TECHNIQUES OF COUNTING

Factorial Notation
The product of the positive integers from 1 to n inclusive is denoted by the special symbol
n! (read as n factorial).
n! = 1x2x3x4x…x n
0! = 1

Tree Diagram
It will be helpful to list the elements of the sample space systematically by means of a tree
diagram

Multiplication Principle

If an operation can be done in any one of n 1 ways and if, after it has been done, a second
operation can be done in any of n2 ways, then the two operations can be done in this order in,
n1 x n2 ways

Addition Principle

If an operation can be done in any one of n 1 ways and if another operation, mutually
exclusive of the first, can be done in any one of n 2 ways, then either the two operations can be done
in,
n1 + n2 ways

Mutually exclusive events

Two or more events which cannot occur at the same time.

PERMUTATION

It is a grouping of things where arrangement is important.

It is synonymous with the word arrangement.

The number of permutations of n distinct object taken r at a time is:

𝒏!
𝒏𝑷𝒓 = 𝑷(𝒏, 𝒓) =
(𝒏 − 𝒓)!

The number of permutations of n distinct objects taken all at a time is:

𝒏𝑷𝒏 = 𝑷(𝒏, 𝒏) = 𝒏!

The number permutations of n distinct objects arranged in a circle is:

𝑷 = (𝒏 − 𝟏)!

1
 The number of permutations of n objects of which n1 are of the first kind, n2 are of the
second kind and are kth kind is:
𝒏!
𝑷=
𝒏𝟏 ! 𝒏𝟐 ! 𝒏𝟑 ! … … . 𝒏𝒌 !

COMBINATION

It is a grouping of things where arrangement is not important.

It is synonymous with the selection or choice.

The number of combination of n distinct objects taken r at a time is:

𝒏! 𝒏𝑷𝒓
𝒏𝑪𝒓 = 𝑪(𝒏, 𝒓) = =
(𝒏 − 𝒓)! 𝒓! 𝒓!
taken all at time is:
𝒏𝑪𝒏 = 𝑪(𝒏, 𝒏) = 𝟏

Total number of combinations

The total number of combinations that can be made from n distinct objects by taking
successively 1 at a time, 2 at a time, 3 at a time, and so on up to n at a time is:
𝑪 = 𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏

PROBABILITY
Theorem I.
If the possible outcomes are supposed to be equally likely and if there are S total number
of possible outcomes, and an event E of these possible outcomes then,

𝑬
𝑷𝑬 =
𝑺
where: 0  PE  1 ; PS = 1 ; P = 0 ;
where: E = number of successful outcomes
S = number of total possible outcomes
Theorem II
If E is any event, the probability that it is not E is

𝑷(𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝑬) = 𝑷′𝑬 = 𝟏 − 𝑷𝑬
Theorem III
If the possible outcomes are not equally likely, then the probability of an event E is the sum
of the weights of all sample points in E.

𝑷𝑬 = 𝒘𝟏 + 𝒘𝟐 + 𝒘𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝒘𝒌
𝑷𝑺 = 𝒘𝟏 + 𝒘𝟐 + 𝒘𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝒘𝒏 = 𝟏
2
Theorem IV
If E and F are mutually exclusive events, then
𝑷(𝑬 𝒐𝒓 𝑭) = 𝑷𝑬 + 𝑷𝑭
or
𝑷(𝑬 ∪ 𝑭) = 𝑷𝑬 + 𝑷𝑭
Mutually exclusive events
Two or more events are said to be Mutually Exclusive if it is impossible for more than one
of them to happen in just a single trial or if they cannot occur at the same time.
Theorem V
If E and F are mutually exclusive events and has common outcomes, then
𝑷(𝑬 𝒐𝒓 𝑭) = 𝑷𝑬 + 𝑷𝑭 − 𝑷(𝑬 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑭)
or
𝑷(𝑬 ∪ 𝑭) = 𝑷𝑬 + 𝑷𝑭 − 𝑷(𝑬 ∩ 𝑭)

Infinite Sample Spaces

Suppose S is a countable infinite sample space: say S = {a1,a2….an}. As in a finite case, we
obtain a probability space by assigning to each a 1  S, a real number pI called its probability, such
that
1. p1> 0
2. p1 + p2 + p3 +…..= pI

INDEPENDENT AND CONDITIONAL

PROBABILITY
Independent Probability
An event B is said to be independent of an event A, if the probability that B occurs is not
influenced by whether A has or has not occurred.

𝑃(𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵) = 𝑃𝐴 𝑥𝑃𝐵

Conditional Probability
The probability that an event B occurring when it is known that some event A has occurred
is called a conditional probability and is denoted by P(B/A).
The symbol P(B/A) is read as “ The probability that B occurs given that A occurs” or “The
probability of B given A”

𝑃(𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵) = 𝑃𝐴 𝑥𝑃𝐵/𝐴

Repeated Trials Probability

If p is the probability that an event will occur in a single trial, then the probability that it
will occur exactly r times out of n trials is
𝑷 = 𝒏𝑪𝒓 ∗ 𝒑𝒓 ∗ 𝒒𝒏−𝒓

Where: p = probability of success

q = probability of failure
3
SOLUTIONS:
TECHNIQUES OF COUNTINGS:
9. In how many ways can one go home from school via Municipio if 3 roads lead from school to the Municipio
and 2 roads from there to home?
n = n1 x n2 = 3 x 2 = 6 ways
Answer: B. 6 ways
10. How many 3-letter words can be formed from the letters a, b, c and d, if repetition is not allowed?
n = n1 x n2 x n3 = 4 x 3 x 2
Answer: B. 24 – 3-letter words
11. If repetition of digits is not allowed, how many numbers can be formed from the digits 5, 6, 7 and 8.
1-digit numbers n1 = 4
2-digit numbers n2 = 4 x 3 = 12
3-digit numbers n3 = 4 x 3 x 2 = 24
4-digit numbers n4 = 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 24
n = n1 + n2 + n3 + n4
n = 4 + 12 + 24 + 24 = 64
Answer: D. 64 numbers
12. How many numbers of at least 2 digits can be formed from the digits 1, 2, and 3, if no repetition is allowed?
2-digit numbers n1 = 3 x 2 = 6
3-digit numbers n2 = 3 x 2 x 1 = 6
n = n1 + n2 = 6 + 6 = 12
Answer: C. 12 numbers
13 and 14. How many 3 – digit numbers can be formed from the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9?
a. If no repetition is allowed
n = 9 x 9 x 8 = 648
Answer: C. 648 numbers
b. If repetition is allowed
n = 9 x 10 x 10 = 900
Answer: B. 900 numbers
15 and 16. How many even 3-digit numbers can be formed using the digits 3,6,7,8 and 9.
a. Without repetition?
n = 4 x 3 x 2 = 24
Answer: A. 24 numbers
b. With repetition?
n = 5 x 5 x 2 = 50
Answer: C. 50 numbers
17. Given the word TRIANGLE, how many 5-letter words can be formed?
N = 8P5 = 6,720
Answer: C. 6,720
18. In how many ways can 3 of 10 students participating in an inter-school be ranked first, second, and third?
N = 10P3 = 720
Answer: A. 720
19. How many distinct permutations can be made from the letters of the word COLUMBS?
N = 7P7 = 7! = 5,040
Answer: D. 5,040 ways
20. There are 3 boys and 2 girls in a row, in how many ways can they sit together?
N = 5P5 = 5! = 120
Answer: B. 120 ways
21. In how many ways can 5 different trees be planted in a circle?
N = (n – 1)! = 4! = 24
Answer: C. 24 ways
4
22. How many distinct permutations can be made from the letters of the word PHILIPPINES?
11!
N= = 1,108,800
3!3!
Answer: D. 1,108,800
23. How many committees can be formed from 5 boys and 4 girls if the committee shall consist of 3 boys and
3 girls? n1 = 5C3 = 10
n2 = 4C3 = 4
N = n1 x n2 = 10 x 4 = 40
Answer: C. 40
24. How many diagonals are there in a regular polygon with 9 sides?
N = 9C2 – 9 = 27
Answer: C. 27 diagonals
25. How many triangles are determined by 20 points no three of which are on the same straight line?
N = 20C3 = 1,140
Answer: C. 1,140 triangles
26. In how many ways can Mr. Sanchez invite his 10 friends to a dinner?
N = 210 – 1 = 1,023
Answer: B. 1,023
27. In how many ways can a teacher choose one or more students from 6 eligible students?
N = 26 – 1 = 63
Answer: A. 63
28 and 29. If a multiple-choice test consists of 5 questions each with 4 possible answers of which only one is
correct,
a. how many different ways can a student check off one answer to each question?
N = 4 x 4 x 4 x 4 x 4 = 1024 ways
Answer: D. 1024 ways
b. how many ways can a student check off one answer to each question and get all the questions
wrong?
N = 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 = 243 ways
Answer: B. 243 ways
30- 32. a. How many 3-digit numbers can be formed from the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 if each digit can be
used once?
a. N = 6 x 6 x 5 = 180
Answer: b. 180 numbers
b. how many of these are odd numbers?
N = 5 x 5 x 3 = 75
Answer: C. 75 numbers
c. how many are greater than 330?
if the first digit is 3
n1 = 1 x 3 x 5= 15
if the first digit is greater than 3
n2 = 3 x 6 x 5 = 90
N = n1 + n2 = 90 + 15 = 105
Answer: D. 105 numbers
33. A college plays 12 football games during a season. In how many ways can the team end the season with 7
wins, 3 loses, and 2 ties?
12!
𝑁= = 7920
7!3!2!
Answer: A. 7920 ways s
34-36. a. How many ways can 6 people be lined-up to get on a bus?
N = 6P6 = 6! = 720

5
 Answer: A. 6! = 720 numbers
a. If a certain 3 persons insist on following each other, how many ways are possible?
N = 4! x 3! = 144
Answer: B. 144 numbers
b. If a certain 2 persons refuse to follow each other, how many ways are possible?
N = 5! x 2! = 240
N’ = 720 – 240 = 480
Answer: D. 480 numbers

PROBABILITY:
37. A coin is tossed twice. If the coin is fair, what is the probability that at least one head occurs?
HH, HT, TH, TT
S = 4; E = 3
𝐸 3
𝑃𝐸 = =
𝑆 4
Answer: c. 3/4
38. A die is constructed so that a 1 or a 2 occurs twice as 5. A 5 occurs three times as often as a 3, 4 or 6. If the
die is tossed once, find the probability that:
1, 2 = 6w
5 = 3w
3, 4, 6 = w
S = 6w + 6w + 3w + w + w + w = 18w
a. an even number will occur.
Even numbers; 2, 4 and 6
E = 6w + w + w = 8w
𝐸 8𝑤 4
𝑃𝐸 = = =
𝑆 18𝑤 9
b. a perfect square will occur.
Perfect square; 1 and 4
E = 6w + w = 7w
𝐸 7𝑤 7
𝑃𝐸 = = =
𝑆 18𝑤 18
Answer: C. 7/18
c. a number greater than 4 will occur.
Greater that 4; 5 and 6
E = 3w + w = 7w
𝐸 4𝑤 2
𝑃𝐸 = = =
𝑆 18𝑤 9
39. What is the probability of getting a total of 7 or 11 when a pair of dice is tossed?
S = 6 x 6 = 36
Total of 7 or 11: (1,6), (6,1), (2,5), (5,2), (3,4), (4,3), (5,6), (6,5)
E=8
𝐸 8 2
𝑃𝐸 = = =
𝑆 36 9
Answer: A. 2/9
40. A class contains 10 men and 20 women of which half the men and half the women have brown eyes. Find
the probability that a person chosen at random is a man or has brown eyes.
𝑷(𝑴 𝒐𝒓 𝑩𝑬) = 𝑷𝑴 + 𝑷𝑩𝑬 − 𝑷(𝑴 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩𝑬)
10 15 5 2
𝑷(𝑴 𝒐𝒓 𝑩𝑬) = + − =
30 30 30 3
Answer: B. 2/3
6
41. A point is selected at random inside an equilateral triangle whose length is 3 units. Find the probability
that its distance to any corner is greater than 1.

S = Atriangle
Atriangle = ½ x base x height
𝐴𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 12𝑥3𝑥√32 − 1.52 = 3.897
E = Aarc = Acircle/2
𝜋𝑟 2 𝜋(12 )
𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = = = 1.571
2 2
𝐸 1.571
𝑃𝐸 = = = 0.4
𝑆 3.897
𝑃𝐸′ = 1 − 𝑃𝐸 = 1 − 0.4 = 0.6
Answer: B. 0.6
42. Let us consider the deck of 52 playing cards. What is the probability of the first and second card being an
ace when two cards are drawn and every time a card is drawn it returned to the pile of cards?
4 4 1
𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑒1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑐𝑒2) = 𝑃𝐴𝑐𝑒1 𝑥𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑒2 = 𝑥 =
52 52 169
Answer: C. 1/169
43. A die is tossed. The die is constructed so that even numbers are twice as likely to occur as odd numbers. If
it is known that the toss of a die resulted in a number greater than 3, what is the probability that it is a perfect
square? 1, 3, 5 = w
2, 4, 6 = 2w
S = w+ 2w + w+ 2w + w+ 2w = 9w
Number greater than 3; 4, 5 and 6 = 2w + w + 2w = 5w
Perfect square and greater than 3; 4 = 2w
5𝑤 5
𝑃𝑁>3 = =
9𝑤 9
2𝑤 2
𝑃𝑃𝑆&𝑁>3 = =
9𝑤 9
𝑃𝑃𝑆&𝑁>3 2⁄ 2
𝑃𝑃𝑆/𝑁>3 = =59= Answer: C. 2/5
𝑃𝑁>3 ⁄9 5
44 and 45 .An allergist claims that 50% of the patient she test are allergic to some type of weed. What is the
probability that:
a. exactly 3 of her next 4 patients are allergic to weeds.
P = 4C3 x 0.53 x 0.51 =1/4
Answer: A. ¼
b. none of her next 4 patient is allergic to weeds.
P = 4C0 x 0.50 x 0.54 =1/16
Answer: B. 1/16
46. A fuse box contains 20 fuses of which 5 are defective. If two fuses are selected at random and removed
from the box in succession without replacing the first, what is the probability that both fuses are defective?
5 4 1
𝑃(𝐷1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷2) = 𝑃𝐷1 𝑥 𝑃𝐷2/𝐷1 = 𝑥 =
20 19 19
Answer: A. 1/19
47. A bag contains 7 red marbles and 3 white marbles. Two marbles are drawn from the bag one after another.
Find the probability that both drawn balls are red.
7 6 7
𝑃(𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2) = 𝑃𝑅1 𝑥 𝑃𝑅2/𝑅1 = 𝑥 =
10 9 15

7
 Answer: B. 7/15
48. One bag contains 4 white balls and 3 black balls and a second bag contains 3 white and 5 black balls. One
ball is drawn at random from the second bag and is replaced unseen in the first bag. What is the probability that
a ball now drawn from the first bag is white?
𝑃𝑊1 = 𝑃(𝑊2&𝑊1) + 𝑃(𝐵2&𝑊1)
𝑃𝑊1 = 𝑃𝑊2 𝑥𝑃𝑊1/𝑊2 + 𝑃𝐵2 𝑥𝑃𝑊1/𝐵2
3 5 5 4 35
𝑃𝑊1 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 =
8 8 8 8 64
Answer: C. 35/64
49. Box A contains 9 cards numbered 1-9 and box B contains 5 cards numbered 1-5. A box is chosen at random
and then a card is drawn. If the number is even, find the probability that the card came from box A?
𝑃(𝐴&𝐸)
𝑃𝐴/𝐸 =
𝑃𝐸
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑃(𝐴&𝐸) + 𝑃(𝐵&𝐸) = 𝑃𝐴 𝑥𝑃𝐸/𝐴 + 𝑃𝐵 𝑥𝑃E/B
1 4 1 2 19
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 =
2 9 2 5 45

𝑃(𝐴&𝐸) 12𝑥49 10
𝑃𝐴/𝐸 = = 19 =
𝑃𝐸 45 19
Answer: D. 10/19
50 and 51. The Probability that A hits a target is ¼ and the probability that B hits is 2/5. If they shoot together,
what is the probability that
a) they both hit the target
1 2 1
P(A&B) = PA xPB = x =
4 5 10
Answer: A. 1/10
b) the target will b
P(A or B) = PA + PB − P(A and B)
1 2 1 11
P(A or B) = + − =
4 5 10 20
Answer: D. 11/20
52. Three cards are drawn in succession without replacement from an ordinary deck of cards. Find the
probability that the first card is red ace, the second card is a 10 or a jack and the third card is greater than 3 but
less than 7.
P(REDACE1&10orJACK2&G3L73) = PREDACE1 xP10orJACK2/REDACE1 xPG3L7/(REDACE1&10orJACK2)
2 8 12 8
P(REDACE1&10orJACK2&G3L73) = x x =
52 51 50 5525
Answer: A. 8/5525
53. Teams A and B play in a tournament. The first team that wins two games in a row or a total of four games
wins the tournament. Find the number of ways the tournament can occur.
If Team A will win If Team B will win
WW LL
LWW WLL
WLWW LWLL
LWLWW WLWLL
WLWLWW LWLWLL
LWLWLWW WLWLWLL
WLWLWLW LWLWLWL
n1 = 7 n2 = 7

8
 N = n1 + n2 = 14
Answer: B. 14

54. Box A contains nine cards numbered 1 through 9, and box B contains five cards numbered 1 through 5. A
box is chosen at random and a card drawn; if the card shows an even number, another card is drawn from
the same box; if the card shows an odd number, a card is drawn from the other box. If both cards show even
numbers, what is the probability that they come from box A?
𝑃(𝐴&𝐸1&𝐸2)
𝑃𝐴/(𝐸1&𝐸2) =
𝑃(𝐸1&𝐸2)
𝑃(𝐸1&𝐸2) = 𝑃(𝐴&𝐸1&𝐸2) + 𝑃(𝐵&𝐸1&𝐸2) = 𝑃𝐴 𝑥𝑃𝐸1/𝐴 𝑥𝑃𝐸2/(𝐴&𝐸1) + 𝑃𝐵 𝑥𝑃𝐸1/𝐵 𝑥𝑃𝐸2/(B&E1)
1 4 3 1 2 1 2
𝑃(𝐸1&𝐸2) = 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑥 =
2 9 8 2 5 5 15
1 4 3
𝑃(𝐴&𝐸1&𝐸2) 2 𝑥 9 𝑥 8 5
𝑃𝐴/(𝐸1∗𝐸2) = = =
𝑃(𝐸1&𝐸2) 2 8
15
Answer: C. 5/8

55. Consider the diagram with nine points A, B, C, R, S, T, X, Y, Z. A man begins at X is allowed to move
horizontally or vertically, one step at a time. He stops when he cannot continue to walk without reaching the
same point more than once. Find the number of ways he can take his walk, if he first moves from X to R.
A----B----C
| | |
R----S----T
| | |
X----Y----Z

Answer: C. 10

56. Consider the diagram with nine points A, B, C, R, S, T, X, Y, Z. A man begins at X is allowed to move
horizontally or vertically, one step at a time. He stops when he cannot continue to walk without reaching the
same point more than once. Find the number of trips which cover all nine points.

9
Answer: C. 4

10
RANDOM VARIABLE
A random variable is a function that associates a real number with each element in the sample space.
It is represented by a capital letter (such as W, X, or Y) and any particular value of the random variable by a
lowercase letter (such as w, x, or y).

Example 1:
A coin is tossed twice. List the possible number of heads that occur.
Solution:
Let X= the number of heads that occur.
The sample space is given by:
S= {HH, HT, TH, TT} = 4
The possible values of x are:
X = {0, 1, 2}
Note that a capital letter X is used to denote the random variable and small letter x for one of its values.
Example 2:
A pair of dice is tossed. List the possible sum of two dice.
Solution:
Let X = the sum of the rolls of two dice.
S = {(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),……(6,6)}
S = 6x6 = 36
X = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}

Discrete and Continuous Random Variables

A discrete random variable is one having discrete values or if the set of possible outcomes are
countable.
A continuous random variable is one having a continuous range of values or if the values take a
continuous scale.
A mixed random variable is one for which some of its values are discrete and some are
continuous.

PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
The probability distribution of a random variable is a function whose domain contains the values
that the random variable can assume, and whose range is a set of value associated with the probabilities of the
elements of the domain. The probability distribution of the discrete random variable is called a discrete
probability distribution, while the probability distribution of a continuous random variable is called a
continuous probability distribution.
The probability distribution is denoted by f(x) where:
1. f(x)  0
2.  f(x) = 1
3. P(X = x) = f(x)
Example 3:
Find the probability distribution for Example 1.
Solution:
S= {TT, HT, TH, HH} = 4
Event x no. of outcomes Probability
{TT}; 0 1 f(0)=1/4
{HT}, {TH}; 1 2 f(1)=2/4=1/2
{HH} 2 1 f(2)=1/4
Total 4/4 = 1
 f(x) =  f(0, 1, 2) = 1/4 +1/2 +1/4 = 1

11
Example 4:
Find the probability distribution for Example 2.
A pair of dice is tossed. List the possible sum of two dice.
Solution:
Let X= the sum of the rolls of two dice.
S = {(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),……(6,6)}
S = 6x6 = 36
Event x no. of outcomes Probability
{1,1} 2 1 1/36
{1,2},{2,1} 3 2 2/36
{1,3},{3,1},{2,2} 4 3 3/36
{1,4},{4,1},{2,3},{3,2} 5 4 4/36
{1,5},{5,1},{2,4},{4,2},{3,3} 6 5 5/36
{1,6},{6,1},{2,5},{5,2},{3,4},{4,3} 7 6 6/36
{2,6},{6,2},{3,5},{5,3},{4,4} 8 5 5/36
{3,6},{6,3},{4,5},{5,4} 9 4 4/36
{4,6},{6,4},{5,5} 10 3 3/36
{5,6},{6,5} 11 2 2/36
{6,6} 12 1 1/36
Total 36/36 = 1
 f(x) = 1
Example 5:
A shipment of 8 similar microcomputers to a retail outlet contains 3 that are defective. If a school
makes a random purchase of 2 of these computers, find the probability distribution for the number of defectives.
Solution:
Let X be a random variable whose values x are the possible numbers of defective computers
purchased by the school. Then x can be any of the numbers 0, 1, and 2. Now,
S = 8C2 = 28
Event x no. of outcomes Probability
0 def. comp 0 5C2 x 3C0 =10 10/28
1 def. comp 1 5C1 x 3C1 =15 15/28
2 def. comp 2 5C0 x 3C2 =3 3/28
` Total 28/28 = 1
 f(x)=  f(0, 1, 2) = 10/28 +15/28 +3/28 = 1
Example 6:
From a box containing 2 green balls and 3 white balls, three balls are drawn at random. Find the
probability distribution for the number of green balls.
S = 5C3 = 10
Event x no. of outcomes Probability
0 green balls 0 2C0 x 3C3 = 1 1/10
1 green ball 1 2C1 x 3C2 = 6 6/10
2 green balls 2 2C2 x 3C1 = 3 3/10
Total 10/10 = 1
 f(x) =  f(0, 1, 2) = (1/10)+(6/10)+(3/10) = 1

Cumulative Distribution of a Discrete Random Variable

The cumulative distribution of a discrete random variable is denoted by F(x) with probability
distribution f(x) is given by:
F(x) = P(X  x) =  f(t) for - < x < 
tx

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Example 7:
Find the cumulative frequency distribution for example 3, 4, 5 and 6.

From Example 3:
Find the probability distribution for example 1.

Solution:
S= {TT, HT, TH, HH} = 4
Event x no. of outcomes Probability
{TT}; 0 1 f(0)=1/4
{HT}, {TH}; 1 2 f(1)=2/4=1/2
{HH} 2 1 f(2)=1/4
F(0) = f(0) = ¼
F(1) = f(0) + f(1) = ¼ + ½ = ¾
F(2) = f(0) + f(1) + f(2) = ¼ + ½ + ¼ = 1

For Example 4:
Solution:
Let X be a random variable whose values x are the possible numbers of defective computers
purchased by the school. Then x can be any of the numbers 0, 1, and 2. Now,
S = 8C2 = 28
Event x no. of outcomes Probability
0 def. comp 0 5C2 x 3C0 =10 10/28
1 def. comp 1 5C1 x 3C1 =15 15/28
2 def. comp 2 5C0 x 3C2 =3 3/28
F(0) = f(0) = 10/28
F(1) = f(0) + f(1) = 10/28 + 15/28 = 25/28
F(2) = f(0) + f(1)+f(2) = 10/28 + 15/28 +3/28 = 1

For Example 5:
Solution:
Let X= the sum of the rolls of two dice.
S = {(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),……(6,6)}
S = 6x6 = 36
Event x no. of outcomes Probability
{1,1} 2 1 1/36
{1,2},{2,1} 3 2 2/36
{1,3},{3,1},{2,2} 4 3 3/36
{1,4},{4,1},{2,3},{3,2} 5 4 4/36
{1,5},{5,1},{2,4},{4,2},{3,3} 6 5 5/36
{1,6},{6,1},{2,5},{5,2},{3,4},{4,3 7 6 6/36
{2,6},{6,2},{3,5},{5,3},{4,4} 8 5 5/36
{3,6},{6,3},{4,5},{5,4} 9 4 4/36
{4,6},{6,4},{5,5} 10 3 3/36
{5,6},{6,5} 11 2 2/36
{6,6} 12 1 1/36
F(2) = f(2) =1/36
F(6) = f(2) + f(3) + f(4) + f(5) + f(6) = (1+2+3+4+5)/36 = 15/36
F(12) = f(2) + f(3) + f(4) + f(5) + f(6) f(7) + f(8) + f(9) + f(10) + f(11) + f(12)
= (1+2+3+4+5+6+5+4+3+2+1)/36 = 36/36 = 1

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MEAN OF A RANDOM VARIABLE
Let X be a discrete random variable with probability distribution f(x).
x x1 x2 …….. xn
P(X=x) f(x1) f(x2) …… f(xn)

The mean or expected value of X is

𝒏

𝝁 = 𝑬(𝑿) = ∑ 𝒙𝒊 𝒇(𝒙𝒊 )
𝒊=𝟏
Example 8:
Find the expected value of X, where X represents the outcome when a die is tossed.
Solution:
 f(x) =  f( 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
Each of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 occurs with the probability of 1/6. Therefore,

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝝁 = 𝑬(𝑿) = (𝟏) ( ) + (𝟐) ( ) + ⋯ + (𝟔) ( ) = 𝟑. 𝟓
𝟔 𝟔 𝟔

This means that a person will, on the average, roll 3.5.

Example 9:
Find the expected number of boys on a committee of 3 selected at random from 4 boys and 3 girls.
(1.7)
S = 7C3 = 35
x number of outcomes Probability
0 4C0 x 3C3 = 1 1/35
1 4C1 x 3C2 = 12 12/35
2 4C2 x 3C1 = 18 18/35
3 4C3 x 3C0 = 4 4/35
E(X) = (0)(1/35) + (1)(12/35) + (2)(18/35) + (3)(4/35) = 1.7

Example 10:
In a gambling game a man is paid P5 if he gets all heads or all tails when 3 coins are tossed, and he
pays P3 if either 1 or 2 heads show. What is his expected gain? (-P1)
Solution:
Event x Probability
HHH, TTT 5 2/8
HHT, HTH, THH , TTH, THT, HTT -3 6/8

E(X) = 5(2/8) + (-3)(6/8) = -1

11. A coin is flipped until 3 heads in succession occur. List only those elements of the sample space that
require 6 or less tosses. Is this a discrete sample space?
Solution:
S = {HHH, THHH, HTHHH, TTHHH, THTHHH, HHTHHH, TTTHHH, HTTHHH}; Discrete

12. An overseas shipment of 5 foreign automobiles contains 2 that have slight paint blemishes. If an agency
receives 3 of these automobiles at random, list the elements of the sample space S using the letters B
and N for “blemished” and “nonblemished”, respectively; then to each sample point assign a value x of
the random variable X representing the number of automobiles purchased by the agency with paint
blemishes.
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Solution:
5 - Foreign automobiles
2 – Blemished (B); B1 and B2
3 – Non-blemished (N); N1, N2 and N3

*list the elements of the sample space S

S = {N1N2N3, B1N1N2, B2N1N2, B1N1N3, B2N1N3, B1N2N3, B2N2N3, B1B2N1, B1B2N2, B1B2N3) = 10
S = 5C3 = 10 (Sample space)
Events x B N outcomes
N1N2N3 0 2C0 x 3C3 = 1
B1N1N2, B2N1N2, B1N1N3, B2N1N3, B1N2N3, B2N2N3 1 2C1 x 3C2 = 6
B1B2N1, B1B2N2, B1B2N3 2 2C2 x 3C1 = 3

*Random variable representing the no. of automobiles purchased by the agency with paint blemishes
X = {0, 1, 2}
E(x) = 0(1/10) + 1(6/10) + 2(3/10) = 6/5 = 1.2

13. Let W be a random variable giving the number of heads minus the number of tails in three tosses of a
coin. List the elements of the sample space S for the three tosses of the coin and to each sample point
assign a value w of W.
Solution:
* List the elements of the sample space S
S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, TTH, THT, HTT, TTT} = 8
S = 2 x 2 x 2 = 8 (Sample Space)
*Value w of W.
W = {3, 1, -1, -3}

14. Find the probability distribution of the random variable W in Problem Set 13.
Solution:
w outcomes Probability
3 1 1/8
1 3 3/8
-1 3 3/8
-3 1 1/8

15. Find the Expected value of random variable W in Problem Set 13.
Solution:
E(w) = 3(1/8) + 1(3/8) +(-1)(3/8) + (-3)(1/8) = 0

16. Three cards are drawn in succession from a deck without replacement. Find the probability distribution
for the number of spades. Express your results by means of a formula.
Solution:
S = 52C3 = 22100
Probability distribution
x outcomes Probability
0 13C0 x 39C3 = 9139 9139/22100
1 13C1 x 39C2 = 9633 9633/22100
2 13C2 x 39C1 = 3042 3042/22100
3 13C3 x 39C0 = 286 286/22100
Express your results by means of a formula.
f(x) = ((13Cx * 39C(3-x))/52C3
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STANDARD SCORE AND THE NORMAL CURVE
STANDARD SCORE
The primary procedure in finding area under the normal curve is to covert the normal curve of any
given variable into a standardized normal curve by using the formula for the standard scores:

x− x
Z=
s
where: Z = standard score
x = any raw score or unit of measurement
x = mean of the distribution of scores
s = standard deviation
Example 1.
Suppose that the
x = 122
s = 24
Solve for Z-score
Solution:
a.) if x = 146
146 − 122 24
z= = =1
24 24
b.) if x = 110
110 − 122 −12
z= = = −0.5
24 24

Z scores are also useful for comparing scores from different populations with different means and different
standard deviations.

Example 2.
Two equivalent intelligent tests are given to similar group, the tests are designed with different scales.
The statistics for the tests are listed below. Which is better: a score of 145 on Test A or a score of 60 on Test
B?
Test A Test B
x = 100 x = 40
s = 15 s=5

Solution:
For the score of 145 on Test A,
145 − 100 45
z= = =3
15 15
For the score of 60 on Test B,
60 − 40 20
z= = =4
5 5

Therefore, a score of 145 on Test A is 3 standard deviations above the mean, while a score of 60 in test
B, is 4 standard deviation above the mean. This implies that 60 on test II is the better score.

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Example 3.
Mike got 148 in English and 110 in Algebra. If the scores in English averaged 155 with standard
deviation of 3.2 while the average scored of Algebra is 111 with a standard deviation 0f 4.3, in what subject
did Mike get a higher grade?

THE NORMAL CURVE

A normal curve distribution is represented by a normal curve. The area under a normal curve indicates
probability, so the larger the area, the greater is the probability. The graph of a normal distribution is a bell-
shaped curve that extends indefinitely in both directions.

NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
An important feature of a normal distribution is that its mathematical equation is such that we can
determine the area under the curve between any two given points in horizontal scale if we know its mean and
its standard deviation. The equation of the normal probability curve reads.

− x2
N
y= e 2
2

 2
where: x = score laid off along the base line in x – axis
y = the height of the curve above the x-axis, i.e., the frequency of a given x-
value
N = number of scores
 = standard deviation of the distribution
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
1. It is symmetrical and bell-shaped.
2. The mean is in the middle and divides the area in half; the mean, median and mode are identical.
3. The normal curve is asymptotic to the base line, even when extended to great distances beyond
the mean, it continues to approach but never reaches the base line.
4. The area between its graph and x-axis is unity. The area under the curve is always less than 1,
since the curve does not touch the x-axis within finite limits.
5. If we fold the normal curve at the middle or about the mean, the left half will coincide with the
right half.

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Example 4.
If a random variable has the standard normal distribution, what are the possibilities that it will take
on a value.
a.) less than 1.65 ( z < 1.65 )
b.) greater than –0.5 ( z > -0.5 )
c.) greater than 0.8 ( z > 0.8 )
d.) less than –1.5 (z < -1.5 )
e.) between 0.9 and 1.4 ( 0.9 < z < 1.4 )
f.) between 0.5 and 1.1 ( 0.5 < z < 1.1 )
g.) Find the area under the curve between 12 and 17 with:
g.1.) x = 10 and s = 5
g.2.) x = 20 and s = 10

Example 5.
The length of a tube received by a certain laboratory has a mean of 4.62 inches and a standard deviation of 0.23
inches.
a.) What percentage of all these tubes is longer than 5.00 inches?
b.) What percentage of the tubes is between 4.35 and 4.85 inches long?

Example 6.
A research scientist reports that mice will live an average of 40 months when their diets are sharply restricted
and then enriched with vitamins and proteins. Assuming that lifetimes of such mice are normally distributed
with standard deviation of 6.3 months, find the probability that a given mouse will live
a) less than 35 months
b) greater than 25 months
c) between 35 and 50 months

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