogonal unit vectors

Resolution of a vector



where Ax = A cos𝛉𝛉 
Ay = A sin𝛉𝛉 




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Addition and Subtraction of Vectors — Graphical Method
Triangle law of vector addition
If two vectors are represented in magnitude and direction by the two sides of a triangle , their resultant is given
by the third side of the triangle. 




Parallelogram law of vector addition

If two vectors are represented in magnitude and direction by the adjacent sides of a parallelogram ,then their
resultant is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram.



Vector Addition – Analytical Method





From the geometry of the figure,
OS 2 = ON 2 + SN 2
but ON = OP + PN
= A + B cos θ 
SN = B sin θ 
OS 2 = (A + B cos θ ) 2 + (B sin θ ) 2
R 2 = A 2 +2AB cos θ + B 2 cos 2θ +B 2sin2 θ
R 2 = A 2 + B 2 + 2AB cos θ
𝐑𝐑 = √𝐀𝐀2 + 𝐁𝐁2 + 2𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀
Motion in a Plane-Projectile Motion

▪ An object that is in flight after being thrown or projected is called
a projectile.
▪ The path (trajectory)of a projectile is a parabole
▪ The components of initial velocity u are u cos θ along horizontal
direction and u sin θ along vertical direction.
▪ The x-component of velocity(u cos θ ) remains constant
throughout the motion and hence there is no acceleration in
horizontal direction,i.e., ax = 0 
▪ The y- component of velocity (u sin θ ) changes throughout the
motion. At the point of maximum height, u sin θ = 0. There is
acceleration in horizontal direction, ay = – g 


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Time of Flight of a projectile (T)

The total time T during which the projectile is in flight is called Time of Flight, T.
Consider the motion in vertical direction,
s = ut +½ at2
s=0, u = u sin θ , a =-g , t = T

0 = u sin θ T - ½ gT2
½ gT2 = u sin θ T
𝟐𝟐 𝐮𝐮 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝛉𝛉
T=
𝐠𝐠
Horizontal range of a projectile (R)
The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile during its time of flight is called the horizontal range.
Horizontal range = Horizontal component of velocity x Time of flight
𝟐𝟐 𝐮𝐮 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝛉𝛉
R = u cos θ x 𝒈𝒈


𝒖𝒖𝟐𝟐 𝐱𝐱 𝟐𝟐 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 cos θ

R=
𝑔𝑔

𝐮𝐮𝟐𝟐 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

R= 𝐠𝐠

R is maximum when sin2θ is maximum, i.e., when θ = 45 0 .
𝐮𝐮𝟐𝟐
Rmax = 
𝐠𝐠

For a given velocity of projection range will be same for angles 𝜽𝜽 and ( 90-𝜽𝜽 ) 
Maximum height of a projectile (H)
It is the maximum height reached by the projectile.
Consider the motion in vertical direction to the highest point
v2 – u2 = 2as
u = u sin θ, v = 0 , a = -g , s = H
0 - u sin θ = -2 g H
2 2

𝐮𝐮𝟐𝟐 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝟐𝟐 𝛉𝛉
H= 
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐


Uniform Circular Motion
When an object follows a circular path at a constant speed, the motion of the object is called uniform circular
motion. The word “uniform” refers to the speed, which is uniform (constant) throughout the motion.

Period
The time taken by an object to make one revolution is known as its time period T

Frequency
The number of revolutions made in one second is called its frequency.

𝟏𝟏
υ = 𝐓𝐓 unit - hertz (Hz) 


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Angular velocity (ω )
angular velocity is the time rate of change of angular displacement
dθ
ω=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Unit is rad/s
During the time period T ,the angular displacement is 2π radian
2𝛑𝛑
ω= or ω = 2𝛑𝛑 υ
𝑻𝑻

Relation connecting angular velocity and linear velocity








arc
angle = radius 
Δr
Δθ= 
r
Δ r = r Δ θ
Δr
Linear velocity v = 
Δ𝑡𝑡
rΔθ
v= 
Δ𝑡𝑡
Δθ
But ω = 
Δ𝑡𝑡
v=rω

Angular Acceleration
The rate of change of angular velocity is called angular acceleration.
d 𝛚𝛚
α =
dt
dθ
But ω = 
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
d dθ
α= ( )
dt 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝐝𝐝𝟐𝟐 𝛉𝛉
α= 
𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝

Centripetal acceleration
A body in uniform circular motion experiences an acceleration , which is directed towards the centre along its
radius .This is s called centripetal acceleration .









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Δv Δr
= 
v r
vΔr
Δv= r

Δv vΔr
=
Δt r Δt
v
a= xr 
r
v2
a=
r
If R is the radius of circular path, then centripetal acceleration .
𝐯𝐯 𝟐𝟐
ac = 𝐑𝐑


Example
An insect trapped in a circular groove of radius 12 cm moves along the groove steadily and completes 7
revolutions in 100 s.

(a) What is the angular speed, and the linear speed of the motion?
(b) Is the acceleration vector a constant vector ? What is its magnitude ?
100
Period, T= s
7
ሺƒሻ The angular speed ω is given by

2π 2π 2π x7
ω = = 100 = =0.44 rad/s
𝑇𝑇 100
7

The linear speed v is :


v =ω R = 0.44 × 0.12 = 5.3 x 10 -2 m s -1


(b) The direction of velocity v is along the tangent to the circle at every point. The acceleration is directed
towards the centre of the circle. Since this direction changes continuously, acceleration here is not a constant
vector.

a = ω 2 R = (0.44 ) 2 x0.12 = 2.3x10 -2 m s -2
























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Šƒ’–‡”ͷ
ƒ™•‘ˆ‘–‹‘
Newton’s First Law of Motion (Law of ‹‡”–‹ƒሻ
˜‡”›„‘†›…‘–‹—‡•–‘„‡‹‹–••–ƒ–‡‘ˆ”‡•–‘”‘ˆ—‹ˆ‘”‘–‹‘‹ƒ•–”ƒ‹‰Š–Ž‹‡—Ž‡••…‘’‡ŽŽ‡†„›•‘‡
‡š–‡”ƒŽˆ‘”…‡–‘…Šƒ‰‡–Šƒ–•–ƒ–‡Ǥ

‘‡–—
‘‡–—ǡ‘ˆƒ„‘†›‹•†‡ˆ‹‡†–‘„‡–Š‡’”‘†—…–‘ˆ‹–•ƒ••ƒ†˜‡Ž‘…‹–›˜ǡƒ†‹•†‡‘–‡†„›’Ǥ
’ൌ˜
‘‡–—‹•ƒ˜‡…–‘”“—ƒ–‹–›Ǥ
‹–ൌ‰Ȁ•
ሾ’ሿൌT −1 
‡wton’s Second Law f Motion
Š‡”ƒ–‡‘ˆ…Šƒ‰‡‘ˆ‘‡–—‘ˆƒ„‘†›‹•†‹”‡…–Ž›’”‘’‘”–‹‘ƒŽ–‘–Š‡ƒ’’Ž‹‡†ˆ‘”…‡ƒ†–ƒ‡•’Žƒ…‡‹–Š‡
†‹”‡…–‹‘‹™Š‹…Š–Š‡ˆ‘”…‡ƒ…–•Ǥ
∆𝐩𝐩
 ∝ ∆𝐭𝐭

𝐝𝐝𝐩𝐩
 ൌ 
𝐝𝐝𝐭𝐭
Š›ƒ…”‹…‡–‡”†”ƒ™•Š‹•Šƒ†•„ƒ…™ƒ”†•†—”‹‰ƒ…ƒ–…Šǫ
›‡™–‘̵••‡…‘†Žƒ™‘ˆ‘–‹‘ǡ
∆𝐩𝐩
 ൌ ∆𝐭𝐭 
Š‡Š‡†”ƒ™•Š‹•Šƒ†•„ƒ…™ƒ”†•ǡ–Š‡–‹‡‹–‡”˜ƒŽሺ∆–ሻ–‘•–‘’–Š‡„ƒŽŽ‹…”‡ƒ•‡•ǤŠ‡ˆ‘”…‡†‡…”‡ƒ•‡•
ƒ†‹–†‘‡•‘–Š—”–Š‹•Šƒ†•Ǥ
‘”…‡‘–‘Ž›†‡’‡†•‘–Š‡…Šƒ‰‡‹‘‡–—„—–ƒŽ•‘‘Š‘™ˆƒ•––Š‡…Šƒ‰‡‹•„”‘—‰Š–ƒ„‘—–Ǥ

‡”‹˜ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ“—ƒ–‹‘‘ˆˆ‘”…‡ˆ”‘‡™–‘̵••‡…‘†Žƒ™‘ˆ‘–‹‘
›‡™–‘̵••‡…‘†Žƒ™‘ˆ‘–‹‘ǡ

For a body of ixed mass m, p=mv

= mv
dt

F = ma
Force is a vector quantity
Unit of force is kgm ( )
 
’—Ž•‡ሺሻ
’—Ž•‡‹•–Š‡–Š‡’”‘†—…–‘ˆˆ‘”…‡ƒ†–‹‡†—”ƒ–‹‘ǡ™Š‹…Š‹•–Š‡…Šƒ‰‡‹‘‡–—‘ˆ–Š‡„‘†›Ǥ
’—Ž•‡ൌ ‘”…‡ൈ–‹‡†—”ƒ–‹‘
ൌ š–
‹–ൌ‰ s −1ሾሿൌ T −1
’—Ž•‹˜‡ˆ‘”…‡
Žƒ”‰‡ˆ‘”…‡ƒ…–‹‰ˆ‘”ƒ•Š‘”––‹‡–‘’”‘†—…‡ƒˆ‹‹–‡…Šƒ‰‡‹‘‡–—‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†ƒ‹’—Ž•‹˜‡ˆ‘”…‡Ǥ
šƒ’Ž‡ǣƒ„ƒŽŽŠ‹–•ƒ™ƒŽŽƒ†„‘—…‡•„ƒ…Ǥ

’—Ž•‡‘‡–—”‹…‹’Ž‡
’—Ž•‡‹•‡“—ƒŽ–‘–Š‡…Šƒ‰‡‹‘‡–—‘ˆ–Š‡„‘†›Ǥ
›‡™–‘̵••‡…‘†Žƒ™‘ˆ‘–‹‘ǡ
dp
 ൌ dt 
 š†–ൌ†’
ൌ†’
’—Ž•‡ൌ…Šƒ‰‡‹‘‡–—
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šƒ’Ž‡
„ƒ–•ƒŠ‹–•„ƒ…ƒ„ƒŽŽ•–”ƒ‹‰Š–‹–Š‡†‹”‡…–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡„‘™Ž‡”™‹–Š‘—–…Šƒ‰‹‰‹–•‹‹–‹ƒŽ•’‡‡†‘ˆͳʹs −1Ǥ
ˆ–Š‡ƒ••‘ˆ–Š‡„ƒŽŽ‹•ͲǤͳͷ‰ǡ†‡–‡”‹‡–Š‡‹’—Ž•‡‹’ƒ”–‡†–‘–Š‡„ƒŽŽǤ
’—Ž•‡ൌ…Šƒ‰‡‘ˆ‘‡–—
Šƒ‰‡‹‘‡–—ൌˆ‹ƒŽ‘‡–—–‹‹–‹ƒŽ‘‡–—
Šƒ‰‡‹‘‡–—ൌͲǤͳͷൈͳʹ–ሺͲǤͳͷൈǦͳʹሻ
’—Ž•‡ൌ͵Ǥ͸•

Newton’s Third Law of Motion 

‘‡˜‡”›ƒ…–‹‘ǡ–Š‡”‡‹•ƒŽ™ƒ›•ƒ‡“—ƒŽƒ†‘’’‘•‹–‡”‡ƒ…–‹‘Ǥ
▪ …–‹‘ƒ†”‡ƒ…–‹‘ˆ‘”…‡•ƒ…–‘†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–„‘†‹‡•ǡ‘–‘–Š‡•ƒ‡„‘†›Ǥ‘–Š‡›†‘‘–…ƒ…‡Ž‡ƒ…Š
‘–Š‡”ǡ‡˜‡–Š‘—‰Š–Š‡›ƒ”‡‡“—ƒŽƒ†‘’’‘•‹–‡Ǥ

ƒ™‘ˆ‘•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ‘‡–—
Š‡–‘–ƒŽ‘‡–—‘ˆƒ‹•‘Žƒ–‡†•›•–‡‘ˆ‹–‡”ƒ…–‹‰’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡•‹•…‘•‡”˜‡†Ǥ
”
Š‡–Š‡”‡‹•‘‡š–‡”ƒŽˆ‘”…‡ƒ…–‹‰‘ƒ•›•–‡‘ˆ’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡•ǡ–Š‡‹”–‘–ƒŽ‘‡–—”‡ƒ‹•…‘•–ƒ–Ǥ

”‘‘ˆ‘ˆŽƒ™‘ˆ…‘•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ‘‡–—
dp
›‡™–‘̵••‡…‘†Žƒ™‘ˆ‘–‹‘ǡ ൌ 
dt
Š‡ ൌͲ
dp
= 0
dt
†’ൌͲǡ
’ൌ…‘•–ƒ–
Š—•™Š‡–Š‡”‡‹•‘‡š–‡”ƒŽˆ‘”…‡ƒ…–‹‰‘ƒ•›•–‡‘ˆ’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡•ǡ–Š‡‹”–‘–ƒŽ‘‡–—”‡ƒ‹•…‘•–ƒ–Ǥ

’’Ž‹…ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆŽƒ™‘ˆ…‘•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘‘ˆŽ‹‡ƒ”‘‡–—
ͳǤ‡…‘‹Ž‘ˆ‰—
Š‡ƒ„—ŽŽ‡–‹•ˆ‹”‡†ˆ”‘ƒ‰—ǡ–Š‡„ƒ…™ƒ”†‘˜‡‡–‘ˆ‰—‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†”‡…‘‹Ž‘ˆ–Š‡‰—Ǥ
ˆ𝐩𝐩𝐛𝐛 ƒ†𝐩𝐩𝐠𝐠 ƒ”‡–Š‡‘‡–ƒ‘ˆ–Š‡„—ŽŽ‡–ƒ†‰—ƒˆ–‡”ˆ‹”‹‰
𝐩𝐩𝐛𝐛 ൅𝐩𝐩𝐠𝐠 ൌͲ
𝐩𝐩𝐛𝐛 ൌǦ𝐩𝐩𝐠𝐠 
Š‡‡‰ƒ–‹˜‡•‹‰•Š‘™•–Šƒ––Š‡‰—”‡…‘‹Ž•–‘…‘•‡”˜‡‘‡–—Ǥ


š’”‡••‹‘ˆ‘”‡…‘‹Ž˜‡Ž‘…‹–›ƒ†—œœŽ‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›
‘‡–—‘ˆ„—ŽŽ‡–ƒˆ–‡”ˆ‹”‹‰ǡ𝐩𝐩𝐛𝐛 = 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦

‡…‘‹Ž‘‡–—‘ˆ–Š‡‰—ƒˆ–‡”ˆ‹”‹‰ǡ 𝐩𝐩𝐠𝐠 = 𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌

𝐩𝐩𝐛𝐛 ൌǦ𝐩𝐩𝐠𝐠 
𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦 = −𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌
−𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦
‡…‘‹Ž˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‘ˆ‰—ǡൌ 
𝐌𝐌

−𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌
—œœŽ‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‘ˆ„—ŽŽ‡–ǡ˜ൌ 
𝐦𝐦
ൌƒ••‘ˆ‰—ǡൌ”‡…‘‹Ž˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‘ˆ„—ŽŽ‡–
ൌƒ••‘ˆ„—ŽŽ‡–ǡ˜ൌ—œœŽ‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‘ˆ„—ŽŽ‡–


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ʹǤ Š‡…‘ŽŽ‹•‹‘‘ˆ–™‘„‘†‹‡•

 

 

 
‘–ƒŽ ‹ƒŽ‘‡–—ൌ‘–ƒŽ‹‹–‹ƒŽ‘‡–—
‹Ǥ‡Ǥǡ–Š‡–‘–ƒŽˆ‹ƒŽ‘‡–—‘ˆ–Š‡‹•‘Žƒ–‡†•›•–‡‡“—ƒŽ•‹–•–‘–ƒŽ‹‹–‹ƒŽ‘‡–—Ǥ

‘‘ ‘”…‡•‹‡…Šƒ‹…•
Š‡”‡ƒ”‡–™‘–›’‡•‘ˆˆ‘”…‡•‹‡…Šƒ‹…•Ǧ‘–ƒ…–ˆ‘”…‡•ƒ†‘…‘–ƒ…–ˆ‘”…‡•Ǥ

‘–ƒ…–ˆ‘”…‡•
…‘–ƒ…–ˆ‘”…‡‘ƒ‘„Œ‡…–ƒ”‹•‡•†—‡–‘…‘–ƒ…–™‹–Š•‘‡‘–Š‡”‘„Œ‡…–ǣ•‘Ž‹†‘”ˆŽ—‹†Ǥ
‰ǣ ”‹…–‹‘ƒŽˆ‘”…‡ǡ˜‹•…‘—•ˆ‘”…‡ǡƒ‹””‡•‹•–ƒ…‡
‘…‘–ƒ…–ˆ‘”…‡•
‘…‘–ƒ…–ˆ‘”…‡…ƒƒ…–ƒ–ƒ†‹•–ƒ…‡™‹–Š‘—––Š‡‡‡†‘ˆƒ›‹–‡”˜‡‹‰‡†‹—Ǥ
‰ǣ
”ƒ˜‹–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽˆ‘”…‡Ǥ

”‹…–‹‘
Š‡ˆ‘”…‡–Šƒ–‘’’‘•‡•ሺ‹’‡†‹‰‘”ƒ…–—ƒŽሻ”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡‘–‹‘„‡–™‡‡–™‘•—”ˆƒ…‡•‹…‘–ƒ…–‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†
ˆ”‹…–‹‘ƒŽˆ‘”…‡Ǥ
Š‡”‡ƒ”‡–™‘–›’‡•‘ˆˆ”‹…–‹‘Ǧ–ƒ–‹…ƒ†‹‡–‹…ˆ”‹…–‹‘

–ƒ–‹…ˆ”‹…–‹‘ 𝐟𝐟𝐬𝐬 

–ƒ–‹…ˆ”‹…–‹‘‹•–Š‡ˆ”‹…–‹‘ƒŽˆ‘”…‡–Šƒ–ƒ…–•„‡–™‡‡–™‘•—”ˆƒ…‡•‹
…‘–ƒ…–„‡ˆ‘”‡–Š‡ƒ…–—ƒŽ”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡‘–‹‘•–ƒ”–•Ǥ”–ƒ–‹…ˆ”‹…–‹‘fs 
‘’’‘•‡•‹’‡†‹‰”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡‘–‹‘Ǥ

▪ Š‡ƒš‹—˜ƒŽ—‡‘ˆ•–ƒ–‹…ˆ”‹…–‹‘is ( fs )max 
▪ Š‡Ž‹‹–‹‰˜ƒŽ—‡‘ˆ•–ƒ–‹…ˆ”‹…–‹‘ ( fs )maxǡ‹•‹†‡’‡†‡–‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ”‡ƒ‘ˆ…‘–ƒ…–Ǥ
▪ Š‡Ž‹‹–‹‰˜ƒŽ—‡‘ˆ•–ƒ–‹…ˆ”‹…–‹‘ ( fs )maxǡ˜ƒ”‹‡•™‹–Š–Š‡‘”ƒŽˆ‘”…‡ሺሻ
( fs )max αN
( 𝐟𝐟𝐬𝐬 )𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦 = 𝛍𝛍𝐬𝐬 𝐍𝐍
Š‡”‡–Š‡…‘•–ƒ–𝛍𝛍𝐬𝐬 ‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†–Š‡…‘‡ˆˆ‹…‹‡–‘ˆ•–ƒ–‹…ˆ”‹…–‹‘ƒ††‡’‡†•‘Ž›‘–Š‡ƒ–—”‡‘ˆ–Š‡•—”ˆƒ…‡•
‹…‘–ƒ…–Ǥ
Š‡ƒ™‘ˆ–ƒ–‹… ”‹…–‹‘
Š‡Žƒ™‘ˆ•–ƒ–‹…ˆ”‹…–‹‘ƒ›–Š—•„‡™”‹––‡ƒ•ǡfs ≤ 𝛍𝛍𝐬𝐬 𝐍𝐍
Ͳ”
 ( 𝐟𝐟𝐬𝐬 )𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦 = 𝛍𝛍𝐬𝐬 𝐍𝐍
17

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‹‡–‹…ˆ”‹…–‹‘ 𝐟𝐟𝐤𝐤 

”‹…–‹‘ƒŽˆ‘”…‡–Šƒ–‘’’‘•‡•ሺƒ…–—ƒŽሻ”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡‘–‹‘„‡–™‡‡•—”ˆƒ…‡•‹
…‘–ƒ…–‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†‹‡–‹…‘”•Ž‹†‹‰ˆ”‹…–‹‘ƒ†‹•†‡‘–‡†„›fk ǤǤ

▪ ‹‡–‹…ˆ”‹…–‹‘‹•‹†‡’‡†‡–‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ”‡ƒ‘ˆ…‘–ƒ…–Ǥ
▪ ‹‡–‹…ˆ”‹…–‹‘‹•‡ƒ”Ž›‹†‡’‡†‡–‘ˆ–Š‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›Ǥ
▪ ‹‡–‹…ˆ”‹…–‹‘ǡ fk ˜ƒ”‹‡•™‹–Š–Š‡‘”ƒŽˆ‘”…‡ሺሻ
fk αN
𝐟𝐟𝐤𝐤 = 𝛍𝛍𝐤𝐤 𝐍𝐍
™Š‡”‡μk –Š‡…‘‡ˆˆ‹…‹‡–‘ˆ‹‡–‹…ˆ”‹…–‹‘ǡ†‡’‡†•‘Ž›‘–Š‡•—”ˆƒ…‡•‹…‘–ƒ…–Ǥ
μk ‹•Ž‡••–Šƒμs 

Š‡ƒ™‘ˆ‹‡–‹… ”‹…–‹‘
Š‡Žƒ™‘ˆ‹‡–‹…ˆ”‹…–‹‘…ƒ„‡™”‹––‡ƒ•ǡ𝐟𝐟𝐤𝐤 = 𝛍𝛍𝐤𝐤 𝐍𝐍
™Š‡”‡μk –Š‡…‘‡ˆˆ‹…‹‡–‘ˆ‹‡–‹…ˆ”‹…–‹‘ǡ

‘†›‘ƒ‹…Ž‹‡†•—”ˆƒ…‡

Š‡ˆ‘”…‡•ƒ…–‹‰‘ƒ„Ž‘…‘ˆƒ••Š‡‹–Œ—•–„‡‰‹•–‘•Ž‹†‡ƒ”‡
ሺ‹ሻ–Š‡™‡‹‰Š–‰
ሺ‹‹ሻ–Š‡‘”ƒŽˆ‘”…‡
ሺ‹‹‹ሻ–Š‡ƒš‹—•–ƒ–‹…ˆ”‹…–‹‘ƒŽˆ‘”…‡ ( 𝐟𝐟𝐬𝐬 )𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦


‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—ǡ–Š‡”‡•—Ž–ƒ–‘ˆ–Š‡•‡ˆ‘”…‡•—•–„‡œ‡”‘Ǥ
m g sin θ = ( fs )max
—– ( fs )max = μs N
mg sin θ = μs NǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͳሻ
m g cos θ = NǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺʹሻ
(1) mg sin θ μ N
“(2)ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦ = s 
m g cos θ N
𝛍𝛍𝐬𝐬 = 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝛉𝛉 
Š‹•ƒ‰Ž‡™Š‘•‡–ƒ‰‡–‰‹˜‡•–Š‡…‘‡ˆˆ‹…‹‡–‘ˆˆ”‹…–‹‘‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†ƒ‰Ž‡‘ˆˆ”‹…–‹‘Ǥ
‘ŽŽ‹‰ ”‹…–‹‘
–‹•–Š‡ˆ”‹…–‹‘ƒŽˆ‘”…‡–Šƒ–ƒ…–•„‡–™‡‡–Š‡•—”ˆƒ…‡•‹…‘–ƒ…–™Š‡‘‡„‘†›”‘ŽŽ•‘˜‡”–Š‡‘–Š‡”Ǥ
‘ŽŽ‹‰ˆ”‹…–‹‘‹•—…Š•ƒŽŽ‡”–Šƒ•–ƒ–‹…‘”•Ž‹†‹‰ˆ”‹…–‹‘
‹•ƒ†˜ƒ–ƒ‰‡•‘ˆˆ”‹…–‹‘
”‹…–‹‘‹•—†‡•‹”ƒ„Ž‡‹ƒ›•‹–—ƒ–‹‘•ǡŽ‹‡‹ƒƒ…Š‹‡™‹–Š†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–‘˜‹‰’ƒ”–•ǡˆ”‹…–‹‘‘’’‘•‡•
”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡‘–‹‘ƒ†–Š‡”‡„›†‹••‹’ƒ–‡•’‘™‡”‹–Š‡ˆ‘”‘ˆŠ‡ƒ–ǡ‡–…Ǥ ”‹…–‹‘’”‘†—…‡•™‡ƒ”ƒ†–‡ƒ”Ǥ
†˜ƒ–ƒ‰‡•‘ˆˆ”‹…–‹‘
ƒ›’”ƒ…–‹…ƒŽ•‹–—ƒ–‹‘•ˆ”‹…–‹‘‹•…”‹–‹…ƒŽŽ›‡‡†‡†Ǥ‹‡–‹…ˆ”‹…–‹‘‹•ƒ†‡—•‡‘ˆ„›„”ƒ‡•‹ƒ…Š‹‡•
ƒ†ƒ—–‘‘„‹Ž‡•Ǥ‡ƒ”‡ƒ„Ž‡–‘™ƒŽ„‡…ƒ—•‡‘ˆ•–ƒ–‹…ˆ”‹…–‹‘Ǥ–‹•‹’‘••‹„Ž‡ˆ‘”ƒ…ƒ”–‘‘˜‡‘ƒ˜‡”›
•Ž‹’’‡”›”‘ƒ†Ǥƒ‘”†‹ƒ”›”‘ƒ†ǡ–Š‡ˆ”‹…–‹‘„‡–™‡‡–Š‡–›”‡•ƒ†–Š‡”‘ƒ†’”‘˜‹†‡•–Š‡‡…‡••ƒ”›‡š–‡”ƒŽ
ˆ‘”…‡–‘ƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‡–Š‡…ƒ”Ǥ
‡–Š‘†•–‘”‡†—…‡ˆ”‹…–‹‘
ሺͳሻ—„”‹…ƒ–•ƒ”‡ƒ™ƒ›‘ˆ”‡†—…‹‰‹‡–‹…ˆ”‹…–‹‘‹ƒƒ…Š‹‡Ǥ
ሺʹሻ‘–Š‡”™ƒ›‹•–‘—•‡„ƒŽŽ„‡ƒ”‹‰•„‡–™‡‡–™‘‘˜‹‰’ƒ”–•‘ˆƒƒ…Š‹‡Ǥ
ሺ͵ሻ–Š‹…—•Š‹‘‘ˆƒ‹”ƒ‹–ƒ‹‡†„‡–™‡‡•‘Ž‹†•—”ˆƒ…‡•‹”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡‘–‹‘‹•ƒ‡ˆˆ‡…–‹˜‡™ƒ›‘ˆ”‡†—…‹‰
ˆ”‹…–‹‘Ǥ

‹”…—Žƒ”‘–‹‘
Š‡ƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆƒ„‘†›‘˜‹‰‹ƒ…‹”…—Žƒ”’ƒ–Š‹•†‹”‡…–‡†–‘™ƒ”†•–Š‡…‡–”‡ƒ†‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†…‡–”‹’‡–ƒŽ
ƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘Ǥ
𝐯𝐯 𝟐𝟐
ƒ= 𝐑𝐑

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Š‡ˆ‘”…‡ˆ’”‘˜‹†‹‰…‡–”‹’‡–ƒŽƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†–Š‡…‡–”‹’‡–ƒŽˆ‘”…‡ƒ†‹•†‹”‡…–‡†–‘™ƒ”†•–Š‡…‡–”‡
‘ˆ–Š‡…‹”…Ž‡Ǥ
𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦 𝟐𝟐
𝐟𝐟𝐬𝐬 ൌ 𝐑𝐑 
™Š‡”‡‹•–Š‡ƒ••‘ˆ–Š‡„‘†›ǡ‹•–Š‡”ƒ†‹—•‘ˆ…‹”…Ž‡Ǥ

‘–‹‘‘ˆƒ…ƒ”‘ƒ…—”˜‡†Ž‡˜‡Ž”‘ƒ†
  

Š”‡‡ˆ‘”…‡•ƒ…–‘–Š‡…ƒ”Ǥ
ሺ‹ሻ Š‡™‡‹‰Š–‘ˆ–Š‡…ƒ”ǡ‰
ሺ‹‹ሻ ‘”ƒŽ”‡ƒ…–‹‘ǡ
ሺ‹‹‹ሻ  ”‹…–‹‘ƒŽˆ‘”…‡ǡfs 

•–Š‡”‡‹•‘ƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘‹–Š‡˜‡”–‹…ƒŽ†‹”‡…–‹‘
ൌ‰
Š‡•–ƒ–‹…ˆ”‹…–‹‘’”‘˜‹†‡•–Š‡…‡–”‹’‡–ƒŽƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘
mv2
fs ൌ R 
—–ǡfs ≤μs 
mv2
 ≤μs ‰ሺൌ‰ሻ
R
𝟐𝟐
𝐯𝐯 ≤𝛍𝛍𝐬𝐬 𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑
𝐯𝐯𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦 = √𝛍𝛍𝐬𝐬 𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑
Š‹•‹•–Š‡ƒš‹—•ƒˆ‡•’‡‡†‘ˆ–Š‡…ƒ”‘ƒ…‹”…—Žƒ”Ž‡˜‡Ž”‘ƒ†Ǥ

‘–‹‘‘ˆƒ…ƒ”‘ƒ„ƒ‡†”‘ƒ†
ƒ‹•‹‰–Š‡‘—–‡”‡†‰‡‘ˆƒ…—”˜‡†”‘ƒ†ƒ„‘˜‡–Š‡‹‡”‡†‰‡‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†„ƒ‹‰‘ˆ…—”˜‡†”‘ƒ†•Ǥ

 
N cos θ = mg +fsin θ
N cos θ Ǧfsin θ = mg ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͳሻ
Š‡…‡–”‹’‡–ƒŽˆ‘”…‡‹•’”‘˜‹†‡†„›–Š‡Š‘”‹œ‘–ƒŽ…‘’‘‡–•‘ˆƒ†fs Ǥ
mv2
N sin θ + f cos θ = ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺʹሻ
R
Eqn(1) N cos θ − f sin θ mg
 ǦǦǦǦǦ ൌ mv2 
Eqn(2) N sin θ + f cos θ
R
‹˜‹†‹‰–Š”‘—‰Š‘—–„›N cos θ
f
1 − tan θ Rg
 N
f ൌ v2

tan θ +
N
f
—–ǡN =μs ˆ‘”ƒš‹—•’‡‡†
1 −μs tan θ Rg
 ൌ 2 
tan θ + μs v
2 Rg(μs +tan θ )
v = 
1 −μs tan θ
𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑(𝛍𝛍𝐬𝐬 +𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝛉𝛉 )
 𝐯𝐯𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦 = √ 
𝟏𝟏 −𝛍𝛍𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝛉𝛉
Š‹•‹•–Š‡ƒš‹—•ƒˆ‡•’‡‡†‘ˆƒ˜‡Š‹…Ž‡‘ƒ„ƒ‡†…—”˜‡†”‘ƒ†Ǥ

ˆˆ”‹…–‹‘‹•ƒ„•‡–ǡμs ൌͲ
Š‡’–‹—•’‡‡†ǡ𝐯𝐯𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨ൌ√𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝛉𝛉 
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Šƒ’–‡”͸
‘”ǡ‡”‰›ƒ†‘™‡”
The Scalar Product or Dot Product
The scalar product or dot product of any two vectors A ⃗ and B
⃗ , denoted as ⃗A.B
⃗
(read A dot B) is defined as 
⃗𝐀𝐀 ⋅ ⃗𝐁𝐁 = 𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜
where θ is the angle between the two vectors

Since A, B and cos θ are scalars, the dot product of A and B is a scalar quantity. Each
vector, A and B, has a direction but their scalar product does not have a direction.

▪ For unit vectors 𝑖𝑖̂, 𝑗𝑗̂, 𝑘𝑘̂ we have
𝒊𝒊̂ ⋅ 𝒊𝒊̂ = 𝒋𝒋̂ ⋅ 𝒋𝒋̂ = 𝒌𝒌̂ ⋅ 𝒌𝒌
̂ = 1
̂ = 𝒌𝒌
𝒊𝒊̂ ⋅ 𝒋𝒋̂ = 𝒋𝒋̂ ⋅ 𝒌𝒌 ̂ ⋅ 𝒊𝒊̂ = 0 

▪ If ⃗A and B⃗ are perpendicular
⃗ ⋅ ⃗B = A B cos 90 = 0
A

Work


The work done by the force is defined to be the product of component of the force in the direction of the
displacement and the magnitude of this displacement.
W = (F cos θ )d 
W = F d cos θ 
W = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐅𝐅 ⋅ 𝐝𝐝
Work can be zero, positive or negative.

Zero Work
The work can be zero,if
(i)the displacement is zero .
When you push hard against a rigid brick wall, the force you exert on the wall does no work.
A weightlifter holding a 150 kg mass steadily on his shoulder for 30 s does no work on the load
during this time.
(ii) the force is zero. 
A block moving on a smooth horizontal table is not acted upon by a horizontal force (since there is no
friction), but may undergo a large displacement.
(iii) the force and displacement are mutually perpendicular
Here θ = 90 o , cos (90) = 0. 
For the block moving on a smooth horizontal table, the gravitational force mg does no work since it
acts at right angles to the displacement.
Positive Work
If θ is between 0 o and 90 o , cos θ is positive and work positive.
Eg: Workdone by Gravitational force on a freely falling body is positive

Negative work
If θ is between 90 o and 180 o , cos θ is negative and work negative.
Eg: the frictional force opposes displacement and θ = 180 o . 
Then the work done by friction is negative (cos 180 o = –1).


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Units of Work and Energy
▪ Work and Energy are scalar quantities.
▪ Work and energy have the same dimensions, [ML 2 T –2 ].
▪ The SI unit is kgm2s-2 or joule (J), named after the famous British physicist James Prescott Joule.

Alternative Units of Work/Energy in J






Kinetic Energy
The kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion.

If an object of mass m has velocity v, its kinetic energy K is
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
K = 𝐦𝐦𝐯𝐯̅ ⋅ 𝐯𝐯̅ = 𝐦𝐦𝐯𝐯 𝟐𝟐
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity. 


The Work-Energy Theorem
The work-energy theorem can be stated as :The change in kinetic energy of a particle is equal to the work
done on it by the net force.

Proof
For uniformly accelerated motion 
v 2 − u 2 = 2 as
1
Multiplying both sides by 𝑚𝑚, we have
2
1 1
2
mv 2 − 2
mu2
= mas = Fs 
Kf -Ki = W
Change in KE = Work 

Potential Energy
Potential energy is the ‘stored energy’ by virtue of the position or configuration of a body.
▪ A body at a height h above the surface of earth possesses potential energy due to its position.
▪
A Stretched or compressed spring possesses potential energy due to its state of strain.
Gravitational potential energy of a body of mass m at a height h above the surface of earth is mgh. 
Gravitational Potential Energy , V =mgh

Conservative Force 
A force is said to be conservative, if it can be derived from a scalar quantity.
− dV
F= where V is a scalar
dx
Eg: Gravitational force, Spring force. 
▪ The work done by a conservative force depends only upon initial and final positions of the body 
▪
The work done by a conservative force in a cyclic process is zero 
Note: Frictional force , air resistance are non conservative forces.

The Conservation of Mechanical Energy
The total mechanical energy of a system is conserved if the forces, doing work on it, are conservative.




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Conservation of Mechanical Energy for a Freely Falling Body


At Point A
PE = mgh
KE = 0 (since v=0)
TE = PE + KE
= mgh + 0
TE = mgh-----------(1) 

At Point B
 PE = mg (h-x)
KE = ½ mv 2   
v 2 = 2gx 
KE = ½ m x 2gx 
KE= mgx
TE = PE + KE
TE = mg (h-x) + mgx
TE = mgh--------------(2)

At Po int C
 PE = 0 (Since h=0)
     KE = ½ mv 2 
      v 2 =2gh
KE = ½ m x 2gh
KE= mgh
    TE = PE + KE
TE = 0 + mgh
     TE = mgh--------------(3)

From eqns (1), (2) and (3), it is clear that the total mechanical energy is conserved during the free fall.

Graphical variation of KE and PE with height from ground








The Potential Energy of a Spring 

The the spring force F = − kx
The work done by the spring force is 
x
W = ∫0 F dx 
x
W = − ∫0 kx dx
1
W = − kx 2 
2
his work is stored as potential energy of spring
𝟏𝟏
𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 = 𝟐𝟐 𝐤𝐤𝐱𝐱 𝟐𝟐 

▪ At equilibrium position PE is zero and KE is max.

▪ At extreme ends, the PE is maximum and KE is zero.
▪ The kinetic energy gets converted to potential energy and vice versa, however, the total mechanical
energy remains constant.
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Graphical variation of kinetic Energy and potential of a spring



The Equivalence of Mass and Energy
Mass and energy are equivalent and are related by the relation
E = m 𝐜𝐜 2 
This is called Einstein’s mass energy relation.
where c, the speed of light in vacuum is approximately 3 ×108 m 𝑠𝑠 −1 . 

The Principle of Conservation of Energy
Energy can neither be created, nor destroyed. Energy may be transformed from one form to another but the
total energy of an isolated system remains constant. 

Power
Power is defined as the time rate at which work is done or energy is transferred.
The average power of a force is defined as the ratio of the work, W, to the total time t taken.
𝐖𝐖
𝐏𝐏𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 = 
𝐭𝐭
The instantaneous power
The instantaneous power is defined as the limiting value of the average power as time interval approaches zero.
𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝
P= 
𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝
The work done, dW = F. dr. 
dr
P=F. 
dt
P= F . v
▪ SI unit of power is called a watt (W). 1W = 1 J/s
▪ Another unit of power is the horse-power (hp) . 1 hp = 746 W 
This unit is still used to describe the output of automobiles, motorbikes, etc 

kilowatt hour 
Electrical energy is measured in kilowatt hour (kWh).
1kWh = 3.6 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 J
Collisions
In all collisions the total linear momentum is conserved; the initial momentum of the system is equal to the final
momentum of the system. There are two types of collisions Elastic and Inelastic.
Elastic Collisions
The collisions in which both linear momentum and kinetic energy are conserved are called elastic collisions.
Eg: Collision between sub atomic particles
Inelastic Collisions
The collisions in which linear momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy is not conserved are called inelastic
collisions. . Part of the initial kinetic energy is transformed into other forms of energy such as heat,sound etc..
Eg: Collision between macroscopic objects
A collision in which the two particles move together after the collision is a perfectly inelastic collision.

Elastic Collisions in One Dimension
If the initial velocities and final velocities of both the bodies are along the same straight line, then it is called a
one-dimensional collision, or head-on collision.


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Consider two masses m1 and m2 making elastic collision in one dimension.
By the conservation of momentum
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2 --------------(1)
m1 u1 − m1 v1 = m2 v2 − m2 u2 
m1 (u1 − v1 ) = m2 (v2 − u2 )----------------(2)
By the conservation of kinetic energy
1 1 1 1
m1 u12 + m2 u22 = m1 v12 + m2 v22-----------(3)
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
m u2 − m1 v12 = m2 v22 − m2 u22 
2 1 1 2 2 2
1 1
m (u12 − v12 ) = m (v 2 − u22 )
2 1 2 2 2

m1 (u12 − v12 ) = m2 (v22 − u22 ) -------------(4) 

(4) m1 (u21 −v21 ) m2 (v22 −u22 )
Eqn ------------ = 
(2) m1 (u1 −v1 ) m2 (v2 −u2 )
(u1 +v1 ) (u1 −v1 ) (v2 +u2 )(v2 −u2 )
= 
(u1 −v1 ) (v2 −u2 )

u1 + v1 = v2 + u2 -------------(5) 
𝐮𝐮1 − 𝐮𝐮2 = −(𝐯𝐯1 − 𝐯𝐯2 )--------(6)
i.e., relative velocity before collision is numerically equal to relative velocity after collision. 
From eqn(5), v2 = u1 + v1 − u2 
Substituting in eqn (1)
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 (u1 + v1 − u2 )
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 u1 + m2 v1 − m2 u2
m1 u1 + m2 u2 − m2 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v1
(m1 − m2 )u1 + 2m2 u2 = (m1 + m2 )v1 
(𝐦𝐦1 −𝐦𝐦2 )𝐮𝐮1 2𝐦𝐦2𝐮𝐮2
𝐯𝐯1 = + 𝐦𝐦 ------- (7)
𝐦𝐦1 +𝐦𝐦2 1 +𝐦𝐦2

(𝐦𝐦2 −𝐦𝐦1 )𝐮𝐮2 2𝐦𝐦1 𝐮𝐮1

Similarly, 𝐯𝐯2 = + 𝐦𝐦 ------- (8)
𝐦𝐦1 +𝐦𝐦2 1 +𝐦𝐦2


Elastic Collisions in Two Dimensions


Consider the elastic collision of a moving mass m1 with the stationary mass m2 .
Since momentum is a vector ,it has 2 equations in x and y directions.
Equation for conservation of momentum in x direction
𝐦𝐦1 𝐮𝐮1 = 𝐦𝐦1 𝐯𝐯1 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝛉𝛉1 + 𝐦𝐦2 𝐯𝐯2 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝛉𝛉2 

Equation for conservation of momentum in y direction

0 = 𝐦𝐦1 𝐯𝐯1 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝛉𝛉1 − 𝐦𝐦2 𝐯𝐯2 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝛉𝛉2

Equation for conservation of kinetic energy,(KE is a scalar quantity)

1 1 1
𝐦𝐦 𝐮𝐮2 = 𝐦𝐦1 𝐯𝐯12 + 𝐦𝐦2 𝐯𝐯22 
2 1 1 2 2

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Šƒ’–‡”͹
›•–‡•‘ˆƒ”–‹…Ž‡•ƒ†‘–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ‘–‹‘
‹‰‹†‘†›
†‡ƒŽŽ›ƒ”‹‰‹†„‘†›‹•ƒ„‘†›™‹–Šƒ’‡”ˆ‡…–Ž›†‡ˆ‹‹–‡ƒ†—…Šƒ‰‹‰•Šƒ’‡ǤŠ‡†‹•–ƒ…‡•„‡–™‡‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–
’ƒ‹”•‘ˆ•—…Šƒ„‘†›†‘‘–…Šƒ‰‡Ǥ

‡–”‡ˆƒ••
Š‡…‡–”‡‘ˆ‹•ƒŠ›’‘–Š‡–‹…ƒŽ’‘‹–™Š‡”‡–Š‡‡–‹”‡ƒ••‘ˆƒ‘„Œ‡…–ƒ›„‡ƒ••—‡†–‘„‡…‘…‡–”ƒ–‡†–‘
˜‹•—ƒŽ‹•‡‹–•‘–‹‘Ǥ


‘•‹†‡”ƒ–™‘’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡•›•–‡Ǥ‡–„‡–Š‡…‡–”‡‘ˆƒ••™Š‹…Š‹•ƒ–ƒ†‹•–ƒ…‡˜ˆ”‘‘”‹‰‹Ǥ

⃗⃗ = 𝐦𝐦𝟏𝟏𝐫𝐫𝟏𝟏+𝐦𝐦𝟐𝟐𝐫𝐫𝟐𝟐
𝐑𝐑 𝒎𝒎 +𝒎𝒎𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐

⃗⃗ = 𝐦𝐦𝟏𝟏𝐫𝐫𝟏𝟏+𝐦𝐦𝟐𝟐𝐫𝐫𝟐𝟐™Š‡”‡ൌ𝒎𝒎𝟏𝟏 + 𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐 
𝐑𝐑 𝐌𝐌

‘–‹‘‘ˆ‡–”‡‘ˆƒ••
▪ ‘•‹–‹‘˜‡…–‘”‘ˆ…‡–”‡‘ˆƒ••
⃗⃗ = 𝐦𝐦𝟏𝟏𝐫𝐫𝟏𝟏+𝐦𝐦𝟐𝟐𝐫𝐫𝟐𝟐+⋯……..+𝐦𝐦𝐧𝐧𝐫𝐫𝐧𝐧ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͳሻ
 𝐑𝐑 𝐌𝐌

™Š‡”‡ൌm1 + m2+…….+mn 
▪ ‡Ž‘…‹–›‘ˆ…‡–”‡‘ˆƒ••
𝐦𝐦𝟏𝟏 𝐯𝐯⃗𝟏𝟏 +𝐦𝐦𝟐𝟐 𝐯𝐯⃗𝟐𝟐 +⋯……..+𝐦𝐦𝐧𝐧 𝐯𝐯⃗𝐧𝐧
⃗ =
𝐕𝐕 ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺʹሻ
𝐌𝐌

▪ ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ…‡–”‡‘ˆƒ••
𝐦𝐦𝟏𝟏 𝐚𝐚 ⃗ 𝟐𝟐 +⋯……..+𝐦𝐦𝐧𝐧 𝐚𝐚
⃗ 𝟏𝟏 +𝐦𝐦𝟐𝟐 𝐚𝐚 ⃗ 𝐧𝐧
⃗⃗⃗𝐀𝐀 = 𝐌𝐌
………………(3)

▪ ‘”…‡‘…‡–”‡‘ˆƒ••

𝐅𝐅𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 = m1 a⃗1 + m2 a⃗2 + ⋯ … … . . +mn a⃗n 

𝐅𝐅𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 = 𝐅𝐅𝟏𝟏 + 𝐅𝐅𝟐𝟐 + ⋯ … … . . +𝐅𝐅𝐧𝐧

⃗ 
𝐅𝐅𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 = MA
Š‡…‡–”‡‘ˆƒ••‘ˆƒ•›•–‡‘ˆ’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡•‘˜‡•ƒ•‹ˆƒŽŽ–Š‡ƒ••‘ˆ–Š‡•›•–‡™ƒ•
…‘…‡–”ƒ–‡†ƒ––Š‡…‡–”‡‘ˆƒ••ƒ†ƒŽŽ–Š‡‡š–‡”ƒŽˆ‘”…‡•™‡”‡ƒ’’Ž‹‡†ƒ––Šƒ–’‘‹–Ǥ

 
Š‡…‡–”‡‘ˆƒ••‘ˆ–Š‡ˆ”ƒ‰‡–•‘ˆ–Š‡’”‘Œ‡…–‹Ž‡…‘–‹—‡•ƒŽ‘‰–Š‡•ƒ‡’ƒ”ƒ„‘Ž‹…
’ƒ–Š™Š‹…Š‹–™‘—Ž†Šƒ˜‡ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‡†‹ˆ–Š‡”‡™‡”‡‘‡š’Ž‘•‹‘Ǥ
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▪ ‹‡ƒ”‘‡–—‘ˆ…‡–”‡‘ˆƒ••
‡Ž‘…‹–›‘ˆ…‡–”‡‘ˆƒ••
⃗ = m1 v⃗1 +m2 v⃗2 +⋯……..+mnv⃗n
V
M
MV ⃗ = m1 v ⃗ 1 + m2 v⃗ 2 + ⋯ … … . . +mn v
⃗ n
⃗ ⃗ 𝟏𝟏 + 𝐩𝐩
𝐏𝐏 = 𝐩𝐩 ⃗ 𝟐𝟐 + ⋯ … … . . +𝐩𝐩
⃗ 𝐧𝐧

ƒ™‘ˆ‘•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ‘‡–—ˆ‘”ƒ›•–‡‘ˆƒ”–‹…Ž‡•
If Newton’s second law is extended to a system of particles,
⃗
dP
⃗Fext = 
dt
Š‡–Š‡•—‘ˆ‡š–‡”ƒŽˆ‘”…‡•ƒ…–‹‰‘ƒ•›•–‡‘ˆ’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡•‹•œ‡”‘
⃗Fext = 0
⃗
dP
= 0
dt
⃗ ൌ…‘•–ƒ–
P

Š—•ǡ™Š‡–Š‡–‘–ƒŽ‡š–‡”ƒŽˆ‘”…‡ƒ…–‹‰‘ƒ•›•–‡‘ˆ’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡•‹•œ‡”‘ǡ–Š‡–‘–ƒŽŽ‹‡ƒ”‘‡–—‘ˆ–Š‡
•›•–‡‹•…‘•–ƒ–ǤŠ‹•‹•–Š‡Žƒ™‘ˆ…‘•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡–‘–ƒŽŽ‹‡ƒ”‘‡–—‘ˆƒ•›•–‡‘ˆ’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡•Ǥ
—–P ⃗ = MV ⃗
MV ⃗ = constant
⃗ = 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
V
Š‡–Š‡–‘–ƒŽ‡š–‡”ƒŽˆ‘”…‡‘–Š‡•›•–‡‹•œ‡”‘–Š‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‘ˆ–Š‡…‡–”‡‘ˆƒ••”‡ƒ‹•…‘•–ƒ–‘”–Š‡
‘ˆ–Š‡•›•–‡‹•‹—‹ˆ‘”‘–‹‘Ǥ

‡…–‘””‘†—…–‘””‘••’”‘†—…–‘ˆ™‘‡…–‘”•
‡…–‘”’”‘†—…–‘ˆ–™‘˜‡…–‘”•A ⃗ ƒ†B ⃗ š𝐁𝐁
⃗ ‹•†‡ˆ‹‡†ƒ•𝐀𝐀 ⃗ ൌ𝐬𝐬𝐧𝐧 𝜽𝜽 𝐧𝐧
̂
⃗
™Š‡”‡ƒ†ƒ”‡ƒ‰‹–—†‡•‘ˆAƒ†B ⃗
𝜽𝜽‹•–Š‡ƒ‰Ž‡„‡–™‡‡A ⃗ ƒ†B⃗ 
𝑛𝑛̂‹•–Š‡—‹–˜‡…–‘”’‡”’‡†‹…—Žƒ”–‘–Š‡’Žƒ‡…‘–ƒ‹‹‰A ⃗ ƒ†B
⃗
Š‡†‹”‡…–‹‘‘ˆA ⃗ šB ⃗ ‹•‰‹˜‡„›”‹‰Š–Šƒ†•…”‡™”—Ž‡‘””‹‰Š–Šƒ†”—Ž‡Ǥ
▪ 𝒊𝒊̂ × 𝒊𝒊̂ = 𝟎𝟎 , 𝒋𝒋̂ × 𝒋𝒋̂ = 𝟎𝟎 , 𝒌𝒌̂ × 𝒌𝒌̂ = 𝟎𝟎
▪ ̂ , 𝒋𝒋̂ × 𝒌𝒌
𝒊𝒊̂ × 𝒋𝒋̂ = 𝒌𝒌 ̂ = 𝒊𝒊̂, ̂ × 𝒊𝒊̂ = 𝒋𝒋̂
𝒌𝒌
▪ 𝒋𝒋̂ × 𝒊𝒊̂ = −𝒌𝒌̂, ̂ × 𝒋𝒋̂ = −𝒊𝒊̂,
𝒌𝒌 ̂ = −𝒋𝒋̂
𝒊𝒊̂ × 𝒌𝒌
‰—Žƒ”‡Ž‘…‹–›ƒ†‹–•‡Žƒ–‹‘™‹–Š‹‡ƒ”‡Ž‘…‹–›

 
Š‡ƒ‰—Žƒ”˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‹•ƒ˜‡…–‘”“—ƒ–‹–›Ǥ𝝎𝝎 ⃗⃗⃗ ‹•†‹”‡…–‡†ƒŽ‘‰–Š‡ˆ‹š‡†ƒš‹•ƒ••Š‘™Ǥ
Š‡Ž‹‡ƒ”˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‘ˆ–Š‡’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡‹•
⃗⃗⃗ ൌ𝝎𝝎
𝒗𝒗 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝒓𝒓
⃗ 
–‹•’‡”’‡†‹…—Žƒ”–‘„‘–Š𝝎𝝎 ⃗⃗⃗ ƒ†𝒓𝒓⃗ ƒ†‹•†‹”‡…–‡†ƒŽ‘‰–Š‡–ƒ‰‡––‘–Š‡…‹”…Ž‡†‡•…”‹„‡†„›–Š‡’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡Ǥ
 
‰—Žƒ”ƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘
‰—Žƒ”ƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘ α
⃗ is†‡ˆ‹‡†ƒ•–Š‡–‹‡”ƒ–‡‘ˆ…Šƒ‰‡‘ˆƒ‰—Žƒ”˜‡Ž‘…‹–›Ǥ
⃗⃗⃗
𝐝𝐝𝛚𝛚
⃗ =
𝛂𝛂 
𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝



26

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‘”“—‡‘”‘‡–‘ˆ ‘”…‡
Š‡”‘–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽƒƒŽ‘‰—‡‘ˆˆ‘”…‡‹•–‘”“—‡‘”‘‡–‘ˆˆ‘”…‡Ǥ 

 
ˆƒˆ‘”…‡𝐅𝐅 ⃗⃗⃗ ƒ…–•‘ƒ•‹‰Ž‡’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡ƒ–ƒ’‘‹–™Š‘•‡’‘•‹–‹‘™‹–Š”‡•’‡…––‘–Š‡‘”‹‰‹‹•𝒓𝒓
⃗ ǡ–Š‡–‘”“—‡
ƒ„‘—–‘”‹‰‹‘‹•
⃗ ൌ” •‹θ
𝝉𝝉
⃗ ൌ 𝒓𝒓
𝝉𝝉 ⃗⃗⃗ 
⃗ š𝐅𝐅
▪ ‘”“—‡Šƒ•†‹‡•‹‘•L2 T −2
▪ ‘”“—‡‹•ƒ˜‡…–‘”“—ƒ–‹–›
▪ Š‡—‹–‘ˆ‘‡–‘ˆˆ‘”…‡‹•‡™–‘Ǧ‡–”‡ሺሻ

‰—Žƒ”‘‡–—‘ˆƒ’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡
‰—Žƒ”‘‡–—‹•–Š‡”‘–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽƒƒŽ‘‰—‡‘ˆŽ‹‡ƒ”‘‡–—Ǥ
‰—Žƒ”‘‡–—‹•ƒ˜‡…–‘”“—ƒ–‹–›Ǥ–…‘—Ž†ƒŽ•‘„‡”‡ˆ‡””‡†–‘ƒ•‘‡–‘ˆሺŽ‹‡ƒ”ሻ‘‡–—Ǥ
𝒍𝒍 = ⃗𝒓𝒓 × ⃗𝒑𝒑 
𝒍𝒍 = 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝛉𝛉

‡Žƒ–‹‘…‘‡…–‹‰‘”“—‡ƒ†‰—Žƒ”‘‡–—
𝑙𝑙 = 𝑟𝑟 × 𝑝𝑝
‹ˆˆ‡”‡–‹ƒ–‹‰
𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙 d
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = dt ( r × p
⃗ )
𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙 dr⃗ ⃗
dp
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = dt × ⃗p ൅rš dt 
dr⃗ ⃗
dp
p ⃗ , = ⃗vǡ = ⃗⃗F
⃗ ൌmv
dt dt
𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙
⃗⃗ 
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ⃗v × mv⃗ ൅ršF
⃗⃗ ൌτ⃗ሻ
v⃗ × ⃗v = 0 ǡሺršF
𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 ൅𝜏𝜏
𝒅𝒅𝒍𝒍
𝝉𝝉⃗ = 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
Š—•ǡ–Š‡–‹‡”ƒ–‡‘ˆ…Šƒ‰‡‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ‰—Žƒ”‘‡–—‘ˆƒ’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡‹•‡“—ƒŽ–‘–Š‡–‘”“—‡ƒ…–‹‰‘‹–Ǥ
⃗⃗ ൌdp⃗, which expresses Newton’s second law for th‡
Š‹•‹•–Š‡”‘–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽƒƒŽ‘‰—‡‘ˆ–Š‡‡“—ƒ–‹‘F dt
–”ƒ•Žƒ–‹‘ƒŽ‘–‹‘‘ˆƒ•‹‰Ž‡’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡.

‡Žƒ–‹‘…‘‡…–‹‰‘”“—‡ƒ†‰—Žƒ”‘‡–—ˆ‘”ƒ•›•–‡‘ˆ’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡•
𝐝𝐝𝐋𝐋
𝛕𝛕
⃗ = 
𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝
™Š‡”‡𝐿𝐿⃗ = 𝑙𝑙1 + 𝑙𝑙2 + ⋯ ⋅ +𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑛 

ƒ™‘ˆ‘•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ‰—Žƒ”‘‡–—
 ‘”ƒ•›•–‡‘ˆ’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡•
⃗
dL
τ⃗ext ൌ 
dt
ˆ‡š–‡”ƒŽ–‘”“—‡τ⃗ext = 0ǡ
⃗
dL
 ൌͲ
dt
𝐋𝐋 = 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜
ˆ–Š‡–‘–ƒŽ‡š–‡”ƒŽ–‘”“—‡‘ƒ•›•–‡‘ˆ’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡•‹•œ‡”‘ǡ–Š‡–Š‡–‘–ƒŽƒ‰—Žƒ”‘‡–—‘ˆ–Š‡•›•–‡‹•
…‘•‡”˜‡†‹Ǥ‡ǡ”‡ƒ‹•…‘•–ƒ–Ǥ

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“—‹Ž‹„”‹—‘ˆƒ‹‰‹†‘†›
”‹‰‹†„‘†›‹••ƒ‹†–‘„‡‹‡…Šƒ‹…ƒŽ‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—ǡ‹ˆ‹–‹•‹„‘–Š–”ƒ•Žƒ–‹‘ƒŽ‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—ƒ†”‘–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ
‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—Ǥ
‹Ǥ‡ǡˆ‘”ƒ„‘†›‹‡…Šƒ‹…ƒŽ‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—‹–•Ž‹‡ƒ”‘‡–—ƒ†ƒ‰—Žƒ”‘‡–—ƒ”‡‘–…Šƒ‰‹‰™‹–Š
–‹‡Ǥ
”ƒ•Žƒ–‹‘ƒŽ“—‹Ž‹„”‹—
Š‡–Š‡–‘–ƒŽ‡š–‡”ƒŽˆ‘”…‡‘–Š‡”‹‰‹†„‘†›‹•œ‡”‘ǡ–Š‡–Š‡–‘–ƒŽŽ‹‡ƒ”‘‡–—‘ˆ–Š‡„‘†›†‘‡•‘–
…Šƒ‰‡™‹–Š–‹‡ƒ†–Š‡„‘†›™‹ŽŽ„‡‹–”ƒ•Žƒ–‹‘ƒŽ‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—Ǥ

‘–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ“—‹Ž‹„”‹—
Š‡–Š‡–‘–ƒŽ‡š–‡”ƒŽ–‘”“—‡‘–Š‡”‹‰‹†„‘†›‹•œ‡”‘ǡ–Š‡–‘–ƒŽƒ‰—Žƒ”‘‡–—‘ˆ–Š‡„‘†›†‘‡•‘–
…Šƒ‰‡™‹–Š–‹‡ƒ†–Š‡„‘†›™‹ŽŽ„‡‹”‘–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—Ǥ

‘—’Ž‡
’ƒ‹”‘ˆ‡“—ƒŽƒ†‘’’‘•‹–‡ˆ‘”…‡•™‹–Š†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–Ž‹‡•‘ˆƒ…–‹‘‹•‘™ƒ•ƒ…‘—’Ž‡Ǥ…‘—’Ž‡’”‘†—…‡•
”‘–ƒ–‹‘™‹–Š‘—––”ƒ•Žƒ–‹‘Ǥ

  
—”ˆ‹‰‡”•ƒ’’Ž›ƒ…‘—’Ž‡–‘–—”–Š‡Ž‹†The Earth’s magnetic field exerts equal and 
‘’’‘•‹–‡ˆ‘”…‡•‘–Š‡’‘Ž‡•‘ˆƒ…‘’ƒ••‡‡†Ž‡Ǥ
Š‡•‡–™‘ˆ‘”…‡•ˆ‘”ƒ…‘—’Ž‡Ǥ
”‹…‹’Ž‡•‘ˆ‘‡–•

 
Š‡Ž‡˜‡”‹•ƒ•›•–‡‹‡…Šƒ‹…ƒŽ‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—Ǥ
 ‘””‘–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—–Š‡•—‘ˆ‘‡–•—•–„‡œ‡”‘ǡ
𝐝𝐝𝟏𝟏 𝐅𝐅𝟏𝟏 − 𝐝𝐝𝟐𝟐 𝐅𝐅𝟐𝟐 ൌͲ
Š‡‡“—ƒ–‹‘ˆ‘”–Š‡’”‹…‹’Ž‡‘ˆ‘‡–•ˆ‘”ƒŽ‡˜‡”‹•
𝐝𝐝𝟏𝟏 𝐅𝐅𝟏𝟏 = 𝐝𝐝𝟐𝟐 𝐅𝐅𝟐𝟐 
Ž‘ƒ†ƒ”ൈŽ‘ƒ†ൌ‡ˆˆ‘”–ƒ”ൈ‡ˆˆ‘”–
𝐹𝐹 𝑑𝑑
‡…Šƒ‹…ƒŽ†˜ƒ–ƒ‰‡ൌ 1 ൌ 2 
𝐹𝐹2 𝑑𝑑1


‘‡–‘ˆ‡”–‹ƒ
‘‡–‘ˆ‡”–‹ƒ‹•–Š‡”‘–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽƒƒŽ‘‰—‡‘ˆƒ••Ǥ
‘‡–‘ˆ‹‡”–‹ƒ‹•ƒ‡ƒ•—”‡‘ˆ”‘–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ‹‡”–‹ƒ

 
Š‡‘‡–‘ˆ‹‡”–‹ƒ‘ˆƒ’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡‘ˆƒ••”‘–ƒ–‹‰ƒ„‘—–ƒƒš‹•‹•
ൌ𝐫𝐫 𝟐𝟐 
Š‡‘‡–‘ˆ‹‡”–‹ƒ‘ˆƒ”‹‰‹†„‘†›‹•

 
Š‡‘‡–‘ˆ‹‡”–‹ƒ‘ˆƒ”‹‰‹†„‘†›†‡’‡†•‘–Š‡ƒ••‘ˆ–Š‡„‘†›ǡ‹–••Šƒ’‡ƒ†•‹œ‡Ǣ†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‘ˆƒ••
ƒ„‘—––Š‡ƒš‹•‘ˆ”‘–ƒ–‹‘ǡƒ†–Š‡’‘•‹–‹‘ƒ†‘”‹‡–ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡ƒš‹•‘ˆ”‘–ƒ–‹‘Ǥ

28

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‘‡–•‘ˆ‡”–‹ƒ‘ˆ•‘‡”‡‰—Žƒ”•Šƒ’‡†„‘†‹‡•ƒ„‘—–•’‡…‹ˆ‹…ƒš‡•

 
‘–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ‹‡–‹…‡‡”‰›
‘•‹†‡”ƒ’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡‘ˆƒ••”‘–ƒ–‹‰ƒ„‘—–ƒƒš‹•‘ˆ”ƒ†‹—•”™‹–Šƒ‰—Žƒ”˜‡Ž‘…‹–›𝜔𝜔
Š‡‹‡–‹…‡‡”‰›‘ˆ‘–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‹•’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡‹•
1
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 2 
2
 —–˜ൌ” 𝜔𝜔
1
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 𝑚𝑚𝑟𝑟 2 𝜔𝜔2
2
ൌ𝑟𝑟 2 
𝟏𝟏
‘–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤 = 𝐈𝐈𝛚𝛚𝟐𝟐
𝟐𝟐

ƒ†‹—•‘ˆ
›”ƒ–‹‘ሺሻ
Š‡”ƒ†‹—•‘ˆ‰›”ƒ–‹‘…ƒ„‡†‡ˆ‹‡†ƒ•–Š‡†‹•–ƒ…‡‘ˆƒƒ••’‘‹–ˆ”‘–Š‡ƒš‹•‘ˆ”‘ƒ–ƒ–‹‘™Š‘•‡ƒ••‹•
‡“—ƒŽ–‘–Š‡™Š‘Ž‡ƒ••‘ˆ–Š‡„‘†›ƒ†™Š‘•‡‘‡–‘ˆ‹‡”–‹ƒ‹•‡“—ƒŽ–‘‘‡–‘ˆ‹‡”–‹ƒ‘ˆ–Š‡™Š‘Ž‡
„‘†›ƒ„‘—––Š‡ƒš‹•Ǥ
ˆ‹•–Š‡”ƒ†‹—•‘ˆ‰›”ƒ–‹‘ǡ™‡…ƒ™”‹–‡
ൌ𝑘𝑘 2
𝑰𝑰
𝒌𝒌 = √ 
𝑴𝑴
Š‡‘”‡•‘ˆ‡”’‡†‹…—Žƒ”ƒ†ƒ”ƒŽŽ‡Žš‡•
‡”’‡†‹…—Žƒ”š‡•Š‡‘”‡
Š‡‘‡–‘ˆ‹‡”–‹ƒ‘ˆƒ’Žƒƒ”„‘†›ሺŽƒ‹ƒሻƒ„‘—–ƒƒš‹•’‡”’‡†‹…—Žƒ”–‘‹–•’Žƒ‡‹•‡“—ƒŽ–‘–Š‡•—‘ˆ
‹–•‘‡–•‘ˆ‹‡”–‹ƒƒ„‘—––™‘’‡”’‡†‹…—Žƒ”ƒš‡•…‘…—””‡–™‹–Š’‡”’‡†‹…—Žƒ”ƒš‹•ƒ†Ž›‹‰‹–Š‡’Žƒ‡
‘ˆ–Š‡„‘†›Ǥ
”
Š‡‘‡–‘ˆ‹‡”–‹ƒ‘ˆƒ’Žƒ‡Žƒ‹ƒƒ„‘—–œƒš‹•‹•‡“—ƒŽ–‘–Š‡•—‘ˆ‹–•‘‡–•‘ˆ‹‡”–‹ƒƒ„‘—–šǦƒš‹•
ƒ†›Ǧƒš‹•ǡ‹ˆ–Š‡Žƒ‹ƒŽ‹‡•‹š›’Žƒ‡Ǥ
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 𝐈𝐈𝐳𝐳 = 𝐈𝐈𝐱𝐱 + 𝐈𝐈𝐲𝐲




ሺʹሻƒ”ƒŽŽ‡Žš‡•Š‡‘”‡
Š‡‘‡–‘ˆ‹‡”–‹ƒ‘ˆƒ„‘†›ƒ„‘—–ƒ›ƒš‹•‹•‡“—ƒŽ–‘–Š‡•—‘ˆ–Š‡‘‡–‘ˆ‹‡”–‹ƒ‘ˆ–Š‡„‘†›ƒ„‘—–ƒ
’ƒ”ƒŽŽ‡Žƒš‹•’ƒ••‹‰–Š”‘—‰Š‹–•…‡–”‡‘ˆƒ••ƒ†–Š‡’”‘†—…–‘ˆ‹–•ƒ••ƒ†–Š‡•“—ƒ”‡‘ˆ–Š‡†‹•–ƒ…‡
„‡–™‡‡–Š‡–™‘’ƒ”ƒŽŽ‡Žƒš‡•Ǥ


𝐈𝐈𝒛𝒛′ = 𝐈𝐈𝐳𝐳 + 𝐌𝐌𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐 




’’Ž‹…ƒ–‹‘•Š‡‘”‡•‘ˆ‘‡–‘ˆ‡”–‹ƒ
ሺͳሻ ‘‡–‘ˆ‡”–‹ƒ‘ˆƒ‹‰ƒ„‘—–‡‘ˆ‹–•‹ƒ‡–‡”

›’‡”’‡†‹…—Žƒ”ƒš‹•–Š‡‘”‡
Iz = Ix + I y


—–Ix = Iy 
 Iz = 2Ix 
I
 Ix = 2z 
 —–Iz = MR2 
𝐌𝐌𝐑𝐑𝟐𝟐
 𝐈𝐈𝐱𝐱 =
𝟐𝟐



ሺʹሻ‘‡–‘ˆ‡”–‹ƒ‘ˆƒ‹•…ƒ„‘—–‡‘ˆ‹–•‹ƒ‡–‡”
›’‡”’‡†‹…—Žƒ”ƒš‹•–Š‡‘”‡
 I z = Ix + Iy

—–Ix = Iy 
 Iz = 2Ix 
I
 Ix = 2z
MR2
—–Iz =
 2

𝐌𝐌𝐑𝐑 𝟐𝟐
 𝐈𝐈𝐱𝐱 = 
𝟒𝟒

ሺ͵ሻ‘‡–‘ˆ‹‡”–‹ƒ‘ˆƒ”‹‰ƒ„‘—–ƒ–ƒ‰‡––‘–Š‡…‹”…Ž‡‘ˆ–Š‡”‹‰
›’ƒ”ƒŽŽ‡Žƒš‹•–Š‡‘”‡
 I𝑧𝑧′ = Iz + M𝑎𝑎2 
I𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = Idiameter + M𝑅𝑅2 
MR2
 But, Idiameter =
2

MR2
 I𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 2
+ M𝑅𝑅2 
𝟑𝟑
𝐈𝐈𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 = 𝐌𝐌𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 
𝟐𝟐
30

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ሺͶሻ‘‡–‘ˆ‹‡”–‹ƒ‘ˆƒ†‹•…ƒ„‘—–ƒ–ƒ‰‡––‘–Š‡…‹”…Ž‡‘ˆ–Š‡†‹•…
𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭
 Iz′ = Iz + Ma2 
Itangent = Idiameter + MR2 
MR2
—–ǡIdiameter = 4

MR2
Itangent =
4
+ MR2 
𝟓𝟓
 𝐈𝐈𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 = 𝐌𝐌𝐑𝐑𝟐𝟐 
𝟒𝟒


‘’ƒ”‹•‘‘ˆ”ƒ•Žƒ–‹‘ƒŽƒ†‘–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ‘–‹‘

 
‘•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘‘ˆƒ‰—Žƒ”‘‡–—
ˆ–Š‡‡š–‡”ƒŽ–‘”“—‡‹•œ‡”‘ǡƒ‰—Žƒ”‘‡–—‹•…‘•–ƒ–Ǥ
⃗ =…‘•–ƒ–
L
—–L ⃗ = Iω ⃗⃗ 
⃗⃗⃗ ൌ…‘•–ƒ–
‹Ǥ‡Ǥǡ𝐈𝐈𝛚𝛚
When I increases ,ω decreases and vice versa, so that Iω is constant.
Š‹Ž‡–Š‡…Šƒ‹”‹•”‘–ƒ–‹‰™‹–Š…‘•‹†‡”ƒ„Ž‡ƒ‰—Žƒ”•’‡‡†ǡ‹ˆ›‘—•–”‡–…Š
›‘—”ƒ”•Š‘”‹œ‘–ƒŽŽ›ǡ‘‡–‘ˆ‹‡”–‹ƒሺሻ‹…”‡ƒ•‡•ƒ†ƒ•ƒ”‡•—Ž–ǡ–Š‡
angular speed(ω) is reduced.
ˆ›‘—„”‹‰„ƒ…›‘—”ƒ”•…Ž‘•‡”–‘›‘—”„‘†›ǡ‘‡–‘ˆ‹‡”–‹ƒሺሻ
decreases and as a result, the angular speed(ω) increases again. 


‹‡–‹…‡”‰›‘ˆ‘ŽŽ‹‰‘–‹‘
‘ŽŽ‹‰‘–‹‘‹•ƒ…‘„‹ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ”‘–ƒ–‹‘ƒ†–”ƒ•Žƒ–‹‘ǤŠ‡‹‡–‹…‡‡”‰›‘ˆƒ”‘ŽŽ‹‰„‘†›‹•–Š‡•—‘ˆ
‹‡–‹…‡‡”‰›‘ˆ–”ƒ•Žƒ–‹‘ƒ†‹‡–‹…‡‡”‰›‘ˆ”‘–ƒ–‹‘Ǥ
‘–ƒŽൌ”ƒ•Žƒ–‹‘ƒŽ൅‘–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ
1 1
𝐾𝐾 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 2 + 𝐼𝐼𝜔𝜔2
2 2
ൌ𝑘𝑘 2 ,™Š‡”‡ൌ–Š‡”ƒ†‹—•‘ˆ‰›”ƒ–‹‘
𝑣𝑣
ƒ†v= R ω, ω = 
𝑅𝑅
1 1 m𝑘𝑘 2 𝑣𝑣 2
𝐾𝐾 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 2 ൅ 𝑅𝑅2

2 2
𝟏𝟏 𝐤𝐤 𝟐𝟐
𝑲𝑲 = 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 ( 𝟏𝟏 + 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐)
𝟐𝟐
‡”‡˜‹•–Š‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‘ˆ…‡–”‡‘ˆƒ••Ǥ

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Šƒ’–‡”ͺ

”ƒ˜‹–ƒ–‹‘
Kepler’s Laws
ͳǤƒ™‘ˆ‘”„‹–•
ŽŽ’Žƒ‡–•‘˜‡‹‡ŽŽ‹’–‹…ƒŽ‘”„‹–•™‹–Š–Š‡—•‹–—ƒ–‡†ƒ–‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡ˆ‘…‹‘ˆ–Š‡‡ŽŽ‹’•‡Ǥ


‹•–Š‡ƒŒ‘”ƒš‹•
‹•–Š‡‹‘”ƒš‹•


ʹǤƒ™‘ˆƒ”‡ƒ•
⃗
𝚫𝚫𝐀𝐀
Š‡Ž‹‡–Šƒ–Œ‘‹•ƒ›’Žƒ‡––‘–Š‡•—•™‡‡’•‡“—ƒŽƒ”‡ƒ•‹‡“—ƒŽ‹–‡”˜ƒŽ•‘ˆ–‹‡Ǥ‹Ǥ‡ǡ 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯 𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫

‹• 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜
Š‡’Žƒ‡–•‘˜‡•Ž‘™‡”™Š‡–Š‡›ƒ”‡ˆƒ”–Š‡”ˆ”‘–Š‡•—–Šƒ™Š‡–Š‡›ƒ”‡‡ƒ”‡”Ǥ
Š‡Žƒ™‘ˆƒ”‡ƒ•‹•ƒ…‘•‡“—‡…‡‘ˆ…‘•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘‘ˆƒ‰—Žƒ”‘‡–—Ǥ

͵Ǥƒ™‘ˆ’‡”‹‘†•
Š‡•“—ƒ”‡‘ˆ–Š‡–‹‡’‡”‹‘†‘ˆ”‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘‘ˆƒ’Žƒ‡–‹•’”‘’‘”–‹‘ƒŽ–‘–Š‡…—„‡‘ˆ–Š‡•‡‹ǦƒŒ‘”ƒš‹•‘ˆ–Š‡
‡ŽŽ‹’•‡–”ƒ…‡†‘—–„›–Š‡’Žƒ‡–Ǥ
𝐓𝐓 𝟐𝟐 ∝ 𝐚𝐚𝟑𝟑 
‹˜‡”•ƒŽƒ™‘ˆ
”ƒ˜‹–ƒ–‹‘
˜‡”›„‘†›‹–Š‡—‹˜‡”•‡ƒ––”ƒ…–•‡˜‡”›‘–Š‡”„‘†›™‹–Šƒˆ‘”…‡™Š‹…Š‹•†‹”‡…–Ž›’”‘’‘”–‹‘ƒŽ–‘–Š‡’”‘†—…–
‘ˆ–Š‡‹”ƒ••‡•ƒ†‹˜‡”•‡Ž›’”‘’‘”–‹‘ƒŽ–‘–Š‡•“—ƒ”‡‘ˆ–Š‡†‹•–ƒ…‡„‡–™‡‡–Š‡ Ǥ
𝐦𝐦𝟏𝟏 𝐦𝐦𝟐𝟐
𝐅𝐅 = 𝐆𝐆 𝟐𝟐 
𝐫𝐫
™Š‡”‡
‹•–Š‡—‹˜‡”•ƒŽ‰”ƒ˜‹–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ…‘•–ƒ–Ǥ
Š‡
”ƒ˜‹–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ‘•–ƒ–
Š‡˜ƒŽ—‡‘ˆ–Š‡‰”ƒ˜‹–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ…‘•–ƒ–
™ƒ•†‡–‡”‹‡†‡š’‡”‹‡–ƒŽŽ›„›‰Ž‹•Š•…‹‡–‹•–‡”›ƒ˜‡†‹•Š
‹ͳ͹ͻͺǤ
ൌ͸Ǥ͸͹ൈͳ𝟎𝟎−𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝐦𝐦𝟐𝟐 Ȁ𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤 𝟐𝟐 

……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘†—‡–‘‰”ƒ˜‹–›‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ”–Š
‘•‹†‡”ƒ„‘†›‘ˆƒ••‘–Š‡•—”ˆƒ…‡‘ˆ‡ƒ”–Š‘ˆƒ••ƒ†”ƒ†‹—•Ǥ


 
GMm
 F = ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͳሻ
R2
By Newton’s second law
 ൌ‰ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺʹሻ
 ”‘“ሺͳሻƒ†ሺʹሻ
GMm
 ‰ൌ 
R2
𝐆𝐆𝐆𝐆
‰ൌ 𝟐𝟐 
𝐑𝐑
▪ ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘†—‡–‘‰”ƒ˜‹–›‹•‹†‡’‡†‡–‘ˆƒ••‘ˆ–Š‡„‘†›Ǥ
▪ Š‡ƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡˜ƒŽ—‡‘ˆ‰‘–Š‡•—”ˆƒ…‡‘ˆ‡ƒ”–Š‹•ͻǤͺ𝐬𝐬 −𝟐𝟐 Ǥ



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ͳǤ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘†—‡–‘‰”ƒ˜‹–›ƒ–ƒŠ‡‹‰Š–Šƒ„‘˜‡–Š‡•—”ˆƒ…‡‘ˆ–Š‡‡ƒ”–ŠǤ
……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘†—‡–‘‰”ƒ˜‹–›‘–Š‡•—”ˆƒ…‡‘ˆ‡ƒ”–Š
GM
‰ൌ ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͳሻ
R2
……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘†—‡–‘‰”ƒ˜‹–›ƒ–ƒŠ‡‹‰Š–ƒ„‘˜‡–Š‡•—”ˆƒ…‡‘ˆ‡ƒ”–Š
GM
g h = ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺʹሻ
(R+h)2
GM
ˆ‘”ǡŠ൏൏ǡ g h = h 
R2 (1+ )2
R
GM h
 gh = (1 + )−2 
R2 R
h
g h = g(1 + )−2 
R
•‹‰„‹‘‹ƒŽ‡š’”‡••‹‘ƒ†‡‰Ž‡…–‹‰Š‹‰Š‡”‘”†‡”–‡”•Ǥ
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝐠𝐠 𝐡𝐡 ≅ 𝐠𝐠 (𝟏𝟏 − ሻ 𝐑𝐑
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
Thus, as we go above earth’s surface, the a……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘†—‡‰”ƒ˜‹–›†‡…”‡ƒ•‡•„›ƒˆƒ…–‘”(𝟏𝟏 − ሻ
𝐑𝐑

ʹǤ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘†—‡–‘‰”ƒ˜‹–›ƒ–ƒ†‡’–Š†„‡Ž‘™–Š‡•—”ˆƒ…‡‘ˆ–Š‡‡ƒ”–Š
ƒ••ൌ˜‘Ž—‡š†‡•‹–›
4
ൌ πR3 ρǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͳሻ
3
……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘†—‡–‘‰”ƒ˜‹–›‘–Š‡•—”ˆƒ…‡‘ˆ‡ƒ”–Š
GM
‰ൌ 2 ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺʹሻ
R
G 4
g= ( πR3 ρ)
R2 3
4
 g= πRρ
ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺ͵ሻ
3
……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘†—‡–‘‰”ƒ˜‹–›ƒ–ƒ†‡’–Š†„‡Ž‘™–Š‡•—”ˆƒ…‡‘ˆ‡ƒ”–Š
4
g d = π(R − d)ρ
ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͶሻ
3
4
eq(4) gd π(R−d)ρG
eq(3)ǦǦǦǦǦǦ g
= 3
4 
πRρG
3
g (R−d)
 gd = R

𝐝𝐝
𝐠𝐠 𝐝𝐝 = 𝐠𝐠(𝟏𝟏 − ሻ
𝐑𝐑
𝐝𝐝
Thus, as we go down below earth’s surface, the acceleration due gravity decreases by a factor(𝟏𝟏 − ሻ
𝐑𝐑
▪ The value of acceleration due to earth’s gravity is maximum on its surface and decreases whether yo—
‰‘—’‘”†‘™Ǥ
▪ At the centre of earth acceleration due to earth’s gravity is zero.

šƒ’Ž‡
–™Šƒ–Š‡‹‰Š––Š‡˜ƒŽ—‡‘ˆƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘†—‡–‘‰”ƒ˜‹–›™‹ŽŽ„‡ŠƒŽˆ‘ˆ–Šƒ–‘•—”ˆƒ…‡‘ˆ‡ƒ”–ŠǤ
ሺ
‹˜‡–Š‡”ƒ†‹—•‘ˆ‡ƒ”–Šൌ͸ͶͲͲሻ
h
Ǥg h = g(1 + )−2 
R
g
g h = 
2
g h
 = g(1 + )−2 
2 R
1 h
 = (1 + )−2 
2 R
h
2 = (1 + )2 
R
h
√2 ൌ1 + 
R
h
 = √2Ǧͳ
R
Šൌሺ√2ǦͳሻൌሺͳǤͶͳͶǦͳሻ͸ͶͲͲൌʹ͸ͷͲ

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”ƒ˜‹–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ‘–‡–‹ƒŽ‡”‰›

”ƒ˜‹–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ’‘–‡–‹ƒŽ‡‡”‰›ƒ–’‘‹–‹•†‡ˆ‹‡†ƒ•–Š‡™‘”†‘‡‹†‹•’Žƒ…‹‰–Š‡’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡ˆ”‘‹ˆ‹‹–›–‘
–Šƒ–’‘‹–™‹–Š‘—–ƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘Ǥ

 
Š‡™‘”†‘‡–‘‰‹˜‡ƒ†‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–†š–‘–Š‡ƒ••
†ൌ †š
GMm
†ൌ x2 †š
‘–ƒŽ™‘”†‘‡–‘‘˜‡–Š‡ƒ••ˆ”‘∞–‘”
r GMm
ൌ∫∞ dx
x2
−GMm
ൌ 
r
Š‹•™‘”‹•‹••–‘”‡†ƒ•‰”ƒ˜‹–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ‹–Š‡„‘†›Ǥ
−𝐆𝐆𝐆𝐆𝐆𝐆
ൌ 
𝐫𝐫
 ‘”—‹–ƒ••ൌͳ
−𝐆𝐆𝐆𝐆
‘‰”ƒ˜‹–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ’‘–‡–‹ƒŽǡൌ 
𝐫𝐫
•…ƒ’‡•’‡‡†
Š‡‹‹—•’‡‡†”‡“—‹”‡†ˆ‘”ƒ‘„Œ‡…––‘”‡ƒ…h infinity i.e. to escape from the earth’s gravitational pull is
…ƒŽŽ‡†‡•…ƒ’‡•’‡‡†Ǥ
‡––Š‡„‘†›–Š”‘™ˆ”‘–Š‡•—”ˆƒ…‡‘ˆ‡ƒ”–Š–‘‹ˆ‹‹–›™‹–Š˜‡Ž‘…‹–›˜‹Ǥ

1 GMm
 mvi2Ǧ = 0
2 r
1 GMm
 mvi2 = 
2 R
2GM
vi2 = 
R
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝐯𝐯𝐞𝐞 = √ 
𝐑𝐑
▪ 𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄ƒ’‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‹•‹†‡’‡†‡–‘ˆƒ••‘ˆ–Š‡„‘†›Ǥ
▪ 𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 (𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯) ‘–Š‡•—”ˆƒ…‡‘ˆ‡ƒ”–Š‹•ͳͳǤʹȀ•
‘‘Šƒ•‘ƒ–‘•’Š‡”‡ǤŠ›ǫ
Š‡‡•…ƒ’‡•’‡‡†‘ˆ‘‘‹•ƒ„‘—–ʹǤ͵Ȁ•Ǥ™Š‹…Š‹•Ž‡••–Šƒ–Š‡ƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡•’‡‡†‘ˆ‰ƒ•‘Ž‡…—Ž‡•‘ˆ‘‘Ǥ
Š—•‰ƒ•‘Ž‡…—Ž‡•‡•…ƒ’‡ˆ”‘•—”ˆƒ…‡‘ˆ‘‘ƒ†‹–Šƒ•‘ƒ–‘•’Š‡”‡Ǥ
ƒ”–Šƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡•
ƒ”–Š•ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡•ƒ”‡‘„Œ‡…–•™Š‹…Š”‡˜‘Ž˜‡ƒ”‘—†–Š‡‡ƒ”–ŠǤ
Š‡‹”‘–‹‘‹•˜‡”›•‹‹Žƒ”–‘–Š‡‘–‹‘‘ˆ’Žanets around the Sun and hence Kepler’s laws of planetary
‘–‹‘ƒ”‡‡“—ƒŽŽ›ƒ’’Ž‹…ƒ„Ž‡–‘–Š‡Ǥ
▪ ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡•ƒ”‡‘ˆ–™‘–›’‡•ሺͳሻƒ–—”ƒŽ•ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡•ƒ†ƒ”–‹ˆ‹…‹ƒŽ•ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡•Ǥ
▪ ‘‘‹•–Š‡ƒ–—”ƒŽ•ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡‘ˆ‡ƒ”–Š™Š‘•‡–‹‡’‡”‹‘†‘ˆ”‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘‹•ʹ͹Ǥ͵†ƒ›•Ǥ
▪ ”–‹ˆ‹…‹ƒŽ•ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡•ƒ”‡—•‡†ˆ‘”–‡Ž‡…‘—‹…ƒ–‹‘ǡ‰‡‘’Š›•‹…•ƒ†‡–‡‘”‘Ž‘‰›‡–…Ǥ
”„‹–ƒŽ’‡‡†
Š‡•’‡‡†™‹–Š™Š‹…Šƒ•ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡•”‡˜‘Ž˜‡•ƒ”‘—†‡ƒ”–Š‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†‘”„‹–ƒŽ•’‡‡†Ǥ
Fcentripetal = Fgravitational 
mv2 GMm
R+h = (R+h)2 
GM
v 2 = 
(R+h)
𝐆𝐆𝐆𝐆
𝒗𝒗𝒐𝒐 = √(𝐑𝐑+𝐡𝐡)
𝐆𝐆𝐆𝐆
ˆ–Š‡•ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡‹•˜‡”›…Ž‘•‡–‘‡ƒ”–Šሺ൅Šሻ≈ǡ𝒗𝒗𝒐𝒐 = √ 𝐑𝐑


34

Thelima Edu Help Programme | Higher Secondar y National Ser vice Scheme 35
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‡Žƒ–‹‘‘‡…–‹‰•…ƒ’‡‡Ž‘…‹–›ƒ†”„‹–ƒŽ‡Ž‘…‹–›
GM
”„‹–ƒŽ‡Ž‘…‹–›ǡv0 = √ 
R
2GM
•…ƒ’‡‡Ž‘…‹–›ǡve = √ R

𝐯𝐯𝐞𝐞 = √𝟐𝟐 𝐯𝐯𝐨𝐨 
•…ƒ’‡‡Ž‘…‹–›ൌ√𝟐𝟐š”„‹–ƒŽ‡Ž‘…‹–›

‡”‹‘†‘ˆƒƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡
‡”‹‘†‘ˆƒ•ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡‹•–Š‡–‹‡”‡“—‹”‡†ˆ‘”ƒ•ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡–‘…‘’Ž‡–‡‘‡”‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘ƒ”‘—†–Š‡‡ƒ”–Š‹ƒˆ‹š‡†
‘”„‹–Ǥ
circumference of the orbit
‡”‹‘†ൌ 
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
2𝜋𝜋 (𝑅𝑅+ℎ)
ൌ GM

√(R+h)

(𝑹𝑹+𝒉𝒉) 𝟑𝟑
ൌ𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐√ 
𝐆𝐆𝐆𝐆

‡”‰›‘ˆƒ‘”„‹–‹‰•ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡
1
ൌ mvo2
2
GM GM
vo = √ ǡvo2 = 
R+h R+h
1 GM
ൌ m 𝑥𝑥 
2 R+h
GMm
ൌ 
2(R+h)
−GMm
ൌ 
R+h
‡”‰›ൌ൅
GMm −GMm
ൌ ൅ 
2(R+h) R+h
−𝐆𝐆𝐆𝐆𝐆𝐆
ൌ 
𝟐𝟐(𝐑𝐑+𝐡𝐡)
Š‡–‘–ƒŽ‡‡”‰›‘ˆƒ…‹”…—Žƒ”Ž›‘”„‹–‹‰•ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡‹•‡‰ƒ–‹˜‡ǡ™Š‹…Š‡ƒ•–Šƒ––Š‡•ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡‹•„‘—†–‘–Š‡
’Žƒ‡–Ǥˆ–Š‡–‘–ƒŽ‡‡”‰›‹•’‘•‹–‹˜‡‘”œ‡”‘ǡ–Š‡‘„Œ‡…–‡•…ƒ’‡•–‘‹ˆ‹‹–›Ǥƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡•ƒ”‡ƒŽ™ƒ›•ƒ–ˆ‹‹–‡
†‹•–ƒ…‡ˆ”‘–Š‡‡ƒ”–Šƒ†Š‡…‡–Š‡‹”‡‡”‰‹‡•…ƒ‘–„‡’‘•‹–‹˜‡‘”œ‡”‘Ǥ


‡‘•–ƒ–‹‘ƒ”›ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡•
ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡•‹ƒ…‹”…—Žƒ”‘”„‹–•ƒ”‘—†–Š‡‡ƒ”–Š‹–Š‡‡“—ƒ–‘”‹ƒŽ’Žƒ‡™‹–Š’‡”‹‘†ǡൌʹͶŠ‘—”•ƒ”‡…ƒŽŽ‡†

‡‘•–ƒ–‹‘‡”›ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡•Ǥ
▪ •–Š‡‡ƒ”–Š”‘–ƒ–‡•™‹–Š–Š‡•ƒ‡’‡”‹‘†ǡ–Š‡•ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡™‘—Ž†ƒ’’‡ƒ”ˆ‹š‡†ˆ”‘ƒ›’‘‹–‘‡ƒ”–ŠǤ
▪
‡‘•–ƒ–‹‘ƒ”›•ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡•ƒ”‡ƒ–ƒŠ‡‹‰Š–‘ˆ‡͵ͷͺͲͲˆ”‘–Š‡•—”ˆƒ…‡‘ˆ‡ƒ”–ŠǤ
▪
‡‘•–ƒ–‹‘ƒ”›•ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡•ƒ”‡™‹†‡Ž›—•‡†ˆ‘”–‡Ž‡…‘—‹…ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ
▪ ‰ǤŠ‡‰”‘—’‘ˆ•ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡••‡–—’„›†‹ƒƒ”‡
‡‘•–ƒ–‹‘ƒ”›•ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡•Ǥ

‘Žƒ”ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡•
ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡•™Š‹…Š”‡˜‘Ž˜‡ƒ”‘—†‡ƒ”–ŠƒŽ‘‰’‘Ž‡•‹ƒ‘”–ŠǦ•‘—–Š†‹”‡…–‹‘ƒ”‡…ƒŽŽ‡†’‘Žƒ”•ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡•Ǥ
▪ Š‡•‡ƒ”‡Ž‘™ƒŽ–‹–—†‡ሺŠൌͷͲͲ–‘ͺͲͲሻ•ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡•Ǥ
▪ ‹…‡‹–•–‹‡’‡”‹‘†‹•ƒ”‘—†ͳͲͲ‹—–‡•‹–…”‘••‡•ƒ›ƒŽ–‹–—†‡ƒ›–‹‡•ƒ†ƒ›Ǥ
▪ Š‡•‡•ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡•…ƒ˜‹‡™’‘Žƒ”ƒ†‡“—ƒ–‘”‹ƒŽ”‡‰‹‘•ƒ–…Ž‘•‡†‹•–ƒ…‡•™‹–Š‰‘‘†”‡•‘Ž—–‹‘Ǥ
▪ ‘Žƒ”•ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡•ƒ”‡—•‡ˆ—Žˆ‘””‡‘–‡•‡•‹‰ǡ‡–‡”‘Ž‘‰›ƒ•™‡ŽŽƒ•ˆ‘”‡˜‹”‘‡–ƒŽ•–—†‹‡•‘ˆ–Š‡
‡ƒ”–ŠǤ
‡‹‰Š–Ž‡••‡••
Š‡ƒ‘„Œ‡…–‹•‹ˆ”‡‡ˆƒŽŽǡ‹–‹•™‡‹‰Š–Ž‡••ƒ†–Š‹•‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†–Š‡’Š‡‘‡‘‘ˆ™‡‹‰Š–Ž‡••‡••Ǥ
ƒ•ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡ƒ”‘—†–Š‡‡ƒ”–Šǡ‡˜‡”›’ƒ”–‘ˆ–Š‡•ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡Šƒ•ƒƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘–‘™ƒ”†•–Š‡…‡–‡”‘ˆ–Š‡‡ƒ”–Š
which is exactly the value of earth’s a……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘†—‡–‘‰”ƒ˜‹–›ƒ––Šƒ–’‘•‹–‹‘ǤŠ—•‹–Š‡•ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡‡˜‡”›–Š‹‰
‹•‹†‡‹–‹•‹ƒ•–ƒ–‡‘ˆˆ”‡‡ˆƒŽŽǤŠ—•ǡ‹ƒƒ‡†•ƒ–‡ŽŽ‹–‡ǡ’‡‘’Ž‡‹•‹†‡‡š’‡”‹‡…‡‘‰”ƒ˜‹–›Ǥ
35

36 Thelima Edu Help Programme | Higher Secondar y National Ser vice Scheme
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Šƒ’–‡”ͻ
‡…Šƒ‹…ƒŽ”‘’‡”–‹‡•‘ˆ‘Ž‹†•
•‘Ž‹†Šƒ•†‡ˆ‹‹–‡•Šƒ’‡ƒ†•‹œ‡Ǥ‘”†‡”–‘…Šƒ‰‡ሺ‘”†‡ˆ‘”ሻ–Š‡•Šƒ’‡‘”•‹œ‡‘ˆƒ„‘†›ǡƒˆ‘”…‡‹•
”‡“—‹”‡†Ǥ
Žƒ•–‹…‹–›
Š‡’”‘’‡”–›‘ˆƒ„‘†›ǡ„›˜‹”–—‡‘ˆ™Š‹…Š‹––‡†•–‘”‡‰ƒ‹‹–•‘”‹‰‹ƒŽ•‹œ‡ƒ†•Šƒ’‡™Š‡–Š‡ƒ’’Ž‹‡†ˆ‘”…‡
‹•”‡‘˜‡†ǡ‹•‘™ƒ•‡Žƒ•–‹…‹–›ƒ†•—…Š•—„•–ƒ…‡•ƒ”‡…ƒŽŽ‡†‡Žƒ•–‹…Ǥ
‰ǣ–‡‡Žǡ—„„‡”
–‡‡Ž‹•‘”‡‡Žƒ•–‹…–Šƒ”—„„‡”Ǥ

Žƒ•–‹…‹–›
‘‡•—„•–ƒ…‡•Šƒ˜‡‘–‡†‡…›–‘”‡‰ƒ‹–Š‡‹”’”‡˜‹‘—••Šƒ’‡‘–Š‡”‡‘˜ƒŽ‘ˆ†‡ˆ‘”‹‰ˆ‘”…‡ƒ†–Š‡›
‰‡–’‡”ƒ‡–Ž›†‡ˆ‘”‡†Ǥ—…Š•—„•–ƒ…‡•ƒ”‡…ƒŽŽ‡†’Žƒ•–‹…ƒ†–Š‹•’”‘’‡”–›‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†’Žƒ•–‹…‹–›Ǥ
‰ǣ—––›ƒ†—†
–”‡••
Š‡”‡•–‘”‹‰ˆ‘”…‡’‡”—‹–ƒ”‡ƒ‹•‘™ƒ••–”‡••Ǥ
ˆ ‹•–Š‡ˆ‘”…‡ƒ’’Ž‹‡†ƒ†‹•–Š‡ƒ”‡ƒ‘ˆ…”‘•••‡…–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡„‘†›ǡ
𝑭𝑭
–”‡••ൌ 
𝑨𝑨
Š‡—‹–‘ˆ•–”‡••‹•𝑚𝑚−2‘”’ƒ•…ƒŽሺƒሻ
‹‡•‹‘ƒŽˆ‘”—Žƒ‘ˆ•–”‡••‹•ሾ𝐿𝐿−1 𝑇𝑇 −2ሿ
–”ƒ‹
–”ƒ‹‹•†‡ˆ‹‡†ƒ•–Š‡ˆ”ƒ…–‹‘ƒŽ…Šƒ‰‡‹†‹‡•‹‘Ǥ
𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝
–”ƒ‹ൌ 
𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝
–”ƒ‹Šƒ•‘—‹–ƒ††‹‡•‹‘Ǥ

Š‡”‡ƒ”‡–Š”‡‡™ƒ›•‹™Š‹…Šƒ•‘Ž‹†ƒ›…Šƒ‰‡‹–•†‹‡•‹‘•™Š‡ƒ‡š–‡”ƒŽˆ‘”…‡ƒ…–•‘‹–Ǥ•ƒ”‡•—Ž–
–Š‡”‡ƒ”‡–Š”‡‡–›’‡•‘ˆ•–”‡••ƒ†•–”ƒ‹Ǥ
ͳǤ ‘‰‹–—†‹ƒŽ–”‡••ƒ†‘‰‹–—†‹ƒŽ–”ƒ‹
ʹǤ Š‡ƒ”‹‰–”‡••ƒ†Š‡ƒ”‹‰–”ƒ‹
͵Ǥ ›†”ƒ—Ž‹…–”‡••ƒ†›†”ƒ—Ž‹…–”ƒ‹ሺ‘Ž—‡–”ƒ‹ሻ
ͳǤ‘‰‹–—†‹ƒŽ–”‡••ƒ†‘‰‹–—†‹ƒŽ–”ƒ‹ 

 
▪ ‘‰‹–—†‹ƒŽ•–”‡••‹•†‡ˆ‹‡†ƒ•–Š‡”‡•–‘”‹‰ˆ‘”…‡’‡”—‹–ƒ”‡ƒ™Š‡ˆ‘”…‡‹•ƒ’’Ž‹‡†‘”ƒŽ–‘–Š‡
…”‘••Ǧ•‡…–‹‘ƒŽƒ”‡ƒ‘ˆƒ…›Ž‹†‡”Ǥ
𝑭𝑭
‘‰‹–—†‹ƒŽ•–”‡••ൌ 
𝑨𝑨
ˆ–Š‡…›Ž‹†‡”‹••–”‡–…Š‡†–Š‡•–”‡••‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†–‡•‹Ž‡•–”‡••ƒ†ˆ–Š‡…›Ž‹†‡”‹•…‘’”‡••‡†
‹–‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†…‘’”‡••‹˜‡•–”‡••Ǥ
▪ ‘‰‹–—†‹ƒŽ•–”ƒ‹‹•†‡ˆ‹‡†ƒ•–Š‡”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆchange in length(ΔL) to original length(L) of bodyǤ
𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥
‘‰‹–—†‹ƒŽ•–”ƒ‹ൌ 
𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥
𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫
‘‰‹–—†‹ƒŽ•–”ƒ‹ൌ 𝑳𝑳 

ʹǤŠ‡ƒ”‹‰–”‡••ƒ†Š‡ƒ”‹‰–”ƒ‹

 
36

Thelima Edu Help Programme | Higher Secondar y National Ser vice Scheme 37
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▪ Š‡ƒ”‹‰•–”‡••‹•†‡ˆ‹‡†ƒ•–Š‡”‡•–‘”‹‰ˆ‘”…‡’‡”—‹–ƒ”‡ƒ™Š‡ƒ–ƒ‰‡–‹ƒŽˆ‘”…‡‹•ƒ’’Ž‹‡†‘–Š‡
…›Ž‹†‡”Ǥ
𝐅𝐅
Š‡ƒ”‹‰•–”‡••ൌ 𝐀𝐀
▪ Š‡ƒ”‹‰•–”ƒ‹‹•defined as the ratio of relative displacement of the faces Δx to the length of the
…›Ž‹†‡”
𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫
Š‡ƒ”‹‰•–”ƒ‹ൌ 𝑳𝑳 ൌ–ƒθ
•—ƒŽŽ›θ is very small, tan θ ≈θ

Shearing strain = θ

͵Ǥ›†”ƒ—Ž‹…–”‡••ƒ†›†”ƒ—Ž‹…•–”ƒ‹ሺ‘Ž—‡–”ƒ‹ሻ

 
Š‡ƒ•‘Ž‹†•’Š‡”‡’Žƒ…‡†‹–Š‡ˆŽ—‹†ǡ–Š‡ˆ‘”…‡ƒ’’Ž‹‡†„›–Š‡ˆŽ—‹†ƒ…–•‹’‡”’‡†‹…—Žƒ”†‹”‡…–‹‘ƒ–‡ƒ…Š
’‘‹–‘ˆ–Š‡•—”ˆƒ…‡Ǥ
▪ Š‡Š›†”ƒ—Ž‹…•–”‡••‹‡†‡ˆ‹‡†ƒ•–Š‡”‡•–‘”‹‰ˆ‘”…‡’‡”—‹–ƒ”‡ƒ‘ˆ•‘Ž‹†•’Š‡”‡ǡ’Žƒ…‡†‹–Š‡ˆŽ—‹†Ǥ
𝐅𝐅
›†”ƒ—Ž‹…•–”‡••ൌ𝐀𝐀ൌǦሺ’”‡••—”‡ሻ
Š‡‡‰ƒ–‹˜‡•‹‰‹†‹…ƒ–‡•–Šƒ–™Š‡’”‡••—”‡‹…”‡ƒ•‡•ǡ–Š‡˜‘Ž—‡†‡…”‡ƒ•‡•Ǥ
▪ ›†”ƒ—Ž‹…•–”ƒ‹ሺ‘Ž—‡•–”ƒ‹ሻ)is defined as the ratio of change in volume (ΔV) to the original volume
ሺሻǤ
𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯
‘Ž—‡•–”ƒ‹= 
𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎 𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯
𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫
‘Ž—‡•–”ƒ‹= 
𝐕𝐕

Hooke’s Law
‘”•ƒŽŽ†‡ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘•–Š‡•–”‡••‹•†‹”‡…–Ž›’”‘’‘”–‹‘ƒŽ–‘strain. This is known as Hooke’•Žƒ™Ǥ
–”‡••∝–”ƒ‹
•–”‡••ൌൈ•–”ƒ‹
𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒
 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 = 𝐤𝐤™Š‡”‡‹•ƒ…‘•–ƒ–ƒ†‹•‘™ƒ•‘†—Ž—•‘ˆŽƒ•–‹…‹–›Ǥ

▪ Š‡—‹–‘ˆ‘†—Ž—•‘ˆ‡Žƒ•–‹…‹–›‹•𝑚𝑚−2‘”’ƒ•…ƒŽሺƒሻ
ሺ•ƒ‡ƒ•–Šƒ–‘ˆ•–”‡••ǡ•‹…‡•–”ƒ‹‹•—‹–Ž‡••ሻ
▪ ‹‡•‹‘ƒŽˆ‘”—Žƒ‹•ሾL−1 T −2ሿ

–”‡••Ǧ–”ƒ‹—”˜‡
–›’‹…ƒŽ•–”‡••Ǧ•–”ƒ‹…—”˜‡ˆ‘”ƒ‡–ƒŽ‹•ƒ••Š‘™‹ˆ‹‰—”‡ǣ

 
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–Š‡”‡‰‹‘ˆ”‘–‘
▪ Š‡…—”˜‡‹•Ž‹‡ƒ”Ǥ–Š‹•”‡‰‹‘ǡ•–”‡••‹•’”‘’‘”–‹‘ƒŽ–‘•–”ƒ‹Ǥ
▪ Hooke’s law is obeyed.
▪ Š‡’‘‹–‘–Š‡…—”˜‡‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†’”‘’‘”–‹‘ƒŽŽ‹‹–Ǥ

–Š‡”‡‰‹‘ˆ”‘–‘
▪ –”‡••ƒ†•–”ƒ‹ƒ”‡‘–’”‘’‘”–‹‘ƒŽǤ
▪ Hooke’s law is not obeyed. 
▪ ‡˜‡”–Š‡Ž‡••ǡ–Š‡„‘†›‹••–‹ŽŽ‡Žƒ•–‹…Ǥ
▪ Š‡’‘‹–‹–Š‡…—”˜‡‹•‘™ƒ•›‹‡Ž†’‘‹–‘”‡Žƒ•–‹…Ž‹‹–Ǥ
▪ Š‡•–”‡••…‘””‡•’‘†‹‰–‘›‹‡Ž†’‘‹–‹•‘™ƒ•›‹‡Ž†•–”‡‰–Šሺ𝑺𝑺𝒚𝒚 ሻ‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽǤ
–Š‡”‡‰‹‘ˆ”‘–‘
▪ ‡›‘†–Š‡’‘‹–ǡ–Š‡•–”ƒ‹‹…”‡ƒ•‡•”ƒ’‹†Ž›‡˜‡ˆ‘”ƒ•ƒŽŽ…Šƒ‰‡‹–Š‡•–”‡••ǤŠ‡–Š‡Ž‘ƒ†‹•
”‡‘˜‡†ǡƒ–•‘‡’‘‹–„‡–™‡‡ƒ†ǡ–Š‡„‘†›†‘‡•‘–”‡‰ƒ‹‹–•‘”‹‰‹ƒŽ†‹‡•‹‘Ǥ
▪ Š‡ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ‹••ƒ‹†–‘Šƒ˜‡ƒ’‡”ƒ‡–•‡–ǤŠ‡ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ•Š‘™•’Žƒ•–‹…„‡Šƒ˜‹‘—”‹–Š‹•”‡‰‹‘Ǥ
▪ Š‡’‘‹–‘–Š‡‰”ƒ’Š‹•–Š‡—Ž–‹ƒ–‡–‡•‹Ž‡•–”‡‰–Šሺ𝑺𝑺𝒖𝒖 ሻ‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽǤ

–Š‡”‡‰‹‘ˆ”‘–‘
▪ ‡›‘†–Š‹•’‘‹–ǡƒ††‹–‹‘ƒŽ•–”ƒ‹‹•’”‘†—…‡†‡˜‡„›ƒ”‡†—…‡†ƒ’’Ž‹‡†ˆ‘”…‡ƒ†ˆ”ƒ…–—”‡‘……—”•
ƒ–’‘‹–Ǥ
▪ Š‡’‘‹–‹•…ƒŽŽ‡† ”ƒ…–—”‡‘‹–Ǥ
▪ ˆ–Š‡—Ž–‹ƒ–‡•–”‡‰–Šƒ†ˆ”ƒ…–—”‡’‘‹–•ƒ†ƒ”‡…Ž‘•‡ǡ–Š‡ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ‹••ƒ‹†–‘„‡„”‹––Ž‡Ǥ
▪ ˆƒ†ƒ”‡ˆƒ”ƒ’ƒ”–ǡ–Š‡ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ‹••ƒ‹†–‘„‡†—…–‹Ž‡Ǥ
Žƒ•–‘‡”•
—„•–ƒ…‡•Ž‹‡–‹••—‡‘ˆƒ‘”–ƒǡ”—„„‡”‡–…Ǥ™Š‹…Š…ƒ„‡•–”‡–…Š‡†–‘…ƒ—•‡Žƒ”‰‡•–”ƒ‹•ƒ”‡…ƒŽŽ‡†‡Žƒ•–‘‡”•Ǥ

Žƒ•–‹…‘†—Ž‹
Š‡”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ•–”‡••ƒ†•–”ƒ‹ǡ…ƒŽŽ‡†‘†—Ž—•‘ˆ‡Žƒ•–‹…‹–›Ǥ‡’‡†‹‰—’‘–Š‡–›’‡•‘ˆ•–”‡••ƒ†•–”ƒ‹–Š‡”‡
ƒ”‡–Š”‡‡‘†—Ž‹‘ˆ‡Žƒ•–‹…‹–›Ǥ
ͳǤ Young’s Modulus(Y)
ʹǤ Š‡ƒ”‘†—Ž—•‘”‹‰‹†‹–›‘†—Ž—•ሺ
ሻ
͵Ǥ —Ž‘†—Ž—•ሺሻ

1.Young’s Modulus(Y)
Š‡”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆlongitudinal stress to longitudinal strain is defined as Young’s modulus of the material .
longitudinal stress
ൌ longitudinal strain 
F

ൌ A
ΔL 
L

𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅
ൌ 
𝐀𝐀 𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫

ˆ ൌ‰ƒ†ൌπr 2 
𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦
ൌ 
𝛑𝛑𝐫𝐫 𝟐𝟐 𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫

▪ SI unit of Young’s modulus is𝑚𝑚−2‘”ƒǤ

▪ For metals Young’s moduli are large.
▪ Steel is more elastic than rubber as the Young’s modulus of steel is large.
▪ Wood, bone, concrete and glass have rather small Young’s moduli.

Š›•–‡‡Ž‹•’”‡ˆ‡””‡†‹Š‡ƒ˜›Ǧ†—–›ƒ…Š‹‡•ƒ†‹•–”—…–—”ƒŽ†‡•‹‰•ǫ
‘—g’s modulus of steel is greater than that of copper, brass and aluminium. It means that steel is more
‡Žƒ•–‹…–Šƒ…‘’’‡”ǡ„”ƒ••ƒ†ƒŽ—‹‹—Ǥ–‹•ˆ‘”–Š‹•”‡ƒ•‘–Šƒ–•–‡‡Ž‹•’”‡ˆ‡””‡†‹Š‡ƒ˜›Ǧ†—–›ƒ…Š‹‡•
ƒ†‹•–”—…–—”ƒŽ†‡•‹‰•Ǥ
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ʹǤŠ‡ƒ”‘†—Ž—•‘”‹‰‹†‹–›‘†—Ž—•ሺ
ሻ
Š‡”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ•Š‡ƒ”‹‰•–”‡••–‘–Š‡…‘””‡•’‘†‹‰•Š‡ƒ”‹‰•–”ƒ‹‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†–Š‡•Š‡ƒ”‘†—Ž—•‘”‹‰‹†‹–›
‘†—Ž—•‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽǤ
Shearing stress

ൌ 
Shearing strain
𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹

= 𝐴𝐴
Δx ൌ 𝐴𝐴

𝜃𝜃
𝐿𝐿
𝑭𝑭

ൌ 
𝐀𝐀 𝜽𝜽
▪ —‹–‘ˆ•Š‡ƒ”‘†—Ž—•‹•𝑚𝑚−2‘”ƒǤ
▪ Shear modulus is generally less than Young’s modulus.
▪ ‘”most materials G ≈ Y/3

͵Ǥ—Ž‘†—Ž—•ሺሻ
Š‡”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆŠ›†”ƒ—Ž‹…•–”‡••–‘–Š‡…‘””‡•’‘†‹‰Š›†”ƒ—Ž‹…•–”ƒ‹‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†„—Ž‘†—Ž—•Ǥ
Hydraulic stress
ൌ 
Hydraulic strain

F
−P
= A
ΔV ൌ ΔV 
V V

−𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏
ൌ 
𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫

▪ —‹–‘ˆ—Ž‘†—Ž—•‹•𝑚𝑚−2‘”ƒǤ
▪ Š‡‡‰ƒ–‹˜‡•‹‰‹†‹…ƒ–‡•–Šƒ–™Š‡’”‡••—”‡‹…”‡ƒ•‡•ǡ–Š‡˜‘Ž—‡†‡…”‡ƒ•‡•ǤŠƒ–‹•ǡ‹ˆ’‹•’‘•‹–‹˜‡ǡ
ΔV is negative.
▪ ‘”ƒ•›•–‡‹‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—ǡ–Š‡˜ƒŽ—‡‘ˆ„—Ž‘†—Ž—•‹•ƒŽ™ƒ›•’‘•‹–‹˜‡Ǥ

‘’”‡••‹„‹Ž‹–›ሺሻ
Š‡”‡…‹’”‘…ƒŽ‘ˆ–Š‡„—Ž‘†—Ž—•‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†…‘’”‡••‹„‹Ž‹–›Ǥ
1
ൌ 
B
−𝟏𝟏 𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫
ൌ 
𝐏𝐏 𝐕𝐕
▪ Š‡„—Ž‘†—Ž‹ˆ‘”•‘Ž‹†•ƒ”‡—…ŠŽƒ”‰‡”–Šƒˆ‘”Ž‹“—‹†•ǡ™Š‹…Šƒ”‡ƒ‰ƒ‹—…ŠŽƒ”‰‡”–Šƒ–Š‡„—Ž
‘†—Ž—•ˆ‘”‰ƒ•‡•ሺƒ‹”ሻǤ
▪ Š—••‘Ž‹†•ƒ”‡Ž‡ƒ•–…‘’”‡••‹„Ž‡™Š‡”‡ƒ•‰ƒ•‡•ƒ”‡‘•–…‘’”‡••‹„Ž‡Ǥ

Poisson’s ratio
Š‡ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain is called Poisson’s ratio.
Lateral Strain
Poisson’s Ratio σ = Longitudnal Strain
∆d
σ = d
∆L 
L
∆𝐝𝐝 𝐋𝐋
𝛔𝛔 = ∆𝐋𝐋 𝐱𝐱 𝐝𝐝
Poisson′ s ratio has no unit and dimension. 
’’Ž‹…ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆŽƒ•–‹…‡Šƒ˜‹‘—”‘ˆƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ•
ͳǤ”ƒ‡•—•‡†ˆ‘”Ž‹ˆ–‹‰ƒ†‘˜‹‰Š‡ƒ˜›Ž‘ƒ†•Šƒ˜‡ƒ–Š‹…‡–ƒŽ”‘’‡ǤŠ‹•‹•†—‡–‘–Š‡ˆƒ…––Šƒ–‡–ƒŽ•
Šƒ˜‡‰”‡ƒ–‡”›‘—‰•‘†—Ž—•Ǥ

Ž•‘ǡ–Š‡‡Ž‘‰ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡”‘’‡•Š‘—Ž†‘–‡š…‡‡†–Š‡‡Žƒ•–‹…Ž‹‹–Ǥ ‘”–Š‹•–Š‹…‡””‘’‡‘ˆ”ƒ†‹—•ƒ„‘—–͵…‹•
”‡…‘‡†‡†Ǥ•‹‰Ž‡™‹”‡‘ˆ–Š‹•”ƒ†‹—•™‘—Ž†’”ƒ…–‹…ƒŽŽ›„‡ƒ”‹‰‹†”‘†Ǥ‘–Š‡”‘’‡•ƒ”‡ƒŽ™ƒ›•ƒ†‡‘ˆƒ
—„‡”‘ˆ–Š‹™‹”‡•„”ƒ‹†‡†–‘‰‡–Š‡”ǡŽ‹‡‹’‹‰–ƒ‹Ž•ǡˆ‘”‡ƒ•‡‹ƒ—ˆƒ…–—”‡ǡˆŽ‡š‹„‹Ž‹–›ƒ†•–”‡‰–ŠǤ
ʹǤŠ‡ƒš‹—Š‡‹‰Š–‘ˆƒ‘—–ƒ‹‘‡ƒ”–Š‹•̱ͳͲǤŠ‡Š‡‹‰Š–‹•Ž‹‹–‡†„›–Š‡‡Žƒ•–‹…’”‘’‡”–‹‡•‘ˆ
”‘…•Ǥ

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͵Ǥ–Š‡…‘•–”—…–‹‘‘ˆ„”‹†‰‡•ƒ†„—‹Ž†‹‰•ǡ–Š‡„‡ƒ••Š‘—Ž†‘–„‡†–‘‘—…Š‘”„”‡ƒǤ‘”‡†—…‡–Š‡
bending for a given load, a material with a large Young’s modulus Y i•—•‡†Ǥ

 
„‡ƒ‘ˆŽ‡‰–ŠŽǡ„”‡ƒ†–Š„ǡƒ††‡’–Š†™Š‡Ž‘ƒ†‡†ƒ––Š‡…‡–”‡„›ƒŽ‘ƒ†•ƒ‰•„›ƒƒ‘—–‰‹˜‡„›
𝐖𝐖 𝒍𝒍𝟑𝟑
δ = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝒅𝒅𝟑𝟑𝒀𝒀
For a given load, the bending reduces when a material with a large Young’s modulus Y is used.Bending can also
„‡”‡†—…‡†„›‹…”‡ƒ•‹‰–Š‡„”‡ƒ†–Š„ǡƒ††‡’–Š†‘ˆ–Š‡„‡ƒǤ

—…Ž‹‰
‡†‹‰…ƒ„‡‡ˆˆ‡…–‹˜‡Ž›”‡†—…‡†„›‹…”‡ƒ•‹‰–Š‡†‡’–Š†‘ˆ–Š‡„‡ƒǤ—–‘‹…”‡ƒ•‹‰–Š‡†‡’–Šǡ—Ž‡••
–Š‡Ž‘ƒ†‹•‡šƒ…–Ž›ƒ––Š‡”‹‰Š–’Žƒ…‡ǡ–Š‡†‡‡’„ƒ”ƒ›„‡†•‹†‡™‹•‡ሺƒ•‹ˆ‹‰—”‡ሻǤŠ‹•‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†„—…Ž‹‰Ǥ

 
‘ƒ˜‘‹†„—…Ž‹‰ǡ„‡ƒ•™‹–Š…”‘••Ǧ•‡…–‹‘ƒŽ•Šƒ’‡‘ˆ‹•—•‡†Ǥ

 
▪ Š‹••‡…–‹‘’”‘˜‹†‡•ƒŽƒ”‰‡Ž‘ƒ†„‡ƒ”‹‰•—”ˆƒ…‡ƒ†‡‘—‰Š†‡’–Š–‘’”‡˜‡–„‡†‹‰Ǥ
▪ Š‹••Šƒ’‡”‡†—…‡•–Š‡™‡‹‰Š–‘ˆ–Š‡„‡ƒ™‹–Š‘—–•ƒ…”‹ˆ‹…‹‰–Š‡•–”‡‰–ŠǤ
▪ Š‹••Šƒ’‡”‡†—…‡•–Š‡…‘•–Ǥ




















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Šƒ’–‡”ͳͲ
‡…Šƒ‹…ƒŽ”‘’‡”–‹‡•‘ˆ Ž—‹†•
‹“—‹†•ƒ†‰ƒ•‡•…ƒˆŽ‘™ƒ†ƒ”‡–Š‡”‡ˆ‘”‡ǡ…ƒŽŽ‡†ˆŽ—‹†•Ǥ
Š‡ˆŽ—‹††‘‡•‘–Šƒ˜‡ƒ›”‡•‹•–ƒ…‡–‘…Šƒ‰‡‘ˆ‹–••Šƒ’‡ǤŠ—•ǡ–Š‡•Šƒ’‡‘ˆƒˆŽ—‹†‹•‰‘˜‡”‡†„›–Š‡•Šƒ’‡
‘ˆ‹–•…‘–ƒ‹‡”Ǥ
ƒ•‹…†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡„‡–™‡‡‹“—‹†•ƒ†
ƒ•‡•
Ž‹“—‹†‹•‹…‘’”‡••‹„Ž‡ƒ†Šƒ•ƒˆ”‡‡•—”ˆƒ…‡‘ˆ‹–•‘™Ǥ‰ƒ•‹•…‘’”‡••‹„Ž‡ƒ†‹–‡š’ƒ†•–‘‘……—’›ƒŽŽ
–Š‡•’ƒ…‡ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡–‘‹–Ǥ
ƒ•Šƒ•‘ˆ”‡‡•—”ˆƒ…‡Ǥ
”‡••—”‡
Š‡‘”ƒŽˆ‘”…‡ሺ ሻ‡š‡”–‡†„›ƒˆŽ—‹†‘ƒƒ”‡ƒ‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†’”‡••—”‡Ǥ
𝐅𝐅
”‡••—”‡ǡൌ 
𝐀𝐀
▪ ”‡••—”‡‹•ƒ•…ƒŽƒ”“—ƒ–‹–›Ǥ
▪ –•—‹–‹•m−2 or pascal (Pa)
…‘‘—‹–‘ˆ’”‡••—”‡‹•–Š‡ƒ–‘•’Š‡”‡ሺƒ–ሻǤ–‹•–Š‡’”‡••—”‡‡š‡”–‡†„›–Š‡ƒ–‘•’Š‡”‡ƒ–•‡ƒŽ‡˜‡ŽǤ
ͳƒ–ൌͳǤͲͳ͵ൈ𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟓 ƒǤ
‡•‹–›
Density ρ for a fluid of mass m occupying volume V is given by
𝐦𝐦
ρ = 
𝐕𝐕
▪ –‹•ƒ’‘•‹–‹˜‡•…ƒŽƒ”“—ƒ–‹–›Ǥ
▪ –•—‹–‹•‰m−3Ǥ
▪ Š‡†‹‡•‹‘•‘ˆ†‡•‹–›ƒ”‡ሾL−3 ሿǤ
▪ Š‡†‡•‹–›‘ˆ™ƒ–‡”ƒ–𝟒𝟒𝟎𝟎 ሺʹ͹͹ሻ‹•ͳͲͲͲ‰𝐦𝐦−𝟑𝟑 Ǥ
▪ Ž‹“—‹†‹•‹…‘’”‡••‹„Ž‡ƒ†‹–•†‡•‹–›‹•–Š‡”‡ˆ‘”‡ǡ‡ƒ”Ž›…‘•–ƒ–ƒ–ƒŽŽ’”‡••—”‡•Ǥ
▪
ƒ•‡•ǡ‘–Š‡‘–Š‡”Šƒ†‡šŠ‹„‹–ƒŽƒ”‰‡˜ƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘‹†‡•‹–‹‡•™‹–Š’”‡••—”‡Ǥ
‡Žƒ–‹˜‡‡•‹–›
Š‡”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡†‡•‹–›‘ˆƒ•—„•–ƒ…‡‹•–Š‡”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ‹–•†‡•‹–›–‘–Š‡†‡•‹–›‘ˆ™ƒ–‡”ƒ–40 Ǥ
𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬
‡Žƒ–‹˜‡†‡•‹–›ൌ 𝟎𝟎 
𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝟒𝟒 𝐂𝐂
–‹•ƒ†‹‡•‹‘Ž‡••’‘•‹–‹˜‡•…ƒŽƒ”“—ƒ–‹–›Ǥ

ƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ”‡••—”‡™‹–Š‡’–Š 

 
ˆŽ—‹†‹•ƒ–”‡•–‹ƒ…‘–ƒ‹‡”Ǥ‘•‹†‡”ƒ…›Ž‹†”‹…ƒŽ‡Ž‡‡–‘ˆˆŽ—‹†Šƒ˜‹‰ƒ”‡ƒ‘ˆ„ƒ•‡ƒ†Š‡‹‰Š–ŠǤ
‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—ǡ–Š‡”‡•—Ž–ƒ–˜‡”–‹…ƒŽˆ‘”…‡••Š‘—Ž†„‡„ƒŽƒ…‡†Ǥ
P2 AൌP1 A൅‰
P2 AǦP1 Aൌ‰
(P2 ǦP1 )Aൌ‰
—–ൌρVǡൌŠǡm=ρhA
(P2 ǦP1 )AൌρhA‰
P2 ǦP1 ൌρ‰Š
ˆ–Š‡’‘‹–ͳƒ––Š‡–‘’‘ˆ–Š‡ˆŽ—‹†ǡ™Š‹…Š‹•‘’‡–‘–Š‡ƒ–‘•’Š‡”‡ǡP1 ƒ›„‡”‡’Žƒ…‡†„›ƒ–‘•’Š‡”‹…
’”‡••—”‡ሺPa )ƒ†™‡”‡’Žƒ…‡P2 „›

ƒ—‰‡’”‡••—”‡ǡ 𝐏𝐏Ǧ𝐏𝐏𝐚𝐚 ൌρ‰Š

Š‡‡š…‡••‘ˆ’”‡••—”‡ǡPǦPa ǡƒ–†‡’–ŠŠ‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†ƒ‰ƒ—‰‡’”‡••—”‡ƒ––Šƒ–’‘‹–Ǥ
„•‘Ž—–‡”‡••—”‡ǡ𝐏𝐏ൌ𝐏𝐏𝐚𝐚 ൅ρ‰Š

Š—•ǡ–Š‡ƒ„•‘Ž—–‡’”‡••—”‡ǡƒ–†‡’–Š„‡Ž‘™–Š‡•—”ˆƒ…‡‘ˆƒŽ‹“—‹†‘’‡–‘–Š‡ƒ–‘•’Š‡”‡‹•‰”‡ƒ–‡”–Šƒ
atmospheric pressure by an amount ρgh.

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›†”‘•–ƒ–‹…’ƒ”ƒ†‘š

 
Š‡ƒ„•‘Ž—–‡’”‡••—”‡†‡’‡†•‘–Š‡Š‡‹‰Š–‘ˆ–Š‡ˆŽ—‹†…‘Ž—ƒ†‘–‘…”‘•••‡…–‹‘ƒŽ‘”„ƒ•‡ƒ”‡ƒ‘”–Š‡
•Šƒ’‡‘ˆ–Š‡…‘–ƒ‹‡”ǤŠ‡Ž‹“—‹†’”‡••—”‡‹•–Š‡•ƒ‡ƒ–ƒŽŽ’‘‹–•ƒ––Š‡•ƒ‡Š‘”‹œ‘–ƒŽŽ‡˜‡Žሺ•ƒ‡†‡’–ŠሻǤ
Š‡”‡•—Ž–‹•ƒ’’”‡…‹ƒ–‡†–Š”‘—‰Š–Š‡‡šƒ’Ž‡‘ˆŠ›†”‘•–ƒ–‹…’ƒ”ƒ†‘šǤ

–‘•’Š‡”‹…”‡••—”‡
–‹•–Š‡’”‡••—”‡‡š‡”–‡†„›–Š‡ƒ–‘•’Š‡”‡ƒ–•‡ƒŽ‡˜‡ŽǤ
Š‡’”‡••—”‡‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ–‘•’Š‡”‡ƒ–ƒ›’‘‹–‹•‡“—ƒŽ–‘–Š‡™‡‹‰Š–‘ˆƒ…‘Ž—‘ˆƒ‹”‘ˆ—‹–…”‘•••‡…–‹‘ƒŽƒ”‡ƒ
‡š–‡†‹‰ˆ”‘–Šƒ–’‘‹––‘–Š‡–‘’‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ–‘•’Š‡”‡Ǥ
ͳƒ–ൌͳǤͲͳ͵ൈ𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟓 ƒ

‡”…—”›„ƒ”‘‡–‡”
‡”…—”›„ƒ”‘‡–‡”‹•—•‡†–‘‡ƒ•—”‡–‘•’Š‡”‹…”‡••—”‡Ǥ–ƒŽ‹ƒ•…‹‡–‹•–˜ƒ‰‡Ž‹•–ƒ‘””‹…‡ŽŽ‹†‡˜‹•‡†
‡”…—”›„ƒ”‘‡–‡”Ǥ

Š‡’”‡••—”‡ƒ–’‘‹–ൌŠ‡’”‡••—”‡ƒ–’‘‹–Ǥ
”‡••—”‡ƒ–ൌPa ሺƒ–‘•’Š‡”‹…’”‡••—”‡ሻ
Pressure at A = ρgh
Pa =ρgh
™here ρ is the density of mercury and h is–Š‡Š‡‹‰Š–‘ˆ–Š‡‡”…—”›
…‘Ž—‹–Š‡–—„‡Ǥ
–•‡ƒŽ‡˜‡ŽŠൌ͹͸…ƒ†‹•‡“—‹˜ƒŽ‡––‘ͳƒ–Ǥ

’‡Ǧ–—„‡ƒ‘‡–‡”
‘’‡Ǧ–—„‡ƒ‘‡–‡”‹•ƒ—•‡†ˆ‘”‡ƒ•—”‹‰
—ƒ‰‡’”‡••—”‡‘”’”‡••—”‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡•Ǥ

 Š‡’”‡••—”‡ƒ–ൌ’”‡••—”‡ƒ–’‘‹–
 ൌPa ൅ρ‰Š
 Ǧ𝐏𝐏𝐚𝐚 ൌρ‰Š
 Š‡‰ƒ—‰‡’”‡••—”‡‹•’”‘’‘”–‹‘ƒŽ–‘ƒ‘‡–‡”Š‡‹‰Š–ŠǤ



Pascal’s law for transmission of fluid pressure
Š‡‡˜‡”‡š–‡”ƒŽ’”‡••—”‡‹•ƒ’’Ž‹‡†‘ƒ›’ƒ”–‘ˆƒˆŽ—‹†…‘–ƒ‹‡†‹ƒ˜‡••‡Žǡ‹–‹•–”ƒ•‹––‡†
—†‹‹‹•Š‡†ƒ†‡“—ƒŽŽ›‹ƒŽŽ†‹”‡…–‹‘•Ǥ

Applications of Pascal’s law
ͳǤ›†”ƒ—Ž‹…Ž‹ˆ–

 


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Š‡’”‡••—”‡‘•ƒŽŽ‡”’‹•–‘
F
ൌ A1 ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͳሻ
1
Š‹•’”‡••—”‡‹•–”ƒ•‹––‡†‡“—ƒŽŽ›–‘–Š‡Žƒ”‰‡”…›Ž‹†‡”™‹–ŠƒŽƒ”‰‡”’‹•–‘‘ˆƒ”‡ƒ A2 ’”‘†—…‹‰ƒ—’™ƒ”†
ˆ‘”…‡F2 Ǥ
F
ൌ 2 ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺʹሻ
A2
F F2
 ”‘‡“ሺͳሻƒ†ሺʹሻA1 = A2

1
𝐀𝐀𝟐𝟐
𝐅𝐅𝟐𝟐 = 𝐅𝐅𝟏𝟏 𝐀𝐀𝟏𝟏


A
Š—•ǡ–Š‡ƒ’’Ž‹‡†ˆ‘”…‡Šƒ•„‡‡‹…”‡ƒ•‡†„›ƒˆƒ…–‘”‘ˆA2 ƒ†–Š‹•ˆƒ…–‘”‹•–Š‡‡…Šƒ‹…ƒŽƒ†˜ƒ–ƒ‰‡‘ˆ–Š‡
1
†‡˜‹…‡Ǥ

ʹǤ›†”ƒ—Ž‹…„”ƒ‡•
Š‡™‡ƒ’’Ž›ƒˆ‘”…‡‘–Š‡’‡†ƒŽ™‹–Š‘—”ˆ‘‘––Š‡ƒ•–‡”’‹•–‘‘˜‡•‹•‹†‡–Š‡ƒ•–‡”…›Ž‹†‡”ǡƒ†–Š‡
’”‡••—”‡…ƒ—•‡†‹•–”ƒ•‹––‡†–Š”‘—‰Š–Š‡„”ƒ‡‘‹Ž–‘ƒ…–‘ƒ’‹•–‘‘ˆŽƒ”‰‡”ƒ”‡ƒǤ
Š‡’”‡••—”‡•‡–—’„›’”‡••‹‰’‡†ƒŽ‹•–”ƒ•‹––‡†‡“—ƒŽŽ›–‘ƒŽŽ…›Ž‹†‡”•ƒ––ƒ…Š‡†–‘–Š‡ˆ‘—”™Š‡‡Ž••‘–Šƒ–
–Š‡„”ƒ‹‰‡ˆˆ‘”–‹•‡“—ƒŽ‘ƒŽŽ™Š‡‡Ž•Ǥ

–”‡ƒŽ‹‡ Ž‘™ሺ–‡ƒ†› Ž‘™ሻ

Š‡•–—†›‘ˆ–Š‡ˆŽ—‹†•‹‘–‹‘‹•‘™ƒ•ˆŽ—‹††›ƒ‹…•Ǥ
Š‡ˆŽ‘™‘ˆ–Š‡ˆŽ—‹†‹••ƒ‹†–‘„‡•–‡ƒ†›‹ˆƒ–ƒ›‰‹˜‡’‘‹–ǡ–Š‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‘ˆ‡ƒ…Š’ƒ••‹‰ˆŽ—‹†’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡”‡ƒ‹•
…‘•–ƒ–‹–‹‡Ǥ
▪ Š‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‘ˆƒ’ƒ”–‹…—Žƒ”’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡ƒ›…Šƒ‰‡ƒ•‹–‘˜‡•ˆ”‘‘‡’‘‹––‘ƒ‘–Š‡”Ǥ
▪ Š‡’ƒ–Š–ƒ‡„›ƒˆŽ—‹†’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡—†‡”ƒ•–‡ƒ†›ˆŽ‘™‹•ƒ•–”‡ƒŽ‹‡Ǥ
▪ –”‡ƒŽ‹‡‹•†‡ˆ‹‡†ƒ•ƒ…—”˜‡™Š‘•‡–ƒ‰‡–ƒ–ƒ›’‘‹–‹•‹–Š‡†‹”‡…–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡ˆŽ—‹†˜‡Ž‘…‹–›ƒ–
–Šƒ–’‘‹–Ǥ

 
▪ ‘–™‘•–”‡ƒŽ‹‡•…ƒ…”‘••ǡˆ‘”‹ˆ–Š‡›†‘ǡƒ‘…‘‹‰ˆŽ—‹†’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡…ƒ‰‘‡‹–Š‡”‘‡™ƒ›‘”–Š‡
‘–Š‡”ƒ†–Š‡ˆŽ‘™™‘—Ž†‘–„‡•–‡ƒ†›Ǥ

“—ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ‘–‹—‹–›

 
Š‡ƒ••‘ˆŽ‹“—‹†ˆŽ‘™‹‰‘—–ൌŠ‡ƒ••‘ˆŽ‹“—‹†ˆŽ‘™‹‰‹
ρP AP vP Δt = ρQ AQ vQ Δt = ρR AR vR Δt
ˆ–Š‡ˆŽ—‹†‹•‹…‘’”‡••‹„Ž‡ρP = ρQ = ρR 
AP vP = AQ vQ = AR vR 
˜ൌ…‘•–ƒ–
Š‹•‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†–Š‡‡“—ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ…‘–‹—‹–›ƒ†‹–‹•ƒ•–ƒ–‡‡–‘ˆ…‘•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘‘ˆƒ••‹ˆŽ‘™‘ˆ‹…‘’”‡••‹„Ž‡
ˆŽ—‹†•Ǥ

—”„—Ž‡– Ž‘™
–‡ƒ†›ˆŽ‘™‹•ƒ…Š‹‡˜‡†ƒ–Ž‘™ˆŽ‘™•’‡‡†•Ǥ‡›‘†ƒŽ‹‹–‹‰˜ƒŽ—‡ǡ…ƒŽŽ‡†…”‹–‹…ƒŽ•’‡‡†ǡ–Š‡ˆŽ‘™‘ˆˆŽ—‹†Ž‘•‡•
•–‡ƒ†‹‡••ƒ†„‡…‘‡•–—”„—Ž‡–Ǥ

 
Œ‡–‘ˆƒ‹”•–”‹‹‰ƒˆŽƒ–’Žƒ–‡’Žƒ…‡†’‡”’‡†‹…—Žƒ”–‘‹–‹•ƒ‡šƒ’Ž‡‘ˆ–—”„—Ž‡–ˆŽ‘™Ǥ
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Bernoulli’s Principle
‡”‘—ŽŽi’s principle states that as we move along a streamline, the sum of the pressure , the kinetic energy per
—‹–˜‘Ž—‡ƒ†–Š‡’‘–‡–‹ƒŽ‡‡”‰›’‡”—‹–˜‘Ž—‡”‡ƒ‹•ƒ…‘•–ƒ–Ǥ
𝟏𝟏
𝐏𝐏+ 𝟐𝟐 𝛒𝛒𝐯𝐯 𝟐𝟐 ൅𝛒𝛒𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠ൌ…‘•–ƒ–
Š‡‡“—ƒ–‹‘‹•„ƒ•‹…ƒŽŽ›–Š‡…‘•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ‡‡”‰›ƒ’’Ž‹‡†–‘‘˜‹•…‘—•ˆŽ—‹†‘–‹‘‹•–‡ƒ†›•–ƒ–‡Ǥ
”‘‘ˆ





Š‡–‘–ƒŽ™‘”†‘‡‘–Š‡ˆŽ—‹†‹•
W1 + W2 = P1 ΔV Ǧ P2 ΔV
 𝐖𝐖𝟏𝟏 + 𝐖𝐖𝟐𝟐 = (𝐏𝐏𝟏𝟏 Ǧ 𝐏𝐏𝟐𝟐 )ΔVǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͳሻ
Š‡…Šƒ‰‡‹‹–•‹‡–‹…‡‡”‰›‹•
𝟏𝟏
ΔK =. 𝐦𝐦(𝐯𝐯𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 − 𝐯𝐯𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 )ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺʹሻ
𝟐𝟐
Š‡…Šƒ‰‡‹‰”ƒ˜‹–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ’‘–‡–‹ƒŽ‡‡”‰›‹•
ΔU= mg(𝐡𝐡𝟐𝟐 Ǧ𝐡𝐡𝟏𝟏 ሻǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺ͵ሻ
›™‘”–‡‡”‰›–Š‡‘”‡
W1 + W2 =ΔK + ΔU 
𝟏𝟏
(𝐏𝐏𝟏𝟏 Ǧ 𝐏𝐏𝟐𝟐 )ΔV = 𝐦𝐦(𝐯𝐯𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 − 𝐯𝐯𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 )൅𝐦𝐦𝐠𝐠ሺ𝐡𝐡𝟐𝟐 Ǧ𝐡𝐡𝟏𝟏 ሻǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͶሻ
𝟐𝟐
Divide each term by ΔV to obtainǡ
1 m
P1 Ǧ P2 ൌ ρ(v22 − v12 )൅ρgሺh2 Ǧh1 ሻሺρ = ሻ
2 ΔV
1 1
P1 – P2 ൌ 2 ρv22 − ρv12 ൅ρgh2− ρgh1
2
1 1
P1 + ρv12 ൅ρgh1 ൌ P2 + ρv22 ൅ρgh2 
2 2
𝟏𝟏
𝐏𝐏+ 𝛒𝛒𝐯𝐯 𝟐𝟐 ൅𝛒𝛒𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠ൌ…‘•–ƒ–ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͷሻ
𝟐𝟐

Š‹•‹•Bernoulli’s theorem
‘–‡ǣǦBernoulli’s theorem is applicable only to the streamline flow of non viscous and incompressible fluids.

Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle
1.Speed of Efflux: Torricelli’s Law
Š‡™‘”†‡ˆˆŽ—š‡ƒ•ˆŽ—‹†‘—–ˆŽ‘™
Torricelli’s law states that the speed of‡ˆˆŽ—š‘ˆˆŽ—‹†–Š”‘—‰Šƒ•ƒŽŽŠ‘Ž‡ƒ–ƒ†‡’–ŠŠ‘ˆƒ‘’‡–ƒ‹•‡“—ƒŽ
–‘–Š‡•’‡‡†‘ˆƒˆ”‡‡Ž›ˆƒŽŽ‹‰„‘†›‹Ǥ‡ǡ √ 𝟐𝟐𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠 


 

Consider a tank containing a liquid of density ρ with a small hole in its side at a height y1 ˆ”‘–Š‡„‘––‘Ǥ
……‘”†‹‰–‘‡”‘—ŽŽ‹’”‹…‹’Ž‡

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1 1
P1 + ρv12 ൅ρgh1 ൌ P2 + ρv22൅ρgh2 
2 2
‘•‹†‡””‡‰‹‘•ͳƒ†ʹ
……‘”†‹‰–‘‡“—ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ…‘–‹—‹–›ǡ•‹…‡ሺA2 ൐൐A1 ሻǡv2 ൌͲǤ
1
Pa + ρv12 ൅ρgy1 ൌ P൅ρgy2 
2
1
 ρv12 = ρg(y2 − y1 )൅ P − Pa 
2
y2 − y1 = h
1
 ρv12 = ρgh൅ P − Pa 
2
2(P−Pa )
v12 = ʹgh൅ 
ρ
𝟐𝟐(𝐏𝐏−𝐏𝐏𝐚𝐚 )
𝐯𝐯𝟏𝟏 = √ 𝟐𝟐𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠 + 
𝛒𝛒

ˆ–Š‡–ƒ‹•‘’‡–‘–Š‡ƒ–‘•’Š‡”‡ǡ–Š‡ൌPa 
𝐯𝐯𝟏𝟏 = √ 𝟐𝟐𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠 
This equation is known as Torricelli’s law. 
Š‹•‹•–Š‡•’‡‡†‘ˆƒˆ”‡‡Ž›ˆƒŽŽ‹‰„‘†›Ǥ
ʹǤ‡–—”‹Ǧ‡–‡”
Š‡‡–—”‹Ǧ‡–‡”‹•ƒ†‡˜‹…‡–‘‡ƒ•—”‡–Š‡ˆŽ‘™•’‡‡†‘ˆ‹…‘’”‡••‹„Ž‡ˆŽ—‹†Ǥ

 
……‘”†‹‰–‘‡”‘—ŽŽ‹’”‹…‹’Ž‡
1 1
P1 + 2 ρv12 ൅ρgh1 ൌP2 + 2
ρv22 ൅ρgh2 
 ‘”’‘‹–•ͳƒ†ʹǡh1 = h2
A
›‡“—ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ…‘–‹—‹–›ǡv1 ൌƒv2 ǡv2 = a v1 
1 1 A 2
P1 + ρv12 ൌP2 + ρ ( v1 )  
2 2 a
1 A 2 1
P1 − P2ൌ ρ ( v1 ) Ǧ ρv12 
2 a 2

1 A 2
P1 − P2ൌ ρv12 [ ( ) –ͳሿ
2 a
—–P1 − P2 = ρm ‰Š
ŠൌŠ‡‹‰Š–†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡‹ƒ‘‡–‡”–—„‡
ρm = density of liquid in manometer
1 A 2
ρm ‰Šൌ 2
ρv12 [( a ) − 1]
2ρm gh

v12 = ρ
A 2

[( a ) −1]
𝟏𝟏
−
𝟐𝟐𝛒𝛒 𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠 𝐀𝐀 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝐯𝐯𝟏𝟏 = √ 𝐦𝐦𝛒𝛒  [( )
𝐚𝐚
− 𝟏𝟏] 
Š‡•’‡‡†‘ˆˆŽ—‹†ƒ–™‹†‡‡……ƒ„‡…ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‡†—•‹‰–Š‡ƒ„‘˜‡‡“—ƒ–‹‘Ǥ





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46 Thelima Edu Help Programme | Higher Secondar y National Ser vice Scheme
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‡–—”‹‡–‡”’”‹…‹’Ž‡‹•—•‡†‹ǡ
▪ Š‡…ƒ”„—”‡–‘”‘ˆƒ—–‘‘„‹Ž‡Šƒ•ƒ‡–—”‹…Šƒ‡Žሺ‘œœŽ‡ሻ–Š”‘—‰Š™Š‹…Šƒ‹”ˆŽ‘™•™‹–Šƒ
Žƒ”‰‡•’‡‡†ǤŠ‡’”‡••—”‡‹•–Š‡Ž‘™‡”‡†ƒ––Š‡ƒ””‘™‡…ƒ†–Š‡’‡–”‘Žሺ‰ƒ•‘Ž‹‡ሻ‹••—…‡†
—’‹–Š‡…Šƒ„‡”–‘’”‘˜‹†‡–Š‡…‘””‡…–‹š–—”‡‘ˆƒ‹”–‘ˆ—‡Ž‡…‡••ƒ”›ˆ‘”…‘„—•–‹‘Ǥ
▪ ‹Ž–‡”’—’•‘”ƒ•’‹”ƒ–‘”•
▪ —•‡„—”‡”
▪ –‘‹•‡”•
▪ ’”ƒ›‡”•—•‡†ˆ‘”’‡”ˆ—‡•‘”–‘•’”ƒ›‹•‡…–‹…‹†‡•


Š‡•’”ƒ›‰—Ǥ‹•–‘ˆ‘”…‡•ƒ‹”ƒ–Š‹‰Š•’‡‡†•…ƒ—•‹‰ƒ
Ž‘™‡”‹‰‘ˆ’”‡••—”‡ƒ––Š‡‡…‘ˆ–Š‡…‘–ƒ‹‡”Ǥ


͵ǤŽ‘‘† Ž‘™ƒ†‡ƒ”–––ƒ…
Š‡ƒ”–‡”›ƒ›‰‡–…‘•–”‹…–‡††—‡–‘–Š‡ƒ……——Žƒ–‹‘‘ˆ’Žƒ“—‡‘‹–•‹‡”™ƒŽŽ•ǤŠ‡•’‡‡†‘ˆ–Š‡ˆŽ‘™‘ˆ–Š‡
„Ž‘‘†‹–Š‹•”‡‰‹‘‹•”ƒ‹•‡†™Š‹…ŠŽ‘™‡”•–Š‡’”‡••—”‡‹•‹†‡ƒ†–Š‡ƒ”–‡”›ƒ›…‘ŽŽƒ’•‡†—‡–‘–Š‡‡š–‡”ƒŽ
’”‡••—”‡ǤŠ‡Š‡ƒ”–‡š‡”–•ˆ—”–Š‡”’”‡••—”‡–‘‘’‡–Š‹•ƒ”–‡”›ƒ†ˆ‘”…‡•–Š‡„Ž‘‘†–Š”‘—‰ŠǤ•–Š‡„Ž‘‘†
”—•Š‡•–Š”‘—‰Š–Š‡‘’‡‹‰ǡ–Š‡‹–‡”ƒŽ’”‡••—”‡‘…‡ƒ‰ƒ‹†”‘’•†—‡–‘•ƒ‡”‡ƒ•‘•Ž‡ƒ†‹‰–‘ƒ”‡’‡ƒ–
…‘ŽŽƒ’•‡ǤŠ‹•ƒ›”‡•—Ž–‹Š‡ƒ”–ƒ––ƒ…Ǥ
ͶǤ›ƒ‹…‹ˆ–
ሺ‹ሻƒŽŽ‘˜‹‰™‹–Š‘—–•’‹ǣ

 
Š‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‘ˆˆŽ—‹†ሺƒ‹”ሻƒ„‘˜‡ƒ†„‡Ž‘™–Š‡„ƒŽŽƒ–…‘””‡•’‘†‹‰’‘‹–•‹•–Š‡•ƒ‡”‡•—Ž–‹‰‹œ‡”‘
’”‡••—”‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡ǤŠ‡ƒ‹”–Š‡”‡ˆ‘”‡ǡ‡š‡”–•‘—’™ƒ”†‘”†‘™™ƒ”†ˆ‘”…‡‘–Š‡„ƒŽŽǤ

ሺ‹‹ሻƒŽŽ‘˜‹‰™‹–Š•’‹ǣƒ‰—•ˆˆ‡…–

 
Š‡„ƒŽŽ‹•‘˜‹‰ˆ‘”™ƒ”†ƒ†”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡–‘‹––Š‡ƒ‹”‹•‘˜‹‰„ƒ…™ƒ”†•ǤŠ‡”‡ˆ‘”‡ǡ–Š‡”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‘ˆƒ‹”
ƒ„‘˜‡–Š‡„ƒŽŽ‹•Žƒ”‰‡”ƒ†„‡Ž‘™‹–‹••ƒŽŽ‡”ǤŠ‹•†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡‹–Š‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–‹‡•‘ˆƒ‹””‡•—Ž–•‹–Š‡’”‡••—”‡
†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡„‡–™‡‡–Š‡Ž‘™‡”ƒ†—’’‡”ˆƒ…‡•ƒ†–Š‡”‡‹•ƒ‡–—’™ƒ”†ˆ‘”…‡‘–Š‡„ƒŽŽǤŠ‹•†›ƒ‹…Ž‹ˆ–†—‡
–‘•’‹‹‰‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†ƒ‰—•‡ˆˆ‡…–Ǥ

ሺ‹‹‹ሻ‡”‘ˆ‘‹Ž‘”Ž‹ˆ–‘ƒ‹”…”ƒˆ–™‹‰

 
‡”‘ˆ‘‹Ž‹•ƒ•‘Ž‹†’‹‡…‡•Šƒ’‡†–‘’”‘˜‹†‡ƒ—’™ƒ”††›ƒ‹…Ž‹ˆ–™Š‡‹–‘˜‡•Š‘”‹œ‘–ƒŽŽ›–Š”‘—‰Šƒ‹”Ǥ
Š‡–Š‡ƒ‡”‘ˆ‘‹Ž‘˜‡•ƒ‰ƒ‹•––Š‡™‹†ǡ–Š‡‘”‹‡–ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡™‹‰”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡–‘ˆŽ‘™†‹”‡…–‹‘…ƒ—•‡•–Š‡
•–”‡ƒŽ‹‡•–‘…”‘™†–‘‰‡–Š‡”ƒ„‘˜‡–Š‡™‹‰‘”‡–Šƒ–Š‘•‡„‡Ž‘™‹–ǤŠ‡ˆŽ‘™•’‡‡†‘–‘’‹•Š‹‰Š‡”–Šƒ
–Šƒ–„‡Ž‘™‹–ǤŠ‡”‡‹•ƒ—’™ƒ”†ˆ‘”…‡”‡•—Ž–‹‰‹ƒ†›ƒ‹…Ž‹ˆ–‘ˆ–Š‡™‹‰•ƒ†–Š‹•„ƒŽƒ…‡•–Š‡™‡‹‰Š–‘ˆ
–Š‡’Žƒ‡Ǥ

46

Thelima Edu Help Programme | Higher Secondar y National Ser vice Scheme 47
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‹•…‘•‹–›
Š‡‹–‡”ƒŽˆ”‹…–‹‘ƒŽˆ‘”…‡–Šƒ–ƒ…–•™Š‡–Š‡”‡‹•”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡‘–‹‘„‡–™‡‡Žƒ›‡”•‘ˆ–Š‡Ž‹“—‹†‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†
˜‹•…‘•‹–›Ǥ

‘‡ˆˆ‹…‹‡–‘ˆ˜‹•…‘•‹–›ሺ𝛈𝛈ሻ

 
Š‡…‘‡ˆˆ‹…‹‡–‘ˆ˜‹•…‘•‹–›ሺηሻˆ‘”ƒˆŽ—‹†‹•†‡ˆ‹‡†ƒ•–Š‡”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ•Š‡ƒ”‹‰•–”‡••–‘–Š‡•–”ƒ‹”ƒ–‡Ǥ
F
Shearing stress
η = ൌ A𝑣𝑣 
Strain rate
𝑙𝑙
𝐅𝐅𝒍𝒍
𝛈𝛈 = 
𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯
▪ Š‡—‹–‘ˆ…‘‡ˆˆ‹…‹‡–˜‹•…‘•‹–›‹•’‘‹•‡‹—ŽŽ‡ሺŽሻǤ
▪ Š‡†‹‡•‹‘•ƒ”‡ሾL−1 T −1ሿ
▪ Š‡˜‹•…‘•‹–›‘ˆŽ‹“—‹†•†‡…”‡ƒ•‡•™‹–Š–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡™Š‹Ž‡‹–‹…”‡ƒ•‡•‹–Š‡…ƒ•‡‘ˆ‰ƒ•‡•Ǥ

Stokes’ Law
Stokes’ law states that the viscou•†”ƒ‰ˆ‘”…‡ ‘ƒ•’Š‡”‡‘ˆ”ƒ†‹—•ƒ‘˜‹‰™‹–Š˜‡Ž‘…‹–›˜–Š”‘—‰ŠƒˆŽ—‹†‘ˆ
coefficient of viscosity η is,
F = 6πηav
‡”‹ƒŽ˜‡Ž‘…‹–›
Š‡ƒ‘„Œ‡…–ˆƒŽŽ•–Š”‘—‰Šƒ˜‹•…‘—•‡†‹—ሺ”ƒ‹†”‘’‹ƒ‹”ሻǡ‹–ƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‡•‹‹–‹ƒŽŽ›†—‡–‘‰”ƒ˜‹–›Ǥ•–Š‡
˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‹…”‡ƒ•‡•ǡ–Š‡”‡–ƒ”†‹‰ˆ‘”…‡ƒŽ•‘‹…”‡ƒ•‡•Ǥ ‹ƒŽŽ›™Š‡˜‹•…‘—•ˆ‘”…‡’Ž—•„—‘›ƒ–ˆ‘”…‡„‡…‘‡•
‡“—ƒŽ–‘–Š‡ˆ‘”…‡†—‡–‘‰”ƒ˜‹–›ሺ™‡‹‰Š–‘ˆ–Š‡„‘†›ሻǡ–Š‡‡–ˆ‘”…‡ƒ†ƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘„‡…‘‡œ‡”‘ǤŠ‡•’Š‡”‡
ሺ”ƒ‹†”‘’ሻ–Š‡†‡•…‡†•™‹–Šƒ…‘•–ƒ–˜‡Ž‘…‹–›…ƒŽŽ‡†–‡”‹ƒŽ˜‡Ž‘…‹–›Ǥ

š’”‡••‹‘ˆ‘”‡”‹ƒŽ˜‡Ž‘…‹–›

  
‘•‹†‡”ƒ”ƒ‹†”‘’‹ƒ‹”ǤŠ‡ˆ‘”…‡•ƒ…–‹‰‘–Š‡†”‘’ƒ”‡
4
ͳǤ ‘”…‡†—‡–‘‰”ƒ˜‹–›ሺ™‡‹‰Š–ǡ‰ሻƒ…–‹‰†‘™™ƒ”†• , FG = 3 πa3 ρg
4
ʹǤ —‘›ƒ–ˆ‘”…‡ƒ…–‹‰—’™ƒ”†•ǡ FB = πa3 σg
3
͵Ǥ ‹•…‘—•ˆ‘”…‡ǡ FV ൌ͸πηav
‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—ǡ
4 4
6πηav + πa3 σg ൌ πa3 gρ
3 3
4
6πηav ൌ3 πa3 (ρ−σ)g
Terminal velocity ,
𝟐𝟐𝐚𝐚𝟐𝟐 (𝛒𝛒 −𝛔𝛔)𝐠𝐠
𝐯𝐯𝐭𝐭 ൌ 
𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗
‘–Š‡–‡”‹ƒŽ˜‡Ž‘…‹–›vt †‡’‡†•‘–Š‡•“—ƒ”‡‘ˆ–Š‡”ƒ†‹—•‘ˆ–Š‡•’Š‡”‡ƒ†‹˜‡”•‡Ž›‘–Š‡˜‹•…‘•‹–›‘ˆ
–Š‡‡†‹—Ǥ
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‡›‘Ž†•—„‡”
•„‘”‡‡›‘Ž†•†‡ˆ‹‡†ƒ†‹‡•‹‘Ž‡••—„‡”ǡ™Š‘•‡˜ƒŽ—‡‰‹˜‡•‘‡ƒƒ’’”‘š‹ƒ–‡‹†‡ƒ™Š‡–Š‡”–Š‡
ˆŽ‘™™‘—Ž†„‡–—”„—Ž‡–ǤŠ‹•—„‡”‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†–Š‡‡›‘Ž†•—„‡”ሺ R e )
𝛒𝛒𝛒𝛒𝛒𝛒
𝐑𝐑 𝐞𝐞 = 
𝛈𝛈
where ρ is the density of the fluid ,v is the speed of fluid, d stands for the dimension of the pipe, and η is the
˜‹•…‘•‹–›‘ˆ–Š‡ˆŽ—‹†Ǥ
R e <ͳͲͲͲ–Š‡ˆŽ‘™‹••–”‡ƒŽ‹‡‘”Žƒ‹ƒ”Ǥ
R e > 2000 −Š‡ˆŽ‘™‹•–—”„—Ž‡–Ǥ
R e „‡–™‡‡ͳͲͲͲƒ†ʹͲͲͲǦŠ‡ˆŽ‘™„‡…‘‡•—•–‡ƒ†›Ǥ
▪ Š‡…”‹–‹…ƒŽ˜ƒŽ—‡‘ˆ‡›‘Ž†•—„‡”ƒ–™Š‹…Š–—”„—Ž‡…‡•‡–•ǡ‹•‘™ƒ•…”‹–‹…ƒŽ‡›‘Ž†•—„‡”Ǥ
—”„—Ž‡…‡†‹••‹’ƒ–‡•‹‡–‹…‡‡”‰›—•—ƒŽŽ›‹–Š‡ˆ‘ˆŠ‡ƒ–Ǥƒ…‹‰…ƒ”•ƒ†’Žƒ‡•ƒ”‡‡‰‹‡‡”‡†–‘
’”‡…‹•‹‘‹‘”†‡”–‘‹‹‹•‡–—”„—Ž‡…‡Ǥ
▪ —”„—Ž‡…‡‹••‘‡–‹‡•†‡•‹”ƒ„Ž‡ǤŠ‡„Žƒ†‡•‘ˆƒ‹–…Š‡‹š‡”‹†—…‡–—”„—Ž‡–ˆŽ‘™ƒ†’”‘˜‹†‡
–Š‹…‹Ž•Šƒ‡•ƒ•™‡ŽŽƒ•„‡ƒ–‡‰‰•‹–‘ƒ—‹ˆ‘”–‡š–—”‡Ǥ
—”ˆƒ…‡‡•‹‘
Š‡ˆ”‡‡•—”ˆƒ…‡‘ˆƒŽ‹“—‹†’‘••‡•••‘‡ƒ††‹–‹‘ƒŽ‡‡”‰›ƒ†‹–„‡Šƒ˜‡•Ž‹‡ƒ•–”‡–…Š‡†‡Žƒ•–‹…‡„”ƒ‡Ǥ
Š‹•’Š‡‘‡‘‹•‘™ƒ••—”ˆƒ…‡–‡•‹‘Ǥ—”ˆƒ…‡–‡•‹‘‹•…‘…‡”‡†™‹–Š‘Ž›Ž‹“—‹†ƒ•‰ƒ•‡•†‘‘–
Šƒ˜‡ˆ”‡‡•—”ˆƒ…‡•Ǥ

‡ˆ‹‹–‹‘‘ˆ—”ˆƒ…‡–‡•‹‘
—”ˆƒ…‡–‡•‹‘‹•ƒˆ‘”…‡’‡”—‹–Ž‡‰–Šሺ‘”•—”ˆƒ…‡‡‡”‰›’‡”—‹–ƒ”‡ƒሻƒ…–‹‰‹–Š‡’Žƒ‡‘ˆ–Š‡‹–‡”ˆƒ…‡
„‡–™‡‡–Š‡’Žƒ‡‘ˆ–Š‡Ž‹“—‹†ƒ†ƒ›‘–Š‡”•—„•–ƒ…‡Ǥ 
Force
—”ˆƒ…‡‡•‹‘ǡൌLength

▪ Š‡‹–‹•m−1
▪ ‹‡•‹‘ƒŽˆ‘”—Žƒ‹•T −2 
▪ Š‡˜ƒŽ—‡‘ˆ•—”ˆƒ…‡–‡•‹‘†‡’‡†•‘–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡Ǥ
▪ Š‡•—”ˆƒ…‡–‡•‹‘‘ˆƒŽ‹“—‹††‡…”‡ƒ•‡•™‹–Š–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡Ǥ

‘‡‡ˆˆ‡…–•‘ˆ•—”ˆƒ…‡‡•‹‘
▪ ‹Žƒ†™ƒ–‡”†‘‘–‹šǤ
▪ ƒ–‡”™‡–•›‘—ƒ†‡„—–‘–†—…•Ǥ
▪ ‡”…—”›†‘‡•‘–™‡–‰Žƒ••„—–™ƒ–‡”•–‹…•–‘‹–Ǥ
▪ ‹Ž”‹•‡•—’ƒ…‘––‘™‹…ǡ‹•’‹–‡‘ˆ‰”ƒ˜‹–›Ǥ
▪ ƒ’ƒ†™ƒ–‡””‹•‡—’–‘–Š‡–‘’‘ˆ–Š‡Ž‡ƒ˜‡•‘ˆ–Š‡–”‡‡Ǥ
▪ ƒ‹”•‘ˆƒ’ƒ‹–„”—•Š†‘‘–…Ž‹‰–‘‰‡–Š‡”™Š‡†”›ƒ†‡˜‡™Š‡†‹’’‡†‹™ƒ–‡”„—–ˆ‘”ƒˆ‹‡–‹’
™Š‡–ƒ‡‘—–‘ˆ‹–Ǥ

‰Ž‡‘ˆ‘–ƒ…–
Š‡ƒ‰Ž‡„‡–™‡‡–ƒ‰‡––‘–Š‡Ž‹“—‹†•—”ˆƒ…‡ƒ––Š‡’‘‹–‘ˆ…‘–ƒ…–ƒ†•‘Ž‹†•—”ˆƒ…‡‹•‹†‡–Š‡Ž‹“—‹†‹•
–‡”‡†ƒ•ƒ‰Ž‡‘ˆ…‘–ƒ…–ሺθሻ
The value of θ determines whether a liquid will spread on the surface of a solid or it will form droplets on it.

Š‡‰Ž‡‘ˆ…‘–ƒ…–‹•„–—•‡ǣ

 
When θ is an obtuse angle(greater than 90) then molecules of liquids are ƒ––”ƒ…–‡†•–”‘‰Ž›–‘–Š‡•‡Ž˜‡•ƒ†
™‡ƒŽ›–‘–Š‘•‡‘ˆ•‘Ž‹†ǡƒ†Ž‹“—‹†–Š‡†‘‡•‘–™‡––Š‡•‘Ž‹†Ǥ
‰ǣƒ–‡”‘ƒ™ƒš›‘”‘‹Ž›•—”ˆƒ…‡ǡ‡”…—”›‘ƒ›•—”ˆƒ…‡Ǥ



48

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Š‡‰Ž‡‘ˆ…‘–ƒ…–‹•…—–‡ǣ

 
When θ is an acute angle ሺŽ‡••–ŠƒͻͲሻǡ–Š‡‘Ž‡…—Ž‡•‘ˆ–Š‡Ž‹“—‹†ƒ”‡•–”‘‰Ž›ƒ––”ƒ…–‡†–‘–Š‘•‡‘ˆ–Š‡•‘Ž‹†
ƒ†Ž‹“—‹†–Š‡™‡–•–Š‡•‘Ž‹†Ǥ
‰ǣƒ–‡”‘‰Žƒ••‘”‘’Žƒ•–‹…ǡ‡”‘•‡‡‘‹Ž‘˜‹”–—ƒŽŽ›ƒ›–Š‹‰Ǥ

…–‹‘‘ƒ’•ƒ††‡–‡”‰‡–•
‘ƒ’•ǡ†‡–‡”‰‡–•ƒ††›‹‰•—„•–ƒ…‡•ƒ”‡™‡––‹‰ƒ‰‡–•ǤŠ‡–Š‡›ƒ”‡ƒ††‡†–Š‡ƒ‰Ž‡‘ˆ…‘–ƒ…–„‡…‘‡•
•ƒŽŽ•‘–Šƒ––Š‡•‡ƒ›’‡‡–”ƒ–‡™‡ŽŽƒ†„‡…‘‡‡ˆˆ‡…–‹˜‡Ǥ

…–‹‘‘ˆƒ–‡”’”‘‘ˆ‹‰ƒ‰‡–•
ƒ–‡”’”‘‘ˆ‹‰ƒ‰‡–•ƒ”‡ƒ††‡†–‘…”‡ƒ–‡ƒŽƒ”‰‡ƒ‰Ž‡‘ˆ…‘–ƒ…–„‡–™‡‡–Š‡™ƒ–‡”ƒ†ˆ‹„”‡•Ǥ

”‘’•ƒ†—„„Ž‡•
Š›ƒ”‡•ƒŽŽ†”‘’•ƒ†„—„„Ž‡••’Š‡”‹…ƒŽǫ
—‡–‘•—”ˆƒ…‡–‡•‹‘ǡŽ‹“—‹†•—”ˆƒ…‡Šƒ•–Š‡–‡†‡…›–‘”‡†—…‡•—”ˆƒ…‡ƒ”‡ƒǤ ‘”ƒ‰‹˜‡˜‘Ž—‡•’Š‡”‡Šƒ•
‹‹—•—”ˆƒ…‡ƒ”‡ƒǤ‘•ƒŽŽ†”‘’•ƒ†„—„„Ž‡•ƒ”‡•’Š‡”‹…ƒŽǤ
‘”Žƒ”‰‡†”‘’•–Š‡‡ˆˆ‡…–‘ˆ‰”ƒ˜‹–›’”‡†‘‹ƒ–‡•–Šƒ–‘ˆ•—”ˆƒ…‡–‡•‹‘ƒ†–Š‡›‰‡–ˆŽƒ––‡‡†Ǥ

š…‡••”‡••—”‡‹•‹†‡ƒ•’Š‡”‹…ƒŽ†”‘’

 
‘”†‘‡‹‡š’ƒ•‹‘ൌ ‘”…‡š‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–
ൌš…‡••’”‡••—”‡š”‡ƒš‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–
ൌ(𝐏𝐏𝐢𝐢 Ǧ 𝐏𝐏𝐨𝐨 ሻš4π𝐫𝐫 𝟐𝟐 šΔ”ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͳሻ

Š‹•™‘”†‘‡‹•‡“—ƒŽ–‘–Š‡‹…”‡ƒ•‡‹•—”ˆƒ…‡‡‡”‰›
š–”ƒ—”ˆƒ…‡‡‡”‰›ൌ—”ˆƒ…‡–‡•‹‘š…”‡ƒ•‡‹•—”ˆƒ…‡ƒ”‡ƒ
š–”ƒ•—”ˆƒ…‡‡‡”‰›ൌ𝐒𝐒 𝐱𝐱 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝚫𝚫𝐫𝐫 ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺʹሻ
Š‡™‘”†‘‡ൌ‡š–”ƒ•—”ˆƒ…‡‡‡”‰›

(𝐏𝐏𝐢𝐢 Ǧ 𝐏𝐏𝐨𝐨 ሻš4π𝐫𝐫 𝟐𝟐 šΔ”ൌ 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝚫𝚫𝐫𝐫 𝐒𝐒ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺ͵ሻ

𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
(𝐏𝐏𝐢𝐢 Ǧ 𝐏𝐏𝐨𝐨 ሻൌ 
𝐫𝐫


š…‡••”‡••—”‡•‹†‡ƒ‹“—‹†—„„Ž‡
„—„„Ž‡Šƒ•–™‘ˆ”‡‡•—”ˆƒ…‡•Ǥ
2S
(Pi Ǧ Po ሻൌ 2x 
r
𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
(𝐏𝐏𝐢𝐢 Ǧ 𝐏𝐏𝐨𝐨 ሻൌ 
𝐫𝐫







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ƒ’‹ŽŽƒ”›‹•‡
—‡–‘–Š‡’”‡••—”‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡ƒ…”‘••ƒ…—”˜‡†Ž‹“—‹†Ǧƒ‹”‹–‡”ˆƒ…‡ǡ™ƒ–‡””‹•‡•—’‹ƒƒ””‘™–—„‡‹•’‹–‡‘ˆ
‰”ƒ˜‹–›ǤŠ‹•‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†…ƒ’‹ŽŽƒ”›”‹•‡Ǥ

 
‘•‹†‡”ƒ˜‡”–‹…ƒŽ…ƒ’‹ŽŽƒ”›–—„‡‘ˆ…‹”…—Žƒ”…”‘•••‡…–‹‘ሺ”ƒ†‹—•ƒሻ‹•‡”–‡†‹–‘ƒ‘’‡˜‡••‡Ž‘ˆ™ƒ–‡”Ǥ
Š‡‡š…‡••’”‡••—”‡‘–Š‡…‘…ƒ˜‡‡‹•…—•
2S
(Pi Ǧ Po ሻൌ  r
a a
…‘•θ = ǡ”= 
r cosθ
2S
(Pi Ǧ Po ሻൌ a 
cosθ
2Scosθ
(Pi Ǧ Po ሻൌ ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͳሻ
a
‘•‹†‡”–™‘’‘‹–•ƒ†‹–Š‡•ƒ‡Š‘”‹œ‘–ƒŽŽ‡˜‡Ž‹Ǥ‡ǡ–Š‡’‘‹–•ƒ”‡ƒ––Š‡•ƒ‡’”‡••—”‡Ǥ
”‡••—”‡ƒ–ൌ Pi 
”‡••—”‡ƒ–ൌ Po + h ρ g
Pi ൌPo + h ρ g
Pi ǦPo = h ρ gǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺʹሻ
”‘‡“ሺͳሻƒ†ሺʹሻ
2Scosθ
h ρ g= 
a
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜
Š= 
𝛒𝛒 𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠
Š—•…ƒ’‹ŽŽƒ”›”‹•‡‹•ƒ…‘•‡“—‡…‡‘ˆ•—”ˆƒ…‡–‡•‹‘Ǥ
ƒ’‹ŽŽƒ”›”‹•‡‹•Žƒ”‰‡”ǡˆ‘”…ƒ’‹ŽŽƒ”›–—„‡™‹–Š•ƒŽŽ‡””ƒ†‹—•ƒǤ
‘–‡ǣ
If the liquid meniscus is convex, as for mercury, angle of contact θ will be obtuse . Then cos θ is negative ƒ†
Š‡…‡˜ƒŽ—‡‘ˆŠ™‹ŽŽ„‡‡‰ƒ–‹˜‡Ǥ‹–‹•…Ž‡ƒ”–Šƒ––Š‡Ž‹“—‹†™‹ŽŽŽ‘™‡”‹–Š‡…ƒ’‹ŽŽƒ”›ƒ†–Š‹•‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†…ƒ’‹ŽŽƒ”›
ˆƒŽŽ‘”…ƒ’‹ŽŽƒ”›†‡’”‡••‹‘Ǥ

‡–‡”‰‡–•ƒ†—”ˆƒ…‡‡•‹‘
‡–‡”‰‡–•”‡†—…‡•–Š‡•—”ˆƒ…‡–‡•‹‘ሺ™ƒ–‡”Ǧ‘‹Žሻƒ††‹”–…ƒ„‡”‡‘˜‡†„›”—‹‰™ƒ–‡”Ǥ













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Šƒ’–‡”ͳͳ
Š‡”ƒŽ”‘’‡”–‹‡•‘ˆƒ––‡”
‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡ƒ†‡ƒ–
‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡
‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‹•ƒ”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡‡ƒ•—”‡ǡ‘”‹†‹…ƒ–‹‘‘ˆŠ‘–‡••‘”…‘Ž†‡••Ǥ
▪ ‘„Œ‡…––Šƒ–Šƒ•ƒŠ‹‰Š‡”–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡–Šƒƒ‘–Š‡”‘„Œ‡…–‹••ƒ‹†–‘„‡Š‘––‡”Ǥ
▪ —‹–‘ˆ–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‹•‡Ž˜‹ሺሻǤ
▪ ιሺ†‡‰”‡‡…‡Ž•‹—•ሻǡι ሺ†‡‰”‡‡ˆƒŠ”‡Š‡‹–ሻƒ”‡‘–Š‡”…‘‘Ž›—•‡†—‹–‘ˆ–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡Ǥ

‡ƒ–
‡ƒ–‹•–Š‡ˆ‘”‘ˆ‡‡”‰›–”ƒ•ˆ‡””‡†„‡–™‡‡–™‘•›•–‡•‘”ƒ•›•–‡ƒ†‹–••—””‘—†‹‰•„›˜‹”–—‡‘ˆ
–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡Ǥ
Š‡–Š‡–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‘ˆ„‘†›ƒ†‹–••—””‘—†‹‰‡†‹—ƒ”‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–ǡŠ‡ƒ––”ƒ•ˆ‡”–ƒ‡•’Žƒ…‡„‡–™‡‡–Š‡
•›•–‡ƒ†–Š‡•—””‘—†‹‰‡†‹—ǡ—–‹Ž–Š‡„‘†›ƒ†–Š‡•—””‘—†‹‰‡†‹—ƒ”‡ƒ––Š‡•ƒ‡–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡Ǥ
Š‡—‹–‘ˆŠ‡ƒ–‡‡”‰›‹•Œ‘—Ž‡ሺ ሻ
‡ƒ•—”‡‡–‘ˆ‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡
‡ƒ•—”‡‘ˆ–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‹•‘„–ƒ‹‡†—•‹‰ƒ–Š‡”‘‡–‡”Ǥ
ƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡˜‘Ž—‡‘ˆƒŽ‹“—‹†™‹–Š–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‹•—•‡†ƒ•–Š‡„ƒ•‹•ˆ‘”…‘•–”—…–‹‰–Š‡”‘‡–‡”•Ǥ
‡”…—”›ƒ†ƒŽ…‘Š‘Žƒ”‡–Š‡Ž‹“—‹†•—•‡†‹‘•–Ž‹“—‹†Ǧ‹Ǧ‰Žƒ••–Š‡”‘‡–‡”•Ǥ
‘’ƒ”‹•‘‘ˆ–Š‡‡Ž˜‹ǡ‡Ž•‹—•ƒ† ƒŠ”‡Š‡‹––‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡•…ƒŽ‡•Ǥ

 
▪  ƒŠ”‡Š‡‹–•…ƒŽ‡ǡ–Š‡”‡ƒ”‡ͳͺͲ‡“—ƒŽ‹–‡”˜ƒŽ•„‡–™‡‡–Š‡‹…‡ƒ†•–‡ƒ’‘‹–•Ǥ
▪ ‡Ž•‹—••…ƒŽ‡ǡ–Š‡”‡ƒ”‡ͳͲͲ‡“—ƒŽ‹–‡”˜ƒŽ•„‡–™‡‡–Š‡‹…‡ƒ†•–‡ƒ’‘‹–•Ǥ
▪ ‡Ž˜‹•…ƒŽ‡ǡ–Š‡”‡ƒ”‡ͳͲͲ‡“—ƒŽ‹–‡”˜ƒŽ•„‡–™‡‡–Š‡‹…‡ƒ†•–‡ƒ’‘‹–•Ǥ

’Ž‘–‘ˆ ƒŠ”‡Š‡‹––‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡(𝐭𝐭 𝐅𝐅 )˜‡”•—•‡Ž•‹—•–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡ሺ𝐭𝐭 𝐂𝐂 ሻǤ

 
‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‘ ƒŠ”‡Š‡‹–•…ƒŽ‡ƒ†‡Ž•‹—••…ƒŽ‡•ƒ”‡”‡Žƒ–‡†„›
𝐭𝐭 −𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝐭𝐭 𝐂𝐂
 𝐅𝐅𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 
‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‘‡Ž˜‹ƒ†‡Ž•‹—••…ƒŽ‡•ƒ”‡”‡Žƒ–‡†„›
ൌ𝐭𝐭 𝐂𝐂൅ʹ͹͵Ǥͳͷ
†‡ƒŽǦ
ƒ•“—ƒ–‹‘ƒ†„•‘Ž—–‡‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡
Boyle’s law
–…‘•–ƒ––‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡ǡ–Š‡’”‡••—”‡‘ˆƒ“—ƒ–‹–›‘ˆ‰ƒ•‹•‹˜‡”•‡Ž›’”‘’‘”–‹‘ƒŽ–‘˜‘Ž—‡Ǥ
1
P ∝ V
ൌ…‘•–ƒ–ǤǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͳሻ


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Charles’ law
–…‘•–ƒ–’”‡••—”‡ǡ–Š‡˜‘Ž—‡‘ˆƒ“—ƒ–‹–›‘ˆ‰ƒ•‹•†‹”‡…–Ž›’”‘’‘”–‹‘ƒŽ–‘–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡Ǥ
V ∝ T
𝐕𝐕
 ൌ…‘•–ƒ–ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺʹሻ
𝐓𝐓
†‡ƒŽ‰ƒ•Žƒ™
Low density gases obey Boyle’s law and Charles’ law , which may „‡…‘„‹‡†‹–‘ƒ•‹‰Ž‡”‡Žƒ–‹‘•Š‹’Ǥ
‘„‹‹‰‡“ሺͳሻƒ†ሺʹሻ
PV
 ൌ…‘•–ƒ–
T
‘”ƒ›“—ƒ–‹–›‘ˆƒ›†‹Ž—–‡‰ƒ•–Š‡Žƒ™…ƒ„‡‰‡‡”ƒŽ‹•‡†ƒ•
PV
 T ൌμR
𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏ൌ𝛍𝛍𝛍𝛍𝛍𝛍
Š‹•‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†‹†‡ƒŽǦ‰ƒ•‡“—ƒ–‹‘
where, μ is the number of moles in the sample of ‰ƒ•Ǥ
‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†—‹˜‡”•ƒŽ‰ƒ•…‘•–ƒ–ǣൌͺǤ͵ͳ ‘l−1 K −1

”‡••—”‡˜‡”•—•–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡…—”˜‡‘ˆƒŽ‘™†‡•‹–›‰ƒ•‡’–ƒ–…‘•–ƒ–˜‘Ž—‡
 ‘”‹†‡ƒŽ‰ƒ•ǡPVൌμRT
ˆ˜‘Ž—‡‘ˆƒ‰ƒ•‹•‡’–…‘•–ƒ–ǡ‹–‰‹˜‡•∝Ǥ’Ž‘–‘ˆ’”‡••—”‡˜‡”•—•–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‰‹˜‡•ƒ•–”ƒ‹‰Š–Ž‹‡‹
–Š‹•…ƒ•‡Ǥ

 
„•‘Ž—–‡œ‡”‘‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‘”‡”‘‡Ž˜‹ሺሻ
Š‡‹‹—–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡ˆ‘”ƒ‹†‡ƒŽ‰ƒ•‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†„•‘Ž—–‡–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‘”œ‡”‘‡Ž˜‹ሺሻǤŠ‹•
–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‹•ˆ‘—†–‘„‡–ʹ͹͵Ǥͳͷι
–‹•‘„–ƒ‹‡†„›‡š–”ƒ’‘Žƒ–‹‰–Š‡•–”ƒ‹‰Š–Ž‹‡‘ˆ”‡••—”‡––‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡ሺƒ–…‘•–ƒ–ሻ–‘–Š‡ƒš‹•Ǥ
Š‡”ƒŽš’ƒ•‹‘
Š‡‹…”‡ƒ•‡‹–Š‡†‹‡•‹‘•‘ˆƒ„‘†›†—‡–‘–Š‡‹…”‡ƒ•‡‹‹–•–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†–Š‡”ƒŽ‡š’ƒ•‹‘Ǥ
Š”‡‡–›’‡•‘ˆ–Š‡”ƒŽ‡š’ƒ•‹‘•ƒ”‡
ͳǤ‹‡ƒ”‡š’ƒ•‹‘
ʹǤ”‡ƒ‡š’ƒ•‹‘
͵Ǥ‘Ž—‡‡š’ƒ•‹‘

ͳǤ‹‡ƒ”š’ƒ•‹‘
Š‡‡š’ƒ•‹‘‹Ž‡‰–Š‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†Ž‹‡ƒ”‡š’ƒ•‹‘Ǥ

 
ˆ–Š‡•—„•–ƒ…‡‹•‹–Š‡ˆ‘”‘ˆƒŽ‘‰”‘†ǡ
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥
Š‡ˆ”ƒ…–‹‘ƒŽ…Šƒ‰‡‹Ž‡‰–Šǡ ∝ΔTǤ 𝑙𝑙
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥
 𝑙𝑙 =𝛼𝛼𝑙𝑙 ΔT
𝚫𝚫𝒍𝒍
𝜶𝜶𝒍𝒍 = 𝒍𝒍 𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫
™Š‡”‡𝛼𝛼𝑙𝑙 ‹•‘™ƒ•–Š‡…‘‡ˆˆ‹…‹‡–‘ˆŽ‹‡ƒ”‡š’ƒ•‹‘ƒ†‹•…Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”‹•–‹…‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ‘ˆ–Š‡”‘†Ǥ
▪ ‡–ƒŽ•‡š’ƒ†‘”‡ƒ†Šƒ˜‡”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡Ž›Š‹‰Š˜ƒŽ—‡•‘ˆαl Ǥ
▪ ‘’’‡”‡š’ƒ†•ƒ„‘—–ˆ‹˜‡–‹‡•‘”‡–Šƒ‰Žƒ••ˆ‘”–Š‡•ƒ‡”‹•‡‹–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡Ǥ
52

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ʹǤ”‡ƒš’ƒ•‹‘
Š‡‡š’ƒ•‹‘‹ƒ”‡ƒ‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†ƒ”‡ƒ‡š’ƒ•‹‘

 
ΔA
Š‡ˆ”ƒ…–‹‘ƒŽ…Šƒ‰‡‹ƒ”‡ƒǡ ∝ΔT.
A
ΔA
 =αa ΔT
A
𝚫𝚫𝐀𝐀
𝛂𝛂𝐚𝐚 = 
𝐀𝐀 𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫
™Š‡”‡αa ‹•‘™ƒ•–Š‡…‘‡ˆˆ‹…‹‡–‘ˆƒ”‡ƒ‡š’ƒ•‹‘Ǥ
͵Ǥ‘Ž—‡š’ƒ•‹‘
Š‡‡š’ƒ•‹‘‹˜‘Ž—‡‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†˜‘Ž—‡‡š’ƒ•‹‘

 
ΔV
Š‡ˆ”ƒ…–‹‘ƒŽ…Šƒ‰‡‹˜‘Ž—‡ǡ ∝ΔT
V
ΔV
 =αv ΔT
V
𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫
𝛂𝛂𝐯𝐯 = 
𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕
™Š‡”‡αv ‹•‘™ƒ•–Š‡…‘‡ˆˆ‹…‹‡–‘ˆ˜‘Ž—‡‡š’ƒ•‹‘Ǥ
Š‡˜ƒŽ—‡‘ˆαv ˆ‘”ƒŽ…‘Š‘Žሺ‡–Š›Žሻ‹•‘”‡–Šƒ‡”…—”›ƒ†‹–‡š’ƒ†•‘”‡–Šƒ‡”…—”›ˆ‘”–Š‡•ƒ‡”‹•‡‹
–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡Ǥ
𝜶𝜶𝒂𝒂 = 𝟐𝟐 𝜶𝜶𝒍𝒍 ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͳሻ
𝜶𝜶𝒗𝒗 = 𝟑𝟑 𝜶𝜶𝒍𝒍 ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺʹሻ
”‘‡“•ሺͳሻƒ†ሺʹሻ𝜶𝜶𝒍𝒍 : 𝜶𝜶𝒂𝒂 : 𝜶𝜶𝒗𝒗 = 𝟏𝟏: 𝟐𝟐: 𝟑𝟑

Š‡”ƒŽš’ƒ•‹‘‘ˆƒ–‡”ሺ”ሻ‘ƒŽ‘—•‡Šƒ˜‘—”‘ˆƒ–‡”


 
ƒ–‡”‡šŠ‹„‹–•ƒƒ‘ƒŽ‘—•„‡Šƒ˜‘—”Ǣ‹–…‘–”ƒ…–•‘Š‡ƒ–‹‰ˆ”‘Ͳι–‘ͶιǤŠ‡‹–‹•Š‡ƒ–‡†ƒˆ–‡”Ͷιǡ‹–
‡š’ƒ†•Ž‹‡‘–Š‡”Ž‹“—‹†•ǤŠ‹•‡ƒ•–Šƒ–™ƒ–‡”Šƒ•‹‹—˜‘Ž—‡ƒ†Š‡…‡ƒš‹—†‡•‹–›ƒ–ͶιǤ

Š›–Š‡„‘†‹‡•‘ˆ™ƒ–‡”ǡ•—…Šƒ•Žƒ‡•ƒ†’‘†•ǡˆ”‡‡œ‡ƒ––Š‡–‘’ˆ‹”•–ǫ
Š‹•‹•†—‡–‘ƒ‘ƒŽ‘—•‡š’ƒ•‹‘‘ˆ™ƒ–‡”Ǥ•ƒŽƒ‡…‘‘Ž•–‘™ƒ”†Ͷιǡ™ƒ–‡”‡ƒ”–Š‡•—”ˆƒ…‡„‡…‘‡•
†‡•‡”ǡƒ†•‹•ǤŠ‡–Š‡™ƒ”‡”ǡŽ‡••†‡•‡™ƒ–‡”‡ƒ”–Š‡„‘––‘”‹•‡•ǤŠ‡–Š‹•Žƒ›‡”…‘‘Ž•„‡Ž‘™Ͷιǡ
‹–ˆ”‡‡œ‡•ǡƒ†„‡‹‰Ž‡••†‡•‡ǡ”‡ƒ‹ƒ––Š‡•—”ˆƒ…‡•ǤŠ—•™ƒ–‡”„‘†‹‡•ˆ”‡‡œ‡ƒ––Š‡–‘’ˆ‹”•–Ǥƒ–‡”ƒ––Š‡
„‘––‘’”‘–‡…–•ƒ“—ƒ–‹…ƒ‹ƒŽƒ†’Žƒ–Ž‹ˆ‡Ǥ

Š‡”ƒŽ–”‡••
ˆ–Š‡–Š‡”ƒŽ‡š’ƒ•‹‘‘ˆƒ”‘†‹•’”‡˜‡–‡†„›ˆ‹š‹‰‹–•‡†•”‹‰‹†Ž›ǡ–Š‡”‘†ƒ…“—‹”‡•ƒ…‘’”‡••‹˜‡•–”ƒ‹Ǥ
Š‡…‘””‡•’‘†‹‰•–”‡•••‡–—’‹–Š‡”‘†‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†–Š‡”ƒŽ•–”‡••Ǥ

‡ƒ–ƒ’ƒ…‹–›
‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›ሺሻ‘ˆƒ•—„•–ƒ…‡‹•–Š‡ƒ‘—–‘ˆŠ‡ƒ–”‡“—‹”‡†–‘”ƒ‹•‡–Š‡–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‘ˆ–Š‡•—„•–ƒ…‡„›‘‡
—‹–Ǥ
𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫
ൌ𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫
‹–‹• K −1
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’‡…‹ˆ‹…‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›
’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›ሺ•ሻ‘ˆƒ•—„•–ƒ…‡‹•–Š‡ƒ‘—–‘ˆŠ‡ƒ–”‡“—‹”‡†–‘”ƒ‹•‡–Š‡–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‘ˆ—‹–ƒ••‘ˆ
–Š‡•—„•–ƒ…‡„›‘‡—‹–Ǥ
Heat capacity
’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›ൌ 
mass
S
•ൌ 
m
𝟏𝟏 𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫
•ൌ 
𝐦𝐦 𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫

‹–‹• kg −1 K −1 
𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫ൌ• 𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫
‘Žƒ”’‡…‹ˆ‹…‡ƒ–ƒ’ƒ…‹–›
‘Žƒ”’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›ሺሻ‘ˆƒ•—„•–ƒ…‡‹•–Š‡ƒ‘—–‘ˆŠ‡ƒ–”‡“—‹”‡†–‘”ƒ‹•‡–Š‡–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‘ˆ‘‡
‘Ž‡‘ˆ–Š‡•—„•–ƒ…‡„›‘‡—‹–Ǥ
S
ൌ 
m
𝟏𝟏 𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫
ൌ 
𝛍𝛍 𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫
−1 −1
‹–‹• mol K 

’‡…‹ˆ‹…‡ƒ–ƒ’ƒ…‹–‹‡•‘ˆ
ƒ•‡•
•‰ƒ•‹•…‘’”‡••‹„Ž‡ǡŠ‡ƒ––”ƒ•ˆ‡”…ƒ„‡ƒ…Š‹‡˜‡†„›‡‡’‹‰‡‹–Š‡”’”‡••—”‡‘”˜‘Ž—‡…‘•–ƒ–Ǥ‘‰ƒ•‡•
Šƒ˜‡–™‘–›’‡•‘ˆ‘Žƒ”•’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–‹‡•Ǥ
‘Žƒ”•’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›ƒ–…‘•–ƒ–’”‡••—”‡𝐂𝐂𝐩𝐩 ƒ†
‘Žƒ”•’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›ƒ–…‘•–ƒ–˜‘Ž—‡ 𝐂𝐂𝐯𝐯 
‘Žƒ”’‡…‹ˆ‹…‡ƒ–ƒ’ƒ…‹–›ƒ–‘•–ƒ–”‡••—”‡𝐂𝐂𝐩𝐩 
‘Žƒ”•’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›ƒ–…‘•–ƒ–’”‡••—”‡‘ˆƒ•—„•–ƒ…‡‹•–Š‡ƒ‘—–‘ˆŠ‡ƒ–”‡“—‹”‡†–‘”ƒ‹•‡–Š‡
–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‘ˆ‘‡‘Ž‡‘ˆ–Š‡•—„•–ƒ…‡„›‘‡—‹–‡‡’‹‰‹–•’”‡••—”‡…‘•–ƒ–Ǥ
𝟏𝟏 𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫
𝐂𝐂𝐩𝐩 ൌ ( ) 
𝛍𝛍 𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫 𝐩𝐩
‘Žƒ”•’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›ƒ–…‘•–ƒ–˜‘Ž—‡ 𝐂𝐂𝐯𝐯 
‘Žƒ”•’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›ƒ–…‘•–ƒ–˜‘Ž—‡‘ˆƒ•—„•–ƒ…‡‹•–Š‡ƒ‘—–‘ˆŠ‡ƒ–”‡“—‹”‡†–‘”ƒ‹•‡–Š‡
–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‘ˆ‘‡‘Ž‡‘ˆ–Š‡•—„•–ƒ…‡„›‘‡—‹–‡‡’‹‰‹–•˜‘Ž—‡…‘•–ƒ–Ǥ
𝟏𝟏 𝚫𝚫𝐐𝐐
𝐂𝐂𝐯𝐯 ൌ ( ) 
𝛍𝛍 𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫 𝐯𝐯
ƒ–‡”Šƒ•–Š‡Š‹‰Š‡•–•’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›…‘’ƒ”‡†–‘‘–Š‡”•—„•–ƒ…‡•Ǥ
’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›‘ˆ™ƒ–‡”‹•Ͷͳͺ͸‹• 𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤 −𝟏𝟏 𝐊𝐊 −𝟏𝟏 

▪ ‘”–Š‹•”‡ƒ•‘™ƒ–‡”‹•—•‡†ƒ•ƒ…‘‘Žƒ–‹ƒ—–‘‘„‹Ž‡”ƒ†‹ƒ–‘”•ƒ•™‡ŽŽƒ•ƒŠ‡ƒ–‡”‹Š‘–
™ƒ–‡”„ƒ‰•Ǥ
▪ ™‹‰–‘‹–•Š‹‰Š•’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›ǡ–Š‡™ƒ–‡”™ƒ”•—’—…Š‘”‡•Ž‘™Ž›–Šƒ–Š‡Žƒ†
†—”‹‰•—‡”ƒ†…‘•‡“—‡–Ž›™‹†ˆ”‘–Š‡•‡ƒŠƒ•ƒ…‘‘Ž‹‰‡ˆˆ‡…–Ǥ
▪ †‡•‡”–ƒ”‡ƒ•ǡ–Š‡‡ƒ”–Š•—”ˆƒ…‡™ƒ”•—’“—‹…Ž›†—”‹‰–Š‡†ƒ›ƒ†…‘‘Ž•“—‹…Ž›ƒ–‹‰Š–Ǥ

ƒŽ‘”‹‡–”›
ƒŽ‘”‹‡–”›‡ƒ•‡ƒ•—”‡‡–‘ˆŠ‡ƒ–Ǥ

ƒŽ‘”‹‡–‡”
†‡˜‹…‡‹™Š‹…ŠŠ‡ƒ–‡ƒ•—”‡‡–…ƒ„‡ƒ†‡‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†ƒ…ƒŽ‘”‹‡–‡”Ǥ

Šƒ‰‡‘ˆ–ƒ–‡
ƒ––‡”‘”ƒŽŽ›‡š‹•–•‹–Š”‡‡•–ƒ–‡•ǣ•‘Ž‹†ǡŽ‹“—‹†ǡƒ†‰ƒ•Ǥ
–”ƒ•‹–‹‘ˆ”‘‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡•‡•–ƒ–‡•–‘ƒ‘–Š‡”‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†ƒ…Šƒ‰‡‘ˆ•–ƒ–‡ǤŠ‡–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‘ˆ–Š‡•›•–‡†‘‡•
‘–…Šƒ‰‡†—”‹‰…Šƒ‰‡‘ˆ•–ƒ–‡Ǥ


54

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Šƒ‰‡‘ˆ•–ƒ–‡ˆ”‘•‘Ž‹†–‘Ž‹“—‹†
Š‡…Šƒ‰‡‘ˆ•–ƒ–‡ˆ”‘•‘Ž‹†–‘Ž‹“—‹†‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†‡Ž–‹‰ƒ†ˆ”‘Ž‹“—‹†–‘•‘Ž‹†‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†ˆ—•‹‘Ǥ
▪ ‘–Š–Š‡•‘Ž‹†ƒ†Ž‹“—‹†•–ƒ–‡•‘ˆ–Š‡•—„•–ƒ…‡…‘‡š‹•–‹–Š‡”ƒŽ‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—†—”‹‰–Š‡…Šƒ‰‡‘ˆ
•–ƒ–‡•ˆ”‘•‘Ž‹†–‘Ž‹“—‹†Ǥ
▪ Š‡–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡ƒ–™Š‹…Š–Š‡•‘Ž‹†ƒ†–Š‡Ž‹“—‹†•–ƒ–‡•‘ˆ–Š‡•—„•–ƒ…‡‹–Š‡”ƒŽ‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—™‹–Š
‡ƒ…Š‘–Š‡”‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†‹–•‡Ž–‹‰’‘‹–Ǥ
▪ ‡Ž–‹‰’‘‹–†‡…”‡ƒ•‡™‹–Š‹…”‡ƒ•‡‹’”‡••—”‡ǤŠ‡‡Ž–‹‰’‘‹–‘ˆƒ•—„•–ƒ…‡ƒ–•–ƒ†ƒ”†
ƒ–‘•’Š‡”‹…’”‡••—”‡‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†‹–•‘”ƒŽ‡Ž–‹‰’‘‹–
‡‰‡Žƒ–‹‘

 
Š‡–Š‡™‹”‡’ƒ••‡•–Š”‘—‰Š–Š‡‹…‡•Žƒ„ǡ‹…‡‡Ž–•ƒ–Ž‘™‡”–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡†—‡–‘‹…”‡ƒ•‡‹’”‡••—”‡ǤŠ‡
–Š‡™‹”‡Šƒ•’ƒ••‡†ǡ™ƒ–‡”ƒ„‘˜‡–Š‡™‹”‡ˆ”‡‡œ‡•ƒ‰ƒ‹ǤŠ‹•’Š‡‘‡‘‘ˆ”‡ˆ”‡‡œ‹‰‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†”‡‰‡Žƒ–‹‘Ǥ

ƒ–‹‰‹•’‘••‹„Ž‡‘•‘™†—‡–‘–Š‡ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ™ƒ–‡”„‡Ž‘™–Š‡•ƒ–‡•Ǥƒ–‡”‹•ˆ‘”‡††—‡–‘–Š‡‹…”‡ƒ•‡
‘ˆ’”‡••—”‡ƒ†‹–ƒ…–•ƒ•ƒŽ—„”‹…ƒ–Ǥ
Š‡…Šƒ‰‡‘ˆ•–ƒ–‡ˆ”‘Ž‹“—‹†–‘˜ƒ’‘—”
Š‡…Šƒ‰‡‘ˆ•–ƒ–‡ˆ”‘Ž‹“—‹†–‘˜ƒ’‘—”ሺ‘”‰ƒ•ሻ‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†˜ƒ’‘”‹•ƒ–‹‘ƒ†ˆ”‘˜ƒ’‘—”–‘Ž‹“—‹†‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†
…‘†‡•ƒ–‹‘Ǥ
▪ Š‡–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡”‡ƒ‹•…‘•–ƒ–—–‹Ž–Š‡‡–‹”‡ƒ‘—–‘ˆ–Š‡Ž‹“—‹†‹•…‘˜‡”–‡†‹–‘˜ƒ’‘—”
▪ Š‡–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡ƒ–™Š‹…Š–Š‡Ž‹“—‹†ƒ†–Š‡˜ƒ’‘—”•–ƒ–‡•‘ˆ–Š‡•—„•–ƒ…‡…‘‡š‹•–‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†‹–•„‘‹Ž‹‰
’‘‹–Ǥ
▪ Š‡„‘‹Ž‹‰’‘‹–‹…”‡ƒ•‡•™‹–Š‹…”‡ƒ•‡‹’”‡••—”‡ƒ††‡…”‡ƒ•‡•™‹–Š†‡…”‡ƒ•‡•‹’”‡••—”‡ǤŠ‡
„‘‹Ž‹‰’‘‹–‘ˆƒ•—„•–ƒ…‡ƒ–•–ƒ†ƒ”†ƒ–‘•’Š‡”‹…’”‡••—”‡‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†‹–•‘”ƒŽ„‘‹Ž‹‰’‘‹–Ǥ
▪ ‘‘‹‰‹•†‹ˆˆ‹…—Ž–‘Š‹ŽŽ•Ǥ–Š‹‰ŠƒŽ–‹–—†‡•ǡƒ–‘•’Š‡”‹…’”‡••—”‡‹•Ž‘™‡”ǡ„‘‹Ž‹‰’‘‹–‘ˆ
™ƒ–‡”†‡…”‡ƒ•‡•ƒ•…‘’ƒ”‡†–‘–Šƒ–ƒ–•‡ƒŽ‡˜‡ŽǤ
▪ ‘‹Ž‹‰’‘‹–‹•‹…”‡ƒ•‡†‹•‹†‡ƒ’”‡••—”‡…‘‘‡”„›‹…”‡ƒ•‹‰–Š‡’”‡••—”‡Ǥ‡…‡…‘‘‹‰‹•
ˆƒ•–‡”Ǥ
—„Ž‹ƒ–‹‘
Š‡…Šƒ‰‡ˆ”‘•‘Ž‹†•–ƒ–‡–‘˜ƒ’‘—”•–ƒ–‡™‹–Š‘—–’ƒ••‹‰–Š”‘—‰Š–Š‡Ž‹“—‹†•–ƒ–‡‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†•—„Ž‹ƒ–‹‘ǡƒ†
–Š‡•—„•–ƒ…‡‹••ƒ‹†–‘•—„Ž‹‡Ǥ
‰ǣ”›‹…‡ሺ•‘Ž‹†ʹሻǡ‘†‹‡ǡƒ’Š‘”
—”‹‰–Š‡•—„Ž‹ƒ–‹‘’”‘…‡••„‘–Š–Š‡•‘Ž‹†ƒ†˜ƒ’‘—”•–ƒ–‡•‘ˆƒ•—„•–ƒ…‡…‘‡š‹•–‹–Š‡”ƒŽ‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—Ǥ
Šƒ‰‡‘ˆ•–ƒ–‡
‘Ž‹†–‘‹“—‹† ‡Ž–‹‰
‹“—‹†–‘‘Ž‹† —•‹‘
‹“—‹†–‘
ƒ• ƒ’‘”‹•ƒ–‹‘

ƒ•–‘‹“—‹† ‘†‡•ƒ–‹‘
‘Ž‹†–‘
ƒ• —„Ž‹ƒ–‹‘

ƒ–‡–‡ƒ–
Š‡ƒ‘—–‘ˆŠ‡ƒ–’‡”—‹–ƒ••–”ƒ•ˆ‡””‡††—”‹‰…Šƒ‰‡‘ˆ•–ƒ–‡‘ˆ–Š‡•—„•–ƒ…‡‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†Žƒ–‡–Š‡ƒ–‘ˆ–Š‡
•—„•–ƒ…‡ˆ‘”–Š‡’”‘…‡••Ǥ
Š‡Š‡ƒ–”‡“—‹”‡††—”‹‰ƒ…Šƒ‰‡‘ˆ•–ƒ–‡†‡’‡†•—’‘–Š‡Š‡ƒ–‘ˆ–”ƒ•ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ƒ†–Š‡ƒ••‘ˆ–Š‡
•—„•–ƒ…‡—†‡”‰‘‹‰ƒ…Šƒ‰‡‘ˆ•–ƒ–‡Ǥ
ൌ
𝐐𝐐
ൌ𝐦𝐦
™Š‡”‡‹•‘™ƒ•Žƒ–‡–Š‡ƒ–ƒ†‹•ƒ…Šƒ”ƒ…–‡”‹•–‹…‘ˆ–Š‡•—„•–ƒ…‡Ǥ
—‹–‘ˆƒ–‡–‡ƒ–‹• 𝑔𝑔−1 
Š‡˜ƒŽ—‡‘ˆƒŽ•‘†‡’‡†•‘–Š‡’”‡••—”‡Ǥ–•˜ƒŽ—‡‹•—•—ƒŽŽ›“—‘–‡†ƒ–•–ƒ†ƒ”†ƒ–‘•’Š‡”‹…’”‡••—”‡

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ƒ–‡–‡ƒ–‘ˆ —•‹‘ሺ𝐋𝐋𝐟𝐟 ሻ
Š‡Žƒ–‡–Š‡ƒ–ˆ‘”ƒ•‘Ž‹†ǦŽ‹“—‹†•–ƒ–‡…Šƒ‰‡‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†–Š‡Žƒ–‡–Š‡ƒ–‘ˆˆ—•‹‘ሺ𝐋𝐋𝐟𝐟 ሻ‘”•‹’Ž›Š‡ƒ–‘ˆˆ—•‹‘Ǥ
ƒ–‡–‡ƒ–‘ˆƒ’‘”‹•ƒ–‹‘ሺ𝐋𝐋𝐯𝐯 ሻ
Š‡Žƒ–‡–Š‡ƒ–ˆ‘”ƒŽ‹“—‹†Ǧ‰ƒ••–ƒ–‡…Šƒ‰‡‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†–Š‡Žƒ–‡–Š‡ƒ–‘ˆ˜ƒ’‘”‹•ƒ–‹‘ሺ𝐋𝐋𝐯𝐯 ሻ‘”Š‡ƒ–‘ˆ
˜ƒ’‘”‹•ƒ–‹‘Ǥ
‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡˜‡”•—•Š‡ƒ–ˆ‘”™ƒ–‡”ƒ–ͳƒ–’”‡••—”‡ሺ‘––‘•…ƒŽ‡ሻǤ

 
Š‡•Ž‘’‡•‘ˆ–Š‡’Šƒ•‡Ž‹‡•ƒ”‡‘–•ƒ‡ǡ™Š‹…Š‹†‹…ƒ–‡–Šƒ–•’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–•‘ˆ–Š‡˜ƒ”‹‘—••–ƒ–‡•ƒ”‡‘–‡“—ƒŽǤ
Š‡•Ž‘’‡‘ˆ‰”ƒ’Š‹•Ž‡••ǡ‹–‹†‹…ƒ–‡•ƒŠ‹‰Š•’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›Ǥ
▪ Š‡•’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›‘ˆ™ƒ–‡”‹•‰”‡ƒ–‡”–Šƒ–Šƒ–‘ˆ‹…‡Ǥ
ΔQൌ• ΔT
Š‡ƒ‘—–‘ˆŠ‡ƒ–”‡“—‹”‡†ǡΔQ‹Ž‹“—‹†’Šƒ•‡™‹ŽŽ„‡‰”‡ƒ–‡”–Šƒ–Šƒ–‹•‘Ž‹†’Šƒ•‡ˆ‘”•ƒ‡ΔT.
‘•Ž‘’‡‘ˆŽ‹“—‹†’Šƒ•‡‹•Ž‡••–Šƒ–Šƒ–‘ˆ•‘Ž‹†’Šƒ•‡Ǥ
▪ ‘”™ƒ–‡”ǡ–Š‡Žƒ–‡–Š‡ƒ–‘ˆˆ—•‹‘‹•𝐋𝐋𝐟𝐟 ൌ͵Ǥ͵͵ൈ105  𝑔𝑔−1 Ǥ
Šƒ–‹•͵Ǥ͵͵ൈ105  ‘ˆŠ‡ƒ–ƒ”‡‡‡†‡†–‘‡Ž–ͳ‰‘ˆ‹…‡ƒ–ͲιǤ
 ‘”™ƒ–‡”ǡ–Š‡Žƒ–‡–Š‡ƒ–‘ˆ˜ƒ’‘”‹•ƒ–‹‘‹• 𝐋𝐋𝐯𝐯 ൌʹʹǤ͸ൈͳͲͷ 𝑔𝑔−1 Ǥ
Šƒ–‹•ʹʹǤ͸ൈ105  ‘ˆŠ‡ƒ–‹•‡‡†‡†–‘…‘˜‡”–ͳ‰‘ˆ™ƒ–‡”–‘•–‡ƒƒ–ͳͲͲιǤ

Š›„—”•ˆ”‘•–‡ƒƒ”‡—•—ƒŽŽ›‘”‡•‡”‹‘—•–Šƒ–Š‘•‡ˆ”‘„‘‹Ž‹‰™ƒ–‡”ǫ
‘”™ƒ–‡”ǡ–Š‡Žƒ–‡–Š‡ƒ–‘ˆ˜ƒ’‘”‹•ƒ–‹‘‹• 𝐋𝐋𝐯𝐯 ൌʹʹǤ͸ൈ105  𝑔𝑔−1 Ǥ
Šƒ–‹•ʹʹǤ͸ൈ105  ‘ˆŠ‡ƒ–‹•‡‡†‡†–‘…‘˜‡”–ͳ‰‘ˆ™ƒ–‡”–‘•–‡ƒƒ–ͳͲͲιǤ‘ǡ•–‡ƒƒ–ͳͲͲι…ƒ””‹‡•
ʹʹǤ͸ൈ105 𝑔𝑔−1 ‘”‡Š‡ƒ––Šƒ™ƒ–‡”ƒ–ͳͲͲιǤŠ‹•‹•™Š›„—”•ˆ”‘•–‡ƒƒ”‡—•—ƒŽŽ›‘”‡•‡”‹‘—•–Šƒ
–Š‘•‡ˆ”‘„‘‹Ž‹‰™ƒ–‡”Ǥ

‡ƒ–”ƒ•ˆ‡”
Š‡”‡ƒ”‡–Š”‡‡†‹•–‹…–‘†‡•‘ˆŠ‡ƒ––”ƒ•ˆ‡”ǣ
…‘†—…–‹‘ǡ…‘˜‡…–‹‘ƒ†”ƒ†‹ƒ–‹‘
ͳǤ‘†—…–‹‘
‘†—…–‹‘‹•–Š‡‡…Šƒ‹•‘ˆ–”ƒ•ˆ‡”‘ˆŠ‡ƒ–„‡–™‡‡–™‘ƒ†Œƒ…‡–’ƒ”–•‘ˆƒ„‘†›„‡…ƒ—•‡‘ˆ–Š‡‹”
–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡Ǥ

 
𝐓𝐓 −𝐓𝐓
𝐇𝐇 = 𝐊𝐊 𝐀𝐀 𝐜𝐜 𝐋𝐋 𝐃𝐃
Š‡…‘•–ƒ–‘ˆ’”‘’‘”–‹‘ƒŽ‹–›‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†–Š‡–Š‡”ƒŽ…‘†—…–‹˜‹–›‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽǤŠ‡‰”‡ƒ–‡”–Š‡˜ƒŽ—‡‘ˆ
ˆ‘”ƒƒ–‡”‹ƒŽǡ–Š‡‘”‡”ƒ’‹†Ž›™‹ŽŽ‹–…‘†—…–Š‡ƒ–ǤŠ‡—‹–‘ˆ‹• Js −1 m−1 K −1‘”Wm−1 K −1
▪
ƒ•‡•ƒ”‡’‘‘”–Š‡”ƒŽ…‘†—…–‘”•™Š‹Ž‡Ž‹“—‹†•Šƒ˜‡…‘†—…–‹˜‹–‹‡•‹–‡”‡†‹ƒ–‡„‡–™‡‡•‘Ž‹†•ƒ†
‰ƒ•‡•Ǥ
▪ ‡–ƒŽ•ƒ”‡‰‘‘†–Š‡”ƒŽ…‘†—…–‘”•Ǥ
▪ ‘‘†ǡ‰Žƒ••ƒ†™‘‘ŽŠƒ˜‡•ƒŽŽ–Š‡”ƒŽ…‘†—…–‹˜‹–‹‡•Ǥ
▪ ‘‡…‘‘‹‰’‘–•Šƒ˜‡…‘’’‡”…‘ƒ–‹‰‘–Š‡„‘––‘Ǥ‡‹‰ƒ‰‘‘†…‘†—…–‘”‘ˆŠ‡ƒ–ǡ…‘’’‡”
’”‘‘–‡•–Š‡†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‘ˆŠ‡ƒ–‘˜‡”–Š‡„‘––‘‘ˆƒ’‘–ˆ‘”—‹ˆ‘”…‘‘‹‰Ǥ
▪ Žƒ•–‹…ˆ‘ƒ•ǡ‘–Š‡‘–Š‡”Šƒ†ǡƒ”‡‰‘‘†‹•—Žƒ–‘”•ǡƒ‹Ž›„‡…ƒ—•‡–Š‡›…‘–ƒ‹’‘…‡–•‘ˆƒ‹”Ǥ

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▪ ‘—•‡•ƒ†‡‘ˆ…‘…”‡–‡”‘‘ˆ•‰‡–˜‡”›Š‘–†—”‹‰•—‡”†ƒ›•ǡ„‡…ƒ—•‡–Š‡”ƒŽ…‘†—…–‹˜‹–›‘ˆ
…‘…”‡–‡‹•‘†‡”ƒ–‡Ž›Š‹‰ŠǤŠ‡”‡ˆ‘”‡ǡ’‡‘’Ž‡—•—ƒŽŽ›’”‡ˆ‡”–‘‰‹˜‡ƒŽƒ›‡”‘ˆ‡ƒ”–Š‘”ˆ‘ƒ‹•—Žƒ–‹‘
‘–Š‡…‡‹Ž‹‰•‘–Šƒ–Š‡ƒ––”ƒ•ˆ‡”‹•’”‘Š‹„‹–‡†ƒ†‡‡’•–Š‡”‘‘…‘‘Ž‡”Ǥ

ʹǤ‘˜‡…–‹‘
‘˜‡…–‹‘‹•ƒ‘†‡‘ˆŠ‡ƒ––”ƒ•ˆ‡”„›ƒ…–—ƒŽ‘–‹‘‘ˆƒ––‡”Ǥ–‹•’‘••‹„Ž‡‘Ž›‹ˆŽ—‹†•Ǥ
‘˜‡…–‹‘…ƒ„‡ƒ–—”ƒŽ‘”ˆ‘”…‡†Ǥ

ƒ–—”ƒŽ‘˜‡…–‹‘
ƒ–—”ƒŽ…‘˜‡…–‹‘ǡ‰”ƒ˜‹–›’Žƒ›•ƒ‹’‘”–ƒ–’ƒ”–ǤŠ‡ƒˆŽ—‹†‹•Š‡ƒ–‡†ˆ”‘„‡Ž‘™ǡ–Š‡Š‘–’ƒ”–‡š’ƒ†•
ƒ†ǡ–Š‡”‡ˆ‘”‡ǡ„‡…‘‡•Ž‡••†‡•‡Ǥ‡…ƒ—•‡‘ˆ„—‘›ƒ…›ǡ‹–”‹•‡•ƒ†–Š‡—’’‡”…‘Ž†‡”’ƒ”–”‡’Žƒ…‡•‹–ǤŠ‹•
ƒ‰ƒ‹‰‡–•Š‡ƒ–‡†ǡ”‹•‡•—’ƒ†‹•”‡’Žƒ…‡†„›–Š‡…‘Ž†‡”’ƒ”–‘ˆ–Š‡ˆŽ—‹†Ǥ
‰ǣ‡ƒ„”‡‡œ‡ǡƒ†„”‡‡œ‡ǡ”ƒ†‡™‹†


ͳǤ‡ƒ„”‡‡œ‡
—”‹‰–Š‡†ƒ›ǡ–Š‡‰”‘—†Š‡ƒ–•—’‘”‡“—‹…Ž›–ŠƒŽƒ”‰‡™ƒ–‡”„‘†‹‡•ǤŠ‹•‹•†—‡–‘‰”‡ƒ–‡”•’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–
…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›‘ˆ™ƒ–‡”ǤŠ‡ƒ‹”‹…‘–ƒ…–™‹–Š–Š‡™ƒ”‰”‘—†‹•Š‡ƒ–‡†Ǥ–‡š’ƒ†•ǡ„‡…‘‡•Ž‡••†‡•‡ƒ†”‹•‡•Ǥ
Š‡…‘Ž†ƒ‹”ƒ„‘˜‡•‡ƒ‘˜‡•–‘ˆ‹ŽŽ–Š‹••’ƒ…‡ƒ†‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†ƒ••‡ƒ„”‡‡œ‡Ǥ


ʹǤƒ†„”‡‡œ‡
–‹‰Š–ǡ–Š‡‰”‘—†Ž‘•‡•‹–•Š‡ƒ–‘”‡“—‹…Ž›ǡƒ†–Š‡™ƒ–‡”•—”ˆƒ…‡‹•™ƒ”‡”–Šƒ–Š‡Žƒ†ǤŠ‡ƒ‹”‹
…‘–ƒ…–™‹–Š™ƒ–‡”‹•Š‡ƒ–‡†Ǥ–‡š’ƒ†•ǡ„‡…‘‡•Ž‡••†‡•‡ƒ†”‹•‡•ǤŠ‡…‘Ž†ƒ‹”ƒ„‘˜‡–Š‡‰”‘—†‘˜‡•
–‘ˆ‹ŽŽ–Š‹••’ƒ…‡ƒ†‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†ƒ•Žƒ†„”‡‡œ‡Ǥ

 

͵Ǥ”ƒ†‡™‹†
Š‡•—”ˆƒ…‡‘ˆ–Š‡‡ƒ”–Šƒ––Š‡‡“—ƒ–‘”‹•Š‡ƒ–‡†‘”‡„›•—”ƒ›•–Šƒ’‘Ž‡•ǤŠ‡Š‘–ƒ‹”ƒ–‡“—ƒ–‘”‡š’ƒ†•ǡ
„‡…‘‡•Ž‡••†‡•‡ƒ†”‹•‡•ǤŠ‡…‘Ž†ƒ‹”ˆ”‘’‘Ž‡•‘˜‡•–‘–Š‡‡“—ƒ–‘”ǤŠ‹•‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†–”ƒ†‡™‹†Ǥ


‘”…‡†‘˜‡…–‹‘
ˆ‘”…‡†…‘˜‡…–‹‘ǡƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ‹•ˆ‘”…‡†–‘‘˜‡„›ƒ’—’‘”„›•‘‡‘–Š‡”’Š›•‹…ƒŽ‡ƒ•Ǥ
‰ǣ ‘”…‡†Ǧƒ‹”Š‡ƒ–‹‰•›•–‡•‹Š‘‡
Š‡Š—ƒ…‹”…—Žƒ–‘”›•›•–‡
Š‡…‘‘Ž‹‰•›•–‡‘ˆƒƒ—–‘‘„‹Ž‡‡‰‹‡Ǥ
–Š‡Š—ƒ„‘†›ǡ–Š‡Š‡ƒ”–ƒ…–•ƒ•–Š‡’—’–Šƒ–…‹”…—Žƒ–‡•„Ž‘‘†–Š”‘—‰Š†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–’ƒ”–•‘ˆ–Š‡„‘†›ǡ
–”ƒ•ˆ‡””‹‰Š‡ƒ–„›ˆ‘”…‡†…‘˜‡…–‹‘ƒ†ƒ‹–ƒ‹‹‰‹–ƒ–ƒ—‹ˆ‘”–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡Ǥ

͵Ǥƒ†‹ƒ–‹‘
Š‡‡…Šƒ‹•ˆ‘”Š‡ƒ––”ƒ•ˆ‡”™Š‹…Š†‘‡•‘–”‡“—‹”‡ƒ‡†‹—‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†”ƒ†‹ƒ–‹‘Ǥ
Š‡‡Ž‡…–”‘ƒ‰‡–‹…”ƒ†‹ƒ–‹‘‡‹––‡†„›ƒ„‘†›„›˜‹”–—‡‘ˆ‹–•–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†–Š‡”ƒŽ”ƒ†‹ƒ–‹‘ǤŠ‡
‡‡”‰›•‘”ƒ†‹ƒ–‡†„›‡Ž‡…–”‘ƒ‰‡–‹…™ƒ˜‡•‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†”ƒ†‹ƒ–‡‡”‰›ǤŽŽ„‘†‹‡•‡‹–”ƒ†‹ƒ–‡‡”‰›ǡ™Š‡–Š‡”
–Š‡›ƒ”‡•‘Ž‹†ǡŽ‹“—‹†‘”‰ƒ•‡•Ǥ
‡ƒ–‹•–”ƒ•ˆ‡””‡†–‘–Š‡‡ƒ”–Šˆ”‘–Š‡•—–Š”‘—‰Š‡’–›•’ƒ…‡ƒ•”ƒ†‹ƒ–‹‘Ǥ

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”‡‡Š‘—•‡ˆˆ‡…–
The earth’s surface radiates the energy absorbed from the sun.The™ƒ˜‡Ž‡‰–Š‘ˆ–Š‡•‡”ƒ†‹ƒ–‹‘Ž‹‡•‹–Š‡
ˆ”ƒ”‡†”‡‰‹‘ǤŽƒ”‰‡’‘”–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡•‡”ƒ†‹ƒ–‹‘‹•ƒ„•‘”„‡†„›‰”‡‡Š‘—•‡‰ƒ•‡•ǡƒ‡Ž›ǡ…ƒ”„‘†‹‘š‹†‡
(CO2 ), methane (CH4 ), nitrous oxide (N2 O ), chloroflurocarbon(CFx Clx )and
tropospheric ozone (O3 )ǤŠ‹•Š‡ƒ–•—’–Š‡ƒ–‘•’Š‡”‡ƒ†‹–‰‹˜‡•‘”‡‡‡”‰›–‘‡ƒ”–ŠǤŠ‹•…›…Ž‡…‘–‹—‡•
—–‹Ž‘”ƒ†‹ƒ–‹‘‹•ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡ˆ‘”ƒ„•‘”’–‹‘ǤŠ‡‡–”‡•—Ž–‹•–Š‡Š‡ƒ–‹‰—’‘ˆ‡ƒrth’s surface and atmosphere.
Š‹•‹•‘™ƒ•
”‡‡Š‘—•‡ˆˆ‡…–Ǥ
Without the Greenhouse Effect, the earth’s temperature would have been −180 C. 
‘…‡–”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ‰”‡‡Š‘—•‡‰ƒ•‡•‹•‹…”‡ƒ•‡††—‡–‘Š—ƒƒ…–‹˜‹–‹‡•ǡƒ‹‰–Š‡‡ƒ”–Š™ƒ”‡”Ǥ‡…ƒ—•‡‘ˆ
‰Ž‘„ƒŽ™ƒ”‹‰‹…‡…ƒ’•ƒ”‡‡Ž–‹‰ˆƒ•–‡”ǡ•‡ƒŽ‡˜‡Ž‹•”‹•‹‰ƒ†™‡ƒ–Š‡”‹•…Šƒ‰‹‰ǤŠ‹•ƒ›…ƒ—•‡’”‘„Ž‡
ˆ‘”Š—ƒŽ‹ˆ‡ǡ’Žƒ–•ƒ†ƒ‹ƒŽ•Ǥ

Newton’s Law of Cooling
Newton’s Law of Cooling says that the rate of loss of heat(rate of cooling) of a „‘†›‹•’”‘’‘”–‹‘ƒŽ–Š‡
†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡‘ˆ–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‘ˆ–Š‡„‘†›ƒ†–Š‡•—””‘—†‹‰•Ǥ
𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝
− = 𝐤𝐤(𝐓𝐓𝟐𝟐 − 𝐓𝐓𝟏𝟏 )
𝐝𝐝𝐓𝐓
Š‡”‡T1 ‹•–Š‡–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‘ˆ–Š‡•—””‘—†‹‰‡†‹—
T2 ‹•–Š‡–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‘ˆ–Š‡„‘†›
‹•ƒ’‘•‹–‹˜‡…‘•–ƒ–†‡’‡†‹‰—’‘–Š‡ƒ”‡ƒƒ†ƒ–—”‡‘ˆ–Š‡•—”ˆƒ…‡‘ˆ–Š‡„‘†›


—”˜‡•Š‘™‹‰…‘‘Ž‹‰‘ˆŠ‘–™ƒ–‡”™‹–Š–‹‡

 

























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Chapter 12
 Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics 
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics which deals with the study of heat, temperature and their inter
conversion of heat energy into other forms of energy.

‡”‘–Šƒ™‘ˆŠ‡”‘†›ƒ‹…•
ǤǤ ‘™Ž‡”ˆ‘”—Žƒ–‡†–Š‹•Žƒ™‹ͳͻ͵ͳŽ‘‰ƒˆ–‡”–Š‡ˆ‹”•–ƒ†•‡…‘†ƒ™•‘ˆ–Š‡”‘†›ƒ‹…•™‡”‡•–ƒ–‡†
ƒ†•‘—„‡”‡†Ǥ
‡”‘–Šƒ™‘ˆŠ‡”‘†›ƒ‹…••–ƒ–‡•–Šƒ–‘two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third system separately
are in thermal equilibrium with each other’.

›•–‡•ƒ†ƒ”‡•‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡†„›ƒƒ†‹ƒ„ƒ–‹…™ƒŽŽǡ™Š‹Ž‡‡ƒ…Š‹•‹
…‘–ƒ…–™‹–Šƒ–Š‹”†•›•–‡˜‹ƒƒ…‘†—…–‹‰™ƒŽŽǤ–Š‹•…ƒ•‡™‹ŽŽ„‡‹
–Š‡”ƒŽ‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—™‹–ŠǤ
Š—•‹ˆƒ†ƒ”‡•‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡Ž›‹‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—™‹–Šǡ
TA ൌTC ƒ†TB ൌTC Ǥ
Š‹•‹’Ž‹‡•–Šƒ–TA ൌTB 
‹Ǥ‡Ǥ–Š‡•›•–‡•ƒ†ƒ”‡ƒŽ•‘‹–Š‡”ƒŽ‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—Ǥ
𝐢𝐢. 𝐞𝐞, 𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈 𝐓𝐓𝐀𝐀 ൌ𝐓𝐓𝐂𝐂 ƒ†𝐓𝐓𝐁𝐁 ൌ𝐓𝐓𝐂𝐂 –Š‡ 𝐓𝐓𝐀𝐀ൌ𝐓𝐓𝐁𝐁 

‹”•–ƒ™‘ˆŠ‡”‘†›ƒ‹…•
Š‡Š‡ƒ–•—’’Ž‹‡†•—’’Ž‹‡†–‘–Š‡•›•–‡‹•’ƒ”–Ž›—•‡†–‘‹…”‡ƒ•‡–Š‡‹–‡”ƒŽ‡‡”‰›‘ˆ–Š‡•›•–‡ƒ†–Š‡
”‡•–‹•—•‡†–‘†‘™‘”‘–Š‡‡˜‹”‘‡–Ǥ
ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW
ΔQ = Heat supplied to the system by the surroundings
ΔW = Work done by th‡•›•–‡‘–Š‡•—””‘—†‹‰•
ΔU = Change in internal energy of the system

’‡…‹ˆ‹…‡ƒ–ƒ’ƒ…‹–‹‡•‘ˆ
ƒ•‡•
•‰ƒ•‹•…‘’”‡••‹„Ž‡ǡŠ‡ƒ––”ƒ•ˆ‡”…ƒ„‡ƒ…Š‹‡˜‡†„›‡‡’‹‰‡‹–Š‡”’”‡••—”‡‘”˜‘Ž—‡…‘•–ƒ–Ǥ‘‰ƒ•‡•
Šƒ˜‡–™‘–›’‡•‘ˆ‘Žƒ”•’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–‹‡•Ǥ

‘Žƒ”•’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›ƒ–…‘•–ƒ–’”‡••—”‡Cp 
𝟏𝟏 𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫
𝐂𝐂𝐩𝐩 ൌ ( ) 
𝛍𝛍 𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫 𝐩𝐩

‘Žƒ”•’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›ƒ–…‘•–ƒ–˜‘Ž—‡ Cv 
𝟏𝟏 𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫
𝐂𝐂𝐯𝐯 ൌ ( ) 
𝛍𝛍 𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫 𝐯𝐯

‡Žƒ–‹‘…‘‡…–‹‰𝐂𝐂𝐩𝐩 ƒ†𝐂𝐂𝐯𝐯 −Mayer’s relation
‘Žƒ”•’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›ƒ–…‘•–ƒ–˜‘Ž—‡, 
ΔQ
Cv = ( ) ሺˆ‘”ͳ‘Ž‡ሻ
ΔT v
ΔQ = ΔU + P ΔV 
t constant volume, ΔV = 0ǡ
ΔQ = ΔU
ΔU
  Cv = ( ) 
ΔT v
𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫
𝐂𝐂𝐯𝐯 = 𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͳሻ



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‘Žƒ”•’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›ƒ–…‘•–ƒ–’”‡••—”‡
ΔQ
Cp = ( ) 
ΔT p
At constant pressure, ΔQ = ΔU + P ΔV

ΔU ΔV
Cp = ( ) ൅(P ) 
ΔT p ΔT p
𝚫𝚫𝐔𝐔 𝚫𝚫𝐕𝐕
𝐂𝐂𝐩𝐩 = ൅(𝐏𝐏 ) ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺʹሻ
𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫 𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫 𝐩𝐩
ൌ
ΔV
 P ( ) ൌ
ΔT p
ΔU
Cp = ൅R
ΔT
—„•–‹–—–‹‰ˆ”‘‡“ሺͳሻCp = Cv +

𝐂𝐂𝐩𝐩 − 𝐂𝐂𝐯𝐯 =𝐑𝐑

This is called Mayer’s relation.

𝐂𝐂𝐩𝐩 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐂𝐂𝐯𝐯ǤŠ›
Š‡‰ƒ•‹•Š‡ƒ–‡†ƒ–…‘•–ƒ–˜‘Ž—‡ǡ–Š‡‡–‹”‡Š‡ƒ–‹•—•‡†–‘‹…”‡ƒ•‡–Š‡‹–‡”ƒŽ‡‡”‰›‘ˆ–Š‡‰ƒ•Ǥ—–
™Š‡–Š‡‰ƒ•‹•Š‡ƒ–‡†ƒ–…‘•–ƒ–’”‡••—”‡ǡ–Š‡Š‡ƒ–‹•—•‡†–‘‹…”‡ƒ•‡–Š‡‹–‡”ƒŽ‡‡”‰›ƒ†ƒŽ•‘–‘†‘
𝚫𝚫𝐔𝐔
‡š–‡”ƒŽ™‘”†—”‹‰‡š’ƒ•‹‘Ǥ ‹•–Š‡•ƒ‡‹„‘–Š…ƒ•‡•Ǥ‡…‡𝐂𝐂𝐩𝐩 ‹•‰”‡ƒ–‡”–Šƒ𝐂𝐂𝐯𝐯 Ǥ
𝚫𝚫𝐓𝐓

Š‡”‘†›ƒ‹…–ƒ–‡ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•ƒ†“—ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–ƒ–‡
˜‡”›‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—•–ƒ–‡‘ˆƒ–Š‡”‘†›ƒ‹…•›•–‡‹•…‘’Ž‡–‡Ž›†‡•…”‹„‡†„›•’‡…‹ˆ‹…˜ƒŽ—‡•‘ˆ•‘‡
ƒ…”‘•…‘’‹…˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•ǡƒŽ•‘…ƒŽŽ‡†•–ƒ–‡˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•Ǥ
‘”‡šƒ’Ž‡ǡƒ‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—•–ƒ–‡‘ˆƒ‰ƒ•‹•…‘’Ž‡–‡Ž›•’‡…‹ˆ‹‡†„›–Š‡˜ƒŽ—‡•‘ˆ’”‡••—”‡ǡ˜‘Ž—‡ǡ
–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡ǡƒ†ƒ••ሺƒ†…‘’‘•‹–‹‘‹ˆ–Š‡”‡‹•ƒ‹š–—”‡‘ˆ‰ƒ•‡•ሻǤ

“—ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ•–ƒ–‡
Š‡…‘‡…–‹‘„‡–™‡‡–Š‡•–ƒ–‡˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†–Š‡‡“—ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ•–ƒ–‡Ǥ
‰ǣ ‘”ƒ‹†‡ƒŽ‰ƒ•ǡ–Š‡‡“—ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ•–ƒ–‡‹•–Š‡‹†‡ƒŽ‰ƒ•”‡Žƒ–‹‘
P V = μ R T
š–‡•‹˜‡ƒ†–‡•‹˜‡ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•
Š‡–Š‡”‘†›ƒ‹…•–ƒ–‡˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•ƒ”‡‘ˆ–™‘‹†•ǣ
š–‡•‹˜‡ƒ†–‡•‹˜‡Ǥ

š–‡•‹˜‡ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•
Extensive variables indicate the ‘size’ of the system. 
ሺˆ™‡‹ƒ‰‹‡ǡ–‘†‹˜‹†‡ƒ•›•–‡‹‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—‹–‘–™‘‡“—ƒŽ’ƒ”–•ǡ–Š‡˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•™Š‘•‡˜ƒŽ—‡•‰‡–ŠƒŽ˜‡†‹
‡ƒ…Š’ƒ”–ƒ”‡‡š–‡•‹˜‡Ǥሻ
‰ǣ–‡”ƒŽ‡‡”‰›ǡ‘Ž—‡ǡƒ••
–‡•‹˜‡ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•
–‡•‹˜‡variables do not indicate the ‘size’ of the system.
ሺˆ™‡‹ƒ‰‹‡ǡ–‘†‹˜‹†‡ƒ•›•–‡‹‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—‹–‘–™‘‡“—ƒŽ’ƒ”–•ǡ–Š‡˜ƒ”‹ƒ„Ž‡•–Šƒ–”‡ƒ‹—…Šƒ‰‡†ˆ‘”
‡ƒ…Š’ƒ”–ƒ”‡‹–‡•‹˜‡Ǥሻ
‰ǣ”‡••—”‡ǡ‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡ǡ‡•‹–›

—ƒ•‹Ǧ•–ƒ–‹…’”‘…‡••
Š‡ƒ‡“—ƒ•‹Ǧ•–ƒ–‹…‡ƒ•‡ƒ”Ž›•–ƒ–‹…Ǥ
“—ƒ•‹Ǧ•–ƒ–‹…’”‘…‡••‹•ƒ‹ˆ‹‹–‡Ž›•Ž‘™’”‘…‡•••—…Š–Šƒ––Š‡•›•–‡”‡ƒ‹•‹–Š‡”ƒŽƒ†‡…Šƒ‹…ƒŽ
‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—™‹–Š–Š‡•—””‘—†‹‰•–Š”‘—‰Š‘—–Ǥ
ƒ“—ƒ•‹Ǧ•–ƒ–‹…’”‘…‡••ǡ–Š‡’”‡••—”‡ƒ†–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‘ˆ–Š‡‡˜‹”‘‡–…ƒ†‹ˆˆ‡”ˆ”‘–Š‘•‡‘ˆ–Š‡•›•–‡
‘Ž›‹ˆ‹‹–‡•‹ƒŽŽ›Ǥ
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‰ǣ”‘…‡••‡•–Šƒ–ƒ”‡•—ˆˆ‹…‹‡–Ž›•Ž‘™ƒ††‘‘–‹˜‘Ž˜‡ƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‡†‘–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡’‹•–‘ǡŽƒ”‰‡–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡
‰”ƒ†‹‡–ǡ‡–…Ǥƒ”‡”‡ƒ•‘ƒ„Ž›ƒ’’”‘š‹ƒ–‹‘–‘ƒ‹†‡ƒŽ“—ƒ•‹Ǧ•–ƒ–‹…’”‘…‡••Ǥ

‘‡•’‡…‹ƒŽ–Š‡”‘†›ƒ‹…’”‘…‡••‡•

 

ͳǤ•‘–Š‡”ƒŽ’”‘…‡••Ǥ
’”‘…‡••‹™Š‹…Š–Š‡–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‘ˆ–Š‡•›•–‡‹•‡’–ˆ‹š‡†–Š”‘—‰Š‘—–‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†ƒ‹•‘–Š‡”ƒŽ’”‘…‡••Ǥ
For isothermal process T = constant .
So internal energy does not change, ΔU=0
▪ ‰ǣŠƒ‰‡‘ˆ•–ƒ–‡ሺ‡Ž–‹‰ǡˆ—•‹‘ǡ˜ƒ’‘”‹•–‹‘ǤǤሻ
▪ Š‡‡š’ƒ•‹‘‘ˆƒ‰ƒ•‹ƒ‡–ƒŽŽ‹……›Ž‹†‡”’Žƒ…‡†‹ƒŽƒ”‰‡”‡•‡”˜‘‹”‘ˆˆ‹š‡†–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‹•ƒ
‡šƒ’Ž‡‘ˆƒ‹•‘–Š‡”ƒŽ’”‘…‡••Ǥ

“—ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ•–ƒ–‡ˆ‘”ƒ‹•‘–Š‡”ƒŽ’”‘…‡••
For an ideal gas, P V = μ R T
ˆƒ‹†‡ƒŽ‰ƒ•‰‘‡•‹•‘–Š‡”ƒŽŽ›ˆ”‘‹–•‹‹–‹ƒŽ•–ƒ–‡–‘–Š‡ˆ‹ƒŽ•–ƒ–‡ǡ‹–•–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡”‡ƒ‹•…‘•–ƒ–
ൌ…‘•–ƒ–
Š‹•‹•–Š‡‡“—ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ•–ƒ–‡ˆ‘”ƒ‹•‘–Š‡”ƒŽ’”‘…‡••Ǥ

Work done by an ideal gas during an isothermal process
Consider an ideal gas undergoes a change in its state isothermally (at temperature T) from (P1 ,V1 ) to the final
state (P2 , V2 ).

v2
W =∫v P dV 
1
P V = μ R T (for 1 mole)
μR T
P= 
V
v μR T
W =∫v 2 dV
1 V
v 1
W =μ R T ∫v 2 V dV
1
W = μR T [ln V]vv21 
W = μR T [ln V2 − ln V1 ] 
𝐕𝐕
W = 𝛍𝛍𝛍𝛍𝛍𝛍 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 [ 𝟐𝟐]
𝐕𝐕
𝟏𝟏

Isothermal expansion,
For Isothermal expansion, V2 > V1 and hence W > 0 (workdone is positive)
That is, in an isothermal expansion, the gas absorbs heat and work is done by the gas on the environment.

Isothermal compression
In isothermal compression V2 < V1 and hence W < 0 (workdone is negative)
That is, In an isothermal compression, work is done on the gas by the environment and heat is released.






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2.Adiabatic process
In an adiabatic process, the system is insulated from the surroundings and heat absorbed or released is zero.
ΔQ=0

“—ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ•–ƒ–‡ˆ‘”ƒƒ†‹ƒ„ƒ–‹…’”‘…‡••
𝐕𝐕 𝛄𝛄 ൌ…‘•–ƒ–”𝐕𝐕 𝛄𝛄−𝟏𝟏 ൌ…‘•–ƒ–
where γ is the ratio of specific heats (ordinary or molar) at constant pressure and at constant volume.
𝐂𝐂𝐩𝐩
𝛄𝛄ൌ𝐂𝐂 
𝐯𝐯

Workdone by an Ideal gas during an Adiabatic Process
v
W =∫v 2 P dV
1
k
V γൌǡൌ γǡൌ V −γ 
V
v
W = k ∫v 2 V −γ dV
1
v
V−γ+1 2
W = k [ −γ+1 ] 
v 1
k
W = [v −γ+1 − v1 −γ+1 ]
1−γ 2
1 k k
W = [ − γ−1 ]
1−γ v2 γ−1 v1

V γൌ
P1 V1 γൌP2 V2 γ ൌ
1 P2 V2 γ P V γ
W= [ v2 γ−1
− v1 γ−1
1
]
1−γ 1

𝟏𝟏
W = 𝟏𝟏−𝛄𝛄 [ 𝐏𝐏𝟐𝟐 𝐕𝐕𝟐𝟐 − 𝐏𝐏𝟏𝟏 𝐕𝐕𝟏𝟏 ]--------------(1)
P V = μ R T 
1
W= [ μ R T2 − μ R T1 ]
1−γ
𝛍𝛍 𝐑𝐑
W = 𝟏𝟏−𝛄𝛄 [ 𝐓𝐓𝟐𝟐 − 𝐓𝐓𝟏𝟏 ] --------------------(2)
Or
𝛍𝛍 𝐑𝐑
W= [ 𝐓𝐓𝟏𝟏 − 𝐓𝐓𝟐𝟐 ] --------------------(3)
𝛄𝛄−𝟏𝟏
Adiabatic expansion
In adiabatic expansion, the work is done by the gas (W > 0), we get T2 < T1 i.e., the temperature of the gas
lowers.

Adiabatic compression
In Adiabatic compression, work is done on the gas (W < 0), we get T2 > T1 . i.e., the temperature of the gas
rises.

3.Isochoric process
In an isochoric process, V is constant.

Workdone in an isochoric process
Δ W=P ΔV
 ‘”‹•‘…Š‘”‹…’”‘…‡••ǡΔV =0
Δ W =0
In an isochoric process no work is done on or by the gas.





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4.Isobaric Process
In an isobaric process, P is constant.

Work done by the gas in an Isobaric process
Work done by the gas is
Δ W=P ΔV
W = P (𝐕𝐕𝟐𝟐 − 𝐕𝐕𝟏𝟏 ) 
or
W= μ R (𝐓𝐓𝟐𝟐 − 𝐓𝐓𝟏𝟏 )

Cyclic Process 
In a cyclic process, the system returns to its initial state. 
Since internal energy is a state variable, ΔU = 0 for a cyclic process

Heat Engines
Heat engines convert heat energy into mechanical energy.
Heat engine is a device by which a system is made to undergo a cyclic process that results in conversion of heat
to work.

Heat engines consists of :
(1) Working substance–the system. 
Eg:A mixture of fuel vapour and air in a gasoline or diesel engine or steam in a steam engine are the
working substances. 
(2) An external reservoir at some high temperature T1 called source 
(3) An external reservoir at some lower temperature T2 called sink.






The working substance absorbs a total amount of heat Q1 from the source
at higher temperature, some external work is done by it on the environment and releases remaining amount
of heat Q 2 to the sink at lower 
temperature T2 . 
Q1 = W + Q 2 
W =𝐐𝐐𝟏𝟏 − 𝐐𝐐𝟐𝟐 

Efficiency of heat engine(η)
The efficiency (η) of a heat engine is defined by
𝐰𝐰
𝛈𝛈 = 
𝐐𝐐𝟏𝟏
where Q1 is the heat absorbed by the system from the source in one complete cycle
W is the work done by the system on the environment in a cycle.
W =𝐐𝐐𝟏𝟏 − 𝐐𝐐𝟐𝟐 
𝐐𝐐𝟏𝟏 − 𝐐𝐐𝟐𝟐
𝛈𝛈 = 
𝐐𝐐𝟏𝟏
For Q2 = 0, η = 1, 
i.e., the engine will have 100% efficiency in converting heat into work.
Such an ideal engine with η = 1 (100% efficiency) is never possible, even if we can eliminate various kinds of
losses associated with actual heat engines.

External and Internal combustion engines

The mechanism of conversion of heat into work varies for different heat engines. Basically, there are two types
of heat engines: External combustion engines and Internal combustion engines
External Combustion Engine
In an external combustion engine, the system is heated by an external furnace. 
Eg: steam engine
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Internal Combustion Engines
In an internal combustion engine, the system is heated internally by an exothermic chemical reaction. 
Eg: Petrol engine ,Diesel engine.

Refrigerators and Heat Pumps

A heat pump is the same as a refrigerator. What term we use depends on the purpose of the device. If the
purpose is to cool a portion of space, like the inside of a chamber, and higher temperature reservoir is surrounding, we
call the device a refrigerator; if the idea is to pump heat into a portion of space (the room in a building) when the
outside environment is cold, the device is called a heat pump.
Both are reverse of a heat engine.

Refrigerator
A refrigerator is the reverse of a heat engine.
The purpose of a refrigerator is to cool a portion of space, like the inside of a chamber, and higher temperature
reservoir is surrounding.


The Coefficient of Performance
The coefficient of performance (α) of a refrigerator is given by
𝐐𝐐
α = 𝐖𝐖𝟐𝟐
where Q 2 is the heat extracted from the cold reservoir
and W is the work done on the system–the refrigerant
𝐐𝐐
α = 𝐐𝐐 −𝟐𝟐𝐐𝐐 
𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐
A refrigerator cannot work without some external work done on the system.i.e.,W cannot be zero or the
coefficient of performance cannot be infinite.

Heat Pump
The purpose of a heat pump is to pump heat into a portion of space (the room in a building )when the outside
environment is cold.

The Coefficient of Performance

The coefficient of performance (α) of a heat pump is given by
𝐐𝐐
α = 𝐖𝐖𝟏𝟏 
𝐐𝐐𝟏𝟏
α= 
𝐐𝐐𝟏𝟏 − 𝐐𝐐𝟐𝟐
Second Law of Thermodynamics
Kelvin-Planck statement 
No process is possible whose sole result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and the complete conversion
of the heat into work.
Clausius statement 
No process is possible whose sole result is the transfer of heat from a colder object to a hotter object. 
The two statements above are completely equivalent

‡˜‡”•‹„Ž‡ƒ†””‡˜‡”•‹„Ž‡”‘…‡••‡•
‡˜‡”•‹„Ž‡”‘…‡••‡•
–Š‡”‘†›ƒ‹…’”‘…‡••‹•”‡˜‡”•‹„Ž‡‹ˆ–Š‡’”‘…‡••…ƒ„‡–—”‡†„ƒ…•—…Š–Šƒ–„‘–Š–Š‡•›•–‡ƒ†–Š‡
•—””‘—†‹‰•”‡–—”–‘–Š‡‹”‘”‹‰‹ƒŽ•–ƒ–‡•ǡ™‹–Š‘‘–Š‡”…Šƒ‰‡ƒ›™Š‡”‡‡Ž•‡‹–Š‡—‹˜‡”•‡Ǥ
‰ǣ“—ƒ•‹Ǧ•–ƒ–‹…‹•‘–Š‡”ƒŽ‡š’ƒ•‹‘‘ˆƒ‹†‡ƒŽ‰ƒ•‹ƒ…›Ž‹†‡”ˆ‹––‡†™‹–Šƒˆ”‹…–‹‘Ž‡••‘˜ƒ„Ž‡
’‹•–‘‹•ƒ”‡˜‡”•‹„Ž‡’”‘…‡••Ǥ
’”‘…‡••‹•”‡˜‡”•‹„Ž‡‘Ž›‹ˆǣ
ͳሻ –‹•“—ƒ•‹Ǧ•–ƒ–‹…‹Ǥ‡Ǥǡ–Š‡•›•–‡‹‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—™‹–Š–Š‡•—””‘—†‹‰•ƒ–‡˜‡”›•–ƒ‰‡Ǥ
ʹሻ Š‡”‡ƒ”‡‘†‹••‹’ƒ–‹˜‡ˆƒ…–‘”••—…Šƒ•ˆ”‹…–‹‘ǡ˜‹•…‘•‹–›ǡ‡–…Ǥ

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””‡˜‡”•‹„Ž‡”‘…‡••‡•
–Š‡”‘†›ƒ‹…’”‘…‡••‹•‹””‡˜‡”•‹„Ž‡‹ˆ–Š‡’”‘…‡••…ƒ‘–„‡–—”‡†„ƒ…•—…Š–Šƒ–„‘–Š–Š‡•›•–‡ƒ†–Š‡
•—””‘—†‹‰•”‡–—”–‘–Š‡‹”‘”‹‰‹ƒŽ•–ƒ–‡•ǡ™‹–Š‘‘–Š‡”…Šƒ‰‡ƒ›™Š‡”‡‡Ž•‡‹–Š‡—‹˜‡”•‡Ǥ
Š‡•’‘–ƒ‡‘—•’”‘…‡••‡•‘ˆƒ–—”‡ƒ”‡‹””‡˜‡”•‹„Ž‡Ǥ
▪ ‰ǣŠ‡ˆ”‡‡‡š’ƒ•‹‘‘ˆƒ‰ƒ•
▪ Š‡…‘„—•–‹‘”‡ƒ…–‹‘‘ˆƒ‹š–—”‡‘ˆ’‡–”‘Žƒ†ƒ‹”‹‰‹–‡†„›ƒ•’ƒ”Ǥ
▪ ‘‘‹‰‰ƒ•Ž‡ƒ‹‰ˆ”‘ƒ‰ƒ•…›Ž‹†‡”‹–Š‡‹–…Š‡†‹ˆˆ—•‡•–‘–Š‡‡–‹”‡”‘‘ǤŠ‡†‹ˆˆ—•‹‘’”‘…‡••
™‹ŽŽ‘–•’‘–ƒ‡‘—•Ž›”‡˜‡”•‡ƒ†„”‹‰–Š‡‰ƒ•„ƒ…–‘–Š‡…›Ž‹†‡”Ǥ
””‡˜‡”•‹„‹Ž‹–›‘ˆƒ’”‘…‡••ƒ”‹•‡•†—‡–‘ǣ
ͳሻ ƒ›’”‘…‡••‡•–ƒ‡–Š‡•›•–‡–‘‘Ǧ‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—•–ƒ–‡•Ǥ
ʹሻ ‘•–’”‘…‡••‡•‹˜‘Ž˜‡ˆ”‹…–‹‘ǡ˜‹•…‘•‹–›ƒ†‘–Š‡”†‹••‹’ƒ–‹˜‡‡ˆˆ‡…–•Ǥ

ƒ”‘–‰‹‡
ƒ†‹ƒ”‘–ǡƒ ”‡…Š‡‰‹‡‡”ǡ†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡†ƒ”‘–‡‰‹‡Ǥƒ”‘–‡‰‹‡‹•ƒ”‡˜‡”•‹„Ž‡‡‰‹‡‘’‡”ƒ–‹‰
„‡–™‡‡–™‘–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡•T1 ሺ•‘—”…‡ሻƒ†T2 ሺ•‹ሻǤ
Š‡™‘”‹‰•—„•–ƒ…‡‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ”‘–‡‰‹‡‹•ƒ‹†‡ƒŽ‰ƒ•Ǥ

ƒ”‘–…›…Ž‡

 Š‡ˆ‘—”’”‘…‡••‡•‹˜‘Ž˜‡†‹…ƒ”‘–…›…Ž‡ƒ”‡
ͳǤ•‘–Š‡”ƒŽš’ƒ•‹‘
ʹǤ†‹ƒ„ƒ–‹…š’ƒ•‹‘
͵Ǥ•‘–Š‡”ƒŽ‘’”‡••‹‘
ͶǤ†‹ƒ„ƒ–‹…‘’”‡••‹‘


Efficiency of Carnot Engine
𝐐𝐐𝟏𝟏 − 𝐐𝐐𝟐𝟐
𝛈𝛈 = 𝐐𝐐𝟏𝟏

𝐓𝐓𝟏𝟏 − 𝐓𝐓𝟐𝟐
‘”𝛈𝛈 = 
𝐓𝐓𝟏𝟏


šƒ’Ž‡
ƒ…—Žƒ–‡–Š‡‡ˆˆ‹…‹‡…›‘ˆƒŠ‡ƒ–‡‰‹‡™‘”‹‰„‡–™‡‡•–‡ƒ’‘‹–ƒ†‹…‡’‘‹–Ǥƒ›‘—†‡•‹‰ƒ‡‰‹‡‘ˆ
ͳͲͲΨ‡ˆˆ‹…‹‡…›Ǥ
–‡ƒ’‘‹–ǡ T1 ൌͳͲ00 CൌͳͲͲ൅ʹ͹͵ൌ͵͹͵

…‡’‘‹– , T2 ൌ00 CൌͲ൅ʹ͹͵ൌʹ͹͵

T1 − T2
η = T1


373− 273
η = 
373

η = 0.268
𝛈𝛈 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟖𝟖%

An ideal engine with η = 1 or (100Ψሻ‡ˆˆ‹…‹‡…›‹•‡˜‡”’‘••‹„Ž‡ǡ‡˜‡‹ˆ™‡…ƒ‡Ž‹‹ƒ–‡˜ƒ”‹‘—•‹†•‘ˆ

Ž‘••‡•ƒ••‘…‹ƒ–‡†™‹–Šƒ…–—ƒŽŠ‡ƒ–‡‰‹‡•Ǥ


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Šƒ’–‡”ͳ͵
‹‡–‹…Š‡‘”›
†‡ƒŽ‰ƒ•‡“—ƒ–‹‘

ƒ•‡•ƒ–Ž‘™’”‡••—”‡•ƒ†Š‹‰Š–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡•—…Šƒ„‘˜‡–Šƒ–ƒ–™Š‹…Š–Š‡›Ž‹“—‡ˆ›ሺ‘”•‘Ž‹†‹ˆ›ሻ
ƒ’’”‘š‹ƒ–‡Ž›•ƒ–‹•ˆ›ƒ•‹’Ž‡”‡Žƒ–‹‘
PV = μ RTǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͳሻ
where μ is the number of moles
‹•—‹˜‡”•ƒŽ‰ƒ•…‘•–ƒ–ൌͺǤ͵ͳͶ mol−1 K −1 
‹•ƒ„•‘Ž—–‡–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡Ǥ
‰ƒ•–Šƒ–•ƒ–‹•ˆ‹‡•–Š‹•‡“‡šƒ…–Ž›ƒ–ƒŽŽ’”‡••—”‡•ƒ†–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡•‹•†‡ˆ‹‡†–‘„‡ƒ‹†‡ƒŽ‰ƒ•Ǥ
Š‡’‡”ˆ‡…–‰ƒ•‡“—ƒ–‹‘…ƒƒŽ•‘„‡™”‹––‡ƒ•
ൌ𝐤𝐤 𝐁𝐁 ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺʹሻ

™Š‡”‡k B ‹•‘Ž–œƒ…‘•–ƒ–ൌǤ͵ͺൈ10−23 K −1

PV
 ”‘ƒ„‘˜‡‡“ǡ T ൌ…‘•–ƒ–

‡ƒŽ‰ƒ•‡•ƒ’’”‘ƒ…Š‹†‡ƒŽ‰ƒ•„‡Šƒ˜‹‘—”ƒ–Ž‘™’”‡••—”‡•ƒ†Š‹‰Š–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡•Ǥ
–Ž‘™’”‡••—”‡•‘”Š‹‰Š–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡•–Š‡‘Ž‡…—Ž‡•ƒ”‡ˆƒ”ƒ’ƒ”–ƒ†‘Ž‡…—Žƒ”‹–‡”ƒ…–‹‘•ƒ”‡‡‰Ž‹‰‹„Ž‡Ǥ
‹–Š‘—–‹–‡”ƒ…–‹‘•–Š‡‰ƒ•„‡Šƒ˜‡•Ž‹‡ƒ‹†‡ƒŽ‘‡Ǥ

Boyle’s Law 
PV = μ RT
If we fix μ and T,ൌ‘•–ƒ–
𝟏𝟏
∝ 
𝐕𝐕
‹Ǥ‡Ǥǡˆ‘”ƒˆ‹š‡†–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡ǡ’”‡••—”‡‘ˆƒ‰‹˜‡ƒ••‘ˆ‰ƒ•˜ƒ”‹‡•‹˜‡”•‡Ž›™‹–Š˜‘Ž—‡ǤŠ‹•‹•–Š‡ˆƒ‘—•
Boyle’s law.
Šƒrles’ƒ™
PV = μ RT
𝐕𝐕
ˆ™‡ˆ‹šǡ𝐓𝐓 = 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜
∝
‹Ǥ‡Ǥǡˆ‘”ƒˆ‹š‡†pressure, the volume of a gas is proportional to its absolute temperature T (Charles’ law).

Dalton’s law of partial pressures

‘•‹†‡”ƒ‹š–—”‡‘ˆ‘Ǧ‹–‡”ƒ…–‹‰‹†‡ƒŽ‰ƒ•‡•μ1 ‘Ž‡•‘ˆ‰ƒ•ͳǡ μ2 ‘Ž‡•‘ˆ‰ƒ•ʹǡ‡–…
ൌሺμ1 ൅μ2 +… ) RT
RT RT
ൌ μ1  ൅μ2  + …………..
V V

ൌ𝐏𝐏𝟏𝟏 ൅𝐏𝐏𝟐𝟐 + …………….

Š—•ǡ–Š‡–‘–ƒŽ’”‡••—”‡‘ˆƒ‹š–—”‡‘ˆideal gases is the sum of partial pressures. This is Dalton’s law of partial
’”‡••—”‡•Ǥ

‹‡–‹…Š‡‘”›‘ˆƒ†‡ƒŽ
ĥ
▪ ‰‹˜‡ƒ‘—–‘ˆ‰ƒ•‹•ƒ…‘ŽŽ‡…–‹‘‘ˆƒŽƒ”‰‡—„‡”‘ˆ‘Ž‡…—Ž‡•–Šƒ–ƒ”‡‹”ƒ†‘‘–‹‘Ǥ
▪ –‘”†‹ƒ”›’”‡••—”‡ƒ†–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡ǡ–Š‡ƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡†‹•–ƒ…‡„‡–™‡‡‘Ž‡…—Ž‡•‹•˜‡”›Žƒ”‰‡…‘’ƒ”‡†
–‘–Š‡•‹œ‡‘ˆƒ‘Ž‡…—Ž‡ሺʹ%ሻǤ
▪ Š‡‹–‡”ƒ…–‹‘„‡–™‡‡–Š‡‘Ž‡…—Ž‡•‹•‡‰Ž‹‰‹„Ž‡Ǥ
▪ Š‡‘Ž‡…—Ž‡•ƒ‡‡Žƒ•–‹……‘ŽŽ‹•‹‘•™‹–Š‡ƒ…Š‘–Š‡”ƒ†ƒŽ•‘™‹–Š–Š‡™ƒŽŽ•‘ˆ–Š‡…‘–ƒ‹‡”Ǥ
▪ •–Š‡…‘ŽŽ‹•‹‘•ƒ”‡‡Žƒ•–‹…ǡ–‘–ƒŽ‹‡–‹…‡‡”‰›ƒ†–‘–ƒŽ‘‡–—ƒ”‡…‘•‡”˜‡†Ǥ

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”‡••—”‡‘ˆƒ†‡ƒŽ
ĥ

 
Š‡…Šƒ‰‡‹‘‡–—‘ˆ–Š‡‘Ž‡…—Ž‡ൌ −vx −vx 
ൌ −ʹvx 
‘‡–—‹’ƒ”–‡†–‘™ƒŽŽ‹–Š‡…‘ŽŽ‹•‹‘ൌʹvx 
‹•–ƒƒ…‡–”ƒ˜‡ŽŽ‡†„›–Š‡‘Ž‡…—Ž‡‹–‹‡Δt =vx Δt
‘Ž—‡…‘˜‡”‡†„›–Š‡‘Ž‡…—Ž‡ൌvx Δt
‘‘ˆ‘Ž‡…—Ž‡•‹–Š‹•˜‘Ž—‡ൌvx Δt
ሺ‹•—„‡”†‡•‹–›‘ˆ‘Ž‡…—Ž‡•ሻ
Ž›ŠƒŽˆ‘ˆ–Š‡•‡‘Ž‡…—Ž‡•‘˜‡‹൅š†‹”‡…–‹‘
1
‘‘ˆ‘Ž‡…—Ž‡• = vx Δt 
2
Š‡—„‡”‘ˆ‘Ž‡…—Ž‡•™‹–Š˜‡Ž‘…‹–› vx hitting the wall in time Δt
1
ൌ vx Δt 
2
Š‡–‘–ƒŽ‘‡–—–”ƒ•ˆ‡””‡†–‘–Š‡™ƒŽŽ
1
ൌሺʹvx ሻሺ vx Δt )
2
ൌvx 2 Δt
Q
Š‡ˆ‘”…‡‘–Š‡™ƒŽŽǡ ൌΔt
 ൌvx 2 
F
”‡••—”‡ǡൌ A
ൌvx 2 
ŽŽ‘Ž‡…—Ž‡•‹ƒ‰ƒ•†‘‘–Šƒ˜‡–Š‡•ƒ‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›Ǣ•‘ƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‹•–‘„‡–ƒ‡
ൌv ̅̅̅
2
x 
„—–v 2 1 ̅̅̅
̅̅̅ 2
x ൌ3 v 
𝟏𝟏 ̅̅̅𝟐𝟐 
ൌ 𝐯𝐯
𝟑𝟑

‹‡–‹…–‡”’”‡–ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡
1 ̅̅̅2 
ൌ v
3
1 ̅̅̅2 
ൌ v 3
N
ൌ ǡൌ
V
1 ̅̅̅2
ൌ v 3

™Š‡”‡‹•–Š‡—„‡”‘ˆ‘Ž‡…—Ž‡•‹–Š‡•ƒ’Ž‡Ǥ
2 1 ̅̅̅
2 ሻ
ൌ ሺ v
3 2
Š‡“—ƒ–‹–›‹„”ƒ…‡–‹•–Š‡ƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡–”ƒ•Žƒ–‹‘ƒŽ‹‡–‹…‡‡”‰›‘ˆ–Š‡‘Ž‡…—Ž‡•‹–Š‡‰ƒ•Ǥ
1 ̅̅̅
2 ൌ
  v
2
2
ൌ ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͳሻ
3
†‡ƒŽ‰ƒ•‡“—ƒ–‹‘ǡൌNk BǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺʹሻ
2
 ”‘‡“ሺͳሻƒ†ሺʹሻ ൌ Nk B
3
3
E = Nk B
2
𝟑𝟑
Ȁൌ 𝐤𝐤 𝐁𝐁 
𝟐𝟐
Š‡ƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡‹‡–‹…‡‡”‰›‘ˆƒ‘Ž‡…—Ž‡‹•’”‘’‘”–‹‘ƒŽ–‘–Š‡ƒ„•‘Ž—–‡–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‘ˆ–Š‡‰ƒ•Ǣ‹–‹•
‹†‡’‡†‡–‘ˆ’”‡••—”‡ǡ˜‘Ž—‡‘”–Š‡ƒ–—”‡‘ˆ–Š‡‹†‡ƒŽ‰ƒ•Ǥ

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‘‘–‡ƒ“—ƒ”‡ሺ”•ሻ’‡‡†
3
Ȁൌ k B 
2
1 ̅̅̅
2 ൌ 3 k 
 v
2 B 2
̅̅̅2 ൌ3kB T
v
m
Š‡•“—ƒ”‡”‘‘–‘ˆ ̅̅̅ v 2‹•‘™ƒ•”‘‘–‡ƒ•“—ƒ”‡ሺ”•ሻ•’‡‡†ƒ†‹•†‡‘–‡†„›vrms 
𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝐁𝐁 𝐓𝐓
𝐯𝐯𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫 = √ 
𝐦𝐦
‡‰”‡‡•ˆ ”‡‡†‘
Š‡–‘–ƒŽ—„‡”‘ˆ‹†‡’‡†‡–™ƒ›•‹™Š‹…Šƒ•›•–‡…ƒ’‘••‡••‡‡”‰›‹•…ƒŽŽ‡††‡‰”‡‡‘ˆˆ”‡‡†‘Ǥ
‘Ž‡…—Ž‡Šƒ•‘‡†‡‰”‡‡‘ˆˆ”‡‡†‘ˆ‘”‘–‹‘‹ƒŽ‹‡Ǥ
™‘†‡‰”‡‡•‘ˆˆ”‡‡†‘ˆ‘”‘–‹‘‹ƒ’Žƒ‡Ǥ
Š”‡‡†‡‰”‡‡•‘ˆˆ”‡‡†‘ˆ‘”‘–‹‘‹•’ƒ…‡Ǥ

ƒ™‘ˆ“—‹’ƒ”–‹–‹‘‘ˆ‡”‰›
ƒ™‘ˆ“—‹’ƒ”–‹–‹‘‘ˆ‡”‰›•–ƒ–‡•–Šƒ–ǡ‹‡“—‹Ž‹„”‹—ǡ–Š‡–‘–ƒŽ‡‡”‰›‹•‡“—ƒŽŽ›†‹•–”‹„—–‡†‹ƒŽŽ’‘••‹„Ž‡
𝟏𝟏
‡‡”‰›‘†‡•ǡ™‹–Š‡ƒ…Š‘†‡Šƒ˜‹‰ƒƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡‡‡”‰›‡“—ƒŽ–‘ 𝟐𝟐 𝐤𝐤 𝐁𝐁 


’‡…‹ˆ‹…‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–‹‡•‘ˆ‘‘ƒ–‘‹…
ƒ•‡•

Š‡‘Ž‡…—Ž‡‘ˆƒ‘ƒ–‘‹…‰ƒ•Šƒ•‘Ž›͵–”ƒ•Žƒ–‹‘ƒŽ†‡‰”‡‡•‘ˆˆ”‡‡†‘Ǥ
1 3
˜‡”ƒ‰‡‡‡”‰›‘ˆƒ‘Ž‡…—Ž‡ൌ͵𝑥𝑥 k B ൌ k B 
2 2
Š‡–‘–ƒŽ‹–‡”ƒŽ‡‡”‰›‘ˆƒ‘Ž‡‘ˆ•—…Šƒ‰ƒ•‹•ǡ
3
ൌ k B šNA 
2
k B NA ൌ
3
ൌ 
2
’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›ƒ–…‘•–ƒ–˜‘Ž—‡
dU
Cv ൌ 
dt
d 3
ൌ ( RT)
dT 2
𝟑𝟑
𝐂𝐂𝐕𝐕 ൌ 
𝟐𝟐

 ‘”ƒ‹†‡ƒŽ‰ƒ•ǡCP –CV ൌ
’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›ƒ–…‘•–ƒ–’”‡••—”‡ǡ
CP ൌ CV ൅
3
ൌ ൅
2
𝟓𝟓
𝐂𝐂𝐏𝐏 ൌ 
𝟐𝟐
Š‡”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ•’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–•
5
C R
 CP = γ = 23 
V R
2
𝟓𝟓
†‹ƒ„ƒ–‹……‘•–ƒ– ǡ𝛄𝛄 = 𝟑𝟑










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’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–‹‡•‘ˆ‹ƒ–‘‹…
ƒ•‡•
‹‰‹††‹ƒ–‘‹…‘Ž‡…—Ž‡
†‹ƒ–‘‹…”‹‰‹†”‘–ƒ–‘”Šƒ•ǡ͵–”ƒ•Žƒ–‹‘ƒŽƒ†ʹ”‘–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ†‡‰”‡‡•‘ˆˆ”‡‡†‘Ǥ‹Ǥ‡Ǥǡ
1
˜‡”ƒ‰‡‡‡”‰›‘ˆƒ‘Ž‡…—Ž‡ൌͷš k B 
2
5
ൌ2 k B 
Š‡–‘–ƒŽ‹–‡”ƒŽ‡‡”‰›‘ˆƒ‘Ž‡‘ˆ•—…Šƒ‰ƒ•‹•ǡ
5
ൌ 2 k B šNA 
k B NA ൌ
5
ൌ 
2
’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›ƒ–…‘•–ƒ–˜‘Ž—‡
dU
Cv ൌ  dt
d 5
ൌ ( RT)
dT 2
𝟓𝟓
𝐂𝐂𝐕𝐕 ൌ 
𝟐𝟐
‘”ƒ‹†‡ƒŽ‰ƒ•ǡCP –CV = R (Mayer’s relation)
’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›ƒ–…‘•–ƒ–’”‡••—”‡ǡ
CP ൌ CV ൅
5
ൌ ൅
2
𝟕𝟕
𝐂𝐂𝐏𝐏 ൌ 
𝟐𝟐
Š‡”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ•’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–•
7
C R
 CP = γ= 25 
V R
2
𝟕𝟕
†‹ƒ„ƒ–‹……‘•–ƒ– ǡ𝛄𝛄 = 
𝟓𝟓

‘‹‰‹†‹ƒ–‘‹…‘Ž‡…—Ž‡
‘”‹‰‹††‹ƒ–‘‹…‘Ž‡…—Ž‡Šƒ•ǡ͵–”ƒ•Žƒ–‹‘ƒŽǡʹ”‘–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽƒ†
ͳ˜‹„”ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ†‡‰”‡‡•‘ˆˆ”‡‡†‘Ǥ
1
ሺƒ…Š˜‹„”ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ†‡‰”‡‡‘ˆˆ”‡‡†‘…‘–”‹„—–‡•ǡʹš k B ൌk B ሻ
2
5
˜‡”ƒ‰‡‡‡”‰›‘ˆƒ‘Ž‡…—Ž‡ൌ2 k B ൅ k B 
7
ൌ k B 
2

Š‡–‘–ƒŽ‹–‡”ƒŽ‡‡”‰›‘ˆƒ‘Ž‡‘ˆ•—…Šƒ‰ƒ•‹•ǡ
7
ൌ k B šNA 
2
k B NA ൌ
𝟕𝟕
ൌ 
𝟐𝟐
’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›ƒ–…‘•–ƒ–˜‘Ž—‡
dU
Cv ൌ dt
d 7
ൌ ( RT)
dT 2
𝟕𝟕
𝐂𝐂𝐕𝐕 ൌ 
𝟐𝟐
’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›ƒ–…‘•–ƒ–’”‡••—”‡ǡ
CP ൌ CV ൅
7
ൌ ൅
2
𝟗𝟗
𝐂𝐂𝐏𝐏 ൌ 
𝟐𝟐
Š‡”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ•’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–•
9
C R
 CP = γ = 27 
V R
2
𝟗𝟗
†‹ƒ„ƒ–‹……‘•–ƒ– ǡ𝛄𝛄 = 
𝟕𝟕

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‘Ž›ƒ–‘‹…
ƒ•‡•
’‘Ž›ƒ–‘‹…‘Ž‡…—Ž‡Šƒ•͵–”ƒ•Žƒ–‹‘ƒŽǡ͵”‘–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ†‡‰”‡‡•‘ˆˆ”‡‡†‘ƒ†ƒ…‡”–ƒ‹—„‡”ሺˆሻ‘ˆ
˜‹„”ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ‘†‡•Ǥ
3 3
˜‡”ƒ‰‡‡‡”‰›‘ˆƒ‘Ž‡…—Ž‡ൌ2 k B ൅ 2 k B ൅f k B 

Š‡–‘–ƒŽ‹–‡”ƒŽ‡‡”‰›‘ˆƒ‘Ž‡‘ˆ•—…Šƒ‰ƒ•‹•ǡ
3 3
ൌ( k B T + k B T + f k B T ) NA 
2 2
ൌ( 3 + f )k B TNA
k B NAൌ
ൌ( 3 + f )RT
’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›ƒ–…‘•–ƒ–˜‘Ž—‡
dU
Cv ൌ dt 
𝐂𝐂𝐕𝐕 ൌ( 𝟑𝟑 + 𝐟𝐟 )𝐑𝐑
’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›ƒ–…‘•–ƒ–’”‡••—”‡ǡ
 CP ൌCV ൅
ൌ( 3 + f )R൅
𝐂𝐂𝐏𝐏 ൌ( 𝟒𝟒 + 𝐟𝐟 )𝐑𝐑
Š‡”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ•’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–•
C ( 4+f )R
γ = CP = ( 
V 3 +f )R

( 𝟒𝟒+𝐟𝐟 )
†‹ƒ„ƒ–‹……‘•–ƒ– ǡ𝛄𝛄 = (𝟑𝟑 +𝐟𝐟 )



’‡…‹ˆ‹…‡ƒ–ƒ’ƒ…‹–›‘ˆ‘Ž‹†•
‘•‹†‡”ƒ•‘Ž‹†‘ˆƒ–‘•ǡ‡ƒ…Š˜‹„”ƒ–‹‰ƒ„‘—–‹–•‡ƒ’‘•‹–‹‘Ǥ
1
˜‹„”ƒ–‹‘‹‘‡†‹‡•‹‘Šƒ•ƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡‡‡”‰›ൌʹš k B 
2
ൌ k B 
–Š”‡‡†‹‡•‹‘•ǡ–Š‡ƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡‡‡”‰›ൌ 3k B 
Š‡–‘–ƒŽ‹–‡”ƒŽ‡‡”‰›‘ˆƒ‘Ž‡‘ˆ•‘Ž‹†‹•ǡ
ൌ3k B šNA 
ൌ͵
dU
’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›Cൌ 
dt
d
ൌ (3 RT)
dT

𝐂𝐂ൌ 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
’‡…‹ˆ‹…‡ƒ–ƒ’ƒ…‹–›‘ˆƒ–‡”
‡–”‡ƒ–™ƒ–‡”Ž‹‡ƒ•‘Ž‹†Ǥ
˜‡”ƒ‰‡‡‡”‰›‘ˆ‡ƒ…Šƒ–‘‹–Š”‡‡†‹‡•‹‘ൌ3k B 
ƒ–‡”‘Ž‡…—Ž‡Šƒ•–Š”‡‡ƒ–‘•ǡ–™‘Š›†”‘‰‡ƒ†‘‡‘š›‰‡Ǥ
˜‡”ƒ‰‡‡‡”‰›‘ˆƒ–‡”‘Ž‡…—Ž‡ൌ͵š3k B 
ൌ 9k B 
Š‡–‘–ƒŽ‹–‡”ƒŽ‡‡”‰›‘ˆƒ‘Ž‡‘ˆ™ƒ–‡”‹•ǡ
ൌ 9k B šNA 
ൌͻ
dU
’‡…‹ˆ‹…Š‡ƒ–…ƒ’ƒ…‹–›ǡCൌ  dt
d
ൌ (9 RT)
dT
𝐂𝐂ൌ𝟗𝟗
‡ƒ ”‡‡ƒ–Š
Š‡‡ƒˆ”‡‡’ƒ–Š 𝑙𝑙‹•–Š‡ƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡†‹•–ƒ…‡…‘˜‡”‡†„›ƒ‘Ž‡…—Ž‡„‡–™‡‡–™‘•—……‡••‹˜‡…‘ŽŽ‹•‹‘•Ǥ


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Šƒ’–‡”ͳͶ
•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘•
‘‡”‹‘†‹…‘–‹‘
Š‡‘–‹‘™Š‹…Š‹•‘Ǧ”‡’‡–‹–‹˜‡Ǥ
‡Ǥ‰Ǥ”‡…–‹Ž‹‡ƒ”‘–‹‘ǡ‘–‹‘‘ˆƒ’”‘Œ‡…–‹Ž‡Ǥ
‡”‹‘†‹…‘–‹‘
‘–‹‘–Šƒ–”‡’‡ƒ–•‹–•‡Žˆƒ–”‡‰—Žƒ”‹–‡”˜ƒŽ•‘ˆ–‹‡‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†’‡”‹‘†‹…‘–‹‘Ǥ
‡Ǥ‰Ǥ—‹ˆ‘”…‹”…—Žƒ”‘–‹‘ǡ‘”„‹–ƒŽ‘–‹‘‘ˆ’Žƒ‡–•‹–Š‡•‘Žƒ”•›•–‡Ǥ
•…‹ŽŽƒ–‘”›‘–‹‘
‡”‹‘†‹…–‘ƒ†ˆ”‘‘–‹‘‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‘”›‘–‹‘Ǥ
‡Ǥ‰Ǥ‘–‹‘‘ˆƒ…”ƒ†Ž‡ǡ‘–‹‘‘ˆƒ•™‹‰ǡ‘–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡’‡†—Ž—‘ˆƒ™ƒŽŽ…Ž‘…Ǥ
˜‡”›‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‘”›‘–‹‘‹•’‡”‹‘†‹…ǡ„—–‡˜‡”›’‡”‹‘†‹…‘–‹‘‡‡†‘–„‡‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‘”›Ǥ
•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘•ƒ†‹„”ƒ–‹‘
Š‡”‡‹•‘•‹‰‹ˆ‹…ƒ–†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡„‡–™‡‡‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘•ƒ†˜‹„”ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ
▪ Š‡–Š‡ˆ”‡“—‡…›‹••ƒŽŽǡ™‡…ƒŽŽ‹–‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘Ǥ
‡Ǥ‰ǤŠ‡‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘‘ˆƒ„”ƒ…Š‘ˆƒ–”‡‡
▪ Š‡–Š‡ˆ”‡“—‡…›‹•Š‹‰Šǡ™‡…ƒŽŽ‹–˜‹„”ƒ–‹‘Ǥ
‡Ǥ‰ǤŠ‡˜‹„”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆƒ•–”‹‰‘ˆƒ—•‹…ƒŽ‹•–”—‡–Ǥ

‹’Ž‡ƒ”‘‹…‘–‹‘
‹’Ž‡Šƒ”‘‹…‘–‹‘‹•–Š‡•‹’Ž‡•–ˆ‘”‘ˆ‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‘”›‘–‹‘Ǥ

’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡‹••ƒ‹†–‘„‡‹•‹’Ž‡Šƒ”‘‹…‘–‹‘ǡ‹ˆ–Š‡ˆ‘”…‡ƒ…–‹‰‘–Š‡’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡‹•’”‘’‘”–‹‘ƒŽ–‘‹–•
†‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–ƒ†‹•†‹”‡…–‡†–‘™ƒ”†•–Š‡‡ƒ’‘•‹–‹‘Ǥ

ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹…ƒŽ‡š’”‡••‹‘ˆ‘”ƒ
ˆ–Š‡‘–‹‘‹••‹’Ž‡Šƒ”‘‹…ǡ‹–•’‘•‹–‹‘…ƒ„‡”‡’”‡•‡–‡†ƒ•ƒˆ—…–‹‘‘ˆ–‹‡Ǥ
šሺ–ሻൌ…os (ωt + 𝛟𝛟ሻ

 

’Ž‹–—†‡
Š‡ƒš‹—†‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–ˆ”‘–Š‡‡ƒ’‘‹–‹‘‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†ƒ’Ž‹–—†‡ሺሻ‘ˆ‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘Ǥ
Šƒ•‡
Š‡–‹‡˜ƒ”›‹‰“—ƒ–‹–›ǡ(ωt + ϕሻǡ‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†–Š‡’Šƒ•‡‘ˆ–Š‡‘–‹‘Ǥ
–†‡•…”‹„‡•–Š‡•–ƒ–‡‘ˆ‘–‹‘ƒ–ƒ‰‹˜‡–‹‡Ǥ

Šƒ•‡‘•–ƒ–
Š‡…‘•–ƒ–ϕ‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†–Š‡’Šƒ•‡…‘•–ƒ–ሺ‘”’Šƒ•‡ƒ‰Ž‡ሻǤŠ‡˜ƒŽ—‡
‘ˆϕ†‡’‡†•‘–Š‡†‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–ƒ†˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‘ˆ–Š‡’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡ƒ––ൌͲǤ
Š‡’Šƒ•‡…‘•–ƒ–•‹‰‹ˆ‹‡•–Š‡‹‹–‹ƒŽ…‘†‹–‹‘•Ǥ

’Ž‘–‘ˆ†‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–ƒ•ƒˆ—…–‹‘‘ˆ–‹‡ˆ‘”ϕൌͲǤ
x (t) = A cos (ωt ) 

  
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‹’Ž‡ƒ”‘‹…‘–‹‘ƒ†‹ˆ‘”‹”…—Žƒ”‘–‹‘

 
‘•‹†‡”ƒ’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡‹—‹ˆ‘”…‹”…—Žƒ”‘–‹‘Ǥ
Š‡’”‘Œ‡…–‹‘‘ˆ’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡ƒŽ‘‰ƒ†‹ƒ‡–‡”‘ˆ–Š‡…‹”…Ž‡‹•šሺ–ሻǤ
x(t)
From figure, cos (ωt + ϕሻൌ 
A
x(t) = A cos (ωt + 𝛟𝛟ሻǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͳሻ
Š‹•‡“—ƒ–‹‘”‡’”‡•‡–•ƒ‹’Ž‡ƒ”‘‹…‘–‹‘Ǥ
‹Ǥ‡ǡ–Š‡’”‘Œ‡…–‹‘‘ˆ—‹ˆ‘”…‹”…—Žƒ”‘–‹‘‘ƒ†‹ƒ‡–‡”‘ˆ–Š‡…‹”…Ž‡‹•‹‹’Ž‡ƒ”‘‹…‘–‹‘Ǥ

‡Ž‘…‹–›‹‹’Ž‡ƒ”‘‹…‘–‹‘
Displacement in SHM is , x = A cos (ωt + ϕሻ
d
‡Ž‘…‹–›‹ǡ˜ൌdtš
d
˜ൌ [A cos (ωt + ϕሻሿ
dt
˜ൌ–ωA sin (ωt + 𝛟𝛟ሻ
˜ൌ–ωA √1 − cos2 (ωt + ϕ)
˜ൌ–ω√A2 − A2 cos2(ωt + ϕ)
˜ൌ–ω√𝐀𝐀𝟐𝟐 − 𝐱𝐱 𝟐𝟐 ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺʹሻ
ƒ•‡ͳǦ–‡ƒ’‘•‹–‹‘
šൌͲ
v = ω√A2 − 0
v = ω𝐀𝐀
Š‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‹•ƒš‹—–‡ƒ’‘•‹–‹‘
ƒ•‡ʹǦ–‡š–”‡‡’‘•‹–‹‘
šൌ
˜= ω√A2 − A2 
˜ൌͲǤ
Š‡˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‹•‹‹—ƒ–‡š–”‡‡’‘•‹–‹‘•Ǥ
……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘‹
dv
……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘‹ǡƒൌ 
dt
d
ƒൌ –ωA sin (ωt + ϕሻ
dt
ƒൌ–ωA cos (ωt + ϕ) x ω
ƒൌ–ω2 A cos (ωt + ϕሻ
x = A cos (ωt + ϕሻ
ƒൌ–𝛚𝛚𝟐𝟐 šǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺ͵ሻ
ǡ–Š‡ƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘‹•’”‘’‘”–‹‘ƒŽ–‘–Š‡†‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–ƒ†‹•ƒŽ™ƒ›•†‹”‡…–‡†–‘™ƒ”†•–Š‡‡ƒ’‘•‹–‹‘Ǥ

ƒ•‡ͳǦ–‡ƒ’‘•‹–‹‘ǡšൌͲ
ƒൌ–ω2 š
ƒൌͲ
Š‡ƒ‰‹–—†‡‘ˆƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘‹•‹‹—ƒ–‡ƒ’‘•‹–‹‘Ǥ
ƒ•‡ʹǦ–‡š–”‡‡’‘•‹–‹‘ǡšൌ
ƒൌ–ω2 š
ƒൌ–𝛚𝛚𝟐𝟐 
Š‡ƒ‰‹–—†‡‘ˆƒ……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘‹•ƒš‹—ƒ–‡š–”‡‡’‘•‹–‹‘•Ǥ
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‘”…‡ƒ™ˆ‘”‹’Ž‡ƒ”‘‹…‘–‹‘
 ൌƒ
ƒൌ–ω2 š
 ൌ–ω2 š
 ൌ–šǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͶሻ
𝐤𝐤
™Š‡”‡ൌω2 Ǣ𝛚𝛚 = √ 
𝐦𝐦
Š‡ˆ‘”…‡‹‹•’”‘’‘”–‹‘ƒŽ–‘–Š‡†‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–ƒ†‹–•†‹”‡…–‹‘‹•‘’’‘•‹–‡–‘–Š‡†‹”‡…–‹‘‘ˆ
†‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–ǤŠ‡”‡ˆ‘”‡ǡ‹–‹•ƒ”‡•–‘”‹‰ˆ‘”…‡Ǥ

‘–‡ǣ
▪ Š‡…‡–”‹’‡–ƒŽˆ‘”…‡ˆ‘”—‹ˆ‘”…‹”…—Žƒ”‘–‹‘‹•…‘•–ƒ–‹ƒ‰‹–—†‡ǡ„—––Š‡”‡•–‘”‹‰ˆ‘”…‡ˆ‘”
‹•–‹‡†‡’‡†‡–Ǥ
▪ ‹…‡–Š‡ˆ‘”…‡ ‹•’”‘’‘”–‹‘ƒŽ–‘š•—…Šƒ•›•–‡‹•ƒŽ•‘”‡ˆ‡””‡†–‘ƒ•ƒŽ‹‡ƒ”Šƒ”‘‹…‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‘”Ǥ
‡”‰›‹‹’Ž‡ƒ”‘‹…‘–‹‘
’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡‡š‡…—–‹‰•‹’Ž‡Šƒ”‘‹…‘–‹‘Šƒ•‹‡–‹…ƒ†’‘–‡–‹ƒŽ‡‡”‰‹‡•ǡ„‘–Š˜ƒ”›‹‰„‡–™‡‡–Š‡
Ž‹‹–•ǡœ‡”‘ƒ†ƒš‹—Ǥ

‹‡–‹…‡”‰›‹‹’Ž‡ƒ”‘‹…‘–‹‘
1
ൌ mv 2
2
1
ൌ mv 2
2
˜ൌ–ω√A2 − x 2 
v 2 ൌω2 (A2 − x 2 )
𝟏𝟏
ൌ 𝐦𝐦𝛚𝛚𝟐𝟐 (𝐀𝐀𝟐𝟐 − 𝐱𝐱 𝟐𝟐 )ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͷሻ
𝟐𝟐
ƒ•‡ͳǦ–‡ƒ’‘•‹–‹‘
šൌͲ
1
ൌ mω2 (A2 − 0)
2
𝟏𝟏
ൌ
𝟐𝟐
𝐦𝐦𝛚𝛚𝟐𝟐 𝐀𝐀𝟐𝟐
‹•ƒš‹—–‡ƒ’‘•‹–‹‘
ƒ•‡ʹǦ–‡š–”‡‡’‘•‹–‹‘
šൌ
1
ൌ mω2 (A2 − A2 )
2
ൌͲǤ
‹•‹‹—–‡š–”‡‡’‘•‹–‹‘•Ǥ
Š—•–Š‡‹‡–‹…‡‡”‰›‘ˆƒ’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡‡š‡…—–‹‰•‹’Ž‡Šƒ”‘‹…‘–‹‘‹•’‡”‹‘†‹…ǡ™‹–Š’‡”‹‘†ȀʹǤ

‘–‡–‹ƒŽ‡”‰›‹‹’Ž‡ƒ”‘‹…‘–‹‘
1
ൌ kx 2 
2
ൌω2 
𝟏𝟏
ൌ 𝛚𝛚𝟐𝟐 𝐱𝐱 𝟐𝟐 ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺ͸ሻ
𝟐𝟐
ƒ•‡ͳǦ–‡ƒ’‘•‹–‹‘
šൌͲ
1
ൌ ω2 x 2
2
ൌ 𝟎𝟎
‹•‹‹—–‡ƒ’‘•‹–‹‘
ƒ•‡ʹǦ–š–”‡‡’‘•‹–‹‘
šൌ
𝟏𝟏
ൌ 𝛚𝛚𝟐𝟐 𝐀𝐀𝟐𝟐 
𝟐𝟐
‹•ƒš‹—–‡š–”‡‡’‘•‹–‹‘•Ǥ
Š—•–Š‡’‘–‡–‹ƒŽ‡‡”‰›‘ˆƒ’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡‡š‡…—–‹‰•‹’Ž‡Šƒ”‘‹…‘–‹‘‹•ƒŽ•‘’‡”‹‘†‹…ǡ™‹–Š’‡”‹‘†ȀʹǤ

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Š‡‘–ƒŽ‡”‰›‹
ൌ൅
1 1
ൌ ω2 x 2൅ mω2 (A2 − x 2 )
2 2
1 1 1
ൌ2ω2 x 2൅2 mω2 A2 − 2 mω2 x2
𝟏𝟏
ൌ 𝛚𝛚𝟐𝟐 𝐀𝐀𝟐𝟐 ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺ͹ሻ
𝟐𝟐
Š‡–‘–ƒŽ‡…Šƒ‹…ƒŽ‡‡”‰›‘ˆƒŠƒ”‘‹…‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‘”‹•ƒ…‘•–ƒ–‘”‹†‡’‡†‡–‘ˆ–‹‡Ǥ


ƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ‘–‡–‹ƒŽ‡‡”‰›ǡ‹‡–‹…‡‡”‰›ƒ†–Š‡–‘–ƒŽ‡‡”‰›™‹–Š–‹‡–ˆ‘”ƒŽ‹‡ƒ”Šƒ”‘‹…
‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‘”

 
–™Šƒ–’‘•‹–‹‘–Š‡‘ˆƒ•‹’Ž‡Šƒ”‘‹…‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‘”„‡…‘‡•‡“—ƒŽ–‘‹–•’‘–‡–‹ƒŽ‡‡”‰›ǫ
ൌ
1 1
 mω2 (A2 − x 2 ) = ω2 x 2
2 2
A2 − x 2 = x 2 
A2 = 2x 2 
A2
x 2 ൌ 
2
𝐀𝐀
šൌ 
√𝟐𝟐

‘‡›•–‡•š‡…—–‹‰‹’Ž‡ƒ”‘‹…‘–‹‘
Š‡”‡ƒ”‡‘’Š›•‹…ƒŽ‡šƒ’Ž‡•‘ˆƒ„•‘Ž—–‡Ž›’—”‡•‹’Ž‡Šƒ”‘‹…‘–‹‘Ǥ’”ƒ…–‹…‡™‡…‘‡ƒ…”‘••
•›•–‡•–Šƒ–‡š‡…—–‡•‹’Ž‡Šƒ”‘‹…‘–‹‘ƒ’’”‘š‹ƒ–‡Ž›—†‡”…‡”–ƒ‹…‘†‹–‹‘•Ǥ


•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘•†—‡–‘ƒ’”‹‰

 
Š‡•ƒŽŽ‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘•‘ˆƒ„Ž‘…‘ˆƒ••ˆ‹š‡†–‘ƒ•’”‹‰ǡ‹•ˆ‹š‡†–‘ƒ”‹‰‹†™ƒŽŽ‹•ƒ‡šƒ’Ž‡‘ˆǤ
Š‡”‡•–‘”‹‰ˆ‘”…‡ ƒ…–‹‰‘–Š‡„Ž‘…‹•ǡ ሺšሻൌ–š
ǡ‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†–Š‡•’”‹‰…‘•–ƒ–Ǥ
•–‹ˆˆ•’”‹‰Šƒ•Žƒ”‰‡ƒ†ƒ•‘ˆ–•’”‹‰Šƒ••ƒŽŽǤ
“—ƒ–‹‘‹••ƒ‡ƒ•–Š‡‡“ˆ‘”ˆ‘”…‡‹ƒ†–Š‡”‡ˆ‘”‡–Š‡•’”‹‰‡š‡…—–‡•ƒ•‹’Ž‡Šƒ”‘‹…‘–‹‘Ǥ

‡”‹‘†‘ˆ•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘•‘ˆƒ’”‹‰
‡•–‘”‹‰ˆ‘”…‡ǡ ൌ–š
™Š‡”‡ൌω2 
k k
ω2 = ǡω = √ 
m m
2π 2π
‡”‹‘†ǡ= ൌ 
ω k
√
m

𝐦𝐦
ൌ𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐√ 
𝐤𝐤

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Š‡‹’Ž‡‡†—Ž—
•‹’Ž‡’‡†—Ž—…‘•‹•–•‘ˆƒ’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡‘ˆƒ••ሺ„‘„ሻ•—•’‡†‡†ˆ”‘‘‡‡†‘ˆƒ—•–”‡–…Šƒ„Ž‡ǡ
ƒ••Ž‡•••–”‹‰‘ˆŽ‡‰–Šˆ‹š‡†ƒ––Š‡‘–Š‡”‡†Ǥ
‡”‹‘†‘ˆ•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘•‘ˆƒ‹’Ž‡‡†—Ž—

 
τ = –L (mg sinθ ) ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͳሻ
(Where the negative sign indicates that the torque acts to reduce θ.)
‘””‘–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ‘–‹‘™‡Šƒ˜‡ǡ
τ = I α ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺʹሻ
”‘‡“ሺͳሻƒ†ሺʹሻ
I α = –L mg sinθ 
–mgL
α = •‹θ (since θ is very small, sinθ≈θ) 
I

–mgL
α = θ ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺ͵ሻ
I

……‡Ž‡”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆǡƒൌ–ω2 šǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͶሻ

‘’ƒ”‹‰‡“•ሺ͵ሻƒ†ሺͶሻ
mgL
ω2 = 
I
ൌL2 
mgL
ω2 =mL2 

g
ω2 = 
L
g
ω = √ 
L
2π 2π
‡”‹‘†ǡ= ൌ g
ω
√L

𝐋𝐋
ൌ𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐√ 
𝐠𝐠
šƒ’Ž‡
Šƒ–‹•–Š‡Ž‡‰–Š‘ˆƒ•‹’Ž‡’‡†—Ž—ǡ™Š‹…Š–‹…••‡…‘†•ሺ•‡…‘†•’‡†—Ž—ሻǫ
L
ൌ2π√ 
g
l
T 2ൌ4π2 g

T2 g
ൌ 
4π2

 ‘”•‡…‘†•’‡†—Ž—ǡൌʹ•
22 x 9.8
ൌ ൌͲǤͻͻͶ ≈ͳ
4 x 3.142

ƒ’‡†‹’Ž‡ƒ”‘‹…‘–‹‘
‡”‹‘†‹…‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘•‘ˆ‰”ƒ†—ƒŽŽ›†‡…”‡ƒ•‹‰ƒ’Ž‹–—†‡†—‡–‘‡š–‡”ƒŽˆ‘”…‡•ǡƒ”‡…ƒŽŽ‡††ƒ’‡••‹’Ž‡
Šƒ”‘‹…‘–‹‘


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‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–ƒ•ƒˆ—…–‹‘‘ˆ–‹‡‹†ƒ’‡†Šƒ”‘‹…‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘•

 
”‡‡•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘•
ˆƒn oscillator is displaced and released, it begins to oscillate with its natural frequency (ω). Such oscillations
‹–Š‡ƒ„•‡…‡‘ˆƒ‡š–‡”ƒŽˆ‘”…‡ƒ”‡…ƒŽŽ‡†ˆ”‡‡‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘•Ǥ—‡–‘†‹••‹’ƒ–‹˜‡ˆ‘”…‡•ǡ–Š‡ˆ”‡‡‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘•
…ƒ‘–„‡•—•–ƒ‹‡†Ǥ
Ǥ‰ǡ’‡”•‘•™‹‰‹‰‹ƒ•™‹‰™‹–Š‘—–ƒ›‘‡’—•Š‹‰‹–Ǥ
•‹’Ž‡’‡†—Ž—ǡ†‹•’Žƒ…‡†ƒ†”‡Ž‡ƒ•‡†Ǥ

‘”…‡†•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘•
ˆƒ’‡”‹‘†‹…ˆ‘”…‡‹•ƒ’’Ž‹‡†–‘ƒˆ”‡‡‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‘”–‘•—•–ƒ‹‹–•‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘•ǡ‹–™‹ŽŽ‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‡™‹–Š–Š‡ˆ”‡“—‡…›‘ˆ
†”‹˜‹‰ˆ‘”…‡(𝛚𝛚𝐝𝐝 )Ǥ—…Š‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘•ƒ”‡…ƒŽŽ‡†ˆ‘”…‡†‘”†”‹˜‡‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘•Ǥ
Ǥ‰Ǥǡ™Š‹Ž‡•™‹‰‹‰‹ƒ•™‹‰‹ˆ›‘—ƒ’’Ž›ƒ’—•Š’‡”‹‘†‹…ƒŽŽ›„›’”‡••‹‰›‘—”ˆ‡‡–ƒ‰ƒ‹•––Š‡‰”‘—†ǡ
›‘—…ƒƒ‹–ƒ‹‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘•ƒ†…ƒ‹…”‡ƒ•‡ƒ’Ž‹–—†‡Ǥ

‡•‘ƒ…‡
Š‡’Š‡‘‡‘‘ˆ‹…”‡ƒ•‡‹ƒ’Ž‹–—†‡™Š‡–Š‡†”‹˜‹‰ˆ”‡“—‡…›(𝛚𝛚𝐝𝐝 )‹•‡“—ƒŽ–‘–Š‡ƒ–—”ƒŽ
ˆ”‡“—‡…› (𝛚𝛚)‘ˆ–Š‡‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‘”‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†”‡•‘ƒ…‡Ǥ
–”‡•‘ƒ…‡, 𝛚𝛚 = 𝛚𝛚𝐝𝐝 

Š‡˜ƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘‘ˆƒ’Ž‹–—†‡‘ˆƒˆ‘”…‡†‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‘”™‹–Šƒ‰—Žƒ”ˆ”‡“—‡…›ƒ–”‡•‘ƒ…‡

 
‘‡†ƒ‹Ž›Ž‹ˆ‡’Š‡‘‡ƒ™Š‹…Š‹˜‘Ž˜‡”‡•‘ƒ…‡ǣ
▪ ‘—…ƒ•™‹‰–‘‰”‡ƒ–‡”Š‡‹‰Š–•ǡ‹ˆ–Š‡”Š›–Š‘ˆ’—•Š‹‰ƒ‰ƒ‹•––Š‡‰”‘—†‹•‡“—ƒŽ–‘–Š‡ƒ–—”ƒŽ
ˆ”‡“—‡…›‘ˆ–Š‡•™‹‰Ǥ
▪ –ƒ…‘ƒƒ””‘™•”‹†‰‡ƒ–ǡƒ•Š‹‰–‘ǡ™‹†•’”‘†—…‡†ƒ’—Ž•ƒ–‹‰”‡•—Ž–ƒ–ˆ‘”…‡‹
”‡•‘ƒ…‡™‹–Š–Š‡ƒ–—”ƒŽˆ”‡“—‡…›‘ˆ–Š‡•–”—…–—”‡ǤŠ‹•…ƒ—•‡†ƒ•–‡ƒ†›‹…”‡ƒ•‡‹–Š‡ƒ’Ž‹–—†‡‘ˆ
‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘•—–‹Ž–Š‡„”‹†‰‡…‘ŽŽƒ’•‡†Ǥ
▪ Š‡ƒ”…Š‹‰•‘Ž†‹‡”•„”‡ƒ•–‡’•™Š‹Ž‡…”‘••‹‰ƒ„”‹†‰‡–‘ƒ˜‘‹†”‡•‘ƒ…‡…‘†‹–‹‘Ǥ
▪ ‹”…”ƒˆ–†‡•‹‰‡”•ƒ‡•—”‡–Šƒ–‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ–—”ƒŽˆ”‡“—‡…‹‡•ƒ–™Š‹…Šƒ™‹‰…ƒ‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‡ƒ–…Š
–Š‡ˆ”‡“—‡…›‘ˆ–Š‡‡‰‹‡•‹ˆŽ‹‰Š–Ǥ
▪ ƒ‡ƒ”–Š“—ƒ‡ǡ•Š‘”–ƒ†–ƒŽŽ•–”—…–—”‡•”‡ƒ‹—ƒˆˆ‡…–‡†™Š‹Ž‡–Š‡‡†‹—Š‡‹‰Š–•–”—…–—”‡•ˆƒŽŽ
†‘™ǤŠ‹•Šƒ’’‡•„‡…ƒ—•‡–Š‡ƒ–—”ƒŽˆ”‡“—‡…‹‡•‘ˆ–Š‡•Š‘”–•–”—…–—”‡•Šƒ’’‡–‘„‡Š‹‰Š‡”ƒ†
–Š‘•‡‘ˆ–ƒŽŽ‡”•–”—…–—”‡•Ž‘™‡”–Šƒ–Š‡ˆ”‡“—‡…›‘ˆ–Š‡•‡‹•‹…™ƒ˜‡•Ǥ


76

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Šƒ’–‡”ͳͷ
ƒ˜‡• 
ƒ˜‡•
Š‡’ƒ––‡”•ǡ™Š‹…Š‘˜‡™‹–Š‘—––Š‡ƒ…–—ƒŽ’Š›•‹…ƒŽ–”ƒ•ˆ‡”‘”ˆŽ‘™‘ˆƒ––‡”ƒ•ƒ™Š‘Ž‡ǡƒ”‡…ƒŽŽ‡†™ƒ˜‡•Ǥ
Š‡™ƒ˜‡•™‡…‘‡ƒ…”‘••ƒ”‡ƒ‹Ž›‘ˆ–Š”‡‡–›’‡•ǣ
ሺƒሻ‡…Šƒ‹…ƒŽ™ƒ˜‡•ǡ
ሺ„ሻŽ‡…–”‘ƒ‰‡–‹…™ƒ˜‡•ƒ†
ሺ…ሻƒ––‡”™ƒ˜‡•Ǥ
”ƒ•˜‡”•‡ƒ†‘‰‹–—†‹ƒŽƒ˜‡•
‡…Šƒ‹…ƒŽ™ƒ˜‡•…ƒ„‡–”ƒ•˜‡”•‡‘”Ž‘‰‹–—†‹ƒŽ†‡’‡†‹‰‘–Š‡”‡Žƒ–‹‘•Š‹’„‡–™‡‡–Š‡†‹”‡…–‹‘•‘ˆ
˜‹„”ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆ’ƒ”–‹…Ž‡•‹–Š‡‡†‹—ƒ†–Šƒ–‘ˆ–Š‡’”‘’ƒ‰ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ™ƒ˜‡Ǥ
”ƒ•˜‡”•‡™ƒ˜‡•
–”ƒ•˜‡”•‡™ƒ˜‡•ǡ–Š‡…‘•–‹–—‡–•‘ˆ–Š‡‡†‹—‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‡’‡”’‡†‹…—Žƒ”–‘–Š‡†‹”‡…–‹‘‘ˆ™ƒ˜‡
’”‘’ƒ‰ƒ–‹‘Ǥ

▪ Š‡›–”ƒ˜‡Ž‹–Š‡ˆ‘”‘ˆ…”‡•–•ƒ†–”‘—‰Š•Ǥ
▪ ”ƒ•˜‡”•‡™ƒ˜‡•…ƒ„‡’”‘’ƒ‰ƒ–‡†‘Ž›‹•‘Ž‹†•ƒ†•–”‹‰•ǡƒ†‘–‹ˆŽ—‹†•Ǥ
▪ Ǥ‰ǡƒ˜‡•‘ƒ•–”‡–…Š‡†•–”‹‰ǡ
‘‰‹–—†‹ƒŽ™ƒ˜‡•
Ž‘‰‹–—†‹ƒŽ™ƒ˜‡•–Š‡…‘•–‹–—‡–•‘ˆ–Š‡‡†‹—‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‡ƒŽ‘‰–Š‡†‹”‡…–‹‘‘ˆ™ƒ˜‡’”‘’ƒ‰ƒ–‹‘Ǥ

▪ Š‡›–”ƒ˜‡Ž‹–Š‡ˆ‘”‘ˆ…‘’”‡••‹‘•ƒ†”ƒ”‡ˆƒ…–‹‘•Ǥ
▪ ‘‰‹–—†‹ƒŽ™ƒ˜‡•…ƒ’”‘’ƒ‰ƒ–‡‹ƒŽŽ‡Žƒ•–‹…‡†‹ƒǡ‹Ǥ‡ǡ•‘Ž‹†•ǡŽ‹“—‹†•†‰ƒ•‡•Ǥ
▪ Ǥ‰ǡ•‘—†™ƒ˜‡•ǡ˜‹„”ƒ–‹‘•‹ƒ•’”‹‰Ǥ

”ƒ˜‡ŽŽ‹‰‘””‘‰”‡••‹˜‡ƒ˜‡
™ƒ˜‡ǡ–”ƒ•˜‡”•‡‘”Ž‘‰‹–—†‹ƒŽǡ‹••ƒ‹†–‘„‡–”ƒ˜‡ŽŽ‹‰‘”’”‘‰”‡••‹˜‡‹ˆ‹––”ƒ˜‡Ž•ˆ”‘‘‡’‘‹–‘ˆ–Š‡
‡†‹—–‘ƒ‘–Š‡”Ǥ

‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–‡Žƒ–‹‘‹ƒ”‘‰”‡••‹˜‡ƒ˜‡ƒŽ‘‰ƒ–”‹‰ሺ–”ƒ•˜‡”•‡™ƒ˜‡ሻ
’”‘‰”‡••‹˜‡™ƒ˜‡–”ƒ˜‡ŽŽ‹‰ƒŽ‘‰–Š‡’‘•‹–‹˜‡†‹”‡…–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡šǦƒš‹•…ƒ„‡”‡’”‡•‡–‡†ƒ•
›ሺšǡ–ሻൌƒ•‹ሺš–ωt + ϕሻ

’”‘‰”‡••‹˜‡™ƒ˜‡–”ƒ˜‡ŽŽ‹‰ƒŽ‘‰–Š‡‡‰ƒ–‹˜‡†‹”‡…–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡šǦƒš‹•…ƒ„‡”‡’”‡•‡–‡†ƒ•
y (x, t ) = a sin (kx +ωt + ϕሻ

 

”‘’ƒ‰ƒ–‹‘‘•–ƒ–‘”‰—Žƒ”ƒ˜‡—„‡”
”‘’ƒ‰ƒ–‹‘…‘•–ƒ–‘”‰—Žƒ”ƒ˜‡—„‡”‹•†‡ˆ‹‡†ƒ•
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
=  𝝀𝝀

–•—‹–‹•”ƒ†‹ƒ’‡”‡–”‡‘””ƒ†𝑚𝑚−1

‰—Žƒ” ”‡“—‡…›
‰—Žƒ” ”‡“—‡…›‘ˆƒ™ƒ˜‡‹•‰‹˜‡„›
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
ω = 𝐓𝐓


–•—‹–‹•”ƒ†s −1

𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
 ”‘–Š‹•‡“—ƒ–‹‘ǡ𝐓𝐓 = 
𝛚𝛚
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šƒ’Ž‡
™ƒ˜‡–”ƒ˜‡ŽŽ‹‰ƒŽ‘‰ƒ•–”‹‰‹•†‡•…”‹„‡†„›ǡ
›ሺšǡ–ሻൌͲǤͲͲͷ•‹ሺͺͲǤͲš–͵ǤͲ–ሻǡ‹™Š‹…Š–Š‡—‡”‹…ƒŽ…‘•–ƒ–•ƒ”‡‹
—‹–•ሺͲǤͲͲͷǡͺͲǤͲ”ƒ†𝑚𝑚−1ǡƒ†͵ǤͲ”ƒ†𝑠𝑠 −1 ሻǤƒŽ…—Žƒ–‡
ሺƒሻ –Š‡ƒ’Ž‹–—†‡ǡ
ሺ„ሻ –Š‡™ƒ˜‡Ž‡‰–Šǡ
ሺ…ሻ –Š‡’‡”‹‘†ƒ†ˆ”‡“—‡…›‘ˆ–Š‡™ƒ˜‡Ǥ
ሺ†ሻ ƒŽ…—Žƒ–‡–Š‡†‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–›‘ˆ–Š‡™ƒ˜‡ƒ–ƒ†‹•–ƒ…‡
šൌ͵ͲǤͲ…ƒ†–‹‡–ൌʹͲ•ǫ
•™‡”
›ሺšǡ–ሻൌͲǤͲͲͷ•‹ሺͺͲǤͲš–͵ǤͲ–ሻ
Š‡‰‡‡”ƒŽ‡š’”‡••‹‘ˆ‘”ƒ–”ƒ˜‡ŽŽ‹‰™ƒ˜‡‹•
›ሺšǡ–ሻൌƒ•‹ሺš–ωt + 𝛟𝛟ሻ
‘’ƒ”‹‰–Š‡•‡‡“—ƒ–‹‘•
ሺƒሻ ’Ž‹–—†‡ǡƒൌͲǤͲͲͷ

ሺ„ሻ ൌͺͲ”ƒ†𝑚𝑚−1
2𝜋𝜋
„—–ǡ= 
𝜆𝜆
2𝜋𝜋
 𝜆𝜆 = 80
2𝜋𝜋
𝜆𝜆 = 80 ൌͲǤͲ͹ͺͷ
𝝀𝝀 = 𝟕𝟕. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄

ሺ…ሻ ω=3
2𝜋𝜋
„—–ǡω = 𝑇𝑇 
2𝜋𝜋
 𝑇𝑇 =͵
2𝜋𝜋
𝑇𝑇 = = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐬𝐬 
3
 ”‡“—‡…›ǡ𝜈𝜈ൌͳȀ
ൌͳȀʹǤͲͻൌͲǤͶͺœ

ሺ†ሻ ›ሺšǡ–ሻൌͲǤͲͲͷ•‹ሺͺͲǤͲš–͵ǤͲ–ሻ
šൌ͵ͲǤͲ…ൌͲǤ͵
–ൌʹͲ•
›ሺšǡ–ሻൌͲǤͲͲͷ•‹ሺͺͲǤͲšͲǤ͵–͵ǤͲšʹͲሻ
ൌሺͲǤͲͲͷሻ•‹ሺ–͵͸ሻ
ൌͷ

Š‡’‡‡†‘ˆƒ”ƒ˜‡ŽŽ‹‰ƒ˜‡
‘•‹†‡”ƒ™ƒ˜‡’”‘’ƒ‰ƒ–‹‰‹’‘•‹–‹˜‡š†‹”‡…–‹‘™‹–Š‹‹–‹ƒŽ’Šƒ•‡ϕൌͲ
›ሺšǡ–ሻൌƒ•‹ሺš–ωt )
ሺš–ωt )ൌ…‘•–ƒ–
𝑑𝑑
 ሺš–ωt ) = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 −ω = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ω
 ൌ 
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑘𝑘
𝛚𝛚
˜ൌ 
𝒌𝒌
2𝜋𝜋
ω = 2𝜋𝜋𝜈𝜈ǡൌ 𝜆𝜆 
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
˜ൌ 2𝜋𝜋 
𝜆𝜆
˜ൌ 𝝂𝝂𝝀𝝀
Š‹•‹•ƒ‰‡‡”ƒŽ”‡Žƒ–‹‘˜ƒŽ‹†ˆ‘”ƒŽŽ’”‘‰”‡••‹˜‡™ƒ˜‡•Ǥ

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’‡‡†‘ˆƒ”ƒ•˜‡”•‡ƒ˜‡‘–”‡–…Š‡†–”‹‰
Š‡•’‡‡†‘ˆ–”ƒ•˜‡”•‡™ƒ˜‡•‘ƒ•–”‹‰‹•†‡–‡”‹‡†„›–™‘ˆƒ…–‘”•ǡ
ሺ‹ሻ –Š‡Ž‹‡ƒ”ƒ••†‡nsity or mass per unit length, μ, and
ሺ‹‹ሻ –Š‡–‡•‹‘
𝑻𝑻
˜ൌ√ 
𝛍𝛍
Š‡•’‡‡†‘ˆƒ™ƒ˜‡ƒŽ‘‰ƒ•–”‡–…Š‡†‹†‡ƒŽ•–”‹‰†‘‡•‘–†‡’‡†‘–Š‡ˆ”‡“—‡…›‘ˆ–Š‡™ƒ˜‡Ǥ

’‡‡†‘ˆƒ‘‰‹–—†‹ƒŽƒ˜‡ሺ’‡‡†‘ˆ‘—†ሻ
Š‡Ž‘‰‹–—†‹ƒŽ™ƒ˜‡•‹ƒ‡†‹—–”ƒ˜‡Ž‹–Š‡ˆ‘”‘ˆ…‘’”‡••‹‘•ƒ†”ƒ”‡ˆƒ…–‹‘•‘”…Šƒ‰‡•‹†‡•‹–›ǡ
ρ. 
▪ Š‡•’‡‡†‘ˆ’”‘’ƒ‰ƒ–‹‘‘ˆƒŽ‘‰‹–—†‹ƒŽ™ƒ˜‡‹ƒˆŽ—‹†
𝑩𝑩
˜ൌ√ 
𝛒𝛒
ൌ–Š‡„—Ž‘†—Ž—•‘ˆ‡†‹—ǡρ =–Š‡†‡•‹–›‘ˆ–Š‡‡†‹— 

▪ Š‡•’‡‡†‘ˆƒŽ‘‰‹–—†‹ƒŽ™ƒ˜‡‹ƒ•‘Ž‹†„ƒ”
𝒀𝒀
˜ൌ√ 
𝛒𝛒
ൌYoung’s modulusǡρ=density of the medium, 

▪ Š‡•’‡‡†‘ˆƒŽ‘‰‹–—†‹ƒŽ™ƒ˜‡‹ƒ‹†‡ƒŽ‰ƒ•

ƒ•‡ͳǦ‡™–‘• ‘”—Žƒ
‡™–‘ƒ••—‡†–Šƒ–ǡ–Š‡’”‡••—”‡˜ƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘•‹ƒ‡†‹—†—”‹‰’”‘’ƒ‰ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ•‘—†
ƒ”‡‹•‘–Š‡”ƒŽǤ
𝑷𝑷
˜ൌ√ 
𝛒𝛒

Š‹•”‡Žƒ–‹‘™ƒ•ˆ‹”•–‰‹˜‡„›‡™–‘ƒ†‹•‘™ƒ•Newton’s formula.

ƒ•‡ʹǦƒ’Žƒ…‡…‘””ection to Newton’s formula.
ƒ’Žƒ…‡–Šƒ––Š‡’”‡••—”‡˜ƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘•‹–Š‡’”‘’ƒ‰ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ•‘—†™ƒ˜‡•ƒ”‡•‘ˆƒ•––Šƒ––Š‡”‡
‹•Ž‹––Ž‡–‹‡ˆ‘”–Š‡Š‡ƒ–ˆŽ‘™–‘ƒ‹–ƒ‹…‘•–ƒ––‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡ǤŠ‡•‡˜ƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘•ǡ–Š‡”‡ˆ‘”‡ǡ
ƒ”‡ƒ†‹ƒ„ƒ–‹…ƒ†‘–‹•‘–Š‡”ƒŽǤ
𝜸𝜸 𝐏𝐏
˜ൌ√  
𝛒𝛒

This modification of Newton’s formula is referred to as theƒ’Žƒ…‡…‘””‡…–‹‘Ǥ

𝐶𝐶 7
γ = 𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃 ǡ ‘”air γ = Ǥ
𝑉𝑉 5
Š‡•’‡‡†‘ˆ•‘—†‹ƒ‹”ƒ–ൌ͵͵ͳǤ͵𝒔𝒔−𝟏𝟏 


Š‡”‹…‹’Ž‡‘ˆ—’‡”’‘•‹–‹‘‘ˆƒ˜‡•
Š‡–™‘‘”‘”‡™ƒ˜‡•‘˜‡”Žƒ’ǡ–Š‡”‡•—Ž–ƒ–†‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–‹•–Š‡ƒŽ‰‡„”ƒ‹…•—‘ˆ–Š‡†‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–•†—‡–‘
‡ƒ…Š™ƒ˜‡Ǥ
Ž‡–𝑦𝑦1 ሺšǡ–ሻƒ†𝑦𝑦2 ሺšǡ–ሻ„‡–Š‡†‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–•‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ™ƒ˜‡•ǡ–Š‡”‡•—Ž–ƒ–†‹•’Žƒ…‡‡–›ሺšǡ–ሻ‹•ǡ
›ሺšǡ–ሻൌ𝒚𝒚𝟏𝟏 ሺšǡ–ሻ൅𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐 ሺšǡ–ሻ







79

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–ƒ†‹‰ƒ˜‡•ƒ†‘”ƒŽ‘†‡•
–ƒ†‹‰ƒ˜‡•
Š‡‹–‡”ˆ‡”‡…‡‘ˆ–™‘‹†‡–‹…ƒŽ™ƒ˜‡•‘˜‹‰‹‘’’‘•‹–‡†‹”‡…–‹‘•’”‘†—…‡••–ƒ†‹‰™ƒ˜‡•Ǥ 



ƒ˜‡–”ƒ˜‡ŽŽ‹‰‹–Š‡’‘•‹–‹˜‡†‹”‡…–‹‘‘ˆšǦƒš‹•
𝑦𝑦1 ሺšǡ–ሻൌƒ•‹ሺš–ωt)
ƒ˜‡–”ƒ˜‡ŽŽ‹‰‹–Š‡‡‰ƒ–‹˜‡†‹”‡…–‹‘‘ˆšǦƒš‹•
𝑦𝑦2 ሺšǡ–ሻ= a sin (kx + ωt)

›–Š‡’”‹…‹’Ž‡‘ˆ•—’‡”’‘•‹–‹‘
›ሺšǡ–ሻൌ𝑦𝑦1 ሺšǡ–ሻ൅𝑦𝑦2 ሺšǡ–ሻൌƒ•‹ሺš–ωt) + a sin (kx + ωt)
y (x, t) = (2a sin kx) cos ωt

Š‹•‡“—ƒ–‹‘”‡’”‡•‡–•ƒ•–ƒ†‹‰™ƒ˜‡ǡƒ™ƒ˜‡‹™Š‹…Š–Š‡™ƒ˜‡ˆ‘”†‘‡•‘–‘˜‡Ǥ
’Ž‹–—†‡‘ˆ™ƒ˜‡ǡൌʹƒ•‹šǤ


‘†‡•ƒ†–‹‘†‡•
Š‡’‘•‹–‹‘•‘ˆœ‡”‘ƒ’Ž‹–—†‡‹ƒ•–ƒ‹‰™ƒ˜‡ƒ”‡…ƒŽŽ‡†‘†‡•ƒ†–Š‡’‘•‹–‹‘•‘ˆƒš‹—ƒ’Ž‹–—†‡
ƒ”‡…ƒŽŽ‡†ƒ–‹‘†‡•Ǥ

‘†‹–‹‘ˆ‘”‘†‡•
–‘†‡•ǡ–Š‡ƒ’Ž‹–—†‡‘ˆ•–ƒ†‹‰™ƒ˜‡‹•œ‡”‘
ʹƒ•‹šൌͲ
•‹šൌͲ
kx = nπ, for n = Ͳǡͳǡʹǡ͵ǡǤǤ
2π
—–ൌ λ
2π
 λ x = nπ
𝛌𝛌
šൌ 𝒏𝒏 ǡˆ‘”ൌͲǡͳǡʹǡ͵ǡǤǤ
𝟐𝟐
𝟏𝟏 𝛌𝛌 𝟐𝟐 𝛌𝛌 𝟑𝟑 𝛌𝛌
‹Ǥ‡Ǥǡ‘†‡•ƒ”‡ˆ‘”‡†ƒ–Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘•šൌ𝟎𝟎, ǡ ǡ ,… ……
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐

‘†‹–‹‘ˆ‘”–‹‘†‡•
–ƒ–‹‘†‡•ǡ–Š‡ƒ’Ž‹–—†‡‘ˆ•–ƒ†‹‰™ƒ˜‡‹•ƒš‹—Ǥ
ʹƒ•‹šൌƒš‹—
•‹šൌ±ͳ
1
šൌሺ൅2 ) π, for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..
2π
„—–ǡൌ 
λ
2π 1
 šൌሺ൅ ) π
λ 2
𝟏𝟏 𝛌𝛌
šൌሺ൅ ) ǡˆ‘”ൌͲǡͳǡʹǡ͵ǡǤǤ
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝛌𝛌 𝟑𝟑 𝛌𝛌 𝟓𝟓 𝛌𝛌
‹Ǥ‡Ǥǡƒ–‹‘†‡•ƒ”‡ˆ‘”‡†ƒ–Ž‘…ƒ–‹‘•šൌ ǡ ǡ ,………
𝟒𝟒 𝟒𝟒 𝟒𝟒






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ሺͳሻ–ƒ†‹‰™ƒ˜‡•‹ƒ–”‡–…Š‡†–”‹‰ˆ‹š‡†ƒ–„‘–Š–Š‡‡†•
—†ƒ‡–ƒŽ‘†‡‘”–Š‡ˆ‹”•–Šƒ”‘‹…
Š‡‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘‘†‡™‹–Šൌͳǡ–Š‡Ž‘™‡•–ˆ”‡“—‡…›‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†–Š‡ˆ—†ƒ‡–ƒŽ‘†‡‘”–Š‡ˆ‹”•–Šƒ”‘‹…Ǥ

𝝀𝝀
ൌ 2𝟏𝟏
𝝀𝝀𝟏𝟏 = 2L 
v
—–˜ൌ𝜈𝜈λǡ𝜈𝜈 = 
𝝀𝝀
v
 ”‡“—‡…›ǡ𝜈𝜈1 = 
𝝀𝝀𝟏𝟏
𝐯𝐯
𝝂𝝂𝟏𝟏 = ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͳሻ
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

Š‡•‡…‘†Šƒ”‘‹…
Š‡•‡…‘†Šƒ”‘‹…‹•–Š‡‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘‘†‡™‹–ŠൌʹǤ

𝝀𝝀
ൌ2 2𝟐𝟐ൌ𝝀𝝀𝟐𝟐 
𝝀𝝀𝟐𝟐 = L 
v
 ”‡“—‡…›ǡ𝜈𝜈2 = 
𝝀𝝀𝟐𝟐
v
𝜈𝜈2 = 
L
𝐯𝐯
𝝂𝝂𝟐𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐 ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺʹሻ
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝝂𝝂𝟐𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐𝝂𝝂𝟏𝟏 
Š‡Š‹”†ƒ”‘‹…
Š‡–Š‹”†Šƒ”‘‹…‹•–Š‡‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘‘†‡™‹–Šൌ͵Ǥ

𝝀𝝀
ൌ3 2𝟑𝟑
2𝐿𝐿
𝝀𝝀𝟑𝟑 = 
3
v
”‡“—‡…›ǡ𝜈𝜈3 = 𝝀𝝀𝟑𝟑

v
𝜈𝜈3 = 2𝐿𝐿 
3
𝐯𝐯
𝝂𝝂𝟑𝟑 = 𝟑𝟑 ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺ͵ሻ
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

𝝂𝝂𝟑𝟑 = 𝟑𝟑𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 
ƒ†•‘‘Ǥ
𝝂𝝂𝟏𝟏 : 𝝂𝝂𝟐𝟐 : 𝝂𝝂𝟑𝟑 = 𝟏𝟏: 𝟐𝟐: 𝟑𝟑
Š—•ƒŽŽŠƒ”‘‹…•ƒ”‡’‘••‹„Ž‡‹ƒ•–”‡–…Š‡†•–”‹‰ˆ‹š‡†ƒ–„‘–Š–Š‡‡†•Ǥ

ሺʹሻŠ‡‘†‡•‘ˆ˜‹„”ƒ–‹‘‹ƒ…Ž‘•‡†’‹’‡ሺ•›•–‡…Ž‘•‡†ƒ–‘‡‡†ƒ†–Š‡‘–Š‡”‡†‘’‡ሻǤ
‰ǣ‡•‘ƒ…‡‘Ž—ሺ‹”…‘Ž—••—…Šƒ•‰Žƒ••–—„‡•’ƒ”–‹ƒŽŽ›ˆ‹ŽŽ‡†™‹–Š™ƒ–‡”ሻǤ

—†ƒ‡–ƒŽ‘†‡‘”–Š‡ˆ‹”•–Šƒ”‘‹…
Š‡‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘‘†‡™‹–ŠൌͲǡˆ—†ƒ‡–ƒŽ‘†‡‘”–Š‡ˆ‹”•–Šƒ”‘‹…Ǥ

𝝀𝝀𝟏𝟏
 L= 4


 𝝀𝝀𝟏𝟏 = 4L 
v
 ”‡“—‡…›ǡ𝜈𝜈1 = 𝝀𝝀 
𝟏𝟏

𝐯𝐯
 𝝂𝝂𝟏𝟏 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͳሻ




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Š‡Š‹”†ƒ”‘‹…
Š‡Š‹”†Šƒ”‘‹…‹•–Š‡‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘‘†‡™‹–ŠൌͳǤ
𝝀𝝀
 L = 3 𝟑𝟑
4
4𝑳𝑳
 𝝀𝝀𝟑𝟑 = 
3
v
 ”‡“—‡…›ǡ𝜈𝜈3 = 
𝝀𝝀𝟑𝟑
v
 𝜈𝜈3 = 4𝑳𝑳 
3

𝐯𝐯
 𝝂𝝂𝟑𝟑 = 𝟑𝟑 ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺʹሻ
𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒

 𝝂𝝂𝟑𝟑 = 𝟑𝟑𝝂𝝂𝟏𝟏 


Š‡ ‹ˆ–Šƒ”‘‹…
Š‡ ‹ˆ–ŠŠƒ”‘‹…‹•–Š‡‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘‘†‡™‹–ŠൌʹǤ

𝝀𝝀𝟒𝟒
 L=5 
4
4𝑳𝑳
 𝝀𝝀𝟒𝟒 = 
5
v
 ”‡“—‡…›ǡ𝜈𝜈5 = 
𝝀𝝀𝟓𝟓
v
 𝜈𝜈5 = 4𝑳𝑳 
5
𝐯𝐯
 𝝂𝝂𝟓𝟓 = 𝟓𝟓 ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺ͵ሻ
𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
 𝝂𝝂𝟓𝟓 = 𝟓𝟓𝝂𝝂𝟏𝟏 
 †•‘‘

𝝂𝝂𝟏𝟏 : 𝝂𝝂𝟑𝟑 : 𝝂𝝂𝟓𝟓 = 𝟏𝟏: 𝟑𝟑: 𝟓𝟓
Š—•‘Ž›‘††Šƒ”‘‹…•ƒ”‡’‘••‹„Ž‡‹ƒ…Ž‘•‡†’‹’‡Ǥ

ሺ͵ሻŠ‡‘†‡•‘ˆ˜‹„”ƒ–‹‘‹ƒƒ‘’‡’‹’‡ሺ•›•–‡‘’‡ƒ–„‘–Š‡†•ሻǤ‰ǣ Ž—–‡
—†ƒ‡–ƒŽ‘†‡‘”Š‡ ‹”•–ƒ”‘‹…
Š‡‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘‘†‡™‹–Šൌͳǡ–Š‡Ž‘™‡•–ˆ”‡“—‡…›‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†–Š‡ˆ—†ƒ‡–ƒŽ‘†‡‘”–Š‡ˆ‹”•–Šƒ”‘‹…Ǥ

𝝀𝝀
ൌ 2𝟏𝟏
𝝀𝝀𝟏𝟏 = 2L 
v
 ”‡“—‡…›ǡ𝜈𝜈1 =  
𝝀𝝀𝟏𝟏
𝐯𝐯
    𝝂𝝂𝟏𝟏 = ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺͳሻ
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

Š‡‡…‘†ƒ”‘‹…
Š‡•‡…‘†Šƒ”‘‹…‹•–Š‡‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘‘†‡™‹–ŠൌʹǤ

𝝀𝝀
ൌ2 2𝟐𝟐
𝝀𝝀𝟐𝟐 = L 
v
 ”‡“—‡…›ǡ𝜈𝜈2 = 
𝝀𝝀𝟐𝟐
v
𝜈𝜈2 = 
L
𝐯𝐯
𝝂𝝂𝟐𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐 ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺʹሻ
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝝂𝝂𝟐𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐𝝂𝝂𝟏𝟏 

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Š‡Š‹”†ƒ”‘‹…
Š‡–Š‹”†Šƒ”‘‹…‹•–Š‡‘•…‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘‘†‡™‹–Šൌ͵Ǥ

𝝀𝝀
ൌ3 2𝟑𝟑
2𝐿𝐿
𝝀𝝀𝟑𝟑 = 
3
v
 ”‡“—‡…›ǡ𝜈𝜈3 = 
𝝀𝝀𝟑𝟑
v
𝜈𝜈3 = 2𝐿𝐿 
3

𝐯𝐯
𝝂𝝂𝟑𝟑 = 𝟑𝟑 ǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦǦሺ͵ሻ
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝝂𝝂𝟑𝟑 = 𝟑𝟑𝝂𝝂𝟏𝟏 
ƒ†•‘‘Ǥ
𝝂𝝂𝟏𝟏 : 𝝂𝝂𝟐𝟐 : 𝝂𝝂𝟑𝟑 = 𝟏𝟏: 𝟐𝟐: 𝟑𝟑
Š—•ƒŽŽŠƒ”‘‹…•ƒ”‡’‘••‹„Ž‡‹ƒ‘’‡’‹’‡Ǥ 
‘‘’‡’‹’‡•ƒ”‡’”‡ˆ‡””‡†‘˜‡”…Ž‘•‡†’‹’‡•‹—•‹…ƒŽ‹•–”—‡–•Ǥ

‡ƒ–•
Š‡’‡”‹‘†‹…˜ƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘•ሺ™ƒ˜‡”‹‰ሻ‘ˆ•‘—†‹–‡•‹–›™Š‡–™‘™ƒ˜‡•‘ˆ‡ƒ”Ž›•ƒ‡ˆ”‡“—‡…‹‡•ƒ†
ƒ’Ž‹–—†‡•–”ƒ˜‡ŽŽ‹‰‹–Š‡•ƒ‡†‹”‡…–‹‘ǡƒ”‡•—’‡”‹’‘•‡†‘‡ƒ…Š‘–Š‡”‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†„‡ƒ–•Ǥ
Š‡•‡™ƒ˜‡”‹‰‘ˆ•‘—†‹•ƒŽ•‘…ƒŽŽ‡†™ƒš‹‰ƒ†™ƒ‹‰Ǥ
ˆ𝑣𝑣1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣2 ƒ”‡–Š‡ˆ”‡“—‡…‹‡•‘ˆ•—’‡”’‘•‹‰™ƒ˜‡•ǡ–Š‡„‡ƒ–ˆ”‡“—‡…›
𝝂𝝂𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 = 𝝂𝝂𝟏𝟏 − 𝝂𝝂𝟐𝟐 
‘’’Ž‡”ˆˆ‡…–
Š‡ƒ’’ƒ”‡–…Šƒ‰‡‹–Š‡‘„•‡”˜‡†ˆ”‡“—‡…›‘ˆƒ™ƒ˜‡™Š‡–Š‡•‘—”…‡ƒ†–Š‡‘„•‡”˜‡”‘˜‡•”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡–‘
–Š‡‡†‹—‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†‘’’Ž‡”ˆˆ‡…–Ǥ

 
‘•‹†‡”–Š‡•‘—”…‡ƒ†‘„•‡”˜‡”ƒ”‡‘˜‹‰™‹–Š˜‡Ž‘…‹–› vs and vo ‹–Š‡•ƒ‡†‹”‡…–‹‘˜‡Ž‘…‹–›‘ˆ
•‘—†ǡ 𝜈𝜈𝑠𝑠 Ǥ
‡–𝜈𝜈𝑠𝑠 „‡–Š‡ˆ”‡“—‡…›‘ˆ•‘—†Ǥ
Š‡ƒ’’ƒ”‡–ˆ”‡“—‡…›‘ˆ•‘—†Š‡ƒ”†„›–Š‡‘„•‡”˜‡”‹•ǡ
𝐯𝐯+𝐯𝐯
𝝂𝝂𝒐𝒐 = 𝝂𝝂𝒔𝒔 ( 𝐨𝐨 )
𝐯𝐯+ 𝐯𝐯 𝐬𝐬








‡‡ƒŽ‹œƒ„‡–Š

‘˜–ƒ–Š‹’—”ƒ
Š”‹••—”

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84 Thelima Edu Help Programme | Higher Secondar y National Ser vice Scheme