Optical Communications Certification: Cuzna

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cuzna .
LEARNING
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Optical Communications
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Optical Communications -Associate (OC-A}
Introduction to Optical Communications

Student Guide
Release 1.0
Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Module 1, Lesson 1: Fiber Optics Basics .............................................................................................. ........... 1
Lesson Overview ........... ........... .. .... ....... ............... .... .. .... ............ ..... ...... ..... .......... ..... .. ...................... .... ...... ...... 1
Lesson Objectives ...... .......... ........ .. .... .. ... ..... .. ................ .... ..... ............ ....... ... .. ..... .. .... .... ...... .... .. .. ... .. ..... .. ..... .. .. 1
Introduction to Fiber Optics ... ... ...... ... .. ......... .. ........ ... ..... ..... .. .............. .... .. .... .. .. ... .. ..... .. .... ..... ... .... ..... .............. . 1
Historical Events in the Science Behind Fiber Optics ...... .... ..... ........ ............ ...... ........ ...... ....... ..... .... ... ..... ..... 2
Development of Optical Fiber ........................ ..... .. ............... ...... .................. .. ...... ... .. .. ....... ....... .... .. ...... ....... ..4
Development of Lasers ....... .... ............... ....... ........ ... .... .............. ...... ....... .......... .. .... ...... ... ... .. .... ..... ............... . 5
Growth of Fiber Optic Communications ........... ........ ........... .... .... .. ....... ..... ..... .... ..... ... .... ... ... .... ..... ...... .. ... .. .... 5
Significant Events in Optical Communications ...... .. ..... ..... ... .. ......... ...... ... .. .. .. .. ..... .......... .......... ....... .. ... ..... ... 6
Fiber Optics Fundamentals .......... ... ... ..... ..... ...... .... ... ...................... ...... ...... ........ ........... ....... ..... ...... .. ............. .. 8
What is Light? ........... .. ... .... ...... .... ......... ...... ... .... ........... ........ ... .... ............. .. ...... .... .............. .. ...... ... ..... .. ........ . 8
Wavelength and Frequency ........ .... ......... .... ..... .............. .... ......... ......... ..... .. ... ... ... .. .... ...... ... .. ... .. ................. 11
Refraction and Reflection of Light. .. .. .... ... .. ... ... .. ,... ...... ....... .. ... .... ... .. .... ...... ..... ........... ..... ... ... .... ......... ....... .. 12
Lesson Review .. ........ .... ......... ............ ............ .......... ..... ...... ..... ........ ... ........... .......... ..... ... .. ........ ....... ........... .. . 15
Lesson Review Questions ..... .. ..... .... .. ........ ........ .. ....... .. ..... ..... .. .... .. ..... .... .. .... ......... .... ...... ... ... ...... .. ... ..... .... 15
Module 1, Lesson 2: Optical Transmission Basics ....................................................... ...... ................. ......... 16
Lesson Overview ... .. .............. ..... .. .... ..... .............. .. .... ........... ......... ........... .... ... ..... ............... ... .... ........ ......... ... . 16
Lesson Objectives .... ... ... ..... ... ..... ........ .... .... .... .... .. ..... ... ... .. .. .... ... ... .... .. ....... ... .. ... ... ..... ............ .. ... ..... ..... ..... ... . 16
Overview ...... ...... ......... ... ... .... ............ ... .... ....... ..... ... ....... ..... ... ....... .. ................ ... ......... ......... .. .... .......... .......... .. 16
Optical Transmitters ...... ..... .. ........... ..... .... .... ........ ... .. .... ... .... .. .. .. .... ... .. ...... .... ...... ...... .... ........ .. ....... ..... .... ... ..... 17
Optical Receivers ..... .... ............. .... ....... .......... ... ..... ........ .. .. .... ........ ....... ... ..... .. ... ............... .. ........ ................ ... . 17
Optical Fiber ...... ... ......... .... ... ....... ... ......... ..... ........ ...... .. ........ .... ... ..... ....... .... .. ... .... ... ... .. ..... .. ..... .................... .. . 17
Optical Fiber Manufacturing Process .... ...... ..... .. ....... ... ...... ..... .......... ... ........ .... ... .... ........ ..... ... ..... ..... ........... 18
Fiber Configurations ..... .................... .. ... ... ... .. ..... ... ... .. ......... .... .... ................... .. ....... .......... ... ... ............ .... .... . 19
Fiber Cables ... .. .... ..... .... ... ..... .... .. ... ... ................. .... .. ... ...... ......... .... ...... .. .... .. .... ... ..... ........ ...... ....... ...... ... .... .. 20
Optical Connectors ..... ......... .... ..... ...... .. .... ........... .... .......... ............... ... ........ .. ........ ..... ........ .... ...... ...... ... ... ... 21
Optical Fiber Types ...... ... ....... ......... ... ..... .... .... ... ... .... .. .. ..... ...... .. ......... ... .. ..... ... .. .. ................. .. ......... .. ..... .... .. .. 23
Multimode Fiber ...... .......... ... .... .... ...... ....... .. .. ... ... ... ........ ...... ....... .... ... ...... .. ... .. ...... ... .............. .. ..... ...... ......... 24
Single-mode Fiber. .. .. ..... ......... .. ... .. .. .. .. .... .. ... ..... ..... .. .. .. ........ ...... .. ........ ... ........ ..... ... ..... ..... ..... ... .... ........ .. .... 25
Light Propagation in Optical Fiber ....... ............... .... ... .... ........ ......... ....... ..... ...... ... ........ .... ... .... ....... ......... ....... .. 26
Optical Signal Measurement and the Decibel ...... ...... ... ....... ..... ..... .......... ..... .. .... ........ ... .. ..... .. ......... ...... ..... 26
Optical Transmission Bands .. ...... ... ............... .. ... ........ .... ... ..... .. .. ... ... .......... .. .. ........... ... ... ......... .... ......... .. ... . 27
Coupling Light into Optical Fiber. .......................... .. ...... ...... ........ .............. ......... ... ..... ........ .... .. ... ........ .. .... ... 28
Optical Attenuation .. ...... .... ........ .... .... .. ............. ... ............ ..... .. .... .... ...... ... .. .... ... .... ... ........ ....... .. .............. ... ... 29
Dispersion ............. .............. .... ... .... ..... ... ............ ... ......... .... .. ...... ..... ... .. ........ ........... ........ ........ ... ....... ....... .. .. 34
Nonlinear Effects .... ... .... .... ............... ... .... ... ..... ... .. ................................. ......... .... ...... ........... ....... ...... ............ 37
Optical Multiplexing ... .. .. .. ........ ..... ...... ....... ........... ... .......... ............ ......... .. .... ..... .. .... ........ ... .. ..... .. ......... ... ....... .41
Time Division Multiplexing ........... ... ............... ........ .... ..... ............... ... .... ......... ....... ............................. .. ...... ..41
Wavelength Division Multiplexing ...... .............................. ........... ....... ...... .. ............ ....... .. ...... ...................... .41
Optical Transmission Systems ..... ......... ... ....... ... .. ......... ...... .... ... ...... .............. ..... .... ............... ... ...... .. ...... .... .. .. 43
Optical Transmission System Architectures ..... ... ... ... .............. ..... ........ .... ........... .......... ... ... .... .. .. .. ....... .. ..... 43
Optical Transport System Nodes .. ... ...... ... .... ......... ..... ................. .. ........... ...... .. .............. ....... .. ... ............... ..45
Lesson Review .................... ... .... ... .... .. ......... ............ ..... ........... ..... ........ .... .......... .. ... .... ...... ........ ..... .... ........ .... 46
Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved.

Table of Contents Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
Lesson Review Questions .... .......... ... ... .. ...... ..... .. ... ................. ... .. ..... .......... .... .. .. ................ .... ... .... ... .. .... ... .46
Module 2, Lesson 1: Optical Transmitters and Receivers ....... ..................................... ............................. 47
Lesson Overview ... ...... ..... ... ..... .. ....... .. .. ....... ... ... .. ....... .... .. ..... .... ... ...... ....... ... ...... .. .... ..... ..... .... ... .... .. ........ .... ...47
Lesson Objectives ....... ..... ....... ..... ...... ....... .. .. .. .... .......... ..... .... .... .... ......... .... ..... .. ... .. ....... .. ... ...... .......... .. .......... 4 7
Introduction .......... .... . ooo oo. oooo ooooo· ··... .... ooooo oo ····....... ..... ..... .. 00 ......... ....... oo oo· ....... .. ... oo. oo ···oo·· ··....... ... ... . oo· ··oo ··· ·.... .. 4 7
Optical Emitters .... ... ..... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ..... ... ...... ......... ... ....... ... .......... .... ... ........ ...... .... ..... ....... ..... .. .... ... .... ....... ... .. 47
Optical Emitter Performance Characteristics 00. 00 00 00 0000.00 00 .. 00.00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00.00 00 00.00. 00 .00 00. 00 .00 00.00 00 .00 00 00 00. 00 .. 00 00 00 00 .00 49
Optical Emitter Semiconductors . 00 0000 00 00 00 .00. 00 .00 00 00 00 00 00 ..00 00 00 .. 00. 00 00.00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 .00 00.00 .. 00 00 .00 .. 00 ..00 00 00. 00 00 ....00 .. 00 49
Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission of Light oo OO oo OOOOOOOOOOO ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooooo oooo ooooooooo oo oOO OO OOooooo oOO oo oooo· ·oo oo OOooo oo .. 51
Input Current Versus Optical Power Output OO oooo .oooo .oooooo oo oooo .oo 0000 00 00 oo oooo oooooo 0000 0000 0000 00000 oooooo 0000 00 00 00 00 00.00 00 00000 00 54
Light Emitting Diode and Laser Diode Spectral Width OO OOOOoo oooooooo oooooooooo .oo oooo oooooo oooo oo oo oooooooo oo oo00 00 0000 000000 00 00 00 0055
Light Emitting Diode and Laser Diode Physical Construction 0000 00 00 00 00 0000 00 .. 00 00 00 00 0000 oo oo oo 00 oo . 00 .00 0000000 oo oo oo · 0000 000 56
Types of Laser Diodes 00 ..oo .. 00 oo. 00.00 00 00 00 00000 000 .. 00 00 00 00 00 00000 00 000.00 00 00 .00000 00 oo oo. ·oo ·oo 00 000 00 ·oo 00 .. oo ·oo oo. 00 000000 00 oo ··oo 00 00 00 000 .. 57
Factors Affecting Laser Diode Performance oooooooo oooo oo oOO OOOO OOoo oO oo .... oooo oo ooooo oooo ooo oo oO ooo oo oo ooooooooo oo. ooo ooo oo oo oooooooooo .. 60
Tunable Laser Diodesoo ooooooooooooo.ooo oo .. oo:o oo ooooo.oooooooooooOO oOO oO OOOO ooo oo oo ..oooooooooooooooooooooooooo oooooooooooo.oooOO oo oooo oooo oooooooo oo61
Optical Detectors . 00 .00 00 .00 00 00.00. 00 .00 .. 00 00.00 . 00 00 00 .00 . 00.00 .. 00 00 0000 00.00 00 00 00 00 .00 . 00 00 00 .00 00 00. 00 00 00.00 00. 00 00 .00 00. 00 00 .00 00 00.00. 00 00 00. 00 00.00 62
Positive-Intrinsic-Negative Photodiode ... ... ..... .. .... ...... .......... .. ...... ..... ............ .. ...... ....... ...... .. .... ... ....... .... .. .. . 63
Avalanche Photodiode. 00 000 000 000 00. 00 .oo . 000 00 00. 00 00 . oO OOoo oo OO 00 00 .. 0000 00 00 000 000 oooo O00 00 00 00 ... oooo· oo· 00.00 00. 000 00 .oo ... oooo· .oooo oo · OO oooo. 00 63
Optical Detector Characteristics .. ............. ............ ...... .... ....... .... ......... ....... ... ... ....... ... ...... ..... .... ........ .....00 .... 63
Optical Transceivers 00 00. 00 00 00 00 000 000 00 .00 0000 00 00 ... 00.00 .. .oo 00 00 00 oo oo· ... 00 00 00 ... 00 .. . 00 00 .oo ..... .. 00 00 000 00 0..... ... oo .. 00 000 OO oo .oo 00000 0000 000 oo · 65
SFP Transceiver. 00 000 00 00 00 ... oo .. 00 oo ... oo oo· 00 000 00. 00 ·oo oo 00 0000 00 oo· .oooo . 00 00 00 oo oo · 00 000 0000 00 oo oo. 000 .oooo oo. 000 00 0000 .. 00 OO oOoo .oo oo oo· .... 00 .. 00 66
XFP Transceiver. 00 00 .00 00 00 0... 00 000 000 . ·oo 00 00 00 00 oo· 00 ·oo 00 000 0000000 oo · 00 00 00 00 oo oo. 00 000 00 00 00 00 00 0000 00 00 000 00.00 00 ·oo 00 00 00 .oo 0000 00 00000 oo ·oo oo . 00 66
CFP Transceiver . 00 00 000 000 00 00. oo · oo oo .. 00 00000 00 00 000 00 000 00 000 000 00 00 00.00 00 00 00 000 00. 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0000 00 00 000 00 000 00 00.00 00 ·oo oo ooo OOOO 00.00 00 00 00. 00 67
Optical Modu lation and Detection 00 .00 0000 00 00 00 0000 00 oo · oo oo oo. oo 00 .00 00 oo . 00 00 0000.00 00 000000 00 OO oo 00 000 00 000 0000 00 OO ooo OOoo oooo oo ·oo oo oo· 00 00.00 . 68
Lesson Review ....... ... ... .. ... ... .......... .......... ........ .. ..... ........ .. ..... ... .. ... .... ... ........ ..... ..... ... .... ....... .. .... ....... ...... ... ... . 69
Review Questions 00 .00 00 00 .00 . 00 .00 00.00 . 00 00.00 00 00.00 00 .00. 00 00 00 00 .00. 00 00 00 00 00. 00. 00 .00 .00 .00 00 00 .. 00.00 00 00·. 00 0000 00 .00 . 00 00. 00 00 00 .00 00.00 00 00 .00. 69
Module 2, Lesson 2: Basic Optical Components ....................................... ............................................. .... 71
Overview .. ... ... .. .... .. ... ........ ... ... ...... .. .... .. ... .... ... ... .. .... ............ ....... .. ..... .... ...... ...... ... ..... ..... .. ... .. ... ..... ... ... .. .......... 71
Objectives .... ... ........... ...... .. ....... ........... .. ............... .. ...... .... .. ....... ..... ... ............. ... ... ...... oo .. .... ..··oo· ·oo ·· ··...... ...... ... 71
Introduction ..... ... .. ..... .... ... ...... .... .. ... oo .... .... ....... ... oo ···· ··oo· ····· ··· ········ ··· ······· ···· ·oo·· ·········· ·oo····· ·· ······oo ··· ···· ······ ······ 71
Couplers .... ...... ........... .. ... ...... ...... .. .... ....... ....... .. ... .. ....... ..... ....... ...... .... ..... ... ... .. ..... ........ ......... .... ........ .. ......... .. 72
Types of Couplers. 00 ·oo ooOOO ·oooo . 00 00 oo oo .. 00 00 00 00 0000 0000 0000000 00 00000 .oooo· 00 ... 00 00 ... oo. 00 00 oo oo . 00. 00 00000 .oo 0000 00 00 .. 00 00.00 00 00 000 .oo. ·oooo 00 073
Attenuators .......... ........ .... ... ......... ... .. ... ... ..... ... ....... .............. .. ... ... ....... ..... ..... ... ... ..... .. .. ...... ...... ... ....... .. .... ...... .. 77
Prevention of Optical Power Saturation 00 00.00 00. 00 00 .00 00.00 0000 00 00 00 .. . 00 00. 00 00.00 00 00 00 .00 00 .00 00 00.0000 00. 00 00 .00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00. 00 00 .. 77
Fixed and Variable Attenuators . 000 .. 00 00 000 00 0000 .. oo . ·oo·oooo· 00 000 00 00 ·oo 00 0000 000 00 00 oo .oo oo oo. 00 oooo· 00 0oo OO ... 00 00 00000 0000 00 00 00.00 00 00. oo. 79
Isolators .. .... .. .. ....... .... ... ........ ..... .. ... ...... ..... ... .... ..... ..... .... .. .......... ... ......... ......... .. .... ...... ....... .. ...... ... .. .. ....... ....... 81
Circulators .... ...... .... ... ... .......... ........ .. ... ... .... ..... ... ............ .. ..... ... .. ......... .... ..... ..... .... ..... ... ... ...... ...... ... .. ........ ...... 82
Optical Filters ... ....... ..... ... ...... .. .......... ....... .. .... ..... ........... ... .. ........ ...... .. ... .. ..... .. ....... ... ... ...... ... ........ .. ... .. .. .......... 83
Fiber Bragg Gratings .. 00 ·oo 00. oo· ·oooo 000 00 000 000 00.00 oooo . oo. 00 oo oo . 00 000 .. 00 .00 .. 00 . 00.00 00 00 00 000 0000 00 000 00 000 00 00 00 oo. 00 000 000 0000.00 000 00 00 oo .. oo · 83
Arrayed Waveguide Grating Filters.ooooooooooooooooooooooo ooo oooo ·oo oo oo oooooooooooooooooo oo oo oooo oooooooooooooooooooo oooo oooo·· oo oo oo oooo oo ooo.85
Fabry-Perot Filters 00 .. 00. 00 00 .00 . 00 .00 00.00 .. 00 00 00 00 .. 00 .00 00 00 00 oo •00 00 .00 ..00 00 00 00.00. 00 00 00 .00 00 00.00 00 .00 00 .00 00 00 00 00 00 00 .00. 00 00 00 .00 00 00 00 .00 . 00 86
Multilayer Dielectric Thin Film Filters ..oooo 00 .00 00.00 0000 00 00 00 00000000 00 00 000000 00000 0000 00 oo . oooooo· 0000 0000 000 oo, 00 00 00 00 00 000000 00 0000 00 000. 87
Mach-Zehnder Interferometer Filters 00 0000 oo · 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 .oo .. oooo oo 00 oo · 000000 00 .00 00 00 00000000 000 00 0000 00000 ·oo oooooo .. 00 000 00 00 oooo ... 000.87
Acousto-Optic Tunable Filter OOoooooo oo oooo oooo oo ·· oooo oo oooo ooo ooooooo oooo ,.oo.·oo·oo·oo·oo·ooooOooo oo ·oooo. ooooo oo ··oo· oo. oooo oooooooooooo oooo ooo.88
Lesson Review .. .... .... ... .... .... .. .. .. ... ......... 00 .. ..... .00 ..... .. ....... ..... .. .. 00 .... .. .... ........ .. ... ......... 00 ... ...... .. .. ... .. ..... ...... ..... 89
Lesson Review Questions 00.00 00 .00 . 00 00 00 00 00 00 .. 00 00.00 00 00.00 00 00 .00. 00.00 00 .00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 000.00 00.00 00 .00 00 00 .00 00 00 00 .00. 00 .00 00. 00 00 00 .00 89
Module 2, Lesson 3: Optical Devices .. .............. ...................................................... ..................................... 91
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Overview ......... ... .. ..... ......... ... ... .... .......... ... ..... .. ... ... .... .... .... .. .... ... ..... ... .. ... .. ...... ... .. ....... .... ... .... .. .. ..... ...... ....... ... 91
Objectives .. .... ... .. ....... .... ...... .. ....... ... ..... ......... .. .... ... ........ .... .. ........... ......... ...... ..... ... .. ..... .. ... .. .. .. ......... .............. 91
Optical Add I Drop Multiplexers ...... .. ... ..... .... .... .. .... ......... ... .... ....... ... .. ....... .. ... .. ..... .. ....... .. .... .... ..... ........ ... .... ... 91
Optical Add I Drop Multiplexer Functional Configurations ..... ......... ... ...... .... .. ..... ... .. ...... ...... ..... ................ ... 93
Reconfigurable Optical Add I Drop Multiplexers ..... .... ... .... ..... ...... ........... .. ........ .. ..... ... ..... .... ... ..... ....... .. ......... 94
Optical Cross Connects ....... ..... ... .... ......... ...... ... ... ....... ..... ..... .. ... ................... ..... .. .. ... .. ... .... .... .. ... ......... ... ....... . 95
Classification of Optical Cross Connects ......... .. .. ..... ... ......... .. ... .... .... .... .. ..... ......... ......... ........ ...... ..... ..... .... . 95
Optical Switches .. .... ......... ................. ....... ... .......... ..... ... ........ ...... ................. .. ..... .. ..... .................... .. ... .. ......... . 98
Optical Switch Performance Characteristics ..... ...... .. .......... .... .... ..... ... ... ............... ........ ..... ...... ... ... ..... ........ . 98
Optical Switch Example .... .... .. ..... .... .. ... .... ... ... ... .. ..... ... ... ........ ..... ... .. ...... .......... .. ...... ... .. .... .. ... ..... ........... .. ... 99
Optical Switch Connections ...... ... ... ....... .... ..... .... ..... .......... ... ................ ........ .. ...... .................. .... .... ........... .. 99
Optical Amplifiers ... ... .... ... ... ........... .... ........... ....... .......... ........ .. ... ... .... ... .. ..... ..... .. .... ... ... ... .. .... ..... ..... .... .......... 101
Historical Overview of Optical Regeneration and Amplification ........... ....... ........... .. ... ... .... ......... .......... ..... 101
Amplification (1 R) and Regeneration (2R I 3R) .................... ... .... ........ ... ........ .................... .. ........... ... ....... 104
Optically Amplified Long Haul Networks .... ... .............. .... ........ .... ...... ............... .......... ...... ..... ... .... ... ....... .... 108
Optical Amplifier Roles in the Network .. ... .... ....... ....... ..... .... .. .. ... ...... .... ..... .... .......... .... ...... ........ ..... ... .. ...... 109
Types of Optical Amplifiers ....... ................. ........ ... .... .. .......... ...... .............. ....... .. ...... .. ........ .. ....... ........ ....... 111
Lesson Review ..... ... ... .. .... ...... ... ...... ....... .. ...... ....... ..... ..... ...... ..... ...... ..... .... ... ...... .. ....... .. ......... ........ ... .... ..... ... 117
Lesson Review Questions ................................ ..... ........ .... ... ... .. ............... ...... .... .... ..... ... ....... .... .. .. ..... ..... .. 117
Module 3, Lesson 1: Introduction to Optical Networks ............................................... ............................. 119
Lesson Overview ........ ..... ....... ....... .. ...... ...... .. ..... ..... .......... .... ... ...... ... ....... .... ..... .. .. .......... ............. .. .......... ..... 119
Lesson Objectives .. .... .... .... .... .. ....... .. .. ...... ........ ..... ........ .... .. .. ......... .... .... ... .... ... ... ......... ..... ...... .... ..... .. .... .... .. 119
Introduction ....... ... ......... ....... .... .... ... .... ....... ..... ..... ..... ...... ... .... ..... .. .. ......... .. ......... ... .............. ......... ... .. ....... ..... 119
Digital Transmission Networks .. .... ............ .... ....... .. .. ....... .. .............. .......... ... .... ..... ........ ... .... ... .. ... .. .. ....... ...... 120
Early Development of Digital Transmission ... ..... ....... ........ ........... ... .... .. .. ... ..... ..... ........... .... ..... .... ...... ....... 120
The T-Carrier System .. .... ... .... .... ............ ... .... ......... ......... ...... ... ...... ..... ..... ...... .... .. .... ..... ..... ... ........ ..... .... ... 121
The E-Carrier System .. ....... ............ .. .. ...... ... .... ... ....... .. .. ..... .. ....... .................. .. ... .... .... ........... ........ ..... ..... .. 123
The J-Carrier System ..... ...... .. ........ ... .... ....... ... .. ... .... .. .... .......... .. ...... .. ... ........ ........... ........ ...... ... .............. ... 124
Plesiochronous Networks ... .. ................ .. ..... ........ .... ... ... .... ....... ......... .. .. ....... ... ... ...... ...... ..... ..... ......... .... .... 125
Timing ..... .... ........ .... ... .... ........ ..... .. ...... ...... ...... .... ... .. .. .. .. ..... ... ... ...... .... ..... .... .. .. ..... ... .. ..... ... .... ..... .. ..... ... ......... 126
Plesiochronous Tirning .. ...... ..... ... ..... ....... .. ... .. ..... ........ ... .... ... ........ .......... .. ... ........ .... ..... ... ........ ..... ... .. .... .. .. 126
Synchronous Timing ........ ...... ....... .. .......... ... ...... .... ... .. ...... ... ........ ... .............. ... ... .... .......... ...... ... .. ........ ...... 127
Asynchronous Timing ..... .... ... ... ..... .... .... ... ........... ...... ........ ......... ....... .. ... ..... .......... ... ... ... ......... .... ... ..... .. .... 131
Synchronous Digital Networks ..... .. .......... ..... .... .. ... .... .. .... ....... ........ ...... .. .. ........ ....... ... ...... ... ...... .. .... ... .. .... ... . 132
History of Synchronous Dig ital Networks .......... ... ...... .. ...... ... ........... ... .... ..... ... .... .... ...... ... ..... ....... ..... .. ....... 132
Overview of SONET and SOH ..... .... .... .. ... ....... .. ... ....... .... .. .......... ......... ....... .. ......... ....... ......... .... ... .... .. .. ... . 133
SONET ... ... ... .... .. ..... .... ... .... .... ... ...... ....... .... ..... ...... .............. .......... ... ..... .. .. ...... ..... ... ............ .... ... .... .. .......... 134
SDH .. .. ..... ..... ... ..... ....... ...... .. ............. ..... .... ...... .... ...... ...... .... .. .... ......... .. .... .. ........... ....... .. .... .. .... ... ... .... ... ..... 135
Advantages of Synchronous Networks ....... ..... .. ....... ........ .... ... .. .... .... .... ......... ........... .... .. .. ..... ... .. ......... ..... 137
Data-centric Networks ... ....... ....... ........ ........ ... ... .. .... .... ..... .... ................. ... .. ............ .. ....... .. ... .... .. ..... .. ... ..... .... 138
From Circuit- to Packet Switching ... ........... .......... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ... ......... ........... ..... .... ..... .......... ..... ..... ........ .. 138
IP ....... ... ......... ....... .......... ..... ............ .... ... ... ...... .... ... .. ... ... .......... .. ..... ..... ... .... ............ ..... ... .... .......... ........ ..... 139
Wavelength Division Multiplexing ... ... ....... .. ........... ........ ..... ............ .... ... ........... .... ... ... ......... ........... ........ .... ... 140
Frequency Division Multiplexing .. ..... .... .... .... ...... ....... ...... ..... ..... ... ... .. ....... ....... .... ........ .. ... ................... ..... . 140
I .
Wavelength Division Multiplexing ..... ........... .... ...... .... .. .. ................. ............. ... ....... ...... .. .... ..... .. ... ........... ... 140
DWDM System ~ ... .. ... .. .... .... ...... ........ .... ...... ..... .................... ... ...... ...... ........ ... ..... ..... .... .. ...... ..... .. .. .. ....... ... . 142
CWDM Systems ... ... ... ....... .. ... .......... .......... .. ........ ..... .... ......... .... ... ... ....... .. .... ...... ............... .... ... ..... ......... ... 143
Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved. iii

Optical Transport Networks ....... ........ ... ........ .. ... ..... .. ..... ..... ........ .. ...... .. ............ .... ......................................... 144
Introduction to OTN ............... .. ........ .... ....... ........ .......... ... ... ..... ........ ............................................... .... .... .... 144
The Future of OTN .. ...... .. .......... .. .................. .... .. .. ....... .. ..... ........... ... ............ .. ........................ ..... ......... ..... 145
Network Topologies .... ... ...... ...... ..... ... ............................................ ............ ... ......... ... .... ............. ..... .... ......... .. 146
Linear Topology ........ ... ..................................... ................................................................ ......... .. ..... .. ....... 147
Ring Topology ........... .. ........ ........... .. .. .................... .. .......... .. ...................................................................... 148
Mesh Topology .......................... ............. ...... ... .......... .. .... .. ......... .................. ....... .. ............ .. ...................... 149
LANs, MANs, and WANs: Another Way To Look at Networks ...................................................................... 151
Local Area Networks ............ ...... .. ...... ..... ..... ....... .... .... ... .... .......... ..... ......... .... ......... ..................... ... ... ....... . 151
Metro Area Networks ..................................................................... .. .. .. ... .. ................................ .. ............... 151
Wide Area Networks ..................... .. .. ... ............. ......... ........ ........................................................................ 151
Network Architecture ... ... ........................... .. ...... ....... ... ... ....... ... .................................... ... ........ ... ... ..... .. ... .... .. 152
Optical Networking Applications ................................................................................. ..... ...... ....... .... ............. 153
Triple Play Services ................... ...... ....... ........................................... ..... .. ..... .. ................................... .. .... . 153
Cloud Computing ................ .. ........... .... ....................... .. ...................................... .................... ................... 153
Storage Area Networks ................ .. ..... .... ......... .... .................... ................................ ... .... ............. .............. 154
Carrier Ethernet Networks ........... ... .. .. .... ... ........................................................................................... ..... 155
Passive Optical Networks ................ .. ........ .. ................................................ .. ... ......................................... 155
Converged Optical Ethernet Networks ........................... .. ................. .. ...... .. ......... ....... ........ .... .................. 157
Lesson Activities and Review ................................. .. ............ ...... ............ ................ .. .. .. ...... .. .......... ............... 159
Lesson Activities ............ ..... .. ........... .......... .. .. ....... .... ...... .... ....... .. ................................ ...... ... ... .................. 159
Lesson Review Questions ..................................................................................... ......... ... ... ....... ... ....... .... 159
Module 3, Lesson 2: SONET Basics .................................. ............................................................................ 161
Lesson Overview .......... ................. ........ ............... .. .......................................... ................................. .. ........ .. 161
Lesson Objectives .... ... ... ............. ....... .... .... ......... .... ...... ............... ... ............ ........ .... ....... .................... ........... 161
SONET Signal Hierarchy ..................... .. .... .... ................................................................................................ 161
SONET Frames ... .. .......................... .. .. .. ........................................................................................................ 162
STS Frame Structure ................................................................................................................................. 162
SO NET Overhead ........................ ... .. ...... .............. .. ...... .. ............ .. ............................................................. 165
SO NET Payloads ........ .......... ............... .. ........ ....... ...... ..... ....... ... ...... .......................................................... 165
Higher-rate SO NET Signals ....................................................................................................................... 168
Concatenation ........................................ ................... ... ........... .. ......................................... .. ......... .. ........... 169
SONET Byte Interleaving ............ .......... ... .............. ......................................... ......................... .. ..... .. ............ 172
SONET Pointers .......................................... .......... .. .... .... ..................................................... ..................... 173
Buffers .............. ......... ... ... ... ... ........... ....... ............ ................ .. ............ .... .. .... .. .... .... ......... .... ... ... ... ............ .. . 175
Lesson Activities and Review .... ..... .......................... .. ........... ..... ......................................................... .. .... .... 178
Lesson Activities ... ........................................ ............................................... .. ................ ... ......................... 178
Lesson Review Questions ......................................................................................................................... 180
Module 3, Lesson 3: SOH Basics .................................................................................................................. 181
Lesson Overview ........................................................................................................................................... 181
Lesson Objectives .... .. ................... .. ....... ... ................ .. .......... ... ............................................................... ... ... 181
SOH Signal Hierarchy ..................................................................... .................... .. .. .. ....... .. ... ........ ... .............. 181
SOH Frames ....................................................................... ....................................... ........ ... ..... ........ .. .......... 182
STM Frame Structure ................................... ...................................................... ................... .................... 182
SOH Overhead ..................................... ......... ...... .......... .... ......................................................................... 183
SOH Containers ... ................... .... ..... .. ........................................................................................................ 184
SOH Byte Interleaving ......... ... ....................................................................................................................... 186
iv Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved.

SOH Container Mapping ... ..... ......... ..... ... ...... .. ........ .. ... ... .. .. ........ .. ... .... ...... ...... .... ... .... .... ..... ..... ..... ........ ... ... . 187
Concatenation ........ ... ....... ..... .... ...... ..... ...... ...... .. ......... .. ....... ... .. .... ............. ... .. .......... ..... .......... ... ... .......... .... . 190
VCAT ..... ..... .... ... ... ....... ... ..... ... ... .... ...... .. ....... .. .... .... ... ... ... ........ ... .... .... .... ... ..... ........ ..... ...... ... .. ... .. .. ... ... ...... . 191
SDH Pointers .. ... .... ... .. ... .. ........... .. .... ....... ............ ........ ....... ........... ...... .......... ...... .... .. ..... ... ...... .. ....... ........... .. 193
Buffers ...... .. .. ... .. .. ...... .. ... .... .. ...... ........... .. .. ... .... .. .... .... ... .... .. .. .... ..... .... ..... ..... .. .. .. .... ....... ... .... ... ...... .. ..... ... ... 195
Positive Justification .................... ..... .... ........ .. .. ... ... .............. .. ... .. .. ........ ........ .. ... ... ...... .... ... .. .. ..... .. ... .. .. ... ... 195
Negative Justification .. ... .. ...... ........ ... .... .. ......... ...... ............. ..... .. ... ... ... .. .. .. ......... ... .. ....... ........ ... ... .. ...... .. .... 196
Lesson Activities and Review ..... .. .. .......... .. .. .. .. .. ........ ..... .......... ......................... .. ..... ... ................... .. ........ .... 197
Lesson Review Questions ... ... ....... ...... ....... .. .... ..... ... .. ....... .... ......... .... ....... ........ ...... .... .... ......... ........ .. ... .... 197
Module 3, Lesson 4: SONET I SOH Devices and Networks ........................................................................ 199
Lesson Overview ... ...................... .. .. ....... ...... ................... .. ....... .............................. ......... ... ... .. .. ..... .... .. ....... .. 199
Lesson Objectives .. ............. ........ .. .... ..... ...... ......... .. ........ ... ... .. .. ....... .... ............ ........ ........ ....... .. ..... .... .. ... ... ... 199
SONET I SOH Devices ....... .. .... ........ .... .. ........ .. ..... .. ........................................ .. ... .. .. .............. ... ... ...... .. ... ... ... 199
Terminal Multiplexer ... .. .......... ...... ...... ... .. ... .. ..... ......... .... .. .... ... ...... ...... .. .... ..... ....... .... ...... .... .. ............... ..... . 200
Add I Drop Multiplexer ............. .... ..... .... .......... .. .... .... .... .. ........ .. ......... ........ .. .... .... ... .... .... ... .. ..... .. ... .. .. .. .. .... 201
Digital Cross Connect Switch .... .. ....... .... ...... ...... ....... ......... ........ ........ .. ..................................... ...... .. .. ... ... 202
Regenerator .......... ..... ........... ..... ... ... ....... ... .... .... .. ... ............... .... ....... ...... ....... ...... ..... ..... ....... ........ ... ...... ....203
Protection Switching .... .... .... ..... .... ........ .... .... ........... ......... ... ..... .. ... ... .... ...... ... ..... .. ..... ........ ... ..... .. .... .............. 204
Automatic Protection Switching ... ...... .. .................................... .... .. .......... .. ... ....... .. .......... .. .. .. .... ..... .. .... ..... 204
Local Access, Metro Access, and Core Networks ...... .... ...... .......... .............. ......... .... ...... .... .... .... .......... .. .. .. . 206
Local Access System .... ... .. ..... .. ... .. .. ....... .. ... ....... ..... .. ....... ..... .. ..... ....... .... .. .... .. .. .... ... .... ....... .. .. ...... .. ... ... .. .. 206
Metro Access System .... .. .. ... .... ... ................ ...... ... ....... ..... .... ... .. .. ....................... .. ....... .. .. .. .. .... ......... ... ...... 207
Core System .. .. ........ ... ... ....... .. .... .......... ... ...... ..... .... ........ ...... ..... ............... ..... ........... .. ... .. .... .. ....... ... ...... ... . 207
Protocols Used by Synchronous Digital Networks .. ... .. .. .......... .... .... .... .. ...... ............................ ... .. .. .. ............ 210
ATM over SONET I SOH ... ............ .. ...... ....... ..... ..... ........... ..... ........... .. .. ........ .. .... .. .................................... 210
Packet over SONET I SOH ........... .... .............. .. ......... .... .... ......................... ... .. .. .. .. .. .................. .. ........... ... 212
Ethernet over SONET I SOH ... .. ... .. .............. .... .. ...... .. ..... .. .. .. ........ ........ ..... .. .............. .. ...... ... .. ..... .... .... .. ... 213
Lesson Activities and Review .. ........... .. ....... ..... ...... .. ......... ........ .. ......................... .. .. .. ...... .. ... .... ........ ...... ... ... 214
Lesson Activities ........ ... .......... ... ... .. ...... .. ... ..... ..... .. ..... .... ........... ....... .... ..... ........ ..... ..... .. ...... .... ... .... ..... .. ... . 214
Lesson Review Questions ....... ... ............... .... ............ .... ...................... ............. .. ....... .... ........ ..... ...... .... ... .. 214
Module 3, Lesson 5: Optical Transport Network ......................................................................................... 215
Lesson Overview ............ .. ........ ..... .... ............. .. .. ........... .... ......... ......... ...... .. .... ... ...... .............................. .. ... .. 215
Lesson Objectives ... ........... ........... .. ... .. .... ....... ..... .. .. ... .... ........... .............. .... ..... .... ...... ... .... .. .. ............ ... ... .... . 215
OTN Overview ... ... ...... ....... ...... ..... .. ...... .... .. .... .. ............ ... ..... .... ...... .... ............... ... ....... ....... .. .. .. ... .. .. .... ...... ... . 216
OTN Architecture ........ ..... ...... .. .... .. .. ......... ............ .. ............. ..... ... .. ........ .. .. ....... ..... ... ..... ..................... .. .. .. .... . 217
Administrative Domains ... ...... .. ...... .................... .. .. ................... ......... ... .................. ... ... .. .... ........ ... .. ..... ..... 217
Optical Transport Hierarchy .. ........... .. ..... ........ .. .... .... ..... ... .............. .... ... ...... ............ ... .. ..... ... .......... .. .. ....... 218
OTN Frame Structure ........ .. .. ...... .. .. .. .. ... ... .. ............. ...... .... .... ...... .. .. ............ .... ..................... .. ...... ... .. .... .... ... 221
Optical Channel Payload Unit Frame ............ .. .. ......... ... ........ .. .................................. .. .................. .. ..... .. ... 222
Optical Channel Data Unit Frame ...... .. ...... .... .... .... ............... .. ... .......... .. ..... .... .............. .. .. .. .... ..... .... ..... .... . 223
Optical Channel Transport Unit Frame .... .... .. .... ... .. .... ... .... .. .............. ...... .... ........... ..................... .... .......... 225
Optical Multiplex Section (OMS) I Optical Transmission Section (OTS) I Optical Transport Module Overhead
Signal (OOS) Frames .. .. .. .. .... ............ ..... ....... .......... .. ... .. .... .. ...... .. .. ........ .. ..... .. .. .. .. ... ...... .. ... ...................... 227
OTN Functional Features ......... .. ....... ..... .. ....... ... .... ... ...... ... .. .. .. .. ......... ... .. ..... ........ .... .. ... ...... .... ......... ... ... .. ... . 230
Multiplexing in OTN ... ........... .... .... .... ........ ..... .. .... .. ....... ... .. .. .. ...... .... ..... .... ....... .... .... ..... ..... ... ... ... ....... ... .... .. 230
Payload Mapping in OTN .. .................. ... ..... ... .. ...................... .. ... .. ... .. .. ........ ... .......... .. ........ .. ... ... .. ............. 232
Mapping in OTN ..... ....... ... ....... ........... ..... ...... ....... ......... ..... .... ... ......... .... ... .... ..... ..... ... ..... ... ........... ....... .... .. 236
Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved. v

Lesson Activities and Review ..... .... ... ..... ......... ...... .. ... .... .. .......... .. ... ... ...... .. ... ........ ..... .. ......... ........ .. .... ..... ..... 242
Lesson Review Questions ... ...... ...... ........ .............. ..... ... ........... ..... ....... .... ............... .. ... ..... ... ..... ... ............. 242
Appendix A: Acronyms and Abbreviations .............................................................................................. 243
vi Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights re served.

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 0: OC Certification Program Overview
Module 0: Optical Communications {OC) Certification Overview
OC Program Overview
Ciena's Optical Communications Certification Program provides Optical Communications (OC)
expertise to a wide range of telecommunications personnel - from beginners to skilled
professionals. With a highly skilled team of experts and an extensive portfolio of optical
communications products, Ciena is uniquely qualified to offer practical , leading-edge training
in this technology.
OC Certification Levels
The Optical Communications Certification Program is based on a tiered training curriculum

that includes four levels of OC certification: Associate, Professional, Consultant, and Expert.
The program is designed to meet specific needs that are incorporated into the following four
levels of OC certification :
• Associate certification: Students gain a firm foundation in optical communications

concepts, terminology, standards, and applications.
• Professional certification: In a lab-based environment, students gain basic skills and
knowledge required to measure optical signals and analyze performance of OC
devices and networks .
• Consultant certification : Using case studies, students develop analytical skills required
to design OC solutions for real-world applications .
• Expert certification : Led by Ciena experts, students gains skills for architecting and
optimizing solutions for complex OC network applications.
Provides skills and

knowledge required to
Expert architect and optimize
(OC·E) OC network solutions
Develops analytical skills

Consultant required to design OC
(DC-C) network solutions
Provides skills and

knowledge for analyzing
OC signals, devices, and
networks
Builds a firm OC
foundation: terminology,
concepts, standards,
and applications
Figure 0-1: Ciena Optical Communications Certification Path
Copyright© 20 10-20 13 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved. vii

Module 0: OC Certification Program Overview Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
With this tiered approach , students can pursue the certification level that matches their
specific requirements. The program focuses on the development of practical, job-related
knowledge and skills in optical communications .
Optical Communications Associate {OC-A) Certification
OC-A certification training is provided with the OC-A Introduction to Optical Communications
course. The OC-A course is a five-day course designed for anyone seeking a firm
understanding of optical communications technology. In addition , OC-A certification provides
the prerequisite knowledge for the next level of certification, OC-Professional.
Topics covered in the OC-A course include:
• Fiber optics technology fundamentals
• Basic concepts of optical transmission
• Optical transmitters and receivers

• Optical amplifiers
• Passive optical components, optical cross connects, and optical switches
• Evolution of optical networks
• Optical network basics

• Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SOH)
signals, devices, and networks
• Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) devices and networks
• Optical Transport Network (OTN) signals and applications

• Trends in optical networking
viii Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved.

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide Module 0: OC Certification Program Ovetview
Optical Communications Professional {OC-P) Certification
OC-P certification training is provided with the OC-P Optical Communications Applications
course. The OC-P course is a five-day course that focuses on analysis of optical signals and
devices in optical communications networks. This course is accomplished in a lab-based
environment in which students measure and interpret optical signals . Students use the
measurements to analyze performance of OC devices and networks.
Topics covered in the OC-P course include:
• Optical communications technology review

• Optical fiber types and characteristics
• Optical fiber inspection and cleaning
• Measurement and analysis of optical attenuation, dispersion , and nonlinear effects
• Analysis of optical transmitter and receivers
• Analysis of optical amplifiers
• Analysis of passive optical devices
• Analysis of optical switches, Optical Add I Drop Multiplexers (OADMs), and
Reconfigurable Optical Add I Drop Multiplexers (ROADMs)
• SONET I SOH signal and network analysis
• WDM signal and network analysis
• OTN signal and network analysis
• Converged Optical Ethernet networks
The OC-P course is designed for technicians seeking a practical understanding of optical
networks and devices.
Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights resetved. ix

Module 0: OC Certification Program Overview Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
Optical Communications Consultant (OC -C) Certification
OC-C certification training is provided with the OC-C Advanced Optical Communications
Applications course. This course focuses on optical network applications based on customer
requirements, including network capacity, topology, and features. In addition, OC Consultant
certification provides the prerequisite knowledge for the highest level of certification ,
OC-Expert.
Topics covered in the OC-C course include:
• Optical communications networks review

• Considerations for optical network design
• Analyzing optical network requirements
• Optical network implementation planning
The OC-C certification is ideal for intermediate-level engineers seeking an understanding of

optical network planning, sales, and implementation
Optical Communicat ions Expert (OC-E) Certification
OC-E certification training is provided with the OC-E Advanced Network Architecture course.
This five-day course is designed for students seeking an understanding of optical
communications network architecture. The course utilizes a case study approach that tasks
students with designing and formally proposing architectural solutions for OC network
applications. Potential candidates for this course are intermediate Tier IV Network Design
Engineers and Network Planning Engineers.
OC Course Specifications
Type of Prerequisites Prerequisite

Course Instruction for Attendance for
Certification
Optical
Communications Classroom Attend OC-A Certified
Profess ion a I course OC-A
(OC.P} I (HS!itl$ 01i)
Optical Traditional
Communications Classroom Attend OC-P Certified
Consultant course OC-P
(OC•C) l <rmm:laOn)
Optical Traditional
Communications Classroom Attend OC-C Certified
Expert course OC-C
(OC-E)
~ (Hands On)
X Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved.

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide Module 0: OC Certification Program Overview
OC-A Optical Communications Applications Course

The OC-A Introduction to Optical Communications course consists of 10 lessons, organized in
three modules. Duration of the course is five days. The course is designed to be conceptual in
nature.
In addition to the conceptual sections, the course contains practice activities and white paper
discussions to facilitate interaction and aid the learning process. The course prepares the
student for the OC-A certification exam .
As explained earlier, this course provides a basic understanding of OC technology and is

designed to provide a foundation for the next levels of the OC certification .
Course Objectives
Upon successful completion of this course, you should be able to:
• Describe how fiber optic technology evolved

• Explain fundamental concepts related to fiber optics
• Describe how optical signals propagate through optical fiber
• List and define optical transmission impairments
• Explain Time Division Multiplexing (TOM) and WDM
• Describe characteristics of optical devices, including transmitters, receivers ,
amplifiers, passive optical components, OADMs, ROADMs, optical cross-
connects, and optical switches
• Describe the evolution of optical networks
• List and explain topologies used in optical networks
• Describe SONET I SOH devices and networks
• Explain OTN signals and applications
Course Schedule
Day Session Plan

Day 1 Module 0: Optical Communications Certification Program Overview
Module 1: Optical Communications Technology
Lesson 1: Fiber Optics Basics
Lesson 2: Optical Transmission Basics
Module 2: Optical Communications Devices
Lesson 1: Optical Transmitters and Receivers
Day2 Module 2: Optical Communications Devices (continued)
Lesson 2: Basic Optical Components
Lesson 3: Optical Devices
Day3 Module 3: Optical Networks
Lesson 1: Introduction to Optical Networking
Lesson 2: SONET Basics
Lesson 3: SOH Basics
Day4 Module 3: Optical Networks (continued)
Lesson 4: SONET I SOH Devices
Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved. xi

Module 0: OC Certification Program Overview Optical Communications A ssociate (OC-A): Student Guide
Day Session Plan
Lesson 5: Optical Transport Network (OTN)

Day 5 Course Review
Student Responsibilities
The key responsibilities of students include:
• The students are expected to arrive on time and stay until the class is dismissed. The
students need to tell the instructor if they anticipate arriving late for the class or if they
need to leave early to fulfill outside responsibilities.
• Student participation in class discussions is strongly encouraged.
• Although many students fulfill critical roles in their organizations, cell phones and
pagers should be placed in silent mode during class. Class time is the time to focus
on learning.
• Student feedback is vital to improve the way the courses are developed and delivered .
All students must complete the course evaluation form at the end of the course in
order to receive a certificate of completion .
xii Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved.

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 1, Lesson 1: Fiber Optics Basics
Module 1, Lesson 1: Fiber Optics Basics
lesson Overview
In this lesson, we define fiber optics and describe important events that contributed to the
development of fiber optic technology. We also describe the concepts associated with light as a
transmission medium, why fiber optics are suitable for communication , and the applications
used in fiber optic transmission .
lesson Objectives .--) +~ -V("Cti'\A...-
At the end of this lesson , you should be able to:
• List three major categories of applications for fiber optics
• List and describe technological advances related to fiber optics and optical
communications ~ ~ .~ ~
• List and explain key developments in the use of optical communications
• Define light in terms of both wave properties and particle properties
• Explain the mathematical relationship of frequency and wavelength
• Describe how light exhibits both wave and particle properties
• Explain reflection and refraction of light
Introduction to Fiber Optics

Fiber optics is the science or technology of light transmission through glass or plastic fibers .
Fiber optics is used in a variety of applications, including:
• Telecommunications and data networks
• Medical devices
• Endoscopes
• Laser delivery devices for laser surgery
• Surgical and dental lights
• Sensors for industrial applications, monitoring temperature, pressure, strain,

vibration , and other parameters
" 'Yr/0-VX-~- . . . _. T 1~ ')yQI'L·)
.J..JJ" · )'' 0--H.ru)l.a
• Structure monitoring ( CGD-v
1
• Oil and gas well monitoring
• Transportation system monitoring ~5 ~..;Y-Lviftee\. r..R-

In this course, we focus on the use of fiber optics for optical communications. First, we describe
some important events that contributed to the development of fiber optic technology. Then, we
explain the concepts on which fiber optics technology is based .

Module 1, Lesson 1: Fiber Optics Basics Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
Historical Events in t he Science Behind Fiber Optics
Significant developments related to fiber optics technology occurred as early as 1021 and
continue into the present. In the following paragraphs, we review a number of these events.
• 1021: The Book of Optics, written by the Arab scientist Ibn ai-Haytham, is
published . In the book, ai-Haytham lays the foundation for modern physical optics,
describing a wide range of topics, including refraction and reflection of light.
• 1611: German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler discovers total

internal reflection of light. This phenomenon later becomes a basic principle of
fiber optics technology. (Total internal reflection enables light to be transmitted
long distances in optical fiber.)
• 1621: Dutch mathematician Willobrord Snell discovers the mathematical

relationship , referred to now as Snell's Law, that defines how light bends when it
passes from one material to another. The behavior of light as defined by Snell's
Law becomes particularly significant in the design of optical fiber.
• 1841: Jean-Daniel Colladon , a Swiss physicist and professor at the University of

Geneva, performs a demonstration showing that light could be guided inside a
stream of water. The demonstration was based on the principle of total internal
reflection discovered by Kepler.
In the 1800's, th is light-guiding phenomenon was used as a source of

entertainment. For example, guided light was used to create artistic displays of
water jets in public fountains .
• 1870: John Tyndall , an Irish physicist, duplicates Colladon's light guiding

experiment in a demonstration to the Royal Society of London . As shown in Figure
1.1-1 , Tyndall used two buckets at different heights, a stream of water flowing
between the buckets, and a beam of sun light directed at the water. (Tyndall also
achieved fame in other areas of science and physics .)
Light
Somce
Bucket
Light reflects off inside sm1ace of waler
column. following f)<.lth oHiie wah!l stream.
Some of the light escaiH±s as

it traverses the watet c olumn.
Figure 1.1-1: Tyndall's Experiment
2 Copyright© 201 0-201 3 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved.

• 1880: Alexander Graham Bell patents an optical telephone system, which Bell
referred to as the photophone. Even though he had already invented the telephone,
Bell considered the photophone to be his rnost important invention.
Bell's photophone was able to carry the human voice 200 meters using light as the
· medium of transport. As shown in Figure 1.1-2, the transmit end used mirrors to
reflect sunlight onto a diaphragm inside the mouthpiece. The receive end had a
light-sensitive resistor inside a parabolic reflector that was connected to a battery
wired to the telephone receiver. The speaking voice caused a vibration in the
illuminated diaphragm , which cast various intensities of light onto the resistor. The
varying intensity of light altered the current that passed through the telephone
receiver, and the light was converted back into speech.
Bell's photophone was limited by the fact that it transmitted light through the air.
Unlike the telephone, the photophone could not transmit or receive during bad
weather or at night. Therefore, the photophone never achieved commercial
success.
Parabol ic
Mirror
/ Light-sensitive
f' Resistor
-- ~~·"ii=J
----==--~¥
\ Diaphragm
\
'"~
~/1?;
\
/
---------------------------
Modulated Light
~~l
I. ~ ... .
Figure 1.1-2: Bell's Photophone ..

< ·/· "I :· I[
• 1905: Albert Einstein publishes a paper that expla1fi1S \'h~ photoelectric effect on the
basis that light can be quantified as a packet of1!9hten. r,gy. (The photoelectric
,. .·effect is the release of electrons by a substance (usually p metal) in response to
· ·, :the substance absorbing or being exposed to electroniagnetic radiation such as
light.)
Einstein's concept of quantifying light as a packet of light energy became one of

the basic principles behind optical communications. Einstein was awarded the
1921 Nobel Prize in physics, in large part because of his explanation of the
photoelectric effect.
Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved. 3

Development of Optical Fiber
Two technological developments were necessary to make fiber optics viable for
communications:
• Development of a suitable transmission medium in the form of low-loss optical fiber
• Development of lasers that operate at room temperature and generate light in

spectral regions that support optical communications
The following paragraphs describe milestones in the effort to improve transmission

characteristics of optical fiber. The development of optical fiber was driven by studies related to
optical imaging, medical applications, and optical communications .
• 1951: Holger Hansen, a Dutch inventor working in his home laboratory, applies for
a Danish patent on fiber optic imaging using cladding to reduce light loss . (The
patent application was eventually rejected .)
• 1957: Basil Hirschowitz, a South African working on a fellowship at the University

of Michigan, tasks physicist C. Wilbur Peters and student Larry Curtiss with
_ , c..~-,111 ag)
creation of a flexible, fiber optics based version of a gastroscope':)..
.{_-to l&tJ~ ., ,__....._;t il
Because there were no commercially available fibers suitable for the task, the
three men obtained glass rods from Corning Glass and began to experiment. The
greatest problem was that light leaked from one rod to another, until Curtiss coated
the rods with insulating glass of a lower refractive index. In 1957, Hirschowitz
demonstrated the fiberscope they had developed for medical use. Within a few
> years, the fiberscope was a commercial success.
• 1966: In a presentation at the London headquarters of the Institution of Electrical

Engineers, Dr. Charles Kao states that light could be transmitted through fiber
made of fused silica with loss of less than 20 dB I km. Kao based his assertion on
his research which showed that impurities in fused silica were the primary source
of light loss. Reducing loss below 20 dB I km was possible by minimizing impurities
in the fused silica. This discovery focused the industry's attention on the
development of optical fiber for communications.
Dr. Kao was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 2009 for his work.
• 1970: Corning researchers Robert Maurer, Donald Keck, and Peter Schultz bring
Kao's theory to reality by developing optical fiber that exhibited a loss of 17 dB I km.
The fiber developed by the Corning was made of fused silica with most impurities
removed. The fiber core was doped with titanium dioxide to create single-mode
fiber with loss of only 17 dB I km.
In 1972, their research led to the u~of geTc~~ as a dopant for the fiber core.
This new method yielded fiber with a oss o only 4 C:IB I km. In addition, the
germanium-doped fiber was easier to produce.
• 1977: AT&T installs the first long-haul fiber optic cable between Cambridge MA
and Washington DC. By 1990, nearly 86,000 miles were covered by about 2 .8
million miles of optical fiber across the US. By 2000, over 300,000 miles were
covered in the US, and submarine cables connected the rest of the world .
4 Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved.

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) . Student Guide Module 1, Lesson 1: Fiber Optics Basics
Development of Lasers
One of the basic ingredients for optical communications is a light source. The primary light
source for optical communications is the laser. The term laser is actually an acronym for Light
Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Lasers produce amplified, coherent light.
Coherent light consists of lightwaves that are in-step with each other in terms of frequency,
phase, and polarization. Lasers for optical communications are microscopic semiconductor
devices called laser diodes.
The following paragraphs describe important advances in the development of lasers.
• 1959: The term laser is introduced in a published paper written by Gordon Gould, a
graduate student at Columbia University. The U.S. Patent Office denied his patent
for the laser. Instead , the patent was awarded to Bell Labs in 1960.
~t
\
~~/
0>1{'-
• 1960: Theodore Maiman, working at the Hughes Research Laboratories in
California, demonstrates the first functioning laser. His laser used a synthetic ruby
~ ~LPlY
crystal to produce red laser light at a wavelength of 694 nanometers.
In December of 1960, Ali Javan , working at Bell Labs , creates a helium-neon laser.
~ ·
It was the first laser to produce a steady beam of light. Development of the
u'ff'v· steady-beam laser was a key development for optical communications.
yD
• 1962: Various groups of scientists create semiconductor diode lasers. These
semiconductor lasers were not suited for communications because they generated
pulses of light, not a steady beam, and they did not operate at room temperature.
Therefore, while their development was an important breakthrough , these initial
semiconductor lasers were not practical for optical communications.
• 1970: Two groups of scientists (one in St. Petersburg, Russia, and one at Bell
Labs) develop continuous-wave, room-temperature semiconductor lasers .
• 1975: Laser Diode Labs markets the first commercial continuous-wave,

room-temperature semiconductor laser.
Growth of Fiber Optic Comm unications
The development of optical fiber and lasers for communications was complemented by the
" \ ,,..V development of optical amplifiers . With these three key ing redients available, optical
'f-V""' communications became the dominant technology for high-speed, high bandwidth
-~ • ttv communications .
~'(\ \().)'!./
'-\ _ ~~ Communications over optical fiber offers a number of advantages over copper wire based
.I\ ~@ commun ications, including :
o\ Q...~ • Higher bandwidth, allowing more data to be transmitted over a single link
~ st~ • Lower loss, reducing the need to amplify the signal as it traverses the network
• Less susceptibility to electromagnetic interference ( COZ- ·-H~ ~-~ Ql)-..£- ~~~

Continually increasing demand for bandwidth made fibef optic commun1cations an obvious ~
choice going forward , even though the cost of replacing copper transmission lines with fiber
was often an issue.
Copyrigh t© 201 0-201 3 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved.

Module 1, Lesson 1: Fiber Optics Basics Optical Communications A ssociate (OC-A): Stude nt Guide
Significant Events in Optical Communications
Many events are notable as contributing to or marking important steps in the growth of optical
communications. The following paragraphs describe a few of the significant milestones in the
application of fiber optics to communications .
Government Funding of Optical Communications Research
The U.S. government, specifically the Army Signal Corps, was instrumental in early research
into applying fiber optics technology to communications. They provided funding for optical
communications research as early as 1963.
Prior to the introduction of fiber optic cables, the U.S . Army Signal Corps used copper wire and ,
where applicable, submarine copper cable to link remote sites. In air, the cable was prone to
lightning and water damage, and in water, the cable was prone to breaks and water damage.
Sam DiVita, the manager of Materials Research, was charged with finding a material to replace
the copper. He thought that transmitting information with light might be a viable alternative.
DiVita assigned the project to 2nd Lt. Richard Sturzebecher, who had studied at Alfred
University under Dr. Harold Simpson , Professor of Glass Technology. From his research at
college, Sturzebecher knew that Si02 (silicon dioxide) was an excellent transmission medium
for light. Knowing that Corning Glass Works made high purity Si02 , he suggested that DiVita
contract with Corning to develop Si02 fiber.
A federal contract to develop optical fiber was awarded to Corning in 1962. Between 1963 and
1970, Corning received approximately $1 ,000,000 of federal funding for fiber optic research
and development. In 1970, the optical fiber developed by Maurer, Deck, and Schultz of Corning
solved the copper problem. The Signal Corps continued to fund research until 1985, thus
financing the new fiber optic industry and making the optical transmission of today a reality.
First Commercial Optical Telecommunications Deployments
The first deployments of optical communications equipment for commercial use occurred in
1977. Both AT&T and GTE initiated field trials of fiber optic links carrying live telephone traffic.
AT&T installed one and a half miles of fiber optic cable in downtown Chicago, connecting two
switching stations . AT&T used this initial field trial to determine the viability of using optical fiber
routed through existing underground ducts.
In April of 1977, GTE installed and put into service a six-mile long fiber optic link between Long
Beach and Artesia, California . The link used an LED as a light source instead of a laser.
By June of 1977, the British Post Office had also installed and routed live traffic on fiber optic
cable. The cable was routed through existing ducts near Martlesham Heath , the site of their
research and development facility.
First Transoceanic Optical Telecommunications Link
Optical fiber, with its extremely high capacity and low signal loss, revolutionized transoceanic
telecommunications . TAT-8, the first transoceanic optical fiber cable, was laid in 1988 to
connect the United States with Great Britain and France. This 5,580 kilometer cable was the
eighth transatlantic telephone cable, but the first one based on fiber-optic technology. TAT-8
carried 280 Mbps of traffic on each of two fiber pairs, the equivalent of 35,000 telephone
circuits. The operating cost per voice channel was only a fraction of the per-voice-circuit cost of
the coaxial cables TAT-8 replaced .
TAT-8 failed in 2001 but was not repaired by the owners of the cable, a partnership of British
Telecom and other companies. There was enough extra capacity on newer, more advanced
6 Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights res erved.

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide Module 1, Lesson 1: Fiber Optics Basics
optical fiber cables to warrant shutting down TAT-8 when it failed . Newer cables have hundreds
or thousands of times more capacity than earlier cables such as TAT-8.
(./
Emergence of the Dark Fiber Industry ( ~ ~ ~D~ {V-l£2. ~1)1- ~~)
j)cftK-ftbOCv Before deregulation in 1996, a telecommunications infrastructure consisting of an estimated
w $70 billion in fiber optic lines was installed all over the United States. Much of that fiber has
never been used and is referred to as dark fiber. An entire industry has sprung up to help
~~ telephone companies that formed after deregulation find and use dark fiber. Many companies
,--1-itc;J:- w-c.Q- still offer search services and maps (for a fee) to find available, dark fiber. While technological
advances in fiber construction and optical equipment are making newer types of fiber more
. ·rctW ~ desirable, service providers are still able to make use of the existing dark fiber.
~
Although many Competitive Local Exchange Carriers (CLECs) were formed to take advantage
of the existing fiber, many failed . However, some CLECs (Sprint for example) survived to take
advantage of consumer demand for high-speed and bandwidth-heavy applications like video.
Deployment of FTT -x
One of the most significant developments in optical communications is the ongoing efforts of
service providers to install optical fiber as close as possible to their clients . Current and future
markets in optical communications will expand greatly when Fiber-to-the-Curb (FTTC) or
Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH) becomes the norm rather than the exception. Since 2005, nearly 4.5
million US homes have been connected directly into fiber optic networks. However, the US lags
far behind countries such as Korea and Japan, where 1DO-megabit subscriber connections are
generally available.
Companies like Verizon (FiOS) and AT&T (U-verse) have been substantial contributors to
FTTH, offering triple play (voice, internet, and video). Additionally, many smaller network
providers, municipalities, planned residential communities, and cable television companies are
planning and constructing FTTH . Consumers benefit from the high quality and smooth
transmission of voice, internet, and video, allowing for better interactive banking , shopping from
the home, and distance learning, among other activities. A business incentive for providing
FTTH is the recovery of customers who had given up their landline phones in favor of their cell
phones.
In addition to the home market, FTTH is enabling the expansion of telemedicine. Telemedicine
allows clinicians and others to communicate by way of video, exchange records, and even
collaborate remotely on medical procedures, using high-definition , digital diagnostic and
procedural images. St. Joseph Medical Center, the largest Level 3 trauma hospital in
downtown Houston, is providing personal healthcare services to consumers at home, at work,
and on the road, with private, secure access to physicians, specialists, and medical I technical
content. Patients can have real-time, live videoconference consultations with leading doctors,
specialists, psychiatrists, and wellness experts . In addition, educational content, health status
monitoring, and dynamic electronic medical records are all accessible from homes or other
off-site facilities .
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Module 1, Lesson 1: Fiber Optics Basics Optical Communicatio ns Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
Fiber Optics Fundamentals

In this section, we describe the following topics:
• What is light?
• Wavelength and frequency
• Refraction and reflection of light
• What is light? =
Light is one form of ElectroMagnetic Radiation (EMR). Other forms of EMR include radio waves ,
X-rays, and gamma rays . EMR consists of waves of energy particles that have both an
electrical and a magnetic component. The various types of EMR are characterized by their
wavelengths, as shown in Figure 1.1-3. \Q{',lv~ c
-~ {-<-t-1 ~·,_~t::'cJ=.,t wo-<_iQQ__gc; ( Jvo5,

~ cO~(:' Cf../rt-tJZA)Nj{[)
Wavelen th {Meters) ~
. pt -to -?1-
--f
c Gamma
Rays
10-12
X-Rays
10-10
Uitra-
violet
10-8
Infra-
red
104
Micro-
VVaves
10-2
(.01'71- .
1
Radio
VVaves
102
I V K I I I I
11.1
~ Visible
-·'lr··-"'~ ~ 1 , Light .
Figure 1.1-3: Electromagnetic Spectrum
In fiber optics, light is defined as electromagnetic radiation that occurs in a specific region of the
electromagnetic spectrum: the optical spectrum . As shown in Figure 1.1-4, the optical spectrum
spans wavelengths from about 1 nanometer (nm) to about 1 million nm. The optical spectrum
includes ultraviolet, visible, and infrared light. As we will describe later, spectral bands for
optical transmission systems are located between 850-1675 nm. /
Ultraviolet {UV) Visible
1 nm 400 nm 700 nm
Wavelength
Figure 1.1-4: Optical Spectrum
8 Copyright© 2010-201 3 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved.

Wave Properties of light
Like other types of electromagnetic radiation, light exhibits properties of both waves al'ltl
particles. In physics, this behavior is referred to as the dual nature of light, or wave-particle
~t.y. The wave properties of light are particularly relevant to understan ding how light is
transmitted through optical fiber.
From a wave perspective, light consists of an electric field and a magnetic field , each of which
is characterized by direction and amplitude. The two fields are oriented to each other at a
90-degree angle. In this context, we refer to light energy in the form of a lightwave.
Figure 1.1-5 is a graphical representation of a lightwave. The electrical energy of the lightwave
is shown acting along theY-axis and the magnetic energy is shown acting along the X-axis.
These two energy fields move together along a line of travel that is oriented at a 90-degree
angle to the two fields. The direction of travel is assigned to the Z-axis.
The electrical and magnetic fields oscillate in amplitude and direction, following the shape of a
sine wave. The length of one complete cycle of the waveform represents the wavelength of the
light.
YAxis:
Electrical Energy
Figure 1.1-5: Graphical Representation of a Lightwave
[i&M2- ~ >ts ~)-t:-
r
10 1\J-U-<-. Lb ~5
,-f-0
¥
$f""'·'-'
])~v 'Drvt ;\ ~ '. CBm iYl.J.J.MJ...c_a.:l:n,
C c.vP tvt ~J '. J')..1o t-o IG ro)_<

Particle Properties of Light
Light also exhibits properties normally associated with particles . These properties are
important in understanding how light sources (such as lasers) and light detectors function,
which we will describe later in this course.
In the context of light as a particle, the basic unit of light (and other forms of electromagnetic
radiation) is the photon . This elementary packet of light energy has no mass and travels at, or
close to, the speed of light. Photons are created in atoms when electrons transition from a
higher energy state to a lower energy state . The energy released in this transition is emitted in
the form of photons.
While photons are bundles of energy, not physical particles, they do exhibit characteristics of
individual, physical particles. The classic demonstration of this behavior is the photoelectric
effect. The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which matter (typically, but not limited to,
metals or nonmetallic solids) emits electrons in response to the absorption of energy from light.
As shown in Figure 1.1-6, photons of light striking a metallic surface (in this example, sodium)
cause electrons to be ejected from the surface of the metal.
Photons
Electrons
Sodium (Metal)
' - - - -- - -- -- - - ' " ' - - -----' OCA-1 006
Figure 1.1-6: The Photoelectric Effect
10 Copyright© 2010-201 3 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved.

Wavelength and Frequency
As stated previously, the different types of EMR are characterized by their wavelengths. (In
optical communications, optical channels are often referred to in terms of wavelengths.) We
can also characterize EMR, including lightwaves, by frequency.
In mathematical terms, the relationship between wavelength and frequency is inverse. As the
wavelength increases, frequency decreases. The mathematical representation of this inverse
relationship is:
frequency= speed of light I wavelength, or: f=ciA

or:
wavelength = speed of light I frequency, or: A=cl f

Note: The Greek symbol, A, is pronounced "lambda" and is used to represent
wavelengths in the equations above. Optical wavelengths are sometimes
referred to as lambdas.
The frequency of a lightwave is expressed in cycles per second , commonly referred to as Hertz
(Hz). More specifically, because the frequencies of lightwaves in optical communications are
very high , the frequencies are typically expressed in teraHertz (THz) or gigaHertz (GHz). A
teraHertz is 10 12 Hz, or 1 trillion cycles per second . A gigaHertz is 10 9 Hz, or 1 billion cycles per
second.
In optical communications, the wavelength of a lightwave is typically expressed in nanometers

(nm). A nanometer is 1o- meters or 1 billionth of a meter. As previously defined , a wavelength
9
represents one cycle of the wave.
Using the form ulas shown above, we can convert the frequency of a lightwave to its
wavelength , or we can convert a wavelength to its frequency. For example, we can convert a
1552.52 nm wavelength to a frequency as follows:
f = c ! A-
A= 1552.52 nm or, 1552.52 x 10-9 m
c =2.99792458 x 108 m Is
f =2.99792458 x 10 m I sec
8 17
= 0.00193100 x 10 cycles I sec= 193.10 THz
9
1552.52 x 10- m I cycle
Therefore, from this example, the frequency of a 1552.52 nm wavelength is 193.10 THz.
Copyright© 2010- 201 3 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved. 11

Refraction and Reflection of light
Refraction and reflection are important concepts in fiber optics. Refraction and reflection define
the behavior of light in different mediums. These definitions are key to understanding how light
is transmitted in optical communications applications.
When discussing refraction and reflection of light, rays are used to model the behavior of light.
In this context, light rays are defined as pointing in the direction of the flow of light energy.
Refraction
Refraction occurs when a light ray passes from one medium to another medium of a different
optical density, at an angle. The difference in optical density changes the speed of the light ray.
In a vacuum , the speed of light is a constant; however, the speed of light passing through any
other medium is less . The speed at which light travels differs from one medium to another.
The refraction property of a medium is quantified in terms of its index of refraction, or Refractive
Index (RI). The index of refraction for a medium is defined as follows :
Speed of light in a vacuum
Speed of light in the medium
Here are a few index of refraction examples:
• Air: 1.00029
Water: 1.33
# • Diamond : 2.417
o- (._ ~- . Snell's Law, shown in Figure 1.1-7, defines the mathematical relationship between the
Pr refractive indices of two mediums. Snell's Law allows us to determine exactly how much a light
· ray bends when it passes from one medium to another.
~ ' Note: The Greek symbol, 8, is pronounced "theta" and is used to represent angles in
the following equations. Also, in the following equations, "sin" is an abbreviated form
of the word sine, which is a mathematical function used in trigonometry.
The relationship is defined in terms of the an le of incidence and an le of refrac ·o Both of
i these angles are measured in relation to the normal. The normal is define as a line drawn
gerpendicular to the boundary between the two mediums.
•
-----,.
The angle of incidence is the angle at which the light strikes the boundary between the
two mediums.
• The angle of refraction is the angle at which the refracted light travels after passing into
the second medium.
/('
.I
~~

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 1, Lesson 1: Fiber Optics Basics·
Medium 1
n 1 = index of refraction of medium 1

n 2 = index of refraction of medium 2
8 1 = angle of incidence
82 = angle of refra ction Medium 2
Figure 1.1-7: Snell's Law
Figure 1.1-8 shows two examples of Snell's Law. A medium with a higher index of refraction
bends the light ray more than a medium with a lower index of refraction . In this example, glass
has an index of refraction of 1.5 and the index of refraction of water is 1.33. Therefore, the light
ray bends more when it enters glass than it does when it enters water.
With Snell's Law, we can determine how much refraction takes place if we know the refraction
indices for the two mediums and the angle at which the light ray strikes the second medium.
Air Air
IR =1.00 IR = 1.00
------·--
Glass
-- -----------------
=
Water
IR =1.5 IR 1.33
Figure 1.1-8: Examples of Snell's Law

Reflection
Light may be refracted or reflected at the boundary between two mediums. As shown in Figure
1 .1-9, when reflection occurs, the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.
Angle of
... ..
Reflection ._
..,.
. ...••
Figure 1.1-9: Reflection
Under certain conditions, a phenomenon called total internal reflection occurs at the boundary
of two mediums . Figure 1.1-10 shows an example. As shown in the figure, total internal
reflection occurs when the following two conditions exist:
1. The refractive index of medium 1 must be greater than the refractive index of medium
2.
2. The angle of incidence increases to a point called the critical angle, and then total
internal reflection occurs.
When total reflection occurs, all light energy is reflected back into medium 1 and no energy
enters medium 2. As we will see later, this phenomenon is very important in optical
communications .
......~ -~
~--- '\\/
;y Medium 1,
IR = 1.6
Medium 2,
IR =1.5
Figure 1.1-10: Total Internal Reflection

Lesson Review
Lesson Review Questions
The following review questions are based on information in this student guide and the
supplemental materials distributed during the class. Your instructor may review these
questions in class after you have had time to complete your answers .
1. Identify three categories of applications for fiber optics and provide an example for
each category. ..-i <"' !Le.w W\.--
~= ~~ ~- (wi{;ls.~~, opP~fWk
2. List two technological developments that were necessary to make fiber optics viable
for communications.
3. Briefly describe light from both a wave perspective and a pa~ic~e per:p~cti~e . .
\.J c~ ___:; [IN 8 ~\ ·vr LL'r\..·~ 1~ q rf' p~(_ JD {,~ .ft,U()
~teQt .:» tu~l -~ ~IA-iJ -e2.

4 . In mathematical terms, how are wavelength and frequency related? Write the
mathematical expression below. .
0
r-'~ c/{- ·
5. In the following diagram , show how the light ray would be refracted at the boundary of
the two materials. Label the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction.
IR = 1.00
"--· 1 '
L.-'Jz._ IR = 1.5
!J: . _ v~_
A- I {.__.
/,41\,
~ ~ ~ t~ 0- tMAl-'1~ ~ <A6u£
'hu '!JiJ; ve-JJ. J&~ol tJJ'2 t%ih ~L flufo.<'-i>

Module 1, Lesson 2: Optical Transmission Basics Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
Module 1, 2 : Optical Transmission Basics
Lesson Overview
In this lesson, we describe how optical transmission works. We examine the optical spectrum
from an optical transmission viewpoint, and we learn how light propagates through optical fiber.
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: ( D·fV·+')
rb t)1.? 1)
• Understand the purpose of optical transmitters in optical transmission
t) 1o £-f"t:\~ IQ ~
• Explain the role of optical receivers in an optical network
• Describe the physical construction and method of manufacture of optical fiber
• Explain characteristics of single-mode and multi mode optical fiber
• Understand how light propagates in optical fiber in the contexts of entering the
fiber core, transmission windows, and associated impairments
• Explain the difference between Dense Wave Division Multiplexing (DWDM) and
Coarse Wave Division Multiplexing (CWDM)
• List and briefly describe the optical transmission devices used in optical
transmission systems
Overview
As shown in Figure 1.2-1, optical communication systems require three basic components to
transmit and receive optical signals: an optical transmitter, an optical transmission medium,
and an optical receiver. Each of these system components is described in the following
paragraphs. (Optical transmitters and receivers are described in detail in the next lesson.)
Optical Optical
Transmitter Receiver
Transmission Medium
Optical Fiber
.JUl_
Digital Data Optical Signa.l
(Electrical~
Figure 1.2-1: Optical Communications System Basic Components

~tANC.oJ.
p\1\obf-·tOcte.)-k_q ~ ~

Optical Communications Associate (OC -A): Student Guide Module 1, Le sson 2: Optical Transmission Basics
Optical Transmitters
Figure 1.2-1 shows that the input signal to the optical transmitter is an electrical, digital data bit
stream. The transmitter processes the electrical signal, converting the signal to an optical
format for transmission over an optical communications system.
An optical transmitter typically consists of a light source and additional components for
processing a signal for transmission over an optical link. The light source is either a
semiconductor laser diode or a Light Emitting Diode (LED) . Laser diodes are used for high data
rate, long distance applications . LEOs are used for low data rate , short distance applications
such as Local Area Networks (LANs).The light source generates light at the power level and
frequency (or wavelength) required to transport an optical signal.
Invented in 1960, lasers were a key development in optical communications technology.

Lasers were the first practical source of coherent light, a requirement for optical
communications. Coherent light consists of lightwaves identical in frequency and phase.
Lasers produce a narrow-wavelength beam of light at power levels required for optical
transport. This_ ~_onoc_t]_romatic beam of light is used to transmit data by modulating the light.
This !!J_Odt Jiation consists of encoding data from a digital, electronic signal onto the optical
signal produced by the laser. While there are various modulation techniques, a simple example
is On Off Keying (OOK), in which the laser is turned on and off to represent the 1s and Os in the
digital data.
Optical Receivers
Optical receivers recover data transmitted over an optical link, converting the data from an
optical format to an electrical format. To accomplish this task, an optical receiver uses a light
detector and additional components for converting the data to an electrical , digital bit stream .
Optical receivers use photodiodes as light detectors. Two types of photodiodes are available:
• Positive-Intrinsic-Negative (PIN) photodiode )
• Avalanche Photodiode (APD) ( .e<fnc;f v-e.. (J 11\Q._)
PIN photod iades have many advantages, including lq_w cost a~iability, but APDs have
higher sensitivit¥-Gnd accuracy, and produce a higher output signal. -
Optical Fiber
As shown in Figure 1.2-2, optical fiber typically consists of three layers:
• Core: Made of nearly pure silicon dioxide, the core provides the transmission path
·, owY-'oP for optical signals
d-~\tr • Cladding: Also made of nearly pure silicon dioxide, cladding confines light to the
"\\fJl- ~ core
~
~...f) ())· •.....0 \/) • Buffer or coating: Made of a durable resin, the buffer protects the core and
'0 \. cJ (rJ cladding from moisture and physical damage
\.;~ "..}& As described in detail later in this lesson, there are two types of optical fiber: single-mode and
. \~ J\M_t.Q;"-L multimode. The primary :e~ence in these fiber types is the diA : :f the;:re .
90'f'~J..~ '( b~\ r - - 1)Ylf-!J~
IV<./
() AAbJ.;..
. r ( (~ (JJrttitt.lc·~
IVV!-
\,_:.
Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserve d. 17

Buffer or Coating
Figure 1.2-2: Optical Fiber Layers
Optical Fiber Manufacturing Process
Manufacturing of optical fiber for telecommunications applications consists of three steps:
Chemical vapor deposition (c_vD)

Collapse
Fiber draw
As shown in Figure 1.2-3, the chemical vapor deposition process begins by passing highly pure
chemicals, including silicon tetrachloride and germanium tetrachloride, through a tube of pure
silicon dioxide while applying heat to the tube.
Hollow Glass Tube
Silicon and The chemicals react to

Germanium the heat by depositing
Chlorides layers of soot on the
inside of the tube.
The soot consists of

submicron particles of
Silica and Germania.
Figure 1.2-3: Chemical Vapor Deposition Process
As the chemicals pass through the tube, the chemicals form solid submicron particles called
--------
soot, which are deposited on the inside of the tube. The process is repeated, depositing
multiple layers of soot on the g.l.a§§_ tube. The chemical com'position of these layers determines
the characteristics of the core and cladding of the fiber.
After the chemical deposition process is completed, -the hollow tube is converted to a solid
glass rod through a collapse process. As shown in Figure 1.2-4, this process is performed by
heating the hollow tube in a high ·temperature furnace until the tube collapses into a solid rod.

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 1, Lesson 2: Optical Transmission Basics
Furnace
Hollow Glass
Tube Preform
Figure 1.2-4: Collapse Process
After the preform has been created , a fiber draw process is used to convert the preform into an
optical fiber. As shown in Figure 1.2-5, the preform is loaded into a furnace and heated to a
molten state. The molten glass is then pulled by gravity into a thin strand. T-he result is a strana
with a core and cladding . Then , required coatings are applied to the strand , yielding the
three-layer optical fiber. The finished fiber coming out of the draw process is collected by
wrapping the fiber on a drum.
Preform
Furnace
-~
cl~b
~w.· o.-vvJ
v ~ l
oJi;'ltv' Coater
~
t- . \
J~~~ Fiber
Take-up
~ v ~A{)Y'
I
JP \ Figure 1.2-5: Fiber Draw Process

Fiber Configurations
~ Optical fiber is made in two basic configurations: 250 IJm coated fiber and 900 IJm tight
bo,r;. c.a.L~ J~ ~· buffered fiber. Figure 1.2-6 shows the layers of each of these fiber configurations.
odd£~ oJ.- 4)~~1;\
Cowfifil-tt Cflb'LY
·~,w, q;Dv c;)» C

,.. ~ ~ ·1-t ~
o tPJ dt L~""
bc»V tpAvS y
~ Tight Buffer
'MoJr{\\,o ~
f"'~~
Figure 1.2-6: Basic Fiber Configurations
Fiber Cables
For many applications, particularly those involving long distance communication links, a group
of fibers is bundled in a larger protective jacket. Cables containing over a thousand individual
fibers have been developed. Fiber bundles range from simple assemblies for intra-building use
to heavily armored, shark-bite resistant cables for undersea applications. Figure 1.2-7 shows
an example of an optical cable that contains 12 fibers .
4tvv> {-tl..9-
Figure 1.2-7: Optical Fiber Cable
~8lL <:(YifJ)U2_
;0·~
Optica l Connectors
Various types of connectors are used to temporarily or permanently connect or terminate fiber
segments along the fiber transmission length. The design allows mechanical alignments of the
cores of the two fiber segments so that light can pass without any leakage. Shown in Figure
1.2-8, the most popular types of connectors are:
• Straight Tip connector (ST) ( CJt&QJ,t" CPY1.~L£1"1!Y)

• Standard or Subscriber Connector (SC)
• Lucent Connector (LC)
• Ferrule Connector (FC) ~
• E2ooo Ci:r p c..D

• Mechanical Transfer Registered Jack (MT-RJ)
Connector· bocJ·y· Fem11e

/
II
ST Connector
' sc Connector LC Connector
(~~~~r
t .A'c ~
FC connecto0_ ~ . .·v4\Yl) E200C ~~orCD-vt~) MT -RJ connector
, , _1.
\(V(VV
.51\A .
Figure 1.2-8: Optical Connectors
-
Optical connectors have three basic design components:
• Ferrule that holds the glass fiber
• Connector body that holds the ferrule and attaches to the jacket of the fiber
• Coupling mechanism that holds the connector in place when it is connected to

another device
The ST connector was one of the first connector types to be used in fiber optics and is still
popular in test equipment and SONET I SOH systems. ST connectors use a 2.5 mm ferrule
with a round plastic or metal body. These connectors have a key that prevents rotation of
ferrule. The connector stays in place with a twist-on I twist-off bayonet-style mechanism. The
ST connectors are usually used with multimode fibers and rarely used with single-mode fibers .

The SC connector was developed in Japan by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT). SC
connectors also use a round 2.5 mm ferrule to hold a single fiber. SC connectors use a
push-on I pull-off coupling mechanism that prevents any contact damage to the fiber end face .
The connector body of an SC connector is relatively square, and two SC connectors are
usually held together with a plastic clip, also called a duplex connection.
In corporate networking, space for several connections is limited. To accommodate connectors

in rack or closet environments, manufacturers came up with standards for small connectors
called Small Form Factor. One example is the LC connector that was developed by Lucent
Technologies. The LC connector uses a 1.25 mm ferrule, making the LC connector smaller
than ST or SC connectors. LC connectors are widely used in corporate networking
environments.
The FC has a threaded body and uses a 2.5 mm ferru le made of zirconia ceramic or stainless
steel. FC connectors have a screw-thread attachment design. The connector is keyed, with a
tab on the side of the connector that must be lined up with the slot on the coupling before
tightening.
Typically, the FC connector tip is polished to produce a rounded surface, called Physical
Contact (PC) polish. Accordingly, FC connectors may be designated FC I PC. FC connectors
also come with higher grade of polishes (such as FC I SPC and FC I UPC). The FC connector
is commonly used with single-mode fiber. The insertion loss is 0.50-1.00 dB. FC connectors
are typically used for data communication, telecommunication, and measurement equipment.
T=e E2000 connectors a ~ m factor connectors and feature a spring-loaded shutter

tt'ia pro ec s e errule from dust and scrat<;hes. The shutter operates au omat1ca Y,closing
wh~cirsengaged, and opening when the connector is plugged in. E2000 fiber
connectors use a push-pull coupling mechanism and the zirconia ceramic ferru le of 2.5 mm.
E2000 connectors are available for both single-mode and multimode fibers. The insertion loss
is less than 0.1 dB. E2000 con nectors are typicall y used for data communication,
telecommunication, and high performance and density networks.
The MT-RJ connector is a popular small form factor connector. The MT-RJ uses a push-pull
coupling mechanism similar to RJ-45 connectors . MT-RJ connectors hold two fibers and do not
support the simplex variety. MT-RJ connectors are typically used for duplex multimode LAN
applications.

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide Module 1, Lesson 2: Optical Transmission Basics
Optical Fiber Types

Two basic types of fiber are used in optical communications : single-mode fiber and multimode
fiber. The basic difference between single-mode and multimode fiber is the size of the core,
which affects light-carrying characteristics. As shown in Figure 1.2-9, the typical core diameter
for single-mode fiber is typically 8 to 10 1-1m; whereas, the core diameter for multi mode fiber is
50 to 62.5 1-Jm .
Note: The outside jacket on fiber patch cords is color-coded; single-mode

fiber is typically yellow, and multimode fiber is typically orange.
Core Diameter:
Single-mode Fiber Multimode Fiber
Figure 1.2-9: Core and Cladding Diameter in Single-mode and Multimode Fiber
With single-mode and multimode fiber, mode refers to the number of paths that light rays can
take through the fiber. As shown in Figure 1.2-10, light is restricted to a single path in
single-mode fiber, but can take multiple paths in multimode fiber.
Multimode Fiber
~ ,
~d)
~ Jnto-t-
Figure 1.2-10: Light Paths in Single-mode and Multimode Fiber I ry,_'\))..*oJl
/ dJ..Je.JU1ot
Because of the larger core diameter, light rays traveling through multim -~can take
different paths. As a result, light rays traveling through multimode fibe(m~~ ~~=~~the
destination at different times. This impairment is referred to as modal dispersion. The signal
distortion caused by modal dispersion limits multimode fiber to short distance, lower data rate
applications. Therefore, multimode fiber is best suited for applications such as LANs.
The core diameter of single-mode fiber is sized to be a small multiple of the optical signal
wavelength. This small size concentrates the optical signal in a single path through the fiber,
Copyrightx9 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reseNed. 23

which reduces optical signal loss. Single-mode fiber is suitable for long distance, high
bandwidth optical transport systems and high-speed networks.
Multimode Fiber
Multimode fiber was the first type of fiber to be manufactured and commercialized.
Manufacturers produced various types , categorized by the diameter of the core and cladding,
and the refractive index profile between the core and cladding .
Two types of multimode fiber, defined by the refractive index configuration of the core and
cladding, have been developed: step-index and graded-index. In step-index multimode fiber,
the core and cladding each have a specific index of refraction that is uniform through the glass .
Step-index multimode fiber gets its name from the fact that the index of the core material is a
step higher than the index of the cladding material.
As described previously, due to the larger core diameter of multi mode fiber, light that enters the
multimode fiber disperses and takes multiple paths (modes) to reach the destination. Light that
travels down the center of the core travels a shorter distance than light that travels at multiple
angles. Therefore, light rays using different modes reach the destination at separate times . As
mentioned previously, this behavior is referred to as modal dispersion, an optical impairment
that degrades signal quality.
Modal dispersion is an inherent characteristic of multimode step-index fiber and the primary
reason why step-index fiber is only SLJited for short distance applications. In fact, because of
the inherent modal dispersion, step-index fiber is rarely used today.
To solve the problem with modal dispersion in step-index fiber, graded-index multimode fiber
was developed. With graded-index fiber, manufacturers create a fiber core consisting of
material of different densities and refractive indices that gradually decrease from the center of
the core outward toward the cladding . The higher density core causes the light to travel down
the center of the core at a slower speed .
As shown in Figure 1.2-11, the declining refractive index material results in non-linear light
paths that follow a more serpentine path, bending the light back towards the center of the core.
This process greatly reduces the difference in arrival times between light rays using different
modes. Graded-index multimode fiber all but eliminates the poor signal quality associated with
modal dispersion .
Figure 1.2-11: Light Paths in Step-index and Graded-index Multimode Fiber

Graded-index fiber is more costly to manufacture than step-index fiber, but the cost is
outweighed by the following benefits:
• Twice the bandwidth of step-index fiber
• Lower signal attenuation than step-index fiber, allowing longer optical links
For these reasons, graded-index fiber has replaced step-index fiber for almost all multimode
fiber applications.
Standards-based Mu!timode Fiber Types
The following multimode fiber types, all of which operate at wavelengths of 850 and 1300 nm,
are defined by the International Standards Organization (ISO) in the ISO I IEC 11801 standard:
OM1 primarily comprises legacy 62 .5 I 125 micron fiber. (62.5 I 125 micron refers
to the core and cladding diameters of the fiber.)
OM2 has an effective bandwidth of 500 MHz*km at both 850 and 1300 nm and
V
represents standard grade 50 I 125 micron fiber. ( rt ,09 4 ::t{!ui:-)
OM3 has 1500 I 500 MHz*km bandwidth for overfilled launches and 2000 MHz*km
with a restricted mode launch . OM3 is referred to as laser optimized 50 I 125
micron fiber.
A~0
lJ
t:J 1 Note: Overfilled launch is a condition for coupling light into the fiber so that all
modes are filled with light. Using an overfilled launch to test fiber replicates
!vl Lj performance with an LED light source. Testing with a restricted mode launch
O replicates performance with a commonly used type of laser, a Vertical Cavity
\ Surface Emitting Laser (VCS!;L) .
..\..~})0-'OM1 and OM2 are typically used for premises applications. OM1 and OM2 are designed to
~ ~ operate with LED transmitters and support applications such as Ethernet (1 0 Mbps) to Gigabit
~0 Ethernet (1 Gbps).
· '\ ~ OM2 and OM3 multi mode fiber meet requirements detailed in ITU-T G.651 .1, "Characteristics
l~ ·Y of a 50 I 125 !Jm Multimode Graded Index Optical Fiber for the Optical Access Network" .
. ~ · J-9'o M3 is Laser Optimized Multi Mode Fiber (LOMMF) that must be powered by a specific type of
\\C)~ -~rrY laser (a VCSEL) operating at 850 nm . OM3 fiber can be used for LAN applications because its
~0fv" ~, , bandwidth supports 10 Gigabit Ethernet on links up to 550 meters.
PyJ- OM4 multimode fiber, defined by the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) standard
f\ ~ TIA-492-AAAD, is referred to as the next generation multimode fiber. OM4 is a 50 um core fiber
W with higher bandwidth than OM3 fiber. With its higher bandwidth, OM4 fiber supports
applications with higher bit rates and longer transmission links.
Single-mode Fiber
As previously stated, the primary difference between single-mode and multimode optical fiber
is the core diameter. In single-mode fiber, the core diameter is sized to be a small multiple of
the wavelength range of the light signal. This design concentrates the light signal in a single
path through the fiber, which reduces optical signal loss.
G
;s.

o u e , esson 20
Md/1L : pttca
. JTDSF _,a
ransmtsston
4
astcs
d ·~ ~c
Opttca/
. . . .
ommumcattons Assoctafe (OC-A): Student Gwde
Lo -:1\LWJ~ b) w avtpe~'li- ({2 rytD~A _ t~
fflJUd:r~
~ fi ~ ~. " The, thre•e most common types of single-mode fibers used are:
"' 0''/:'1 • ~..-f-JlY\ F) ~.f\11 Non-dispersion Shifted Fiber (NDSF), also referred to as Standard Single-Mode
1
lA-' NU ~ Fiber (SSMF or SMF), defined in ITU G.652 c~Mfl_)
(~·. (\_ · • Dispersion Shifted Fiber (DSF), defined in ITU G.653
b'\1\. _ ~,, • . Non-Zero Dispersion Shifted Fiber (NZ-DSF), defined in ITU G.655
N tVv ~ ~ ~ bc.vwJ- /~.
e)l..-r rW>~
- ~ ~· Each of these fiber tyr)'es has unique properties related to chromatic dispersion, an impairment
aD . . ~. I...U!..- that distorts optical signals. (Chromatic dispersion is explained in detail later in this lesson.) We
~ describe each of these fiber types in the description of light propagation in optical fiber.
,
12
, light Propagation in Optical Fiber
.{,~lY' ~tJ_.
.z ,.,_ _.. 1~ , ~\IJL., Having identified and described the th ree fundamental components of an optical transport
r
~-
~ ~
·
t
).: \r1.M
·1-
system ~ we now exam ine transmission of an optical signal in optical fiber. We begin by
descnb1ng the Unit of measure used for optical Signal power, the deCibel.
...yo h-V ~'\N· Optical Signal Measurement and the Decibel
The unit of measure used for optical signal power and signal levels is the decibel, abbreviated
dB . Decibel values are based on a logarithmic scale instead of a linear scale. Advantages of
using a logarithmic scale include:
• Numbers that differ from each other in orders of magnitude are easier to represent
and compare. ·
• Mathematical computations are simpler. For example, when computingthe gain

across an optical link, the gain (in dB) of each amplifier is added to determine the
f· overall gain across the span. If a linear scale is used, computing the overall gain
fj '0 :;:::-\~ 1° U~ requires multiplying each amplifier gain value. This practice can be cumbersome
10
1-v as the numbers can get large quickly, making the mathematical computation's
p ~~ R difficult.
\0 '/ 1J.. ( Decibel values are always relative values . As an example, we can state that one optical signal
t is 30 dB less than another optical signal. Th is statement does not indicate the actual value of
either signal. The statement only indicates that the signal levels are 30 dB a,P,art from each
other. A 30 dB difference~ans_!_~ude _f>~ 1000. ~<'i1·
In optical measurements, dB values are often referenced to a power level of 1 milliwatt (mW).
These values are expressed in units of dBm , as shown in the following examples:
rL~ ~ ~c}ttatl.~
fV' odB~ = 1 mW ~ ty~}y_tf2- -3 dBm = 0.5 mW
+3 dBm = mvy·"
2L(ww -10 dBm = 0.1 mW
f'G ~~ .-;..
+10dBm= 10mW -20 dBm = 0.01 mW
+20 dBm = 100 mW -30 dBm = 0.001 mW
;; 'o~,o~w-vJ) ~v
~Q,'(i\ D Note: Notice the magnitude of difference between dBm values above. For example, a -30
J;a,'yoO \ v dBm optical signal level is 1/1000 of a 0 dBm optical signal level.
~ I"\)
26
Optical Communicatio ns Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 1, Lesson 2: Optical Transmission Basics
Optical Transmission Bands
Optical transmission systems are designed to operate in specific regions of the optical
spectrum characterized by low optical loss. In addition, bands for specific applications are
selected based on the type of transmitters, detectors, and optical fiber to be used. Figure
1.2-12 shows the three primary, low loss windows..!_hat are used for optical communications.
Loss
dB/km
6
5
8~m
I L0.d V),..eJ .
1310 nm
( \)(j)OM/.
1550 nm
,•
l
J
4
I
I
3 I
I
2 I
I
700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 1.2-12: Fiber Loss and Optical Transmission Windows
Initially, optical transmission systems operated at a wavelength of 850 nm, which was located
in an area of the spectrum referred to as the first window. Whi le th eopticalloss in this window
was a relatively high 3 dB pe[.km, multimod f fiber and low-cost LED transmitters and detectors
--
were available that operated in this window. - -·
Technological advances in optical transmission led to the use of lower -loss regions of the
-
optical spectrum . The second window, at 1310 nm, offered a lower optical loss of 0.5 dB per
km . Further development led to use of the third window, located at 1550 nm. The optical loss in
the third window is approximately 0.2 dB per km.
Shown in Figure 1.2-13, the following spectral bands are defined by the ITU for optical
transmission systems using single-mode fiber.
• 0 band (Original band): 1260- 1360 nm CV\f\-C'V riJ

/ h.11n f ~lo YiM)
• E band (Extended band): 1360- 1460 nm
• S band (Short wavelength band): 1460- 1530 nm
• C band (Conventional band): 1530 - 1565 nm
• L band (Long wavelength band): 1565 - 1625 nm
• U band (Ultra-long wavelength band): 1625-1675 nm
These ITU-defined bands span a low-loss region of the spectrum between 1260 nm and 1675
nm.

0: 1260-1360nrn
L: 1565 - 1625 nm
: 1625 - 1675 nm
\.__ UV __}\_ Visible _)--------Infrared (IR) -------+
0
Figure 1.2-13: ITU-defined Optical Transmission Bands
~ ('() ~ 4'\l,{~_()J
. -._ Coupling Light into Optical Fiber

(!) 0. Light entering the core of optical fiber must enter the fiber within the cone of acceptance tO;
~~~I)'&p'Lw IAj propagate down the fiber. Light entering the fiber at an angle outside the cone of acc_eptance is
refracted . ir:J.te-the-Giad~_!e~~-<?.fP..ropagat~g down the fiber. ~
~ ·fbe9tiJ Optical fiber manufacturers specify the cone of acceptance of a fiber by the Numerical Aperture
(NA). The NA is based on the refractive indices of the core and cladding material of the fiber. In
"'
the example in Figure 1.2-14, the NA equals 0.56 , which corresponds to a cone with a half
angle of 34 o.
Cone of
.......
Example:
Half angle:.~~r:::: If Refractive Index of the core= 1.62 and
Refractive index of the cladding= 1.52,
..
..·..
•' NA = 0.56
...... (Half angle of cone of acceptance= 34°)
Figure 1.2-14: Cone of Acceptance and Numerical Aperture

Optical Attenuation
After light enters the fiber, the light is subject to a number of optical signal impairments
including optical attenuation. Optical attenuation is loss of optical power as the light signal
travels through the fiber, measured in decibels (db). Attenuation limits the length a signal can
travel before the signal is too weak to be detected at the receiving end.
There are many factors that cause attenuation in fiber and fiber connections, but the primary
causes of attenuation are:
• Absorption
• - t_0G\{) ' ~~
~
. ~ ~ \.,t)/\ ~'1
Scattering
)v)-LD'w
/\)...-, '' ~ •i
~k
~
• Bending losses
.--n,u \JV' - ~
• Fresnel reflection
l •
•
Splices
Contamination in fiber connectors
Each of these causes is described in the following paragraphs.
Absorption ( ~1)!/)"\e +o vp tuu::J '~)

Absorption is a significant source of optical signal attenuation. The glass in optical fiber, just
like every material , absorbs a portion of the light passing through, which is then converted to
heat Three factors contribute to absorption:
• Flaws in the atomic structure of the glass
The intrinsic light-absorption properties of the glass
• Presence of impurities in the glass L.ex. c-u'Yl

I ~· ·
S1G
f)· - ~ !- ct,hAl'-tDl~n fkG~it.v\J
-U<cji' \,L -· I ·
The amount of absorption depends on the wavelength and the molecular structure of glass.
Certain wavelengths exhibit higher absorption rates than others.
Absorption cannot be changed or controlled; absorption is an intrinsic loss characteristic of

fiber. Also, absorption is uniform . Therefore, the same amount of light is always absorbed by a
specific type of glass in a certain wavelength window per unit of length of fiber. Absorption
peaks in glass are found at approximately 1000 nm, 1400 nm, and above 1600 nm (at which
point absorption rises rapidly). ~ (_ _ )
Rayleigh Scattering ( pY-<J rt10-(j 1
JtjL(}./J .0 '1.- - ~·
ct.llefLLt:.
1
..ow _go ·
Another major, intrinsic source of optical loss in fiber is Rayleigh scattering. This effect occ;urs
when light hits a discontinuity in the index of refraction. When light hits a particle or impurity in
the fiber, part of the light is scattered in all directions, as shown in Figure 1 .2-15. The light that
gets scattered back towards the source is called the backscatter, or back reflectance. The light
is weaker after going through the impurities because part of its power is reduced by the
scattering process. The backscatter is approximately 0.0001% of the transmitted light
TlA..l0 L~~J: ct~

f/-AfJS .
Weaker optical signal

after scattering
/\
.cl ~:
\
Backscatter, End Reflection , 4%
0.0001% Scattering
Figure 1.2-15: Rayleigh Scattering
The end of a fiber may also reflect light to the transmitter, which is typically the largest
backscatter factor (up to 4% of the total signal). As the fiber length increases, chances of light
loss due to Rayleigh scattering also increase. Scattering depends on the size of the particles
relative to the wavelength of light. The closer the wavelength is to the particle size, the more
there is scattering. So, as the wavelength decreases, say from 1310 nm to 850 nm, the amount
of scattering increases quite rapidly. Therefore, the 1310 and 1550 nm operating wavelength
windows are considered least attenuation windows.
~e +o lt.ed~ ~ i The loss effects caused by Rayleigh scattering and absorption in common silica fibers are
L\_;J6 '¥11 Cle_c,uU1 -i illustrated in Figure 1.2-16. Rayleigh scattering defines the absolute theoretical minimum for
fiber loss. This limit also decreases as the wavelength increases. Hydroxyl ion absorption
~ tc00tuJ- caused by the OH- ions in the fiber is shown in the figure. This type of absorption increases in
~
(,
/,VV t.AA.L .I ~ ,)"(V the 1400 nm window.
q OH- »>#? dL~~~ t\,f!./

n_~t.\0 ( t.iJJt n·J_~.tA:.YU
. ~ ~D ~) ~~~)
Net Loss ) ~ - vo. 1./ Infrared
6 \ Absorption
~l.
5 •• \'\ 850nm 1310nm 155onm zl.'
z
\ '\ window window window
4 \ '\ OHion
•••• '\ • Absorption Peaks l
3
r \. '\ ~ Rayleigh
lf<.fOJ •••• ' ,; Scattering /
•••• ~~ / J
2 ··~·.{"\ I
. . . _'
~ ····· .. :"".. :: t\ :: I
: ··:"'"...,.... I #'
: ... ., ..... llllifeW~~ " :, ' : ,
.... ~" ... ,. . . . !1 . . . _~ _ -~ ' --~~~'
:g ~ "''" "'"' ": .. "' 111 •• .,.,. l l l " *""" lllll •, ~.,, ......... "
0~----------._--~~------------~·~'------~-~~--------~~··~·~··~-~~~
700 800 900
~ ttAQ, A'~-~ ~
~Gl)-(.Q r~utt j)1 2fl , J.
so }__VS, f( ~~ ~

Bending Losses
Bending the fiber also causes attenuation. Depending on the bend radius relative to the fiber
diameter, bending loss is categorized as microbend or macrobend. Microbending occurs on a
microscopic scale. The bend is not visible to the eye; however, the bend appears as a wrinkle
in the fiber. A microbend can be caused by temperature variations during manufacturing.
Microbending can also be caused by extreme temperature changes in installed cable when the
different materials in the cable structure expand and contract at different rates . This squeezing
and stretching of fiber causes microbends in the fiber.
As shown in Figure 1.2-17, microbend losses are also caused by small discontinuities or
imperfections in the fiber. Uneven coating applications and improper cabling procedures
increase microbend loss. Additionally, microbends can occur from external forces that deform
the cabled jacket surrounding the fiber, although this might cause only a small bend in the fiber.
Microbends change the path that propagating modes take. Microbend loss increases
attenuation because low-order modes become coupled with high-order modes .
••••••
••
Fiber Core
••
••
Figure 1.2-17: Loss Due to Microbend
'
A ma~d is a bend that is visible to the eye. Macrobends have large bend radius relative to
the Tiber diameter. As shown in Figure 1.2-18, macrobend losses can occur from various
causes, including:
• Bending fibers too sharply during installation, such as wrapping fiber around a
corner with a very small bending radius relative to fiber diameter
• Installing tie wraps
Macrobend losses can be reduced by eliminating tight bends in the fiber and cable.
. r -~--::7TO...-;;-:---~~
\ - ....... .. •.. .. . :..----------.l-..·
.... .t....... ········ ....
••• '--I --- -----.- .. - - -- ·~~

-- - - ----·-- ·:_
····· .. . ....
Tie Wrap~
l ···"....,............ .-.. ~. ~-····· ··~

~11
Figure 1.2-18: Loss Due to Macrobend
Copyright@ 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved. 31

Longer wavelengths are more sensitive to macrobending, so a fiber that has been stressed by
bending will show a greater loss or attenuation at 1550 nm than at 1310 nm. Cable
manufacturers recommend a minimum bend radius of 5-10 times the outer diameter to prevent
excessive bending loss.
Attenuation Due to Fresnel Reflecti ons ( cA..llJ- -f-o tfL~-~ J ~0/lli'_flJ

UY(l~)
Spans of longer distances typically consist of multiple fiber segments . Fiber segments are
joined by either splicing or using connectors to precisely match the core of one optical fiber with
the core of another. This practice helps to produce a smooth junction through which light
signals can continue without alteration or interruption .
When optical fibers are connected using connectors, an air gap may be created between the
connected fibers. The air gap may result from faulty mechanical connectors or connections. As
shown in Figure 1.2-19, when the optical signal encounters the air gap a portion of the optical
signal is reflected back into the fiber segment. These reflections of the optical signal are called
Fresnel reflections.
Fiber Core
Fresnel
Reflections
Figure 1.2-19: Fresnel Reflections
The value of Fresnel reflections depends on several factors including:
• Angle of incidence (straight on or 90° reflects most)
• Density difference of the materials (with greater difference producing more

reflection)
• Quality of polish (the finer the polish, the lower the reflectance) (Typically,
connector-induced loss is between 0.10 dB to 0.25 dB.)
The total loss from the combined effects of all reflected light in a fiber link is referred to as
optical return loss. The total loss includes losses due to Fresnel reflections and Rayleigh
scattering. Optical return loss is measured in dBs, with typical values ranging from +30 dB to
+50 dB.

Atte nuation Due to Splices
Attenuation can be caused by poor splices in optical fiber. Two methods of splicing optical fiber
are fusion splicing and mechanical splicing . Fusion splicing provides a fast, reliable, low-loss,
fiber-to-fiber connection by creating a homogenous joint between the two fiber ends. The fibers
are melted or fused together by heating the fiber ends, typically using an electric arc. Fusion
splices provide a high-quality joint with the lowest loss, typically in the range of 0.01 dB to 0.10
dB for single-mode fibers . Fusion splicing is practically non-reflective.
However, if the cores are misaligned during splicing, or are of different sizes or shapes, then
some of the light may not be passed into the second fiber core and will be lost. The amount of
light that does not make it into the second core is the splice loss. The cladding may not be
aligned if the cores are not exactly centered.
The loss from mechanical splicing depends on the alignment of the core of two fibers : the wider
the gap, the more the loss. Different types of materials (including adhesives and gels) are used
for splicing fibers . The disadvantages of mechanical splicing have been slightly higher losses,
less-reliable performance, and a cost associated with each splice. However, advances in the
technology have significantly improved performance. Mechanical splices are typically used for
emergency restoration because mechanical splicing is fast, inexpensive, and easy. Typically,
mechanical splice losses range from 0.05 to 0.2 dB for single-mode fiber.
There are also losses when connectors are used to join two fiber segments. Connector losses
also depend on passing light from one core to another. Because a connector relies on the
ability of the bulkhead to line up the two fiber ends, the connector allows for some different loss
factors than with splices. lftwo fiber ends are separated or misaligned, loss occurs because of
the spreading of light as the light comes out of the first core. Even when the gap is small, some
light may be lost.
Attenuation Due to Contamination in Fiber Connectors
Contamination in fiber connectors is a significant cause of attenuation in optical fiber links.

Even microscopic dirt can drastically reduce the performance of an optical link. Therefore,
cleaning and inspection of fiber connectors is very important. Figure 1.2-20 shows examples of
finger oil contamination and particle contamination, as observed with a fiber inspection scope.
An example of a clean fiber end is also shown.
Finger Oil Contamination Particle C ontami nation After Cleaning
Figure 1.2-20: Contaminated and Clear Optical Fiber Connectors

Dispersion
Like attenuation, dispersion is another impairment to fiber optic transmission, as dispersion

significantly limits the distance a signal can travel through an optical fiber. Dispersion refers to
signal distortion.
Dispersion is the spreading or broadening of a light pulse as the light travels through the fiber.
The amount of spread is dependent on the wavelength transmitted and the distance the pulse
must travel (the greater the distance, the greater the spreading). As a result of the spreading of
light, the data symbols in a signal interfere with each other, inducing bit errors and affecting the
integrity of the signal and data reconstruction at the receiving end of the fiber length .
In optical transmission, there are two types of dispersion:
• lntermodal or multimode dispersion
• lntramodal dispersion, which includes the following types:
• Chromatic dispersion
• Polarization mode dispersion
lntermodal dispersion occurs only in multimode fibers. Chromatic dispersion and polarization
mode dispersion, also known together as lntramodal dispersion, occur in single-mode fibers.
However, some experts limit the types of dispersion to chromatic dispersion and polarization
mode dispersion because dispersion is a wavelength-dependent phenomenon and intermodal
dispersion can occur with a single wavelength.
!ntermodal Dispersion
Light rays traveling through multimode fiber can take different paths. (The large core diameter
of multimode fiber allows light to take multiple paths.) As a result of taking different paths, light
rays traveling through multimode fiber may reach the destination at different times, as shown in
Figure 1.2-21. This behavior is referred to as modal dispersion. lntermodal dispersion is also
known as multimode distortion, modal distortion, and intermodal delay distortion.
Modal dispersion can be reduced by using an appropriate refractive index profile. In fact, this is
why graded-index multimode fiber is used in most applications instead of step-index multimode
fiber. As indicated below, graded-index fiber has significantly lowered intermodal dispersion
com pared to step-index fiber:
• Step-index fiber: 50 ns per km intermodal dispersion
• Graded-index fiber: 0.3 to 1.0 ns per Km intermodal dispersion
Figure 1.2-21: lntermodal Dispersion

/~ 1\AOLtv..iLJ C-tA- W'"OTVL

Chromatic Dispersion l ." ~ · U
Chromatic Dispersion (CD) is the most common form of dispersion found in single-mode fiber
applications. CD occurs when different wavelengths of light travel at different speeds in a fiber,
causing the light to spread , creating inter-symbol interference. The different components of a
signal travel at different speeds, distorting the received signal.
_Qyn(lQ_,L ~> The broadening or spreading of the pulse and the resulting signal degradation depends on
many factors, including the spectral width of the laser used, bit rate or temporal pulse
separation, and the type of single-mode fiber used. CD is observed at data rates of 10 Gbps
-fill~ and above. Figure 1.2-22 shows the red and blue wavelengths of a signal traveling at different
~fttfo-ta% speeds, causing the received signal to broaden and become distorted .
·~
()~
Transmitted Fiber Received

Signal Signal
Figure 1.2-22: Chromatic Dispersion
Chromatic dispersion is typically not a problem at low speeds because the pulses of light are
very wide. However, at high speeds of 10 Gbps and beyond , CD becomes a serious problem .
The effects of dispersion increase as the speed increases, as indicated in the following
examples:
• A 10 Gbps signal is 16 times more susceptible to ch romatic dispersion than a 2.5 Gbps
signal.
• A 40 Gbps signal is 256 times more susceptible to chromatic dispersion as a 2.5 Gbps
signal.
Similarly, shorter pulses are less susceptible to chromatic dispersion .
The unit of measure for chromatic dispersion fs picoseconds I nanometer kilometer

(psI nm km). This unit of measure indicates that a pulse with a spectral width of 1 nm would
spread out by 1 ps for every km of travel. (Manufacturers of optical fiber typically include this
measurement in their technical specifications for optical fiber.)
There are many ways to compensate for chromatic dispersion, including the use of specialized
fiber types such as:
Dispersion-Shifted Fiber: Specified in ITU-T G.653, Characteristics of a

dispersion-shifted single-mode optical fiber and cable
• Nonzero Dispersion Shifted Fiber: Specified in ITU-T G.655 , Characteristics of a

non-zero dispersion-shifted single-mode optical fiber and cable
Other ways of combating chromatic dispersion include use of transmitters with narrow spectral
width and regeneration of pulses at frequent distance intervals along a fiber optic link.
~-e
-lkxl:il6 ~:r;w..{);' 2>c=d>~1f~J;.ee '
Copyright© 20 10-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved. 35
Polarization Mode Dispersion
Single-mode fiber is designed to transport wavelengths of light in what can be thought of as two
perpendicular waveforms or polarization modes. As shown in Figure 1 .2-23, extremely minor
changes in the fiber content and density mean that these two polarization modes travel at
slightly different speeds. The delay between them at the end of the fiber is called Differential
Group Delay (DGD). When the receiver adds the two polarized modes together, the pulse of
light is expanded , just as in chromatic dispersion. This behavior is referred to as Polarization
Mode Dispersion (PMD) and is measured in picoseconds (ps).
Pulse as it Pulse spreads as it
mre ·
(1Yv~vvf ~--vJ;"
enters the
fiber
leaves the fiber.
Figure 1.2-23: Polarization Mode Dispersion

~u-t!o ~~ r)'(OV
~ ~~- Some of the factors contributing to PMD are bit rate, fiber core symmetry, environmental
'17 factors, and bends or stress in fiber.
:::: ~
PMD starts to be an issue with high-speed systems, typically with systems with bit rates of
40 Gbps or greater. PMD does not need compensation up to 40 Gbps in systems with
[ distances up to about 1600 km optical transmission. Compensation is required for systems with
,~rtrc bit rates of 40 Gbps for longer distance transmissions. Recommended solutions include:
~~~t • Use of improved fibers
• Regeneration of signals
• Use of manufacturer's recommended installation techniques for fiber

Nonlinear Effects
With higher data rates (above 2.5 Gbps) and higher power levels, optical signals can be
impaired by nonlinear effects. These effects are also dependent on the length of an optical
. span and the Gross-sectional area of the optical fiber.
Nonlinear effects include:
• Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS): A type of backscattering caused by acoustic

vibrations in optical fiber
• Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS): A type of scattering also caused by acoustic

vibrations in optical fiber
• Self-Phase Modulation (SPM): The intensity of the original signal modulates its own
phase
• Cross-Phase Modulation (CPM): The signal intensity of one wavelength (channel)

modulates the phase of other channels
• Four-Wave Mixing (FWM): The intensity of the transmitted signal generates new,
interfering wavelengths
Each of these nonlinear effects is described in the following paragraphs . :J . 1\-.. g '
0 1
- a · c ~.,~~~L\/V'-'1 /
Stimulated Brillouin Scattering { 11u5· kiJ.f~ tAI'v l:;lli.- G"'~ -
/>,y·Y , As a light wave propagates along an optical fiber, variations in the electric field of the wave can
~ ) generate acoustic molecular vibrations in the fiber. The acoustic vibrations cause fluctuations
G in the refractive index of the fiber. These fluctuations in the refractive index cause scattering of
~ the transmitted light wave. As shown in Figure 1.2-24, the scattering is in the form of a reflected
· light wave that propagates in the op_pG>site direction of the transmitted light wave. This
~ ~ scattering effect is referred to as SBS. "'
~.. _·0~~'\:-.P ~ In the context of SBS, the transmitted light wave is referred to as the pump wave. The
~ •.J· backward-propagating light wave generated by SBS is referred to as the Stokes wave. n
~~ ~ . ,Dvf~
~~)~ v ~ \~ (; ,.,k;~·
'W ~ 'P' Backscatter. in the form of a reflected lightwave. ciW ~UJJ \~
propagates back toward t he transmitter. "' \
"'~~:~~::;_ - -.--~~[J2:~~u~::"';~~-::':.-" DI~:o:;~;.[],~ cause backscatter
~.~~ .::~:::~;~~~~:? ~'

..tf,.J;i
• ~n ~ ~gure 1.2·24: Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)

~vv ~t]XJY . \ ~L ), f&; i (Ji) 'Ill~ 0-.fOYJ: ~VJ. -ib\.(L
~ ~~· kOJv~lt- (}9{,~ r,\ '
. tn
wWvt,eP· 0
\-.'!M
ft11(],(; 1\V'l vv

• u 37
The primary effects of SBS on optical transmission are:
• Attenuation of the transmitted signal: SBS transfers power from the transmitted signal
to the reflected light wave.
• Power saturation : The effect of SBS increases as the power of the transmitted signal
increases . Eventually, as the power is increased , SBS cancels out any increase in the
power of the transmitted signal.
• Noise in amplifiers and transmitters: The reflected wave can generate noise in these
devices, causing degradation of the transmitted signal.
The following techniques are used in optical transmitters to limit SBS:
• Use of phase modulation instead of amplitude modulation in optical transmitters
• iimit optical power per channel to a level much lower than the threshold level at which
the effects of SBS become significant
J lncrease the line width of the transmitted signal (Line width is the width of the optical
spectrum of the transmitted signal.) I'
Stimulated Raman Scattering / ~ ~ t}On .uljctu 11 ~

Like SBS , SRS is also caused by interaction between the transmitt~~ave and, acoustic
molecular vibrations in the fiber. In contrast to SBS, the effects of SRSare nOfiiiTi1ted to a
single wavelength SRS-im.pai.l:s-other channels transm itted in the fiber [\nother difference is
that SRS causes scattering in botti d1rect1ons, whereas SBS only causes backscattering .
As shown in Figure 1.2-25, SRS transfers optical energy from a shorter wavelength channel to
a higher wavelength channel. Therefore, SRS impairs optical transmission by suppressing
shorter wavelength channels in a multiple-channel transmission . ~ct o~R~ is
dependent on channel spacl!J.9 . Therefore, SRS particularly affects opticanrai1-srriTssion
systems with closely spaced optical channels .
SRS is a potential impairment to optical transmission; however, SRS can also be used to the
benefit of optical transmission . Optical amplifiers can use SRS as an amplification technology
(this topic is described later in the cou rse).
~\.L.U&~
.Jyt.UU ' (0
Langer W~li~~~~-~~$~l~~~f~{~~i!*~~~~~~'~:~~g~ ~v
~~~:~~~1 . . _ _3l;IJ~ s:~ -~ B~}8.\J-:s~~~"0vv8·~:;: ;~b?<::,>!-~~;~?:>'?:' Zl7']·Y:>-s%c:v"7-;~:;·l: '7-"':';,0n":' <n~
''""'c·""""'
o "' """~•'7.y,"W"":""'"'·" ~ous: ~i:.ions
Shorter l[
w~ v elength
lightwave -
Figure 1.2-25: Stimulated Raman Scattering ~ -' 0

~
38 Copyright© 2010- 2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved.
~ tl)
\JY· ~ Optical Communic Module 1, Lesson 2: Optical Transmission Basics
tY 0
t-0-r ' \ ~·- o. rn-e?v AJJJJ):;l ¥J 0 cft()~tLe,
/~.J._ Xt}J ~ -~ L)liVSeif-Phase Modulat ion
' t<j ' ~ •
jv
02- ·-r-"
a
/V(~ l.)...e ~.--.rJir;
' ·
cUu -fo k.J-, {.. ~ ()w.eJ. '
1 '
!fY'\f'v'V \N~ ,y The refractive index of optical fiber is dependent on the intensity or power of the light signal.
\J J\ , tJ. This intensity dependence of the refractive index is called the Kerr effect. The refractive index
~(\ \i y;J~ at the inte~y ~~ak of the pulse wi,!!_be slightly higher than the value_ in the leading and trailing
-.s-t edges of the pu se. This behavior results in an impairment referred to as SPM.
Different intensity components contained within an optical signal travel at different speeds. This
variation in speeds results in a time varying phase shift which varies throughout the pulse
duration, creating a frequency chirp . In short, SPM causes the spectrum of the pulse to be
broadened. SPM interacts with chromatic dispersion, changing the rate at which the optical
pulse broadens as the pulse travels through the fiber.
SPM is due to a nonlinear change in the refractive index as a function of optical intensity. One
way to overcome this effect is to operate at lower optical power, where this non-linear effect is
nonexistent.
Another way to address the effects of SPM is to use OQtical fiber characterized by dispersion
greater than zero in the operating wavelength range . In fiber with this characteristic, SPM
compresses an optical~, ':Vhich~nsat~or tfi~- effEtct of ~hromatic ~Spfirsion.
Cross-Phase M oduiation l 1\UZ.t~ t_ p'Le. thO' tA vJJ ()~..}c,W J -

CPM is similar to SPM, except CPM involves multiple wavelengths. With CPM, power
fluctuations in one optical signal cause phase fluctuations in other optical signals. Increasing
the effective area of the fiber reduces the effect of CPM, due to the decrease in optical
intensity. -·
Four-Wave Mixing
Nonlinearity in the refractive index of optical fiber can give rise to signals other than transmitted
signals. This phenomenon is called FWM. With FWM, when two or more wavelengths are
transmitted simultaneously on a fiber, an additional wave is generated, as shown in Figure
1.2-26. The additional wave interferes with other transmitted wavelengths.
As shown in the figure, the number of interfering products increases significantly as the number
of wavelengths (channels) in a system increases. As an example, if the number of wavelengths
is 8, the number of interfering products is 224.
300.000
200.000
100.000
• 0
•
•
-100.000
50 100
fo=t: AlJ>Vu~ L,·VJ_[)Y qtu-~ Number of Wavelengths
Figure: 1.2-26: Four-Wave Mixing

~- u Lo~ op~ pow-& i ~ sPm ~ 11 0 Y1 -f), (_\ ~t
0 A--h.OVL~<u.J h(j ri0p 0-ttYlLI-vL I C7'.-vO Ld.-!J
Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All~ hts reserved. '· 39
t\# 0
rrvl L--.du. IJ I Tx C»2t:L~ ~
~\ . . CtJ u fof/!S ukd ~ RA ~olf7-
1
The additional wavelengths created by FWM are referred to as ghost channels. As shown in
Figure 1.2-27, these wavelengths can overlay real channels and interfere with transmitted data
by creating crosstalk between channels. (Crosstalk occurs when a signal from one channel is
being picked up unintentionally on another channel.)
- - - - - - =Real signals
...... - - - ...... ""' m =Ghost channels on top of real signals
Figure: 1.2-27: Ghost Channels Created by Four-Wave Mixing
The effect of F,;Y.VM is significar~tl,y influenced by the following factors:

(;! ·ft1~V{.v .C~·~ p~.,~
• ChaXnel sp!fcing: closer channel spacing increases FWM, wider channel spacing
reduces FWM
• Chromatic dispersion: less chromatic dispersion increases FWM, more chromatic

dispersion reduces FWM
The following techniques can be used to reduce the effects of FWM:
• Increase channel spacing -....'!) hJLL~ }-vY> iJ)vJD M c.j,.oJfo:>w

/ / •• Lower signal power
1_ ~X Use asymmetrical channel spacing -=r \f-V..-t,f- olt.J1)1c.Lt.U. --H>

rX' "'-I.(.L U CJ rm.o ~ ·
~ ~: Reduce the number of channels bein: :ansmitted
~ o i-vciWctuefi £ p ( ((, olff <U.L C_IJ f N{i;)

Optical Mult iplexing

Multiple data streams can be transmitted over an optical transmission system using either Time
Division Multiplexing (TDM) or Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM). TOM uses a single
wavelength, with individual, lower speed data streams interleaved to form a higher speed
stream. WDM uses closely spaced , multiple wavelengths transmitted simultaneously over a
single fiber. Two types ofWDMare used: DWDM) and CWDM.
TOM and the two types of WDM (DWDM and CWDM) are described in the following
paragraphs.
Time Division Multiplexing
With TOM, multiple, low bit rate data streams are multiplexed to form a high bit rate , single
channel. Each lower bit rate stream is assigned a timeslot and multiplexed onto a high bit rate
0
data stream. With this arrangement, the low bit rate data streams are transmitted serially (not
simultaneously) on one high-speed channel. As shown in Figure 1.2-28, the high-speed
channel is transported on one optical wavelength over a single optical fiber.
Single Optical
Wavelength Demultiplexer
::: ::lW~W:~~~~~~~~~~~~~a~b~c~a~~b~c~--~--~~lt:!~It :::
-
Low Bit Rate High Bit Rate
Data Stream
....
Low Bit Rate
Data Streams Data Streams
Figure 1.2-28: Time Division Multiplexing
As previously described, optical signals degrade over distance during transmission . In

TOM-based systems, degraded signals are rebuilt through signal regeneration. The
regeneration process consists of converting the optical signal to an electrical format, rebuilding
the signal, and then converting the electrical signal back to optical for transmission.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing
In contrast to TOM, WDM enables simultaneous transport of multiple data streams, each on a
different wavelength, over a single fiber. WDM makes efficient use of a fiber by essentially
creating virtual fibers within a single physical fiber. Because each data stream is carried on a
separate wavelength, the data streams are independent of each other. This method allows
simultaneous transport of multiple data streams of different types and rates over a single fiber.
Each lower rate bit stream is assigned to a specific optical wavelength, referred to as a channel ,
for transport over an optical sp..e!J-As shown in Figure 1.2-29, th~al w~lengths are
multiplexed into a c~_mposite optical signal. The high bandwidth, composite signal transports all
the wavelengths simultaneously ~r a single QQ!ical fiQer. At the receive end of the optical
span, the individual channels are separated fr9m the composite s~gnal and the data streams
are recovered from the channel signals.
Originally, WDM systems were deployed asJwo-channel s~tems Additional developments in

WDM technology ana cfevtces led to increased channel counts in WDM s~stems. The primary
differences between ~M are the number of channels and the cost of
components. DWDM and CWD.M.are described in the following paragraphs.

High Bandwidth
Multiplexer
..... -~~
Optical Signal
rr-,_~~"* .....
- -~~ ·F-~~ .....
""""".;;;;.,;~c'---.J
L~""""'-- -
-
A1 _..__.._~--------•
Low Bit Rate A bbbbbbbbbb~bbb~ Low Bit Rate
Data Streams 2 c cccccccccccccc Data Streams
A ==~--.r:;;=;.~;;t;;;;;:;$~>;;:z;s,-,..;;;~;:;xx,;""'<os=iii<=- <'!<! -~
3
•
•
•
•
Figure 1.2-29: Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing
DWDM was developed in response to a demand for increased bandwidth in optical

transmission systems. Driven in large part by the explosive growth of the Internet, the demand
for bandwidth exceeded the limits of TDM. DWDM offered a much better solution by greatly
increasing the bandwidth of fiber. A key advantage of DWDM was that service providers could
add significant amounts of bandwidth on already-deployed optical fiber.
In DWDM, the word dense refers to the spacing between multiplexed wavelengths. The
International Telecommunications Union (ITU) defined standard channel plans for DWDM
systems in the following ITU recommendation:
G.694.1, Spectral Grids for WDM Applications: DWDM Frequency Grid
The recommendation includes channel plans for channel spacing of 12.5, 25, 50, and 100 GHz.
The channel plans are based on a center frequency of 193.1 THz, which corresponds to a
wavelength of 1552.52 nm . Because this wavelength is in the center of the~ DWDM
systems operate in the C band. ·-
Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing
The ITU-T G .694.2 standard applies to CWDM, using the wavelengths between 1271 nm -
1611 nm . CWDM channels are widely spaced , separated by 20 nm .
CWDM technology is used in Storage Area Networks (SANs), LANs, and other applications
that do not require the high channel counts or bandwidth of DWDM .
CWDM has substantially reduced cost and complexity due to the use of transmitter lasers,
which do not require careful temperature control. Also, the optical filters used to multiplex and
demultiplex channels into and out of the fiber can have relaxed s ecifications because of the
relatively wide channel spacing. This flexibility allows use of lower-co tee nology. Additionally,
link distances are relatively short, so some of the longer distance transmission limitations (such
as dispersion and jitter accumulation) are generally not of concern .
The limitations of CWDM correspond to the wide channel spacing, which limits the number of
channels that can be placed on a fiber.
{11;
I v \
'I
~
~
42V} Copyrfl....g ht© 2010-20 3 Ciena® Corporation. All rights res eN ed.
\~ 1 rv 'f\~
~'\ /f<
Optical Transmission Systems

In the following paragraphs, we describe the types of architectures used for optical
transmission systems. We also identify the types and basic functions of devices used in optical
transmission systems.
Optical Transmi ssion System Architecture s
The architecture of an optical transmission system is based on the system requirements. The
following architectures are described in the following paragraphs:
• Basic linear architecture
• Linear architecture with add I drop capability
• Architecture with switching
Bas ic Li nea r Arc hitecture
The most basic optical transmission system architecture is an end-to-end linear system, with all
optical channels transported across the system. Depending on the span length, regeneration or
amplification may be required, as shown in Figure 1.2-30.
Syst em with no Optical Fiber:
optical signal Transmission Medium
amplification or
regeneration 0 -----------------+ 0
( ~2Jt :J_ '¥1' u;;) Transmitter Receiver

System with
optical signal
OEO regeneration o----•
0-E - 0
~
(it-
(_ Dvt JU-L_ h0 'YI {IJ)J ) .

Transmitter
Optical Line Amplifier
(OLA} Receiver
S ystem w1t
optical signal
amp I ificat ion o----• ----•0
0-0-0
Figure 1.2-30: Basic Optical Transport Systems
As an optical signal traverses an optical span, the signal degrades, losing signal strength and
becoming distorted. Regenerators rebuild the transmitted signal by first converting the
degraded optical signal to electrical format. The electrical signal is rebuilt, then converted back
to an optical signal and transmitted back onto the span. The conversion process is referred to
as Optical-Electrical-Optical (0-E-0).

Signals can also be amplified by Optical Line Amplifiers (OLAs) along the span to rebuild signal
strength. With optical amplification, the signal does not undergo an 0-E-0 conversion; the
signal remains in optical format when amplified by an OLA. With optical amplification, only
signal strength is rebuilt. Any noise or other signal distortion is amplified along with the signal.
Optical Transmissi on Systems with Add I Drop Capability
More complex optical transmission system architectures are shown in Figure 1.2-31. These
architectures include the capability to add and drop individual signals from an optical signal at
intermediate points.
j · \J
~
Three types of devices provide add I drop capability:
• Add I Drop Multiplexers (ADMs)
~ ~~ • Optical Add I Drop Multiplexers (OADMs)

OJ . • Reconfigurable Optical Add I Drop Multiplexers (ROADMs)
~ ADMs perform add I drop functions electrically at the client signal level. OADMs operate at the
optical wavelength level, supporting add I drop functions on individual wavelengths in a
multi-wavelength optical signal.
ROADMs are similar to OADMs, but offer more flexibility by supporting multiple degree optical
add I drop functions. A number of multi-wavelength optical signals can be connected to a
ROADM. With the add I drop functionality of a ROADM, individual wavelengths can be optically
rerouted between any of the connected multi-wavelength signals.
Add/Drop
Transmitter OLA Multiplexer {ADM) OLA Receiver
Optical Add/Drop
Transmitter OLA Multiple xer (OADM) OLA Receiver
Reconfigurable Optical Add/Drop

Multiplexer (ROADM)
Transmitter
Figure 1.2-31: Optical Transmission Systems with Add I Drop Capabilities

Optical Transmission Systems with Switching
More complex optical transmission system architectures can also include optical switching
capability, as shown in Figure 1.2-32. These architectures include the capability to switch
individual optical signals between ports on the switch. Optical signals to be switched undergo
0-E conversion because today's optical switches perform switching electrically. Switched
signals are then reconverted, from electrical back to optical , for transmission.
Transmitters/
Transmitters/
Receivers
Transmitters/
Transmitters/ Transmitters/
Receivers Receivers
Figure 1.2-32: Optical Transport Systems with Switching
Optical Transport System Nodes
Optical transmission systems are made up of nodes that support specific functions. Nodes are
composed of optical transmission devices. The example shown in Figure 1.2-33 identifies
functional nodes in an optical transport system .
Customer
Terminal Amplifier Add/Drop Terminal Customer
Sites Sites
Node Node Node Node
r
Figure 1.2-33: Optical Transport Syste·m Node Types

lesson Review
questions in class after you have had time to complete your answers.
1. Characterize the signal entering an optical transmitter. , ,.,... ..o ,. oil

~(ClQ J cl~ ...eA.tbzM - t.W, ~~ lx \.4) V""t:-
f}tl Oft' Cfl1 j ~ ai t'J""Al .

2. Which two photodiodes are used in~pticaY receivers, and which one is faster and more
sensitive?
PI 1\.) ;
A{l
~A}{);~£"'~ '
~ , Av lin • • . 1
li.VV \.. AN'U_
( 1 "'"
~~ ~ )~Z\<Y)\i~/
A:r-'ti> \
3. Identify the three layers of optical fiber and describe the purpose of each layer.
C))9-UL-
~·
4.
~
What is the major physical difference between single-mode and multimode fiber, and
how does that difference affect light transmission? ,
, t{))-U__ dta.~ · ~ ~
/y1 ~ (Yi lhVJJ pcu:J\J ~ /mA{!_b:~tA~ ·
5. What are the waVelengttis of the three, primary, low-loss windows used for optical
communications?
What are the differences between CWDM and DWDM?

ce,0 o M -~ to(J.MitL ; ~e ~ VIIN..9. ,rypCCU.Vj
D~Om ·7 ~- B\t\9--
7. List the three devices that provide add I drop capability in an optical network.
46 Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reseNed.

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 2, Lesson 1: Optical Transmitters and Receivers
Module 2, l esson 1: Optical Transm itters and Receivers
Lesson Overv iew

In this lesson, we describe optical transmitters and receivers used in optical communications.
Lesson Objectiv es
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: ~_J
• List optical emitters used in optical communic~ns and be able to describe their O
physical and performance characteristics ~ v:.. j, e~ 'i!A.fic..h_bi11 ~ hP l tP...el·~
I 1A>'7c.ltb..
• Identify and describe light detectors used in optical communications
• Identify and describe optical transceivers
• Understand, at a high level, the concepts of optical modulation and detection
Introduction
Optical emitters (transmitters or light source) and optical detectors (receivers) are devices at
opposite ends of an optical link I network. As shown in Figure 2.1-1, light emitters are
transmit-side devices that convert electrical signals to light pulses, and light detectors are
receive-side devices that convert light pulses into electrical signals.
Optical Optical
Transmission Medium
OptiC<ll Fiber
Dioital Data Optical Signal Dig ita I Data

!Eiectr ical) (Electrical)
Optical Optical
Emitter Detector
Figure 2.1-1: Optical Emitters and Detectors
Opt ical Emitters

Optical emitters used in optical transmission must be small, have a long life, and emit light with
a consistent intensity and wavelength .
In optical communication, two types of light emitters are used for transmitting light into a fiber
cable: r). () -:0 c.,ohcVt__oVJt-tf fO~
• Light Emitting Diodes (LEOs)
cl t.» =~ lW>~ ba c#'-Lftill c{!_
• Laser Diodes (LOs)
t "r1.o1/1..-Wh
The basic difference between an u;o and an LD is the type of light it produces. An LD e..v;~
produces a more powerful, concentrated beam ofliQ.b.Uban an LED, but an LD is ~e complex
and therefore more expensive to manufacture than an LEo: - -

Module 2, Lesson 1: Optical Transmitters and Receivers Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
Performance-wise, LEOs are best suited for data rates of less than 1 Gbps. LOs, when used
with more sophisticated modulation techniques, are able to support data rates greater than 100
Gbps.
As shown in Figure 2.1-2, LEOs emit light in a broad pattern, similar to the shape of a cone. In
contrast, LOs emit a narrow, concentrated beam of light, with high power output and at precise
wavelengths. The small emission angle allows only a negligible amount of light to disperse at
the edges. The width of the LD beam is 3-5 times less than that of an LED. LOs are therefore
much more efficient than LEOs with regard to the amount of light they can couple and transfer
into a fiber optic cable.
-
.If
Emits light in a
::: .,., Emits light in concentrated
• • • • .._ a cone shape beam
.:_· ·~
··- Laser Diode
Figure 2.1-2: LED I LD Emitters
LEOs are typically used with multimode fiber, which has a wider core diameter for accepting
light than single-mode fiber. Although some LEOs are able to operate at the 1310 nm range (for
very short distances only), most are often found operating in the 850 nm wavelength range.
The ability to produce a very intense and powerful optical signal, along with coupling efficiency,
enables LOs to transmit optical signals over much greater distances than LEOs. Generally, LOs
are used with single-mode fiber in metro and medium range links (0 band, 1310 nm). LOs are
also used in long haul and ultra-long haul segments, where multi-wave WDM and DWDM
applications are deployed (C band, 1550 nm). LEOs, on the other hand, are generally used in
short reach segments of the optical network, such as LANs, customer premise environments,
and for connecting pieces of equipment in close proximity.
Table 2.1.1 provides a summary of LED and LD characteristics.
Characteristic LED LD
Type of light produced Cone-shaped Narrow, beam-like
Cost Simple, less expensive Complex, more expensive
Data rates supported Slow, 1 Gbps or less Fast , 10-100 Gbps
Fiber types supported Multimode Single-mode, multimode

Wavelengths supported Generally 850 nm; 131 0 nm for short 1310 nm I 1550 nm
distances
Coupling efficiency (LED or Low, wide spectral width High, narrow spectral width
LD to fiber)
Optical power Low, dispersed High intensity
Network deployment LANS, local access, co-located WDM, long haul, ultra-long haul,
equipment submarine
Table 2.1.1: Summary of LED and LD Characteristics

Optical Emitter Performance Characteristics
The following performance characteristics of LEOs and LOs determine their usefulness in a'
given application: .~t .-fo t!A-a-v,..t,L.Q_.ft-~ c,o~~ ,j-w,v 1 Ju>r:b
. ,,. _,:}: !.ea • , Peak Wavelength: The wavelength at which the LED or LD emits the most power. The
c~'V' 1'~ 1~4)peak wavelength experiences the least amount of attenuation when transmitted
1
' through a specific type of optical fiber. The peak wavelengths used in optical
telecommunications are 850 nm, 1310 nm, and 1550 nm.
Spectral Width: The combined width of all wavelengths operating at half the peak
power of the center wavelength. Spectral width is used to match emitted light with fiber
core diameter. Because a lightwave does not have a clearly defined shape (as a
rectangle does, for example), spectral width uses the concept of Full Width Half
Maximum (FWHM) to measure the light emitted from an LED or LD. The FWHM
measurement is taken at -3 dB points on both sides of the center wavelength. Typical
spectral widths are 50 - 170 nm for LEOs and 8 ~or less for LOs.
• Power: The ability of the LED or LD to provide enough power for the wavelength to
reach the next device (for example, an amplifier or the light detector at the receiving
end). Power as it relates to light emitted from an LED or LD is expressed as a watt,
which equals one joule (energy) per second .
Speed: The time it takes the LED or LD to tum on and off. Speed is measured by the
rise and fall time (that is, the time required to go from 10 - 90% of peak power). The
speed should be fast enough to support the bandwidth limits of the system. LOs have
faster rise and fall times than LEOs.
ctr~
t.
E x me 1on-Ra'Ti t.10:
iM.J..,V\.o
I he e '>xt.1nct.1on ra t.10 ·IS an effi1c1ency
· measuremen t of h ow op t.1ca 1
power is modulated over a fiber optic transport. The actual ratio is the amount of output
power needed to generate a binary 1 (data), versus the output power needed to
generate a binary 0 (data). This value can be expressed either as a power
measurement (dB) or as a percentage. The higher the value, the more efficient the
transmitter. With higher values, bit errors are less likely to occur. (Bit errors are due to
the inability of the optical detector to distinguish between a data 1 and a data 0.)
Optical Emitter Semiconductors I
Both LEOs and LOs are semiconductor devices. Semiconductors are silicon-based materials
that conduct electricity under certain conditions. While pure silicon does not exhibit
semiconductor properties, the addition of small amounts of certain impurities causes silicon to
act as a semiconductor. These impurities, called dopants (such as gallium and arsenic), are
manufactured in semiconductor devices as n-type_...,- (negative) and p-type (positive} material.
-
During the manufacturing fabrication process, n-type and p-type materials join to form a p-n
junction..di.ode, across which an electrical potential is created. When positive voltage is appriea
at the p-region , and negative voltage at then-region (forward bias), energy is released within I
across the p-n junction in the form of light (photons).

Various semiconductor materials used to form the p-n junction in LEOs and LOs produce
different wavelengths, as noted in the list below:
• Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) generates wavelengths in the 840 - 870 nm spectral range
• Aluminum Gallium Arsenide (AIGaAs) generates wavelengths in the 770- 870 nm

spectral range
• Indium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (lnGaAsP) generates wavelengths in the

1100 - 1670 nm spectral range
Light Emitters as Surface or Edge Emitters
Both LEOs and LOs can be manufactured as surface emitting devices or as edge emitting
devices. As shown in Figure 2.1-3 , surface emitting devices emit light from the top (or bottom)
of the device, whereas edge emitters emit light from the side of the device.
Surface Emitter Edge Emitter
Light emission
0
+
n-region emission
Metal contacts Metal contacts
Figure 2.1-3: LED I LD- Surface and Edge Emitting Fabrication
In terms of manufacturing, surface emitter devices are preferred over edge emitter devices
because they can be tested during manufacturing. Edge emitters cannot be tested until the end
of production.
As illustrated in Figure 2.1-4, surface emitters emit the beam perpendicular to the active region
of the laser, as opposed to parallel as with an edge emitter. Because of this positioning, tens of
thousands of surface emitters can be processed and tested simultaneously on a three-inch
GaAs wafer. Although the surface emitter fabrication process is more labor and material
intensive, the yield can be controlled to a more predictable outcome, netting savings in overall
production and testing costs.
Figure 2.1-4: Surface Emitter Wafer Fabrication

As previously stated, edge emitters cannot be tested until the end of production . If an edge
emitter is faulty, whether due to bad contacts or poor material quality, the production time and
the processing materials are wasted . Because surface emitters emit from the top surface of the
chip, they can be tested on-wafer, before they are cleaved onto individual devices. This earlier
testing reduces fabrication time and costs significantly.
Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission of light
LEOs differ from LOs in that LEOs generate light by spontaneous emission . LOs start out using
spontaneous emission, but require the added use of stimulated emission to produce a
high-powered laser output.
light Emitting Diode Spontaneous Emission
As shown in Figure 2.1-5, when a voltage is applied across an LED p-n junction, current flows
and electrons are temporarily energized, moving them to the excited state orbit. Eventually the
electrons lose the additional energy and drop back into their normal lower ground state orbit.
During the transition from the excited state to the ground state, a photon of light is emitted . This
transition from the ground to excited state and then back to the ground state is called
spontaneous emission. Spontaneous emission repeats continuously as long as current flows
through the LED .
Photon emitted
*"".,
Electron loses energy;
moves from exc ited to ® .. ·········· ..... ... . "
ground state ............
~
®·····
E • ..... "
"'
•• ••
·. . . ~....
mit w .~it ""•.
·~
...~
· : ,."',,. "'~~···· · " ·~.... ·.
.. ..
Excited
... ..
state +;
orbit
Ground
state
orbit ..·
... ~ ... ~ ........ ~ *. "............... .
Figure 2.1-5: LED Spontaneous Emission
Photon production by spontaneous emission contributes to the wider spectral width that is
characteristic of LEOs. A typical LED output is about 60 nm when operating at a wavelength of
850 nm and about 170 nm at 1300 nm. With spontaneous emission, photo.ns..are radiated in
arbitrary directions, ang~.fe.w._p.hotons creare-rrQbt in the desired direction . This behavior
reduces the outpu(po-wer of an LED because .!be cm rent-to-light conversion occurs with low
efficiency. Thus, an LED emits relatively low output power (intens~-- - --

As shown in Figure 2 .1-6, another property of spontaneous emission is the photons that
contribute to output power are created independently of one another and do not move strictly in
one direction . Instead, photons propagate within a wide cone, yielding widespread radiated
light. Therefore, no phase correlation exists between different photons. This lack of correlation
results in an incoherence of the total light radiated.
Incoherent
Lightwaves
Figure 2.1-6: Spontaneous Emission /Incoherent Light
In summary, the main properties associated with spontaneous emission include wide spectral
width, low intensity, arbitrary direction, and incoherence. These properties make it impossible
to use LEOs as light sources for long-distance communication links.
laser Diode Stimulated Emission
LOs need more energy than LEOs to produce a laser output. As shown in Figure 2.1-7, LOs are
constructed with a laser cavity consisting of a gain medium enclosed by a total reflective mirror
on one end and a partial reflective mirror at the other end . When voltage is first applied,
spontaneous emission takes place in the laser cavity similar to what happens in an LED (top
half of diagram).
Unlike an LED, the laser cavity in an LD temporarily traps photons before they are released as
light, enabling the photons to be used as a mechanism for producing additional electrical
energy. The photons bounce back and forth between the mirrors, exciting more electrons and
creating additional energy. The added energy causes a phenomenon called population
inversion to occur, which creates an overabundance of electrons in the excited state (bottom
~ alf of diagram) .
. , . • <}{}) aoJJ As more electrons populate the excited state, additional photons are generated and trapped in
" q}t,. ·W'Y- the cavity, accelerating the creation of more electrical energy. A generous portion of the
~(}!J./ :JY photons escape out the partially reflective mirror as the laser output, while others remain
·· _· ·" ,..,t. '1c trapped inside the cavity, continually energizing electrons and mass producing more photons.
~ ,u The net result is laser (electron-photon) amplification, which occurs because each photon on
J(vJ- · . average produces more than one stimulated photon before leaving the laser. Once lasing
. f\}J}v b~gi~s, the e~iciency in converting additional electrical energy int~ li~ht j_umps to values
," ~ s1gn1ficantly higher than the output generated by spontaneous emiSSion 1h an LED .
V-' ,~
. , !'.\ y,fl-- With stimulated emission, source photons induce electrons to release additional photons with a
~-\" . ,_A similar energy and frequency (wavelength). This property ensures a narrow spectral width of 8
C)J-'J.l'Y \-~ \\ ~ nm or less at both 1300 nm and 1550 nm wavelengths. Because all photons propagate in the
t}) 11\. same direction , they all contribute to the light output.
};JV ~~.
t})~

,---------,
Spontaneous Emission
P Material Laser Cavity
Partial
Reflective
Mirror
Total
Reflective ® ...@......... .· /
Mirror
-~- - - ;_~.~-- Excited State - -@ ?----
·..··.... • 0
Energy
@.. ·"'
••• .-···••: •.•
...·····.~....
®
- _@_@.@_-. Ground State -- _®.®_®
N Material
Laser
Output
+ .··(V...·····.. ®···
_-.~
N Material 1
Figure 2.1-7: LD Stimulated Emission
As shown in Figure 2.1-8, stimulated photons propagate in the same direction as the source
photons, causing the stimulated light to be well directed. Because both source and stimulated
~ are synchronized (in both time and phase), the light produced is considered cohewaJ.
Coherent light transmits in one primary mode and is less susceptible to the dispersion•=
problems found with the incoherent light emitted by LEOs. For this reason and due to the
narrow beam produced, LOs are much better suited than LEOs for use with single-mode fiber
and long distance transmission links.
Coherent
Lightwaves
Figure 2.1-8: Stirn ulated Emission I Coherent Light
Copyrigh® 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved. 53

Input Current versus Optical Power Output
Figure 2.1-9 shows the relationship between input current and optical output power for both
LEOs and LOs. For LEOs, the relationship between the input current and the LED output is
linear. That is, as the current increases , so does the amount of light emitted . At some point,
saturation occurs, and the LED p-n junction cannot produce any additional o tical ower
regardless of the amount of current applied .
Figure 2.1-9 also shows that the output of an LD does not increase markedly until a threshold
point, referred to as the lasing threshold, is reached . Below the threshold , laser output power is
low and the beam disperses, similar to that of an LED. When the current reaches the threshold
level , the laser output increases sharply. At this point and above, saturation occurs (max
current); and the LD generates a narrow, .b.[g~wered, concentrated beam of light at a
precise wavelength. " -
With LOs, the current-to-light conversion occurs with high efficiency and output power. An LD
can radiate 1 milliWatt (mW) with only 10 milliamp (ma) of forward current. In comparison, it
takes 150 mW of forward current for an LED to radiate 1 mW of output power.
Outpy
LED
Laser Diode
Output
Optical
Power
Optical
Power
'
/
(dB) (dB)
Input Current Input Current
Figure 2.1-9: LED and LD Optical Power Output

li ght Em itting Diode and l aser Diode Spectra ! Width
LEOs produce optical power over a spectral width that follows a bell shaped curve. FWHM is
measured between the points on the curve where power has decayed to one-half of the peak,
and is sometimes referred to as the 3-dB point.
As shown in Figure 2.1 -10, the coherent, narrow beam of light generated by an LD is much
easier to couple (direct) into an optical fiber than the incoherent, widely dispersed light emitted
by an LED. In comparison, only about 1% of the optical power output from an LED can be
coupled into a fiber; whereas, 85 - 95% of the optical power output from an LD can be coupled.
Jt" laser Diode Output
/ Power
(dB)
........................ ·· ... ., ................... + Laser Diode

3 dB Point
"' / LED Output

'(
\
.........\ .,, ............ +LED
\. 3 dB Point
·20 ·1 0 +1
\
+20
Variation From Center Wavelegth (nm)
Figure 2.1-10: LED I LD Spectral Width

,.
bjw ~ rmt.h»YU
dii\-
~c IN~ '
~ tu~rJJfL~ A_<:
~ r;va.J-u.J

Light Emitting Diode and Laser Diode Physi cal Construction
Figure 2.1-11 shows the structure of an LED . The terminal pins at the bottom are the location of
the positive (anode) and negative (cathode) contacts. Applying the proper amount of voltage
(forward bias) to the terminal points causes current to flow across the diode (p-n junction). In
turn, this current causes photons to be released (through spontaneous emission), radiating
beams of light in all directions throughout the transparent plastic enclosure of the LED.
Emitted
Light
Beams
Terminal Pins
Figure 2.1-11: LED Components
For power levels of 1 Watt or less, LDs are typically manufactured in the can style, shown in
Figure 2.1-12. Can style LDs range from 5.6-9.1 mm in diameter at the base.
Located at the top of the protective can structure is the window from which the laser output is
emitted. Positioned at the center top of the interior section is the laser diode chip from which
the laser source is generated (by way of stimulated emission).
Heat
Sink
Cr~
CJ)v...~J
Monitor
Photodiode
Figure 2.1-12: Can Type LD

Optical Communications A ssociate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 2, Lesson 1: Optical Tran smitters and Receivers
Surrounding the chip and interior components is a heat sink for absorbing the extra heat
generated by the lasing action. LDs are very sensitive to changes in temperature and require a
steady operating temperature to maintain the desired wavelength output.
A photodiode is located at the bottom of the interior section , which is used for monitoring the
laser output. The photodiode provides input to monitoring control circuitry that helps maintain
the laser output at the desired wavelength and power level.
As shown in Figure 2.1-13, LDs for telecommunications applications are discrete components
and are manufactured as either a butterfly or Dual-In-Line (OIL) 14-pin package. Because of
the heat sensitivity mentioned earlier, LDs are usually paired with a Thermo-Electric Cooler
(TEC) module and a mounting plate to dissipate the heat.
Butterfly 14~pin Laser Diode Dual-In-Line (OIL)

14-pin Lase r Diode
~
1~tP/
xo
2(0 .
o:•.;o:;, ~\i'(fl~ . l.O-It'-~
Figure 2.1-13: Discrete Component Type LOs
LDs are deployed in the following ways :
• Packaged (integrated) with other components, such as modulators
• Fabricated on plug-in modules or circuit board structures to form hybrid optical

components, such as transceivers , transponders, or semiconductor amplifiers
Types of Laser Diodes
Millions of photons need to be generated to create a narrow beam of highly directional,

coherent light, with the necessary optical output power. This photon generation is
accomplished by stimulated emission (as previously described). Optical laser technology
(based on the laser cavity and stimulated emission concepts introduced earlier in this lesson),
has evolved to meet the challenges in transmission requirements associated with today's
optical networks.
As the requirements for long-haul system capacity continue to increase, so has the need to
improve LD quality. To meet today's dynamic network requirements, LDs with extremely
narrow spectral width (in the tenths of a nanometer range) have been developed . With the
widespread deployment of multi-wavelength WDM and DWDM technologies, new LD
technology continues to emerge. The channel separation can be so small that an LD spectral
width of less than 0.1 nm is needed to support the channel spacing requirements.
The next few topics introduce and describe various types of LDs used in optical communication
systems. These LD types include:
• Fabry-Perot (FP) lasers
• Distributed Feedback (DFB) lasers
• Vertical Capacity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSELs)

Module 2, Lesson 1: Optical Tran smitters and Receivers Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
Fabry Perot Lasers
The FP laser is named after French physicists Charles Fabry and Alfred Perot, inventors of the
Fabry-Perot interferometer in the late 1890s. The FP interferometer was constructed of parallel
plates of coated glass (mirrors) mounted on an extremely accurate adjustment device. The
adjustment device allowed the mirrors to be moved at precise distances and angles. The FP
interferometer, called an etalon (French word meaning measuring gauge or standard), was
used for studying wavelength radiation, resonance, phase polarization, and destructive I
constructive interference.
As shown in Figure 2.1-14, the FP laser is constructed with a laser cavity consisting of an
active medium enclosed by two parallel mirrors (called facets) . One mirror is highly reflective
and the other is partially reflective (and therefore slightly transparent). The mirrors provide
positive feedback, returning stimulated photons to the active medium, which in turn stimulates
more photons and generates additional optical energy. The two mirrors form a resonator that
produces a set of wavelengths with one dominant wavelength that is defined by the distance
between the two mirrors and the composition of the semiconductor.
Mirror Mirror
Input Output
Cavity
Figure 2.1-14: Fabry-Perot Laser Cavity
Compared to an LED, the FP laser emits a more powerful and narrow beam-like output.
However, when compared to other laser types, the spectral width of the FP laser output is
about 3 - 4 times wider. As shown in Figure 2.1-15, this wider output occurs because the FP
laser resonant cavity produces many longitudinal modes, one being the dominant center
wavelength . Longitudinal modes are the wavelengths produced by the stimulated photons in
the laser cavity. Each longitudinal mode is separated by about 1 nm . The spectral width
measurement accommodates the dominant wavelength as well as the longitudinal modes,
resulting in a lower fiber coupling efficiency than that of other types of optical lasers .
Edge emitting FP lasers can experience a shift from the dominant wavelength to one of the
other longitudinal modes, so that the emitted light varies in frequency. For this reason , FP
lasers are used for rates under 1 Gbps, and I or in CWDM systems because they have
relatively wide spacing between each wavelength. We describe CWDM systems in a later
lesson.

Center --...
Wavelength
Power
(dB)
A 1\
1295 1300 1305
Wavelengdl (nm)
pr:;.
Figure 2.1-15: Fabry-Perot Multi-longitudinal Mode Output , rx ~
1
Distributed i==eedback Lase:[ s ( Ce..ed b~ -ftt.0 €;-~ 'fr:J ~v~ ~~~
DFB lasers were created to compensate for the shortcomings in FP lasers. Rather than a
series of longitudinal modes, the DFB.Iaser emits just one frequency (monomode). The DFB
laser uses a Bragg grating inserted into the laser cavity of an index-guided Fabry-Perot laser.
The Bragg grating has evenly spaced ridges of semiconductor material (Figure 2.1-16) that
scatter light into the cavity, producing one specific wavelength .
· Active Region
Output
I \ •
End Mirror f
Grating
End Mirror
(optional) (optional)
Figure 2.1-16 : DFB Laser Structure
_;:;) bwY'·· ~ ~~!
·--fVLt 00a~ ·
bd eLi w v~:l1 "t /lVl> '4' ....W Ao. .

Jnfs n-o1 re .

Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser$
The VCSEL addresses shortcoming of the lasers we have described previously. VCSELs are
surface emitting lasers, making them cheaper to manufacture.
As shown in Figure 2 .1-17, the VCSEL laser cavity (which determines the frequency of the
wavelength) is relatively short; therefore, the spacing of the longitudinal modes is much wider
than , for example, the FP laser. The wider spacing , in addition to the Distributed Bragg
Reflectors (DBRs) that serve as mirrors, eliminates the chance that a wavelength other than
the one selected is emitted. The light emitted from a VCSEL is much narrower than that of an
edge emitter, so fiber coup ling efficiency is greatly increased . Finally, the active region of the
VCSEL is thinner than that of the other lasers we have described, so the power need is also
less .
Li ght emission
Figure 2.1-17: VCSEL Structure
Factors Affecting Laser Diode Performance
Laser chirp, back reflection, and temperature can influence the operation of LOs . Each of these
factors is described in the following paragraphs. •
, J\ .. <; _,_,.. ) M d.;J&et
{')\,dam" LaserChirp (ft. ~lfPn-:t r:,ot.. u-r---Fuf· Vct-'U.JJ-L~ l'fnocl~ofw"'
f).clf'CY- J:- ryy70clu) alv" Directly modulating a laser (by varying the current with in the laser) can cause the output
r. wavelength to shift, which results in a phenomenon called laser chirp.
\Y Lasers output a specific wavelength , but several other wavelengths are also produced within
the laser. Chirp is a broadening of the ·wavelength as it enters the optical fiber. The effect of
_ ~ _ J ,. , I.A"""kg..J;J pulse broadening becomes critical as the data rate increases . In DWDM systems, the narrow
~v;-.._....-~ - 1) spacmg between wavelengths at h1gh speeds also mcreases the effects of channel crosstalk.
{.J.e.. -~ !'9·111 External modulation devices (separate from the laser) help prevent laser chirp .
'-fL\Jl..-- dtok w-Ao)A. Back-reflection ( ogt.it-to::i@YD .b1.tx.t_~ p()..,Lk· M_~VL)

t. . ,, t.·uA)}{
'ill l' ()1,1-W\
..A Back-reflection is created when the light that is reflected off a mirror in a laser re-enters the
v\J-Xo
1, ,.. •I-{! laser cavity and causes the emission of unwanted light. Back-reflection often occurs when the
V&Co-~J.A (AJ-e f'J.A"' laser is joined to the optical fiber, or when two sections of fiber are connected.
., I 0 ,; -~ -~. - ~"'-
f(JUO .,
()( ''M6o_,)'-~
--~
---:----~
----;--;-'-~---.{[f-.----------------=,---------
\li,; tArJ ha.U.A. t.i. c{M~ VU
l,\)\M Copyright© 2010- 201 3 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved.
,/rl ·lt\.-U. ~ J_q, !At ~~ {} ~

_N_ }afrovfi1 ~~ !a/¥lj ~ ~ ~-!A_U ;\ ~·
' ' ~~ ')'¥\~ ~-fA.ol-
f
~-Qx rwtJ
\Y~
~
Temperature . f se.vvvt__,CP
~
~ -\\)..Q., ILQ/11'~
""o-o .. fLV' -\-!_,_;, -fC-AMf No;~
The temperature of a laser must be ma1nta1ned to ensure the stab1l1ty of the wavelength_ LOs
1,_ 0
Y}.J'- consume power, so they generate heat Peltier coolers are used to keep the temperature of
egJ" ~ lasers constant In 1834, Jean Peltier discovered that joining dissimilar conductors would result
,{'0 f('-y.J)- in heat at one junction and cooling at the other_ To cool an LD, a semiconductor of n- and
~). p-type layers is placed between two ceramic plates_ One side is hot, and one side is cold. The
"'~0-- A-~\-.JJte current can be reversed to switch sides_ In addition to stabilizing the wavelength, the cool,
~· SUJJ' constant temperature adds to the life expectancy of the laser_
Y 0~Utunable Laser Diodes

.~· (1)0,v:} , A WDM system may provide 100+ wavelengths, each of which requires a laser. A system with
\;;;..tJ ~ fixed-frequency lasers must have a spare to match each wavelength. As WDM systems have
~J-_ evolved, the inventory and maintenance considerations have led to the development of tunable
lasers. A tunable laser can be adjusted to any single frequency in the tunable laser's specified
range.
Distributed feedback lasers are useful in WDM systems because they produce one wavelength
that is calibrated precisely by the index-guided semiconductor material of the Bragg grating.
These lasers can be tuned either by using the cooling device (usually a Peltier cooler) to
change the temperature of the semiconductor material, or by ~u~~~J. a current through the
materiaL 0\, cVw1r0 .~ fc>~ .~ ~ ~ +~ ollodLe ,
VCSELs can also be tuned_ As we described, wavelength frequency is determined by the
length of the laser cavity_ The short cavity in this laser can be manipulated by placing a tiny,
somewhat transparent mirror above the cavity_The mirror extends the cavity length, thus
altering the frequency of the wavelength _As shown in Figure 2_1-18, tuning is made possible
by a Movable Micro-Electromechanical System (MEMS) device, which shortens or lengthens
the laser cavity_
Mirror with
EMS device

Optical Detectors
Photodiodes in the form of semiconductors are used as optical detectors at the receive end of
an optical transmission. The primary function of an optical detector is to convert photons that
comprise an optical signal into electrons, thereby converting the optical signal to an electrical
signal. The data transmitted by the optical signal is extracted through additional processing of
the electrical signal at the receive end .
Photodiode semiconductor devices operate with reverse bias. With reverse biasing , a negative
charge is applied to the p-region , and a positive charge is applied to then-region. As shown in
Figure 2 .1-19, the depletion region gets larger as the electrons move to the contacts and
current is blocked. When photons contact the p-n junction , a reverse current (that is
proportional to the 'light) will flow. This process enables the photodiode to detect light.
j \"-) v .yN)cD-er> ~ Gf~Lt?Ml

"'
: Pa~s\1"\,1'-t-
I
c
'MO p vJ-Vt fl
0 fle.ptL~ +
0
0
Figure 2.1-19: Photodiode Reverse Biasing
Two types of photodiodes are used in optical communications:
• Positive-Intrinsic-Negative (PIN) photodiode
• Avalanche Photodiode (APD)
Each of these is described in the following paragraphs.

Positive - lntrinsic~Negative Photodiode
Figure 2.1-20 shows an example of a PIN. A PIN photodiode works on principles similar to, but
opposite of LEOs. Rather than emitting light, PIN photodiodes absorb light, and photons are
converted back into electrons in a nearly 1:1 relationship.
Figure 2. 1-20: PIN Photodiode
The intrinsic region is between the p- and n-regions and is composed of a semiconductor
material. The intrinsic region acts like the depletion region; no current flows because of the
properties of the semiconductor material. The intrinsic region is made large relative to the
p-region, which increases the absorption of photons to be converted into electrons. PIN
photodiodes have many advantages, including low cost and reliability.
Avalanche Photodiode
APDs are similar to PIN photodiodes but provide gain through an amplification process (that is,
one photon in the semiconductor region releases many electrons). These electrons are
accelerated and produce still more electrons. The intrinsic region of the APD is doped with the
p material and is thicker than the intrinsic region of the PIN photodetector.
APDs have a greater degree of accuracy than PIN photodiodes, but they are more expensive
and more sensitive to temperature.
Figure 2.1-21 shows an example of an APD.
Figure 2.1-21: APD
Optical Detector Cha racteristics
One important characteristic of optical detectors is the ability to detect a broad spectrum of
wavelengths. One drawback is that multiplexed signals must be demultiplexed before they are
detected at the receiver, because the photodiode cannot select a specific wavelength itself.

Another important characteristic of a good optical detector is the amount of current produced
for 9 given amount of light. The more efficient the conversion, the more sensitive the detector is
said to be. Ideally, if 100% efficiency were possible, one electron of electrical energy would be
produced for every photon that strikes the photodiode material. In reality, this efficiency is not
possible.
The ability to detect very fast pulses is also a key characteristic. This detection enables the
photodiode to differentiate between different photons hitting in close proximity of each other. Of
course, the most sensitive and fastest detectors cost more to manufacture.
When evaluating photodetectors, the following parameters and characteristics are important to
consider and understand.
Responsivity: Responsivity measures the efficiency of the optical detector by determining the
ratio of the output current (amperes) to the input optical power (watts).
Quantum Efficiency : Quantum efficiency is the ratio of the number of incoming photons that
produce electrons at the detector. As we stated earlier, the ideal relationship between electrons
and photons is 1 :1. Quantum efficiency varies depending on the wavelength frequency. The
energy of the photon is dependent on the wavelength; therefore, the quantum efficiency value
is usually quoted with the wavelength.
Capacitance: The capacitance of a detector depends on the size of the active area and the
reverse bias voltage across the area . Higher voltage decreases capacitance, which results in
greater speed for the detector.
Response Time: Response time represents the time needed for the photodiode to respond to
optical inputs and produce an external current. The combination of the photodiode capacitance
and the load resistance, along with the design of the photodiode, determines the response
time.
Dark Current: Dark current is the small amount of current that is generated in photodiodes
even in the absence of light. Dark current creates electrical noise, which could be considered
the hiss that accompanies the specified signal. The wavelength frequency measurement must
take this current into account; therefore, dark current is measured in watts divided by the
square root of the wavelength frequency.
Noise: Noise is the electrical or optical energy generated because of the composition of the
detector. Noise creates interference with the signal the detector is attempting to receive . Noise
in a detector includes thermal noise and shot noise. Thermal noise, also called Johnson I
Nyquist noise, is created by thermal fluctuations due to the density of the electrons in the
detector. Shot noise is created by fluctuations in the electrical current. Amplifiers may be used
to ensure that the signal can be detected over the noise.
Edge Effect: Optical detectors have a higher responsivity value at their edges than in their
centers, but the fastest response to light is found in the center. Therefore, care must be taken
when aligning the detector with the fiber.
~)( .I.UIVI ~(~ I'" VI-elM> ~
_, ~f<J po\AWL, Y\..0_ ·( f-

Optical Transceiv ers

Fiber optic transceivers include both a transmitter and a receiver in the same device. The
internal components and circuitry are arranged in parallel, so that the components and circuitry
can operate independently and handle transmissions in both directions.
Figure 2.1-22 shows the types of optical transceivers currently in use.
Types of optical transceivers:

• Gigabit Linking Module (GLM)
Gigabit Interface Connector (GBIC)
Small Form-Factor Pluggable (SFP)
• 10 Gigabit Small Form-Factor Pluggable
(XFP)
100 Gigabit Form·Factor Pluggable
(CFP)
Type Transmission Speed
GLM 622Mbps
GBIC 1.25-2.5 Gbps
SFP 100 Mbps-10Gbps
XFP 10Gbps
CFP 40-100 Gbps
Figure 2.1-22: Optical Transceivers
Transceivers can interface with two types of fiber optic cable: single-mode and multi mode.
Common connector types for fiber optic transceivers include Biconic, 04, Enterprise Systems
Connection (ESCON), Fibre Channel (FC), Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FOOl), Lucent
Connector (LC), Loopback, Multi-fiber Termination Push-on (MTP), Mechanical
Transfer-Registered Jack (MT-RJ), Miniature Unit (MU), Standard Connector (SC),
Sub-Miniature version A (SMA), and Straight Tip Connector (ST). The performance
specifications for these transceivers include wavelength, operating voltage, data rate, and
bandwidth .
h/ v ';, pP ~
Xf'P 'I

SFP Transceiver
Shown in Figure 2.1-23, the SFP is a compact, hot-pluggable transceiver used for both
telecommunication and data communications applications. The SPF transceiver interfaces a
network device motherboard (for a switch, router, media converter or similar device) to a fiber
optic or copper networking cable.
Figure 2.1-23: SFP Transceiver
SFP transceivers weigh approximately 0.04 pounds (20 grams) and provide the physical-
optical - electrical interface between a network device and an optical fiber or an unshielded
twisted pair networking cable. SFP transceivers are used for terminating traffic signals, as well
as OTU1 and lesser-rate services.
Optical SFP modules are commonly available in four different categories: 850 nm, 1310 nm,
1550 nm, and DWDM. SFP transceivers are also available with a copper cable interface,
allowing a host device designed primarily for optical fiber communications to communicate over
unshielded twisted pair networking cable. SFP transceivers are available commercially with
capability for data rates up to 4.25 Gbps.
XFP Transceiver
The XFP (10 Gbps Form-factor Pluggable) is a hot-swappable, protocol-independent optical

transceiver, typically operating at 850 nm, 1310 nm or 1550 nm; for 10 Gbps SONET I SOH,
Fibre Channel, Gigabit Ethernet (GbE), 10 GbE and other applications (including DWDM links).
Figure 2.1-24 shows an XFP transceiver.
Figure 2.1-24: XFP Transceiver

CFP Transceiver
CFP transceivers operate at either 40 or 100 Gbps. The CFP is hot-swappable and is available
in data rates of- 40 Gbps, 103.125 Gbps, or 111 .809 Gbps . The modules can be either short
or long reach, with a variety of connections and both single-mode and multimode fiber. Figure
2.1-25 shows a CFP transceiver.
Fig ure 2.1-25 : CFP Transceiver
Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reseNed. 67

Module 2, Lesson 1: Optical Transmitters and Receivers Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide
Optical Modulation and Detection

Modulation is the process in which some characteristic of an electromagnetic wave, referred to
as a carrier wave, is altered to impose information (data) onto the wave for transmission . As
shown in Figure 1.2-26, the carrier wave transmits the data to the destination where the data is
then extracted from the carrier wave. In optical communications, the extraction process is
called detection.
Modulation Demodulation
Process Process
Information J Data
Electromagnetic Data Modulated Extract Data from

Carrier-Wave ~-:R""'e_c_e.,-~ive~
Carrier-Wave Signal Signal v Carrier-Wave Signal
Figure 2.1-26: Modulation and Detection
Symbols and Bit Rate
Modulation uses symbols to convey information . Examples of symbols used in optical

modulation include:
• Presence or absence of light
• A specific phase angle of a carrier wave
• A phase shift of a carrier wave
A symbol may represent one or more data bits, depending on the modulation scheme.
Symbol rate , also known as baud or modulation rate, is the number of symbol changes per
second. Symbol rate is expressed as baud (Bd) or symbols I second. Because a symbol can
convey one or more data bits of data, symbol rate is not always the same as the bit rate unless
each symbol conveys only one data bit. .,
ct-oJj\ cW~ ~ )
68
lesson Review
Review Questions
supplemental materials distributed during the class . Your instructor may review these
1. List the optical emitters described in this lesson . What are the performance
characteristics that are important to these emitters? Which emitter is used more
COmmonly in Optical transmiSSiOn? lJ? n .r>. 11. , , ,.1 D~ _
~ & J.Sb . ~tex~~ f'!YU.~ ;~P r»V'-'-"-' -
2. List the optical detectors described in this lesson and give a short definition of an
optica. I detector. What is a short~r11ing of optic~d ~ecters? ~. (Aj))J) ~ +o
PI~\/ ~~Jfi?l . . .' > IT )6J~j~11\f to ~
3. List three optical transceivers in common use today. J_pt£_e_}f:_d
LM, ~te) Y:t:.
f) y~ k_cu..H' ~
4. Explain the difference between a baud rate and a bit rate.
~ (______) ~?o;;~
~0 c~~.J /1'1~' -
~bol
U.~

Module 2, Lesson 1: Optical Transmitters and Receivers Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide
This page is intentionally blank.

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 2, Lesson 2: Ba sic Optical Components
Module 2, Lesson 2: Basic Optical Components

Overview
In this lesson, we describe different types of optical components used in optical
communications. As such, this lesson describes the basic operation of optical couplers,
attenuators, isolators, circulators, and filters .
Objectives
• Identity different types of couplers used in fiber optic networks
• Describe how attenuators are used in an optical network
• Describe the basic functions of isolators and circulators
• Describe how optical filters are used in an optical network
Introduction
Optical components interact with an optical signal. A simple example is fiber optic cable .
Because of physics and the way light inherently operates, the manufactured refractive and
reflective properties of a fiber cable enable light waves to be guided from one end of the fiber to
the other. Previous lessons introduced and described optical fiber cable, transm itters, and
receivers. This lesson describes how the following optical components are used in optical
communications applications:
• Couplers, splitters, and combiners
• Attenuators
• Isolators and circulators
• Wavelength Division Multiplexers and Demultiplexers
• Optical filters

Module 2, Lesson 2: Basic Optical Components Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
Couplers
Fiber optic couplers are branching components used for distributing an optical signal onto
multiple fiber paths (splitters), or for combin ing multiple signals onto one fiber path (combiners).
Generically, optical couplers are characterized by the number of input ports (n) in relationship
to the number output ports (m), as shown in Figure 22-1. Couplers are reciprocal (that is, any
port can operate as either an input or an output).
n x m coupler
lnputi.s
Figure 2.2-1: Generic n Input x m Output Coupler
The most basic coupler is a 1 x 2 component, used to connect one fiber port to two fiber ports .
Depending on the application, the single port can serve as either the input, with two output
ports (splitter function); or the single port can serve as the output, with two input ports
(combiner function).
Figure 2.2-2 shows a coupler acting as an optical splitter. The wavelength on the input port is
passed to both output ports . The wavelength is exactly the same as the input, but with half the
power.
sou
Oneinputi. Sp.litter
Figure 2.2-2: 1 x 2 Splitter

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 2, Lesson 2: Basic Optical Components
Figure 2.2-3 shows a coupler configured as an optical combiner. With the optical combiner,
different wavelengths are connected to each of the input ports, and both wavelengths are
passed to a single output port. Both wavelengths are exactly the same as those on the input
ports, but with only half the power.
light
source
Combi ner
'')_..-~
v' 2 inputls
~ l'A ()})
. ~\)j- Figure 2.2-3: 2 x 1 Combiner
().)'J ( }Yv-\
Q ~ P, In general, splitters and combiners exhibit a 3 dB loss per port (input loss) with an additional
7 loss of about 3 dB per port each time the number of ports doubles. Input loss and excess loss
must be added together to determine the actual loss per coupler port. For the splitter shown in
Figure 2.2-2, the power measured at the output port(s) is half the power of the optical signal
._jeJ;fl,IJLA \-{)·~ measured at the input port(s). Manufacturers often refer to 1 x 2 splitters as 3 dB couplers for
~J\;
this reason.
(W Most couplers are manufactured in multiples of two ports. Examples are 2 x 2, 4 x 4, or 8 x 8
tj) couplers . Some couplers can have as many as 64 ports. Although manufactured as a multiple
lQ;~ of 2, applications may only require the use of 1 port as an input or an output.
~ Optical couplers control the amount (percentage or ratio) of optical signal (power) that is
.
0 vd\lv distributed to each port. Common splitting ratios for a 2 x 2 coupler include 50-50, 90-10 , 95-5,
~'\.7"- 0 ~ \,}t-
0
and 99-1 . The ratio for a 4 x 4 coupler might be 25-25-25-25 on each output port. Any
0 &{}vV'
tJ.... customized value can be manufactured, and instead of percentages or ratios, distributed
~~ 1J ri'>(" output values are often specified in decibels (dB).
~I'.- Types of Couplers
() Couplers are versatile components used for many different purposes and applications in optical
networks. Most couplers are passive (that is, the signal division can take place without any
external power source). Active couplers are components that, upon getting a signal from a
receiver, use transmitters to repeat the signal to two or more different outputs. Such a coupler
might be used in a LAN, where the received signal is transmitted to another fiber link and also
~ . to a desktop terminal. In addition to the 3 dB couplers previously described, other types include
'" AD1 JJ-r . ,A. star couplers and tap port couplers.
O.J• v -r v G.U't'o; •\
~ ~~~ ~ If\~ t~b-c

Star Couplers
As shown in Figure 2.2-4, star couplers can be used to distribute an input signal to many output
ports simultaneously.
Figure 2.2-4 shows a 1 x 8 splitter used as a star coupler. As illustrated, the same optical input
signal is evenly distributed to all eight output ports , at a power level 9 dB below the input power.
Star couplers are used in Passive Optical Networks, which are described in a later lesson .
,.,. ................. "' ..,..,................... ,.,,.,_ . . __.. ,..,.. .... ,..,. . . ...........,...,......
Input 1
..'
:
.
~
j ' -....____.,/""'-~:O-utp-ut_1_ l\.1 +

' diiiT
l
; Output 2 )\1 ...
{~1 diiiT
i Output 3 )\1 ...
( ...,.
...
i
! Output4 )\1 ...
...#'"
; Outputs )\1 ...
.. I ~
: Output6 )\1 ...
I J diiiT
i ! Output? )\1 ...
..! ..Ail'
: OutputS )\1 ...
i t~ '
i
~
-f;..,., ~ ." '"'""'''"' ..""'"' ...."'""' ............. . ...........,., ... _.,,.._
"' ,: . ·:
.....,... ...........,.,,...,..,.__"'......... ,J OCft.-2213
Figure 2.2-4: 1 x 8 Splitter (Star Coupler)

Optical Communications Associate (OC -A): Student Guide Module 2, Lesson 2: Basic Optical Components
Cable lV networks use star couplers , as shown in Figure 2.2-5. In this example, a local cable
lV network provides a source feed consisting of an optical signal carrying data for all lV
channels .
Neighborhood 1
Cable TV
Figure 2.2-5: Cable TV Star Coupler Broadcast Distribution Network
The optical signal is output from the head end (top) to a first tier of star couplers on the
broadcast-based distribution network. A second tier of star couplers distributes the
multi-channel signal to ind ividual homes . Each home, in tum, is connected to an output port . A
cable box in each home receives all the channels, and the set top box is used to select a
channel for viewing.
U9~w
~
\
-ttJ
(5 ~&YVYJblL
fl
cP~ .-
(/)
~
~
/~ ~ ~
(A ~i) offi CJJAl' 4(Y1r
Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights res erved. 75

Tap Ports ( ~1J;w f~IJ)

Tap ports are typically used to support performance monitoring within an optical network. As
mentioned, couplers can be manufactured with one port from which a small portion (as little as
1%) of the input signal can be split.
Figure 2.2-6 shows a 1 x 2 coupler with a tap port connected to the output of an optical
amplifier. The tap port samples the output power level of the amplifier providing feedback to the
amplifier pump laser control module. If the feedback indicates the amplifier output power level
has fallen below a specified minimum threshold, the pump laser power is increased to bring the
amplifier output back up to the specified operational level.
Feedback Power Control

t• •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••• ••
Optical Amplifier ; :
(980 or 1480
Erbium-doped 1% Tap Port
Pump Laser) Fiber
Signal In +Amplified
Signal Out
Coupler Coupler Optical
Isolator
Figure 2.2-6: Y Coupler Tap Port
~ ~ 'S -I - "Yi\11 wJbv ~"'to .:

fOw--U\ i ~ Nf~

Attenuators
As we described in an earlier lesson, attenuation is the loss of optical power. Optical
attenuators are used in optical networks to lower the power level of an optical signal by
absorbing all excess light. Attenuators can be manufactured to provide either a fixed or a
variable reduction in power.
In an optical network, optical attenuators are inserted (physically spliced or connected) into an
optical path for the following reasons:
• ro prevent optical power satmation
• To assure a linear operating range
• To provide optical power equalization
Each of these functions is described in the following paragraphs.
Prevention of Optical Power Saturation
The transmit optical power level at the source end of a span is generally specified within a
range, based on power budget calculations. The primary goal on the transmit end is to
guarantee the optical signal has sufficient power to be properly detected at the receiving end.
In some cases, the power level at the transmit end is purposely designed to slightly exceed the
high end of the calculated power budget range . This is done to take into account the normal
degradation that occurs with fiber optic cable, equipment, and components over time.
Compensation for future optical losses due to other causes may also be included in the
calculation. For example, operational characteristics of the emitted optical beam (such as
modal distribution or a slight shift in the central wavelength) may cause future loss.
In other instances, the strength of the transmitted signal may be excessive simply because the
physical length of a span may be very short. As a result, there is very little attenuation of the
optical signal as it traverses the fiber.
If the power of the optical signal at the receiving end is determined to be greater than the
maximum acceptable threshold level specified by the optical detector, an optical attenuator can
be used to reduce the signal strength and prevent power saturation of the detector input. The
attenuator reduces the power of the optical signal to a level that fits in the dynamic range of the
light detector.
Dynamic
Range
Max
·.~·.~·.~~·:.·.~·::::::::::::.~·.l ................
II •
Min
OC_.,_-~01
Figure 2.2-7: Attenuator Placed to Reduce Power Saturation
(
Power saturation at the detector input can result in an increase in the Bit Error Rate (BER)
because the optical detector is unable to determine accurately the difference between optical
signals representing a binary 1 versus those signals representing a binary 0.
Assurance of Linear Operating Range
Optical power levels can vary due to differences in network topology. This variability occurs in
point-to-multipoint networks with varying branching designs and signal distribution schemes,
and results in different levels of optical signal strength for individual receivers c ected to the
branching endpoints. Optica a enua ors help a ance power els across a receivers and
nsure t tical signal strength will be relative! tlie same at t e 1npu for each-detector
endp~nt · ·
Optical Power Equalization 4

1P p)-~
. r-
-etc~ ~W-U[
~. r~ _ ~"() ~'
In Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) networks, it is extremely important to maintain an
equal and consistent power level across all wavelengths in the transmission path. However,
optical amplifiers tend to amplify the wavelengths located in the middle of the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) grid more than the wavelengths on the edges . For this reason,
WDM systems must equalize the optical power levels across all wavelengths before combining
them for transmission . Variable Optical Attenuators (VOAs) are embedded in the fiber to
reduce the power levels of the middle wavelengths before combining them into a composite
signal for transmission.
Previous techniques for balancing channel output power included adjusting the laser drive
current for each channel. This adjustment caused wavelength shifting to occur, which was
unacceptable given the requirement to maintain ITU center frequency and narrow grid spacing
between WDM channels. Using VOAs to control individual WDM wavelength output power,
instead of laser drive current, eliminates wavelength shifting while providing the ability to
equalize the output power.
Optical Add I Drop Multiplexers (OADMs) also require equalization, because there is a high
probability that optical signals with varying optical power levels will arrive independently from
different points in the network. By monitoring optical power levels on add I drop wavelengths
and adjusting VOAs, consistent power levels can be maintained on all lines entering and
exiting the OADM.

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide Module 2, Lesson 2: Basic Optical Components
Fixed and Variable Attenuato rs
Two types of attenuators are used: fixed and variable . Each of these attenuator types is
described in the following paragraphs.
Fixed Attenuators
Fixed attenuators apply a specific attenuation to reduce the power of an optical signal. Fixed
attenuator values range from .1 dB to as high as 30 dB .
Fixed attenuators are typically manufactured using Thin Film Filter (TFF) or dop_e.ci.fiber
material and are either inline or connector type components, as shown in Figures 2.2-8 and
2.2-9. lnline atlenuators are physically spliced into a fiber line. Connector type attenuators are
generally attached between an existing fiber connector and a piece of equipment.
Figure 2.2-8: lnline Attenuator
Figure 2.2-9: Connector Type Attenuators (LC, FC, and SC)
Variable Attenuators
Variable attenuators are designed with the ability to control (manually or automatically) the
amount of attenuation applied to an optical signal. When automated, a monitoring and
feedback capability is usually included to adjust the amount of applied attenuation.
Important performance parameters for VOAs include:
• Insertion Loss: Less than 1 dB generally required
• Dynamic Range: The range of supported attenuation , typically 15 to 25 dB

Many different technologies are available for achieving variable optical attenuation. These
technologies include:
• Electro-Optic (EO): Attenuation is corrected by applying an electric field, which

changes the index of refraction .
• Mechanical: Attenuation is corrected by using a motor-controlled blade or filter to

interfere with the light.
• Thermo-Optic (TO): Attenuation is corrected by changing the index of refraction of

temperature sensitive material.
Figure 2.2-10 shows a mechanical VOA with a MEMS driven by a power source that uses
temperature to activate a reflective blade to deflect unwanted light. The collimators (tubes with
a variable slit at one end and a convex lens at the other) use a curved mirror or lens to focus
the light, and the MEMS blade deflects the unwanted light.
MEMS
Focusing b.fade
Collimator lens
Attenuated
/ avelength
/
1\
l
Optical fiber
incoming l
/ Deflected
wavelength Power/ heat light
source
Figure 2.2-10: MEMS Variable Attenuator

Isolators
An optical isolator allows light to travel in only one direction, to prevent back-reflection. Unlike
couplers that can operate in a reciprocal way (outputs can be used as inputs), isolators are
manufactured with low loss for light passing in one direction and high loss for light passing in
the opposite direction.
As we described in the previous lesson, isolators are constructed using two polarization filters
and a Faraday rotator. Polarizing filters are created using crystals that have the ability to
absorb (pass) light at a specific angle. The filter passes the incoming light that is polarized
vertically and blocks the light that is polarized horizontally. One polarizer is set to pass light that
is approaching at a vertical angle. That light passes through the Faraday rotator and is directed
to the second polarizer, which is set to pass light that is approaching at a horizontal angle.
Figure 2.2-11 shows an optical isolator with the changing angles of light. All light that is not
angled to pass through the polarizers is blocked .
Pola.rizer
Figure 2.2-11: Isolator Operation

Circu lators
Circulators operate similarly to isolators, except they have additional ports (generally 3 or 4) as
shown in Figure 2.2-12. In a 4-port circulator, light entering port 1 is output on port 2. Light
entering port 2 is output on port 3. Light entering port 3 is output on port 4. Light entering port 4
is output on port 1. Similar to what was described in the previous section about isolators, light
entering in each port passes through filters that shift the angle of the light, preventing the light
from reflecting back to the previous input. Circulators are used to support optical add I drop
elements, which will be described in more detail during a later lesson.
Port3
Port4
'----....3 0
Port1 ~ .ft1> ~ . Port2
~~ iVL-?~d
Figure 2.2-12: 4-port Circulator
['
~fbLo~ ~
4ilR.. A5 ~~ oLo ~ b
f()/t> ~~ cvvvL
~~ k()J..}(L

Optical Filters
Optical filters are a basic component of WDM, as they selectively block or pass one
wavelength or a range of wavelengths on a fiber optic link. Optical filters use cavities or
wavelength sensitive components to restrict or redirect optical signals from one port to another.
The circulators, attenuators, and couplers described previously all select specific wavelengths
and absorb the rest of the light. In general , gratings filters reflect specific wavelengths, and
interference filters transmit specific wavelengths. However, optical filters often share both
these properties.
For WDM applications, certain characteristics are important for optical filters :
• Low insertion loss
•
•
Temperature stability
Low-cost manufacture
~~~
•
•
Ease of splicing to other components
Fast tuning
u~~T
• Wide tuning range (bandpass) S~JiZLt ~·~ fuWf~la?u__
• Polarization stability ~0-U-~ ~ ~t:UvJ' A~ ~
• Crosstalk rejection ("bleeding" of one wavelength into another) st..abJJVvv ~
~(:_Q ()1,;1.1\Jb
This section contains descriptions of the following types of optical filters: -~ ~Vf A.
• Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) 0-U · Cu.a, h'YJ.O.
• Arrayed Waveguide Grating (AWG)
• Multilayer Dielectric Thin-Film Filters (TFF)
• Mach- Zehnder Interferometer (MZI)
• Fabry-Perot (FP)
• Acousto-Optic Tunable Filter (AOTF)
Fiber; Bragg Gratings
We introduced the concept of Bragg gr.,atings in the previous lesson , where we said that evenly
spaced ridges of semiconductor material scatter light into a cavity. As the name implies, FBGs
are constructed within the core of the fiber. A P-attern is etched in the core, creating variations in
the...B.efracti ve Index (RI). The spacing of the variations controls which wavelength is reflected
back into the fiber, and other wavelengths are passed through.
FBGs are used in lasers (as we mentioned earlier) for dispersion compensation and as filters in
multiplexers and demultiplexers.
Figure 2.2-13 shows a simple FBG filter. In reality, there would be hundreds of gratings, each
reflecting back some of the specified wavelength. The other wavelengths are passed through .
·tLA.-.L

-~-)/' 0G,
Cladd ing Gratings Core
i.2
i.3
tL>Ih ~ ~./ /..1 is reflected back

uv ~Q_,
t~ 1M- ~ IYV. Figure 2.2-13: Fiber Bragg Gra1ing
(jJ 1>1£ -~ Figure 2.2-14 shows how an FBG, in combination with optical circulators, can be used to select
different wavelengths to be dropped (or demultiplexed) at different ports. Through Port 1,
wavelengths 1, 2, and 3 enter the circulator and are sent to the FBG. Wavelengths 2 and 3
pass through the FBG, and wavelength 1. is reflected back into the circulator, which drops it out
Port 2. Wavelengths 2 and 3 enter the next circulator (which might be part of an amplifier, for
example) and are sent to the next set of FGBs, where wavelength 3 is reflected back to the
circulator and out Port 3. Wavelength 2 is passed on.
Port1
Port2 PortS
Figure 2.1-14: FBGs with Circulators
84 Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights resetved.

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide Module 2, Lesson 2: Basic Optical Components
Arrayed Waveguide Grating Filters

N2~J.
An AWG filter is a planar waveguide, which is similar in concept to a Fiber Bragg Grating filter.
Whereas an FBG uses fiber to guide the light, the planar ("planar" means two-dimensional)
waveguide us es a do ed ace tor ·se e and create a uid.e.lo t eli ht. The Rl controls
which frequency of light is a owed to pass. Figure 2.2-15 shows star couplers at the input and
output ends of the AWG filter to split and combine the light. To guide different frequencies,
each guide is a different length.
('fY1!»J ) .
Waveguides
/
Input Star Coupler: Output Star Coupler:
combines light
splits light ' \
/
Input:
)\1 • ~. 1\3. · · ·· An
OCA ·2048
Figure 2.2-15: Arrayed Waveguide Grating Filter

Fabry-Perot Filters
The FP filter uses the same construction as the FP laser that we described in the previous
lesson, that of a cavity with two parallel mirrors. The size of the cavity determines the frequency
of the wavelength.
FP filters can be tuned by changing the length of the cavity. This change can be done either by
adjusting one of the mirrors to lengthen or shorten the cavity, or by filling the cavity with stacks
of piezoelectric material. The material, usually ceramic, changes the length of the cavity
)
through the property of piezoelectricity: an applied voltage can change the shape of a solid.
Figure 2.2-16 shows a Fabry-Perot filter. The input and output fiber connections are integrated
into the filter to reduce coupling loss . The number of channels supported per filter can be up to
100 channels if multiple filters are deployed. As the se.paration between the stacks becomes
wider, the passband (or frequency range) becomes narrowe~
-~ ..
Mirrored
End s of Fiber
. -. ---~·.· Piezo-electric
.........
Crystals
Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier Stabilizer Filters
Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier (EDFA) sta,.bilizer filters com pensate for the accumulated losses
incurred by the various devices used for lightwave multiplexing and demultiplexing . These
passive devices can accumulate as much as 20 dB of loss.
EDFA filters compensate for this loss and eliminate or reduce the need to deploy regenerators
on a per-channel basis. We describe EDFAs later in the course. In this lesson, we describe
how FBG filters are used with EDFAs.
The performance of an EDFA is affected by ttJ..e-cba~cte_~s of the~m~laser diode.

Pump-laser performance is often adversely affected by unwantea8Xfernalrefl8aions back into
the laser cavity. FBG-based pump stabilizer filters lock the emission wavelengths of 980 nm
and 1480 nm pump lasers.
EDFA Gain Flattening Filters
The flattening filter is another FBG application . Because EDFA gain tends to vary across the
output of 1530 to 1560 nm spectrum, it is necessary to equalize the gain across the spectrum
with FGB gain-flattening filters . These filters can reduce the non-uniform gain variation across
the full EDFA window, thereby improving performance and simplifying the design ofWDM
systems .
86 Copyright© 2010- 20 13 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved.

Multilayer Dielectric Thin Film Filters
A multilayer dielectric TFF is a type of FP filter. As shown in Figure 2.2-17, the reflective
material is alternating dielectric thin film layers, with different Rls. The multiple reflections
create interference, passing one wavelength and rejecting the others.
Dielectric thin film
Input Output
Cavity
Figure 2.2-17: Multicavity Thin Film Filter
As shown in Figure 2.2-2.2-18, multiple thin film filters can be cascaded to create a multiplexer
or demultiplexer. Each filter passes one specific wavelength and reflects the others.
Figure 2.2-18: TFF Multiplexer I Demultiplexer
Mach-Zehnder Interferometer Filters ( tJO'L.Lf'\...e).L)

An MZI separates groups of lightwaves, rather than individuallightwaves. A beam splitter at the
input divides the lightwaves evenly. Figure 2.2-19 shows the signal entering a coupler,
separating at the arms of the MZI, and leaving the next coupler in two evenly divided groups. If
the length of the arms (the distance from beam splitter to beam splitter) is unequal, then the
groups will not be evenly divided.
The beam splitters can be housed in fused-fiber couplers, such as the splitters we described
earlier in this lesson. MZis can also be cascaded, but each successive split doubles the
spacing between the channels.

MZis are useful as two-input, two-output multiplexers and demultiplexers. MZis can also be
used as tunable filters , where the tuning is achieved by varying the temperature of one of the
arms of the device. This tuning causes the Rl of that arm to change, which in tum causes a
different wavelength to be selected. The tuning time required is of the order of several
milliseconds . MZis are not good candidates for higher channel-count multiplexers and
demu ltiplexers.
Light
detector
Beam
splitter
Input
Figure 2.2-19: Mach-Zehnder Interferometer Filter
Acousto-Optic Tunable Filter ( ~ he__~ b~ )

The AOTF selects wavelengths using the principle of Bragg diffraction; the grating is created by
a sound wave. The source of the acoustic energy is a piezoelectric substance, which is
compressed to create a sound wave. The Rl varies as the frequency of the acoustic wave
varies; therefore, the frequency of the wavelength can be adjusted by altering the acoustic
wave.

Lesson Review
1. When an optical signal is input to a 1 x 2 coupler, what happens to the wavelength and
power of the optical sig~al?
~~Q ;\.6. ; rOWLQ.A-> ~vuo her ~,
2. Describe the basic purpose of an optical attenuator and list three reasons why
attenuators might be used in an optical network.
~~~~~~ -~·-
~ ~4Pf0~ .Da::tJ.L~A» iJ 02~·-GA. bvV
~ l~ ~ '-")
o 2M 3. What is the basic function of an isolator?
t-ft'W:- ~OAAA ell~~

\) (.,(}IA.fi k,u.l.hV-0 G"\ d.P s.tvv Q)l~
.--'7
4. What is the basic function of an optical filter? List five optical components that can be
constructed I manufactured using optical filter technology .
,~
. CA ~(te.. M- 3 -A-Df'll!. ;P~ ~\.0\'~ ~ CJaiwf-0.~
V I -·, o ~ Str:L\?t)i~ ~LW- " .D:::..tvh ,
'.:Y ~ ( ~ >- ~ ;r~ ,_:r0J -14M

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fu-K A
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Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide Module 2, Lesson 3: Optical Devic es
Module 2, Lesson 3: Optical Devices

Overv iew
In this lesson, we describe complex optical devices that use a number of, or combination of
optical components described in previous lessons. Optical devices are used at nodes in optical
networks to provide functions required at the node. The following optical devices are described
in this lesson:
• Optical Add I Drop Multiplexers (OADMs)
• Reconfigurable Optical Add I Drop Multiplexers (ROADMs)
• Optical cross connects (OXCs)
• Optical switches
• Optical amplifiers
Object ives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
• Describe the function and benefits of OADMs
• Describe the function and benefits of ROADMs
• Identify and describe the types of OXCs
• Explain the basic functions of an optical switch and identify applications that require
switching in an optical network
• Describe the types of optical amplifiers
Optical Add I Drop Multiplexers

OADMs are used in optical networks to add or drop individual wavelengths at intermediate
points in the network. All other wavelengths in the composite signal pass through the OADM
and continue on the optical span.
OADMs are also referred to as fixed OADMs because they use optical filters that operate only
with specific, or fixed, wavelengths as determined by their hardware configuration. In addition,
fixed OADMs typically allow adding or dropping of a specific number of channels at specific
wavelengths. Therefore, network upgrades to increase the number of add I drop channels or to
change supported wavelengths are typically service-affecting and are done manually. These
limitations are addressed by ROADMs, which are described later in this section .

Module 2, Lesson 3: Optical Devic es Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
The insertion and extraction of wavelengths (commonly referred to as add I drop functions) of a
OADM are shown in Figure 2.3-1. OADMs perform add I drop functions optically. Therefore,
add I drop functions at an OADM do not require an Optical-Electrical-Optical (0-E-0) process .
a OADM a
b e
c ,f
b
Dropped Added d
Wavelengths Wavelengths
c
OCA-2100
Figure 2.3-1: Optical Add I Drop Multiplexer
Multiple OADMs can be deployed along a fiber path , as shown in Figure 2.3-2. This
arrangement enhances an optical network by essentially creating transmission paths between
any two OADMs on the span, or between any OADM and either end point of the span .
OADM OADM OADM
1 l 1 l
OC .~·2 101
Figure 2.3-2: Multiple OADMs on Single Fiber Path
Multiple OADMs provide a cost effective way for interconnecting nodes in a network and for
handling pass-through traffic in both metro and long distance networks. In many networks, the
amount of traffic that passes through a node is much higher than the traffic that terminates at a
node.
Prior to OADMs, network nodes required the deployment of Terminating Equipment (TE) for
each incoming wavelength, even if the wavelength carrying the data was being passed through
the node. TE was (and still is) expensive, and with each additional wavelength the incremental
cost multiplied, given individual TE components needed to be installed to handle each
individual link.

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 2, Lesson 3: Optical Devices
Adding OADM nodes reduces the amount of TE because only the wavelengths to be added or
dropped require the support of termination equipment. All other wavelengths passing through
the station can continue without the need for additional TE.
Opti cal Ad d I Drop Multi plexer Functional Configurations
The functional configurations supported by OADMs are shown in Figure 2.3-3 . With the
through function, wavelengths are passed through without interruption. The add I drop function
allows extraction of individual wavelengths from the incoming optical signal and insertion of
wavelengths into the outgoing optical signal. The drop-and-continue function allows a
wavelength to be routed to TE at the node, while also allowing the wavelength to continue on
the outgoing optical signal.
Through Add-Drop Drop and Continue

Optical Rx Tx
~
Tx RX
1
., t
Figure 2.3-3: OADM Functional Configurations
faa·~~
~ ,& ~M~ --\hA))A-dk
(jJP $ &df

Module 2, Lesson 3: Optical Devices Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
Reconfigurable Optical Add I Drop Multiplexers

ROADMs add flexibility to DWDM networks by providing dynamic, transparent , optical
wavelength add I drop capabilities. With ROADMs, any wavelength channels in a DWDM
network can be added , dropped , rerouted , or expressed (continued) optically in any
combination at a node. ROADMs allow these functions to be done automatically, with minimal
user intervention.
As shown in Figure 2 .3-4, a ROADM uses a photonic switch to add or drop wavelengths
optically. Wavelengths that continue on the DWDM path are expressed through the ROADM
without interruption. In contrast to a fixed OADM , a ROADM can be configured to drop any
wavelength from the incoming multiwavelength DWDM signal. Any wavelength can be added
to the outgoing DWDM multiwavelength signal. ROADMs are described in more detail later in
this course.
Photonic Switch
Multi-wavelength Multi-wavelength
DWDM Sic nal DWDM Signal
I
Optical 1
Add/Drop !
Lwu---~~nr--•r-v
Any DWDM channel can

be added or dropped.
Figure 2.3-4: ROADM

Optical Cross Connects

OXCs are advanced devices capable of switching and continuing lightpaths and adding I
dropping local client-layer traffic. OXCs perform many of the same functions as OADMs, but on
a much larger scale in terms of the number of ports and wavelengths handled . A lightpath is an
all-optical channel that can span more than one fiber link.
With optical transmission capacities rising above the terabit per second range (Tbps), network
management has been faced with the problem of trying effectively and efficiently to manage,
switch, provision , and monitor the large number of connections , endpoints, and lightpaths
made available by multiwavelength technology. One component that helps solve or alleviate
this problem is the OXC .
OXCs are best suited for network locations where several WDM transmission lines converge,
where high levels of bandwidth management are required. OXCs can also groom traffic and
carry _put sophisticated wavelength rna nagem.eo.t_tasks where com plex network topologies and
large nu~er of wavelengths are involved. Grooming refers to combining multiple low-speed
traffic stre~wavelen gths . OXCs are very useful in mesh topologies, hub
locations, an d for Interconnecting several WDM rings in core and metro networks .
In the mid to late 1990s, the technological developments associated with WDM , DWDM , and
the EDFA made it economically practical to deploy these technologies in long haul networks.
This deployment enabled long haul networks to support the transmission of multiple
wavelengths (100 or more) over a sinqle strand of fiber for much greater distances, without the
need to perform 0-E-0 gonversion and regeneration. This was a significant breakthrough for
optical networkinQarid helped a great deal in satisfYing the increased need for bandwidth
capacity and reducing transmission bottlenecks.
Classification of Optical Cross Connects
Optical cross connects are classified into the following types, based on their switching ,
capability: ) t11v ft~rl c {!) .-e,w;\
~ • F;becCcossConnects(FXC) cfb»c ~1-1wJ !,~ ~~
cl.o~:J's. ~. Waveband Cross Connects (WBXC) ([?7~J1 )s) ~~CP-l f-b.-e_~_,)
---f{~ b8- • Wavelength-Selective Cross Connects (WSXC) ' U
Each type of cross connect is briefly described in the following paraQraphs .
Fibe r Cross Connect --, ~~JOfrch..M ttJ~ lxt.~.~

Figure 2.3-5 shows an FXC. An FXC switches all the wavelengths of an in..aut fiber po!t to an
output fiber port. The FXC is.the least complex and the least expensive in com parison to other
types of cross connects. However, the FXC is the least flexible in operation and primarily
functions as an automated fiber patch panel. Because all wavelengths are switched together,
and depending on transmission system design , the need for line TE can be reduced or avoided .
The FXC can be used for protection when fiber c_!ill; (as opposed to node failures) are ot
primary concern . I n Figure 2.3-5 , all wavelength channels on one fiberJ.rnQ.r:_esented by
--. i' - --- - -
different lines) are connected to an output fiber. --
Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights res erved. 95

Module 2, Lesson 3: Optical Devices Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide
Fiber Cross-Connect
Figure 2.3-5: Fiber Cross Connect
Waveband Cross Connect
Figure 2 .3-6 shows a WBXC. With a WBXC, lightpaths that share the same end points and
have adjacent wave lengths on the transmission spectrum are grouped into bands that are
switched together. The ability to switch a group, rather than individual wavelengths, provides
an increase in switching speed.
Waveband
Cross-Connect
.••
.•
•
•
Figure 2.3-6: Waveband Cross Connect

Wavelength-Selective Cross Connect
A WSXC has the capability of simultaneously switching individual wavelength channels from
any input port to any output port. The WSXC supports wavelength-based services and is more
flexible and resource-efficient in provisioning and restoration than fiber or waveband cross
connects. These advantages are gained at the expense of extra complexity and cost.
Figure 2.3-7 shows individual wavelength channels on input ports selectively connected to
output ports.
Waveband-Selective
Cross-Connect
$~ (~~:
i
!~ /
.•
•
•
·r•-
If • • • " M. ll! .... ~ • •' ~-, •
~ .. ~ J.
.••
Figure 2.3-7: Wavelength-Selective Cross Connect

.-

Optical Switches
Optical switching consists of connecting or rerouting an optical signal from an input port to a
specific output port. Optical switching is sometimes referred to as photonic switching.
Optical or photonic switches are another component of high speed transmission. These
switches can move over 3 Tbps of data in the form of SONET I SOH, Optical Transport
Network (OTN), and Ethernet on 200 x 200 ports . Most commercial optical switches still use
0-E-0, so they are not truly optical switches.
These switches use fabric-based switching for tight control of data and offer lower operational
expenditures than legacy switching strategies . The modules in the switch are capable of
multiplexing and demultiplexing .
Optical Switch Performance Characte ristics

r
The two most important performance characteristics of an optical switch are:
• Port density
• Switching speed
The switching speed and port density requirements are determined by the various applications
requiring switching functionality. Port density (the number of ports on a device) defines where a
~itch is placed . 1
Some applications require only occasional switching, so the time required to perform the switch
is not important because the time does not negatively affect the operation of the network or the
clients using the network. In some instances, a switch action is completed and the connection
stays in the same state for a very long time.
Other applications, such as rotection switching, may require much faster switching with more
immediate-FespeRs.e, times. With these applications, sow switching spee ays may have
a'n adverse affect on nerwGrk operation and clients using the network.
In addition to providing basic switching functions, optical switches also need to support the
following functions :
• Provisioning
I •
Protection switching
J
~ Bit rate transparency
Provision ing
Provisioning consists of establishing, removing, and redirecting connections between input and
output ports. Provisioning features typically include remote provisioning capabilities ,
compatibility with network management systems, and support for network Operation ,
Administration , and Maintenance (OAM) protocols. Provisioning functions help simplify,
automate, and expedite the tasks associated with connection or switch management.
Protection Switching
Protection switching sends traffic from a primary fiber to a backup or standby fiber in the event
the primary fiber fails. The typical requirement for time to detection and reporting of a failure is
1-10 milliseconds. The typical requirement for the time from failure detection to completion of
the switchover action is no more than 50 milliseconds.

Bit Rate Transparency
Optical switches need to support the ability to switch optical signals transparently, without
having to process signals with arbitrary bit rates and frame formats. This ability is most
important for all optical switches, given an 0-E-0 conversion must take place to process data
streams based on bit rates and frame formats. This ability also requires more components such
as transponders, which match the data rates and frame formats being processed .
Optical Switch Example
Figure 2.3-8 shows an example of an optical switch. The ports can be line modules or
pluggable transceivers. Optical switches can be elements in larger components such as
ROADMs.
SONET/SDH
VlAN!?N /LSI's
Sub-lc. ~tvkes
SONETISOH,
OTN.L2
VLAN/F~·N!LSPs · switching
Sub-A &&rvicos ·
SONET!SOH
Figure 2.3-8: Optical Switch Example
Optical Switch Connections
An optical switch element can be idle with no connections, or can support connections in one of
two states. One state, referred to as the Bar state, has input ports connected directly, straight
through the switching element to adjacent output ports, as shown in Figure 2.3-. The alternate
state is the Cross state, where input ports are swapped and connect diagonally to output ports.
Switch elements do not switch states unless triggered. Therefore, switch elements react and
switch states as determined by a higher level control , management application, or external
decision making process I program. ·
Copyright© 2010-20 13 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved. 99

Bar State Cross State

Generic 2 x 2 Generic 2 x 2
Switch Switch
A ...... . c A
~
B •...
... D B
OCA-2050
Figure 2.3-9: Bar and Cross States
The switching element serves as the fundamental building block from which larger, multipart
switches, switch matrices, and switch fabrics can be created . The switching element is a device
such as a MEMS , which we described in an earlier lesson .
Figure 2.3-10 illustrates a 4 x 4 multipart switch formed by interconnecting 16, two by two
coupler switch elements. In the configuration shown, a connection (path) is possible between
any one of four input ports to any one of the four output ports . After an input I output
combination is determined, a path can be created between the two points by placing specific
switch elements in the proper state (Bar or Cross) to form the connection. The figure shows a
connection from input 1 to output 3.
2 3 4
Outputs
Figure 2.3-10: 4 x 4 Multipart Switch

'
£~~· cJJJ- ~Q)-{_jt))-1/\.-)
Optical Amplifiers
In the following paragraphs, we define the roles and importance of regeneration and optical
amplifiers in optical networking . A historical view is provided to emphasize the transition from
regeneration equipment to optical amplification and the importance of optical amplifiers in the
evolution of optical communications. Finally, different types of optical amplifiers are described
in terms of how they operate.
Historical Overview of Optica l Regeneration and Amplification
In optical networking history, regeneration equipment superseded amplifiers.
1970s: Regenerator I Span length limited to 3 - 10 km
In the 1970s, optical networks were built with multimode fiber, transmitting and receiving a
single wavelength operating in the 850 nm range. Given the infancy of optical technology
(specifically with transmitter and receiver components) and the dispersion limitations
~e. ~ associated with multimode fiber, fiber span lengths were limited to 3 - 10 km (6.2 miles max).
~~- As illustrated in Figure 2.3-11, an optical link connecting two nodes separated by a distance of
euvJ> . 120 km required the installation of roughly 11 regenerators in each direction to support a
..} ~e . · bidirectional link. In 1970, an optical link of this type could support data rates of 45 Mbps .
•
"es,/A Of rV'J 120 km (74 miles} - - - - - - - - -..
Location
R.e {1' w\l~ Location
A B
Figure 2.3-11: 1970s Regenerator I Span Length 3 - 10 km
Regeneration equipment was expensive in the early deployment of optical networks and that is
still the case today. Because of the costs associated with regeneration, the need to minimize
regenerator use or to eliminate regenerators altogether continues to be a primary objective for
network designers.
Early 1980s: Regenerator f Span Length Increased from 10-40 km
Once developed, Single-Mode Fiber (SMF) became the fiber of choice due to its very low
attenuation characteristics in the 1310 nm wavelength range. Using single-mode fiber and the
technology of the day (emitters and detectors), network designers determined that an optical
signal could travel about 40 km (24.8 miles) before the signal became unrecognizable by the
far end receiver.
As shown inFigure 2.3-12, the distance between regenerator stations on a 120 km link could be
extended to 40 km. This extended distance between regenerators reduced the cost of the
overall network significantly, given only two regeneration stations and three spans were
needed to support a 120 km link. Improvements and advancements in optical component
technology enabled data rates to increase from 45 Mbps to 1.5 Gbps.

120 km {74 miles)

Location Location
A B
40km 40km 40km
40km 40 kill 40km
Figure 2.3-12: Early 1980s Regenerator I Span Length 40 km
l ate 1980s: Regenerator Span Lengths Reached 100 km
Towards the end of the 1980s, Dispersion Shifted Fiber (SMF - DSF) was invented to take
advantage of the lower BER achievable in the 1550 nm transmission window. At about the
same time, DFB laser technology became commercially available, providing high power
precision lasers that could transmit over longer distances and with a much narrower output
beam . The narrow output beam matched much better with the small core diameter of SMF,
reducing input loss due to increased coupling efficiency.
As shown in Figure 2.3-13, regenerator span lengths increased to 100 km. Advances in laser
and fiber cable technology enabled bit rates to reach 2.5 Gbps.
,_.
120 km (74 miles)
Location
B
·too km
~========~~====a.aama~!RI~mmmm~~
100 km
Figure 2.3-13: Late 1980s Regenerator I Span Length 100 km
1990s and Forward: Amplifiers Emerged, Enabling WDM Technology and Replacing
Regenerators
In the early 1990s, rare earth element optical amplifiers became commercially available. The
--- - - -
technology existed in the 1960s, but deployment was not practical until semiconductor laser
pumps became available in the late 1980s. ~h power laser pumps are required to stimulate
the amplifica_t~io:....n__::..
-
ca
-
:.;Jp:...;a:.;;;b:..c;il~
ity
"--'-
w;.;..:.
ithin a fiber that is doped with rare earth element material.
Shown in Figure 2.3-14, amplifiers replaced regeneration equipment on fiber spans. Rare earth
amplifiers were able to amplify an optical signal without the need to perform 0-E-0 conversion,
thus maintaining the signal in the optical domain . Rare earth amplifiers helped reduce the
number of regeneration stations required, as well as the bottlenecks that occurred due to the
processing overhead inherent in the 0-E-0 conversion.

WDM Signal Carrying

Mult iple Wavelengths
Mux Amplifier ~ Amplifier Demux
~=== ======
Figure 2.3-14: 1990s: Amplifiers Replace Regenerators
Amplifier deployment significantly reduced the need for regeneration equipment at intermediate
span points along an optical link. However, regeneration equipment was still maintained on link
endpoints (nodes, Add I Drop Multiplexers (ADMs), and termination equipment) where optical
signals were converted to electrical bit streams for other reasons, such as client side add I drop
or wavelength conversion. Given the 0-E-0 process had to be executed to perform these other
functions, it made sense to include the R2 and R3 regeneration functions while the data was in
the electrical domain.
Unlike regenerators, which can only process data from a single wavelength and at a specific
data rate, rare earth amplifiers such as EDFAs were found to be wavelength agnostic (at and
around the 1550 nm range), as well as data-rate independent. Rare earth amplifiers could
amplify multiple wavelengths simultaneously, which helped spawn the massive deployment of
WDM systems. With the capability to transmit multiple wavelengths on a single strand of fiber
(8, 40, 80, or more wavelength channels), network bandwidth capacity took a huge leap
forward, increasing transport data rates into the Terabit per second (Tbps) range.
If regeneration was required with a WDM application, the multiwave optical signal had to be
demultiplexed and each wavelength processed individually by separate regeneration
components (one for each wavelength and data rate). After regeneration was complete, the
electrical bit stream was converted back into individual optical wavelengths, and the
wavelengths were then multiplexed for re-transmission over a single strand of fiber.
After optical amplifiers were introduced, the goal for network designers was to ensure span
lengths never reached the point where regeneration equipment was needed. As such, span
lengths expanded, ranging from 100- 600 km for local, metro intra-area, and metro to metro
interconnecting networks. Span lengths expanded as far as 1000 - 8000 km for extended long
haul and undersea networks.
In the 1990s, given the new technology and Terabit capacity capabilities associated with
amplified multi-wavelength networks, minimum span lengths were determined primarily by
amplifier optical reach limits, as defined by acceptable BER and Optical Signal to Noise Ratio
(OSNR) levels. If BER and I or OSNR levels were unacceptable using amplification only, then
regeneration equipment was strategically deployed (cost effectively) to clean up the streams of
data carried by the multi-wavelength optical signal.

Amplification (1 R) and Regeneration (2R I 3R)
As shown in Figure 2.3-15, the greater distance an optical signal travels, the more the signal is
degraded through attenuation, distortion, and other effects such as jitter. Optical signal
degradation is caused by many factors including impairments, reflections, and the nonlinear
effects that occur in the fiber cable. The optical signal is also degraded by accumulated noise
produced by components and devices along the signal path.
Optical
Attenuation: .·. · Fiber
power. amplitude
A
Loss of energy, . . . . . i:WMHA:j
.
Optical
Fiber
Dispersion: Network
Pulse widening Components
Jitter:
Network
Loss of Components
timing
Figure 2.3-15: Optical Signal Degradation
At the end of the span, the strength and quality of the transmitted optical signal must be
sufficient to allow accurate recovery of the transmitted data. Amplification and regeneration are
used along the span, as necessary, to ensure the signal reaches the end of the span with
enough strength and quality to be accurately detected and decoded.
As shown in Figure 2.3-16, amplification and regeneration in optical networks is broken down
into the following functions:
• 1 R regeneration (Re-cover IRe-amplify): Recovers (converts from optical to electrical) .

Amplification boosts the power lever of an optical signal so the next device on the span
or link can detect the signal.
• 2R regeneration (Re-shape): Reshapes V'{avefuans and filters out noise. 1 R optical

ampli!!_cation is onli' in~ludeg_wit!12~re~n~!ation_i~ a~ _9mPITfi~r1~ -d~p~)(.;d :
• 3R regeneration (Re-time): Extracts timing from a received signal and reapplies the
timing to the waveform.
Combinations of these functions may be performed within a device. For example, both 1 Rand
2R regeneration may be done together if an optical amplifier is included in the device. 2R
functionality is typically included in devices where 3R regeneration is performed. At 2R - 3R
sites, 1 R optical amplification can also be included if an optical amplifier is deployed within the
device.

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide
<
'\'
~0~ (iYlJ}l:i. ' · 4 '0 ~'
Module 2, Lesson 3: Optical Devices
~~~-
Optical
Fiber
__/ --1
_M .~mpl ification
and Reshaping
-~
JU1
Original Degraded
Optical Optical Amp Iification.
Signal Signal Reshaping.
and Re-timing
Figure 2.3-16: 1R, 2R, and 3R Regeneration
In today's optical networks, amplification (1 R) takes place in the optical domain , while
reshaping (2R) and retiming (3R) take place in the electrical domain . To perform 2R and 3R
regeneration, the data must be extracted from the optical signal and converted to an electrical
bit stream . After 2R and 3R processing are completed, the electrical bit stream must be
converted back into an optical signal before transmission over the next fiber span. This process
is referred to as 0-E-0 conversion.
In earlier generations of optical networking, prior to the invention of optical amplifiers, 1R

regeneration was used to denote signal recovery. As such, all 1 R, 2R, and 3R regeneration
was performed exclusively in the electrical domain. A substantial amount of equipment still
operates this way in today's optical networks. When optical amplifiers came on the scene,
academia, ITU, and others began using the 1R designator to denote optical amplification.
Therefore, today 1R has a dual meaning. In the electrical domain 1R means recovery, and in
the optical domain 1R means amplification (or re-amplification).
2R I 3R Regenerator Block Diagram
Figure 2.3-17 shows a block diagram of an 0-E-0 2R I 3R regenerator. As shown, input to the
2R I 3R regenerator consists of an optical signal that has degraded to the point the signal is too
noisy and distorted. The signal is noisy and distorted due to losses and accumulated dispersion
of the fiber span just traversed .
Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation All rights reserved. 105
' I
.........................................................
PIN/APD 0-E-0 Laser
Detector Regeneration Transmitter
Noisy. Distorted Reshaped.

Optical Signal Re-timed
IN Optical to Optical Signal
Electrical to
Electrical OUT
Optical
Conversion
.• ....... ....... ,
""
: Filtering and :
Conversion
.....! ....... ; Reshaping ._:- - -

Timing : 2R
Recovery ......•....... :
:
...... .,...
3R
.. ~···· .
.•
..
·············'
·········-··········11·····························-·"'*••·· OCA-2085
Figure 2.3-17: 2R /3R Regenerator Block Diagram
At the front end of the 2R I 3R regenerator, a photodiode (PIN or APD) converts the photons
that represent binary 1s to electrical 1s and those with little or no light signal to electrical Os.
Then, the electrical pulses are passed to the electrical circuits of the receiver where retiming is
extracted (3R) and filtering and reshaping is applied (2R). The actual decision as to whether a
binary 1 or 0 exists in a bit position is determined in the demodulation process of the light signal.
In modern systems, these functions are carried out in an integrated photodiode receiver.
After 2R and 3R processing is applied, the binary signal is passed to a transport termination
interface to provide status and OAM support. The status of the regenerator and quality of the
bit stream can then be forwarded to a Network Operations Control center (NOC). The electrical
bit stream is converted to an optical signal as a function of the laser transmitter, which
generates and modulates equivalent light pulses from the incoming bits. The laser transmitter
light level coupled into the outgoing fiber is generally in the range of 0 - +3 dBm.

Addi ng Amp lificatio n 1 R
Following 2R and 3R regeneration, if the span over which the optical signal will be transmitted
is of a length that exceeds the optical reach of the output signal, it may be necessary to place a
fiber amplifier (1 R) following the regenerator laser output, as shown in Figure 2.3-18.
Depending on the type of amplifier deployed, the signal may be boosted as much as 20 or 25
dB.
Reshaped. Re-timed
Optical Signal
JUlJl.
Noisy. Distorted ~
Optical Signal
IN Optical to
Electrical
Conversion
...................
Electrical to
Optical
Conversion
Amp
1R
n Amplified
Optical Signal
•• : Filtering and ~
OUT
....... ! ...... . : Reshaping :..... _ ___..
Timing :
: ......•.......
2R :
:
: Recovery
• JR ..
~"••
..
••" •v·- ·••• •
.
•............•.
Figure 2.3-18: 2R I 3R Regeneration and 1 R Amplification

Optically Amplified Long Haul Networks
In today's optical networks, spans with lengths greater than 600 km are referred to as long haul
networks. Today's long haul optical networks are classified based on achievable distance
without signal regeneration (which requires 0-E-0 conversion). Instead, transmission
distances are enabled by deployment of optical amplifiers along the transmission path. The
primary application for long haul networks is the transport of voice, video, and data
communications between cities and more specifically, between metropolitan area networks.
As shown in Figure 2.3-19, spans identified as long haul generally refer to span lengths ranging
from 600 km (372 miles) to 1000 km (620 miles). Long haul networks are also subdivided into
extended long haul, ultra long haul, and submarine networks. The extended long haul
subcategory identifies spans with lengths ranging from 1000 km (620 miles) to 2000 km (1240
miles), and the ultra long haul and submarine subcategory consists of span lengths of 2000 km
and greater.
Ultra Long Haul I Submarine:

greater than 2000 km
=======::;====·=·==··=··=·- ~~,7 : Extended Long Haul:

1000 - 2000 km
======·=- ~:::,...
:¢'
., : Long Haul:
600-1000 km
1000 km 2000 km 4000 km

(620 mi) (1240 mi) (2480 mi)
OCA-2091
Figure 2.3-19: Long Haul Network Classification

Optical Amplifier Roles in the Network
In today's optical networks, most regeneration stations have been removed and optical
amplifiers have been installed. Optical amplifiers are deployed within an optical network to
counteract optical attenuation and signal loss . As shown in Figure 2.3-20, optical amplifiers are
designed and deployed to support one or more of the following roles in the network:
• Post or boost amplification
• lnline amplification
• Pre-amplification
Network design criteria dictate both the type of optical amplifier and locations where optical
amplifiers need to be placed within an optical network. Considerations such as fiber type,
capacity (number of wavelengths), and whether Forward Error Correction (FEC) will be used
are some of the determining factors.
Post-or
Boost lnline
Amplifier Amplifier Pre-amplifier
Transmitter l l l Receiver
1UU1 nnn
Figure 2.3-20: Amplifier Functions
Post- or Boost Amplifier (BA)
A post or boost amplifier is a high-power saturation device. Generally, a boost amplifier is used
directly after the optical transmitter to increase its signal power level. The boost amplifier does
not need stringent requirements for noise and optical filtering. In this application, the amplifier
needs to be able to take a large signal input and provide maximum possible output level. Small
signal response is not as important because the direct transmitter output is usually -10 dBm or
higher. The noise added by the amplifier at this point is also not as critical because the
incoming signal has a large OSNR.
In Figure 2.3-21 , a post or boost amplifier is placed at the output of a multiplexer. This
11 placement is common when the signal strength on the output will not be powerful enough
J YROWU (within network specification) to reach the other end of the fiber span. -~ ~-\.1\J...
4 - r)'\ ~ Post or Boost d. (9Q/Y\>''1''t ~ed
l}.,M.vJU
""'·II\/\()
uv-v·-r ;;u --
Amplifier
IUUl --lo be ·
()JUl. snhlk~ .
~ ~£Lt..Vv
~~trt1~t{ •
3
~~~~~M::u 1;::ti=p:le~xer Transmitter ~l!l.U
·~-
r
fd ~'-fA_,
0C.1:.,-2DS} ..:. l/J
Figure 2.3-21: Post- or Boost Amplifier

Module 2. Lesson 3: Optical Devices Optical Communications AJsociate (OC-A): Student Guide
lnline Amplifier
Figure 2.3-22 shows an inline amplifier. lnline amplifiers are also referred to as line amplifiers
or Optical Line Amplifiers (OLAs). The in line amplifier is a low noise optical amplifier used
between fiber sections to increase the distance between regeneration stations , or to
compensate for losses incurred from multipoint connections.
An in line amplifier takes a small input signal and boosts the signal for retransmission down the
fiber. It is important to minimize noise on the incoming signal as it traverses the span and the
noise added by the amplifier. Noise added by amplifiers in series will limit the system length.
lnline Optical Add/Drop

Transmitter Amplifier Multiplexer jOADM}
l l
Figure 2.3-22: lnline Amplifier
Pre-amplifier
Pre-amplifiers are used at the receive end of a span ifthe power level of the received optical
signal is too low to operate or drive the optical receiver. As shown in Figure 2.3-23, the
pre-amplifier boosts the incoming optical signal to a power level above the minimum specified
threshold level of the optical detector.
Amplifying the incoming signal at this point assists the optical detector in determining the
difference between the optical signal and the noise accompanying the signal. Therefore, it is
important to minimize the noise added by the pre-amplifier and maximize the OSNR amplified
signal.
Pre am pi ifier
Optical
.JUUl Receiver
O C.A.-2095/\
Figure 2.3-23: Pre-amplifier
110 Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena~· Corporation. All rights reserved.

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 2, Le sson 3: Optical Devices
Types of Optical Amplifie rs
The following types of optical amplifiers have been developed for use in optical networks :
• EDFA
• Raman amplifier
• Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (SOA) ~
EDFAs -·t~AJ1 ~ ~ wA.fJA- ~()J-<b -{_OJJ)A. . ,
An EDFA is an electrically powered device; however, the amplification process is completely

optical. EDFAs are used because their amplification window coincides with the third
transmission window of silica-based optical fiber (C-band , from 1525 nm - 1565 nm; and
L-band, from 1570 nm -1610 nm). Both bands can be amplified by EDFAs, but it is normal to
use two different amplifiers , each optimized for one of the bands . The principal difference
between C-band and L-band amplifiers is that a longer length of doped fiber is used in L-band
amplifiers. The total gain bandwidth for an EDFA amplifier is about 30 - 40 nm.
The EDFA amplification process takes place (using an LD and stimulated emission) within a
section of single-mode fiber (generally about 30-40 feet in length) that has a controlled
amount of the rare earth element erbium added to the glass in the form of ions . As shown in
Figure 2.3-24, the high-powered light operates between 10 - 200 milliWatts (mW) and at a
wavelength of 980 or 1480 nm . The excited light is mixed with the incoming optical signal using
a wavelength selective coupler.
Ampl ified
Optical Signal
_,_
~
~
••
...- ....
* -·
.. .-.·
tr>
"" .,• IF
~ . ..
,. . .
.
">
* • •
. .. .. Erbium-
*
~ . -·
• •
doped
Optical Fiber
Pump -w ~J:J ~f!)/1...

(980 nm or 1480 nm
7\A.--tM
u ~~J£1
Laser Diod e)
Pu M{)
I Lcv>Uv w __ _.,
OC' -20' - () ~
~ ~ p--0 tJ-R.A_ ,- a
Figure 2.3-24: EDFA Functional Diagram U ~ ~ wwr'Le_d ~.-tn;tlt
EDFA 980 nm versus 1480 nm Pump Lasers t~a-k_ .o ( ~ Q -
EDFA amplifiers are typically constructed using pump lasers operating at wavelengths of 980
or 1480 nanometers. Both wavelengths have been found to excite and stimulate erbium doped
fiber ions into an energy state necessary to amplify optical signals operating in the C-band and
L-band transmission ranges.
When first manufactured, EDFA amplifiers consisted of single stage designs. However, as
optical technology improved and a better understanding of optical transmission impairments
was realized , EDFA manufacturing migrated towards dual-stage and multi-stage designs. The
Copyright© 2010-201 3 Ciena® Corporation. All rights res erved. 111

Module 2, Le sson 3: Optical Devic es Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
use of one or more semiconductor lasers was incorporated to pump high powered light into the
erbium doped fiber. In multi-stage designs, the first stage was generally pumped with a 980 nm
pump source and the final stage with a 1480 nm pump source.
The specific pump laser used within the design (or stage) of an EDFA depends on the desired
outcome and I or network application . EDFAs that use pump lasers operating at 980 nm
produce low to modest optical gain (10 -15 dB) and are able to amplify an optical signal without
producing a lot of excess noise. This makes 980 nm pumped EDFAs good candidates as
pre-amplifiers, where receiver sensitivity and requirements for a high OSNR and lowBER
performance are determining factors .
In optical amplifiers, excess noise is referred to as Amplified Spontaneous Emission (ASE) and
is created when electrons transition from a high energy state back to the ground state. Only a
negligible amount of ASE noise is generated in amplifiers pumped with a 980 nm source
because photons inside the erbium doped fiber are maintained in a constant high level state.
For applications that require higher optical power gain without too much concern for noise
levels, 1480 nm pumped EDFAs (or stages in a multi-stage design) have been manufactured.
Semi-conductor lasers operating at 1480 nm are able to generate much higher optical output
power than 980 nm lasers. When used as EDFA pump lasers, 1480 nm lasers are able to
pump much more optical power into the erbium doped fiber medium, resulting in a much higher
amplified output (typically 25- 30 dB). ·
The downside to 1480 nm pumped EDFAs is that they tend to generate about 4 dB of ASE
noise during the amplification process, which is twice the amount of noise generated by 980
nm pumped EDFAs. The increased ASE noise occurs because at 1480 nm the amplifier cannot
sustain the same level of stimulated emission and population inversion exhibited with 980 nm
pumped EDFAs . Thls'13ituation results"m a h1 her ercenfa e of electrons returning to the-
ground state which in turn rod hi her levels of ASE noise. Due to th e h1gher noise levels,
EDFA designs that incorporate the use of 1480 nm pumped lasers are best suited to operate
either as boost or inline amplifiers, as long as the total number of amplifiers is limited in
cascaded configurations. Because optical amplifiers amplify all incoming light, if too many
1480 nm_p~-t!JJ?~_sj-~DFAs_gre_c.as.cadwT-the accumulated affect of there-amplified ASE noise
eve'h tu-ally surpasses acceptable OSNR levelsfor a given link I span. -·- ·

2-Stage EDFA with Mid-stage Access
Figure 2 .3-25 shows two single stage EDFAs packaged with mid-stage access between the
two EDFAs. Mid-stage access is important in WDM networks to allow connection of Dispersion
Compensating Fiber (DCF), which is used to reduce chromatic dispersion. By installing DCF at
the mid-stage access point, insertion loss associated with the DCF can be addressed while still
generating significant gain through the 2-stage EDFA.
EDFA
Isolator lsoiator
" -~
Xi!wtl? V :
Figure 2.3-25: 2-Stage EDFA
How the 2-Stage EDFA Amplifier Works
The optical input first passes through the first optical isolator. As we learned earlier, an optical
isolator is a device that allows light to pass only in one direction (left to right in this example).
Next, the light passes through the first Wavelength Division Multiplexer (WDM) . This device
enables the addition of the 980 nm pump wavelength into the first length of erbium -doped fiber.
This WDM also allows the input optical signal to be coupled into the erbium-doped fiber with
minimal optical loss .
The light energy of the 980 nm wavelength pumps the erbium atoms into an excited state that
decays slowly. The 1550 nm optical signal passing through the doped fiber causes stimulated
emission of radiation, thus amplifying the 1550 nm optical signal. The amplified signal (output
of the erbium -doped fiber) then goes through the second optical isolator.
The output of the second isolator is routed to the mid-stage access point, where the DCF is
connected . The signal travels through the third isolator. In the second WDM, additional 980 nm
energy from a second pump laser is coupled into a second length of erbium-doped fiber to
provide additional amplification . Finally, the signal travels through the last isolator, to the output
of the 2-stage EDFA.
Applications for Two Stage EDFA Amplifiers
The performance characteristics of EDFAs make them useful in long haul , high data rate fiber
optic communications systems and Community Access Television (CATV) deli very systems.
Long haul systems need amplifiers to compensate for fiber attenuation loss over long distance
links I spans. CATV applications often need to split a signal to several fibers , and EDFAs boost
the signal before and after the splits.

.
~b i ~t,u;zJ t-o~. 4 ~ ~~ -1;4).
-~ A.tri1 we --lit.t9U v, ?1 ()I r- 'rn).-<--~
Module 2, Lesson 3: Optical Devices ~ ·~ c.owJJ , Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
0
Raman Amplifiers
!L'
A Raman amplifier provides optical gain based on Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS). SRS is
a nonlinear effect that is intrinsic within all optical fiber. SRS occurs when two wavelengths,
separated by approximately 100 nm, are transmitted simultaneously into the same optical fiber.
Specifically, when two wavelengths separated by 100 nm are passed through silica-based fiber,
the optical signal operating at the higher of the two wavelengths is able to absorb optical
energy from the signal operating at the lower wavelength . The transfer or coupling of energy
from the lower wavelength to the higher wavelength is due to molecular vibrations that occur in
all silica-based optical fiber when two wavelengths (1 00 nm apart) are transmitted over the
same strand of optical fiber.
To exploit this effect, a high-powered pump laser can be used to generate the lower of the two
wavelengths. (The higher of the two wavelengths is the optical signal carrying the data.) If the
wavelength of the high-powered pump laser is 100 nm less than the optical signal carrying the
data, a modest amount of optical energy produced by the pump laser will be coupled and
transferred to the signal carrying the data. The result is optical amplification of the data-carrying
signal.
As shown in Figure 2.3-26, a high powered laser operating at 1450 nm pumps light in a
counter-propagating direction, through a circulator, and into a fiber. The signal is a wavelength
in the C-band at or around 1550 nm. Because the wavelength of the high power pump laser is
100 nm less than the 1550 nm data carrying signal, SRS occurs, causing amplification of the
data-carrying signal.
Circulator
'G~L~
·JkL
IJ~
r ..
Optical Signal In _,. ....ill6.lllloo.lll'----t
(C-Band 1550 nm)
. _ _ _ _ ___...._____
Optical Signal Out
(Raman Gain of 7-11 dB)
·--
)crvr...YIA _
~-bW A LfL~
&0 ~tc.& u 4' r
euvvpU{'~
~ct
...f1ltL
~-
1450 nm
Raman Pump Laser
Figure 2.3-26: Raman Amplifier Functional Diagram
-~v.- ~ ·- Raman Gain and Gain Bandwidth
Typical gain for Raman amplification is between 7 - 11 dB, depending on the amount of power
produced by the pump laser. One of the drawbacks of Raman amplifiers is that the pump laser
is required to output 500 mW to 1 Watt of optical power to induce the SRS amplification
process.
114 {.JeJ '1-UJ. ,As ~ 'fy~ Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved.
(;Jdc;IN tv·wt M, U(J v, VLeJ

pumps are deployed and pump wavelength ranges overlap, the total gain bandwidth can be
extended well beyond the single p u m p = range. r; 7
Hybrid EDFA I Raman Configurations t ·
Raman optical amplifiers differ in principle from EDFAs . In EDFAs, atoms are pumped to a high
energy state, which then drops to a lower state and releases energy in the form of a photon. In
contrast, Raman optical amplifiers utilize an extremely high powered pump and SRS to create
optical gain . Despite the different methods, both EDFA and Raman amplifiers provide optical
gain .
EDFAs using 1480 nm pump lasers provide optical gain to 30 dB. However, due to the optical
amplification characteristics of erbium doped fiber, the gain bandwidth is narrow (about 35 - 40
nm) and centered around the C-band 1550 nm wavelength . For DWDM applications, this
means that all channels must fit within a transmission window of 1525 - 1565 nm.
The lim ited supported range brings with it issues and concerns regarding crosstalk between
channels . As more channels are added and channel spacing becomes smaller and smaller,
interference between adjacent channels can occur. In addition, because the EDFA gain
spectrum tends to provide more amplified power to the wavelengths at the center of the C-band
and less power to channels at the edge, equalization of channel power across the 35 nm band
is difficult to achieve without special compensation I power adjustment techniques. In this case,
equalization means that the power is maintained from the input to the output.
Combining the optical power and the flat bandwidth characteristics of Raman amplification with
the high optical gain output of an EDFA expands the overall optical amplification capabilities of
a network. A number of EDFA types have been constructed to work as wideband amplifiers in
the C-band transmission window. These devices use several types of fiber components and
gain equalizers, as well as varying pumping schemes. Using a partially gain flattened wideband
EDFA in conjunction with Raman amplification in the transmission fiber, an extremely large
bandwidth ef67 nm (1549-1616 nrm) can be obtained (as shown in Figure 2.3-8).
C Band LBand
20 ..................................................... .............................................................................. .
EDFA+
15
-m ~pfi) ~
-
"C
( 'j("' !.JuYt vv
fiNl ())~fKR..
~
rfl.l--u W) ~ ·r
;Z-tfr\A-1'-\~ ~~
o~--L--,------~-----r-----,------~---
tlJ(!?_ ~crt. 1530 1550 1570 1590 1610 1630
Wavelengt h (nm) •XA-2030
[,0-Q- ~ ~
Figure 2.3-8: EDFA + Ram an Am plification
{S~~r~ 1m
-&-iS~ U'()
1t<.J jfAN -1-o t:{&~

/J? r g../
115
Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers
An SOA is an LD without end mirrors, with fiber attached to both ends. In an LD with mirrors,
light bounces back and forth within the laser cavity. In an SOA, the optical signal goes directly
into the cavity and straight back out, without being reflected back into the cavity. No mirrors are
used to reflect the signal.
Like the LD, the semiconductor amplifier operates on stimulated emission, which occurs when
a current is passed through the device. When the current is on, the SOA amplifies the signal;
when the current is off, the signal is absorbed. Thus, the SOA can modulate as well as amplify
a signal. An SOA can be constructed in a small age to be ~ ed in 131 0 om-Gr:-1550 nm
systems. In a 11on , SOAs transmit bi-directionally, making the reduced size of the device an
advantage over regenerators or EDFAs. Drawbacks to SOAs include high coupling losses,
polarization dependence, and a higher OSNR. \

Lesson Review
lesson Review Questions
The following review questions are about information in this student guide and the
questions in class after you have had time to complete your answers .
1. Describe how OADMs help reduce the overall cost of an optical network.
~~ ~~ t \0~ r\J-
I.oo cUD~ -~ .-t~ ~~ ~_s.
2. Explain how ROADMs differ from fixed OADMs.
3. List the three different types of OXCs and briefly describe where OXCs are most likely
to be deployed in an optical network.
Px;q ~~~ Si-i w ex. ~rs
,.-- ~~'
4. sw~ ~ V> f"IV" ~_::;i
List the performance c. haracteristics that, define a
~eJ ~~ I J00 ~I "j .s -fy I~, «tAl"' 1vj ~

0 -,v\<.t"\Cl .v ty ~a tw ,1 ~
5. List and briefly describe the two major benefits op ical amplifiers have had on optical
networking .


Optical Communications A ssociate (OC-A) : Student Guide Module 3, Lesson 1: Introduction to Optical Networking
Module 3, Lesson 1: Introduction to Optical Networking

Lesson Overview
In this lesson , we describe how communications networks evolved into today's optical
networks. We describe Synchronous Optical Network (SONET), Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
(SOH), Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM), Optical Transport Network (OTN) , and their
place in optical networking. Finally, we describe optical networks in the context of network
topologies and architectures. \.)--'
Lesson Objectives ~~ v-\IP~ .<;$'?(

At the end of this lesson , you should be able to: ·fl
u ~· f) ~
/
• Understand the evolution of digital transmission, includf~g T-, E-, and J-Carrier
systems, and the Plesioch;onous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) ~ C (V'.
• Describe network timing ( -A:;.v1-(J'; ·<Z-01'lc ): rrtP f~1~~V\ · hty{l rvj)

• Describe synchronous digital networks, including SONET and SOH
• Define data-centric networks in the context of circuit and packet switching , and Internet
Protocol (IP) networks
• Describe WDM, Dense WDM (DWDM), and Coarse WDM (CWDM)
• Describe the Optical Transport Network (OTN)
• List the differences between linear, ring , and mesh topologies
• Explain Local Area Networks (LANs ), Metro Area Networks (MANs), and Wide
Area Networks (WANs)
• Define and list the network architectures used in optical transmission networks
• Describe cu rrent optical network applications
Introduction
There are a number of network technologies that take advantage of the speed and bandwidth
provided by optical transmission, including:
• Asynchronous Transfer Mode (A TM)
• Enterprise Systems Connection (ESCON)
• Fibre Channel (FC)
• SONET I SOH
• OTN
I
• Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet (GbE), 10 1 bE, and 100 GbE
These types of networks process data as electrical signals and then access lightwaves for
transmission over optical fiber. In the following !paragraphs, we provide some historical
background that led to the use of these technr gies in optical communications networks .
Copyright© 2010-201 3 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved. 11 9

Module 3, Lesson 1: Introduction to Optical Networking Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide
Digital Transmission Networ ks

A key development in the evolution of communications networks was the replacement of
analog transmission by digital transmission. In the following paragraphs, we describe this
transition and how digitizing data contributed to the development of high-speed optical
transmission .
Early Developme nt of Digital Transm ission
When telephones started to beoome household necessities in the 1950s, telephone companies
ran copper from each house to a connection on an exterior pole. That junction went to a
Central Office (CO), which routed each call to its destination. Telephone companies had
multiple switching offices, which were interconnected by copper. The telephone systems used
analog transmission technology to route calls over the copper-based connections.
In the CO, multiplexing was used to aggregate calls between COs. Initially, multiplexing
combined 12 call channels onto two twisted pairs of copper wire. As the number of subscribers
grew, the trunking network that interconnected offices became overwhelmed . Higher levels of
multiplexing were implemented to meet the demand but problems continued.
The Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) in the Un ited States relied solely on analog
transmission technology until the 1960s. (Even today, in North America, analog technology is
widely used in the PSTN for connections to end users.) Because of its dependence on analog
technology, the PSTN was hampered by the following problems:
• Signal noise: Analog signals require regeneration when transmitted over long
distances. Regenerators cannot distinguish between a signal and noise in a
transmission so they regenerate both the signal and the noise. Therefore, noise in an
analog t~pnsmission is additive as the signal traverses the networU.dvances in
analog Telephony reduced the affect of noise, but the additive characteristics continued
_to be a ~.t€1 nces.
• Difficulty in scaling to meet increased demand: To meet the increasing demand for
telephone services, expanding the analog system required adding more lines. This
work was expensive, time-consuming, and required more and more space.
These problems led to the use of digital transmission in the PSTN.
One of the key technological advances in digital transmission technology was Pulse Code
Modulation (PCM), which has enabled the reconstruction of the digital signal. United Kingdom
engineer Alec Reeves developed PCM in 1937. From the time of Alexander Graham Bell's
invention of the telephone in 1876, voicEt transmission had be.eu hampered by noise aria
transmission erro[S.. Reeves' solution was to sam ple the analog voice waveform at regular
interVals and convert the analog waveform to a digital signal. The samples were represented
by binary numbers, which were transmitted in the form of on-off pulses. By digitizing the analog
signal, PCM reduced the noise and transmission errors associated with analog transmission.
PCM digitizes an analog signal using a three-step process: sampling, quantizing, and encoding.
Reeves based the sampling process used in PCM on the Nyquist sampling theorem. The
theorem states that the sam pling freguency of an analog_wave must be at least twice the
highest frequency of that wave. ......
In telephony, the high~freq.!!,encwt voi~~ Therefore, using the

Nyquist theorem , the sampling rate should be no less than 6,800 samples per second . In the
telephone system, the actual bandwidth allocated to each voice channel was 4,000 Hz;
therefore, when PCM was implemented in the telephone system, the sampling rate was 8,000
samples per second. Figure 3.1-1 shows an analog wave with sampling points.
120 Copyright© 2010-201 3 Ciena® Corporation. All rights res erved.

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 3, Le sson 1: Introduction to Optical Networking
'l>
"0
:::l
~--~~------+---~~~~~-----+--~~--~----~~+-----~~~---
0..
E
c(
Time (seconds)
Figure 3.1-1: Sampling an Analog Wave
The next step in the PCM process is quantizing the samples. In this step, a numeric value is
assigned to each sample, representing the level of the analog signal at each sample point. The
quantizing process has 255 values (in the range of +127 to -127) for representing various
levels. This set of numeric data becomes the digital representation of the analog signal.
After the samples are quantized, the next step is to encode the data into a digital bit stream for
transmission . This encoding is done by converting each quantized value into a binary string of
eight 1s and Os. Each string forms an 8-bit word (byte). Then, the transmission rate for each
channel can be calculated as follows:
8 , 000 samples per se cond X 8 bits pe r sampl e = 64 , 000 bit s per s econd (b ps)
The 64 Kbps channel is defined as the basic building block of the North American Digital
Hierarchy (NADH) and is called Digital Signal 0 (DS-0). International standards also defined
the 64 Kbps channel as the basic building block of their digital signal hierarchy, referring to it as
an EO.
Even though Reeves had invented the PCM technique in 1937, PCM-based digital
transmission was not deployed in the PSTN until1962 . Until then, there was no cost-effective,
practical way to implement PCM technology in telecommunications systems.
The T -Carrier System
The T-Carrier system was the first successful system designed to carry digitized voice traffic.
The T-carrier system was based on the T1 standard issued in 1965, which was adopted by
Cana~ an , American, and Japanese service providers._
The standard specified the use of Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) to multiplex twenty-four, 64
Kbps (DS-0) digital voice channels.. The transmission rate for the multiplexed signal, referred to
as a DS-1, is 1.544 Mbps .
A DS-1 signal transmits DS-1 frames that consist of the following:
DS - 0 t i meslot = 8 bits
24 DS -0 timeslots per DS - 1 frame = 24 X 8 bits = 192 bits
1 fram ing bi t included in eac h DS - 1 frame 193 bits total

::: s:
I . ._ !-
--:;--, ', ,.;
h \i- :t: Vi
-"
------------------~-----------------------r~~--------------------------~~--------
~7
Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved. 't(((. ~..$. ?\ )S 0 ~ 121
~"' ~ ....._.
v ._.) - ; v->. .::::t
~~~.,
,,_. ~'f - - - - ~
'1-J
At the DS-1 rate of 1.544 Mbps, DS-1 signals transmit 8,000 DS-1 frames per second , as
shown in the following calculation :
8 , 00 0 DS - 1 frames p er second X 1 93 bits pe r fr ame= 1 . 544 Mbps
Multiplexing in the T -Carrier System C!}rt.~ bcwJ.... ~ )

Each DS-0 channel transmitted in a DS-1 signal is assigned a specific position in the DS-1
frame . The location of the DS-0 channel is referenced by time, so the channel position is
referred to as a timeslot, and the process is an example of TOM. Timeslots in the signal are
transmitted in a defined sequence, and channels are extracted at the receive end based. on
that sequence, as shown in Figure 3.1-2. Each timeslot is reserved for a specific channel , so if
that channel is idle, the timeslot is wasted.
Multiple Multiple
Low-speed Single
Low-speed
Bitstreams High-speed
Bitstreams
Bitstream
....
_,. -~~r~\\
.... -~~!(
Multiplexer Demultiplexer
Figure 3.1-2: Time Division Multiplexing
Consisting of 24 multiplexed DS-0 channels, DS-1 is the first level of multiplexing in aT-Carrier
system. Table 3.1-1 lists the additional signal levels defined for the T -Carrier system .
Digital Signal Number of Equivalent Bandwidth

Level 64 Kbps Channels Lower Rates (Mbps)
DS-1 24 24 X DS-0 1.544
DS-2 96 4 X DS-1 6.312
DS-3 672 7 x DS-2 44.7368
DS-4 4032 6 X DS-3 274 .176
Table 3.1-1: T -Carrier Signal Rates
The bit rates are not exact multiples. For example, a DS-2 is slightly more than four times the
rate of a DS-1 and a DS-3 is slightly more than seven times the rate of a DS-2. The rates are
not exact multiples due to bit stuffing . Bit stuffing is a technique used to compensate for bit rate
diffe~ences between signals to be multiplexed . With TOM, the signals to be multiplexed must
be at the same rate.
Four DS-1 s are multiplexed to form a DS-2 and each DS-1 has a clock with an accuracy of
about 32 parts per million . The DS-2 multiplexer adds stuffing bits to each of the four DS-1 s to
pad their clock rate to a common rate compatible with the DS-2 clock. Because different DS-1 s

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 3, Lesson 1: Introduction to Optical Networking
get different amounts of padding, control bits also have to be inserted to identi where the bit
stuffing occurs. The difference between 6.176 Mbps (4 x 1.544 Mbps) an 6.312 Mbps is the bit
El:uffing and control bits. The bits used on the timing adjustment schemes are lost bandw~
revenue to a service provider.
At higher bit rates, for example when 28 DS-1 s are multiplexed to form a DS-3, all 28 DS-1 s
must have exactly the same rate. Again, because some of the DS-1s might have a different
clock source, bit stuffing pads each signal to the common rate. Additionally, control bits are
added to identify the location of the stuffing bits. When the 28 DS-1 s are operating at the same
rate , the DS-3 signal is formed by bit interleaving the 28 signals. The addition of stuffing and
control bits explains why the 28 DS-1 s x 1.544 Mbps = 43.32 Mbps, but DS-3 operates at
44.736 Mbps.
To demultiplex the signals, the control and stuffing bits must be removed. Because these bits
are not fully visible at the DS-3 level, the only way to remove one DS-1 from the DS-3 stream is
to demultiplex the entire DS-3 into the constituent DS-1 s. So, at some intermediate node where
just one DS-1 needs to be dropped , the entire DS-3 must be demultiplexed into 28 DS-1 s. _
TheE·CarrierSystem {!xu: '1 Pp_JA£f />1~(j \ 6{ )_~~~Aj

Europe defined its own TOM-based digital transmission system, theE-Carrier system, around ·~
1968. TheE-Carrier standard was adopted internationally, with the exceptions of Canada, theG."\~·
United States, and Japan. VIJ fY\o·
The basic unit of theE-carrier system is the EO, carrying one voice channel and operating at 64
Kbps. The first digitized voice channels in Europe operated at this rate. For transport, 32 EO
channels are multiplexed to form a 2.048 Mbps E1 signal. The next higher signal level, E2 , is
formed by multiplexing 128 EO channels, which is equivalent to four E1 signals. Table 3.1-2
shows E-carrier levels, associated number of channels, and bandwidth.
Digital Signal Number of Equivalent Bandwidth

Level 64 Kbps Channels Lower Rates (Mbps)
E1 32 32 x EO 2.048
E2 128 4 X E1 8.448
E3 512 4 X E2 34.368
E4 2048 4 x E3 139.264
E5 8192 4 x E4 565.148
Table 3.1 -2: E-Carrier Signal Rates
The T-Carrier DS-1 signal has 24 timeslots with a rate of 1.544 Mbps. TheE-Carrier E1 signal
has 32 timeslots with a rate of 2.048 Mbps.
The E1 frame is made up of 256 bits arranged in 32, eight-bit timeslots Q.!.Jmbered 0- 31.
Timeslot 0, the first byte, has a frame ~g+~-al;-Femote ala~ion, five national
bits, and opt.[Qnal performance monitonng bits. Timeslot 16 carries signaling information. After
subtracting timeslots 0 and 16, an E1 signal has 30, 64 Kbps timeslots to carry user data, for a
payload capacity of 1.920 Mbps.

Like the DSO channel, an EO channel is always in the same position (a timeslot) inside the E1
frame. All digital time division networks operate at a fixed frequency of 8 KHz. This clock rate is
based on the standard of a voice signal transmitted with a 4 KHz fidelity, which requires 8,000
samples per second . This 193-bit structure, sent every 125 microseconds, is a frame.
The J-Carrier System
Another digital transm ission system, the J-Carrier system, was implemented in Japan. Figure
3.1-3 shows how the J-Carrier hierarchy compares to the E- and T-Carrier hierarchies.
·E-Carrier T-Carrier J-Carrier
IE4: 139.264 Mbpsl

.. l J4: 97.728 Mbps j
""· ••• .....X-3
x4 x3
... "!'_..
··.
I E3: 34.368 Mbps II T3: 44.736 Mbps I I J3: 32.064 Mbps I
x4 x7 x5
I E2: 8.448 Mbps IIT2: 6.312 Mbps J2: 6.312 Mbps I
.....·
....·
x4 x3 •• x4 x4
I E1: 2.048 Mbps II T1 : 1.544 Mbps J1 : 1.544 Mbps I
x32 x24 x24
EO: 64 Kbps DSO: 64 Kbps JO: 64 Kbps

I I
Figure 3.1-3: Rate Hierarchies of Digital Transmission Systems

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide Module 3, Lesson 1: Introduction to Optical Networking
Plesiochronous Networks
In the T-, E-, and J-Carrier systems just described, network synchronization is plesiochronous.
These systems use PDH, a layered network struc:ure. ( ~ l)~~i\tz..91.L~ )
In PDH networks, each hierarchical level is formed by successively carrying out the TDM bit
multiplexing of the lower-level signals. This bit-multiplexing technique provides better quality
signals than other techniques, such as buffering. The major drawback of bit multiplexing is the
difficulty in adding or dropping lower level signals from a higher level PDH bit stream.
As shown in Figure 3.1-4, demultiplexing must be done at each level of the PDH hierarchy
above the desired level signal. In this example, T-Carrier signals are demultiplexed in steps to
reach the desired DS-0 signal (at 64 Kbps) and then re-multiplexed to carry the lower level
signals on to their destination. This process is tedious and inefficient.
In PDH, the variations in timing among signals are handled by bit stuffing. Bit stuffing adds
extra bits to synchronize the bit rates of the individual signals that are multiplexed . This
justification process is repeated at every stage of multiplexing . When signals are multiplexed or
demultiplexed in PDH systems, the justification information must also be processed at each
level , adding complexity to the process.
DS3/DS2 DS2/DS3
Demultiplex
44.736
Mbps
.
DS2/DS·1
Demultiplex Multiplex
DSO/DS1
1) DSHDSO
r: lY-f
A
Multiplex
,
01
l (/) vv- Demultiplex
(\,~· ~~~ ._______._..---
0~tt~ DSO: 64 Kbps DSO: 64 Kbps
t
1 \:~>.../
\ ft Figure 3.1-4: T-Carrier Hierarchical Demultiplexing and Multiplexing
In summary, PDH networks have the following limitations:
• lna~ty to identifUr dividual channels in a higher-order bit stream

• Lack of a standardized defin ition of PDH bit rates greater than 140 Mbps
In spite of these limitations, PDH networks are still widely used .

<tf ~ £1>~ ·, .~ ~· ,vctt.- ~ IJO C,bp>
5Dr-t
Module 3, Lesson 1: Introduction to Optical Networking Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
Timing
Before we go further in our description of networking, we need to define the various types of
timing that are used in networks . Timing is the key to a successful network. Both transmitting
and receiving network elements must be synchronized to avoid timing slips. A slip is either the
repetition or the loss of bits, caused by a clock discrepancy between network elements.
Plesiochronous Timing
With plesiochronous timing, devices in the network can use separate clocks, but the clocks are
A~ut1~ very precise. There might be slight differences between the clocks, but the clocks are close
enough to keep timing errors minimal. T-, E-, and J-Carrier networks use plesiochronous timing
~ to synchronize devices in the network.
vat0-- Iw > (Y)
To keep the clocks synchronized, devices such as multiplexers on the receive end use
.-iff ('(L "''1-0 ) recovered timing . The clock at the transmit end sends its information to the ctoc;k at the receive
;J-(Y ( ~t V11~ en Q.._to keep that clockfmm drifting. Equiement on the r eceiv.a.eJ1CI1racks the clock at the
transmit en d to synchronize the timing.
In a plesiochronous network,. clock signals are transmitted with the data. For example, in a
T-Carrier network each bit timeslot is 648 nanoseconds (ns). Pulses are transmitted with a 50%
duty cycle, meaning that for the middle of the timeslot, the voltage is at its peak. The receiver
must infer the timeslot boundaries from the incoming pulses. In a perfect transmission , each
pulse would come exactly in the middle of a timeslot, so the timeslot boundaries would be 324
ns in each direction . Figure 3.1-5 shows how a receiver sees the timing based on pulse
reception .
Figure 3.1-5: Timing in a Plesiochronous Network
As data is multiplexed from various networks, the timing information that travels with the data is
usually not synchronized. As the clocks are slig.htly oUf'Ofptl,ps'BWfth each other, stuffing and
control bits must be added to th;)rames. Stuffing bits are added to fill out the frames, and
control bits inform the receiver of the presence of the. stuffing bits. The bits wasted on the
timing adjustment schemes are lost b~"ndwidth revenue to a service provider.
' ../ -

Synchrono us Timing
In synchronous digital networks, the clock sets the timing for the bits. Synchronous timing uses
one of two systems : hierarchical or distributed .
The clocks can be in a hierarchical relationship to one Primary Reference Clock (PRC), which
propagates timing signals to lower-level clocks along with the data. The PRC is derived from a
cesium atomic standard. A cesium clock operates on the same principle as a pendulum clock:
10 15
systematic, regular oscillation. Atoms, unlike pendulums, oscillate at 10 or even 10
cycles I second, and atoms of the same type (also unlike pendulums) are identical ; therefore,
their frequencies are identical. Thus, a cesium clock is extremely accurate, to within one
second in 138,000,000 years .
In SONET, the next-level clock is a Stratum 2, with slightly less accuracy. The next lower-level
clocks are Stratum 3 and Stratum 4 . The lower-level clocks are also called slave clocks
because they are locked. to the next higher-level clock. In an SOH network, the lower-level
clocks are called Synchronization S~ply Units (SSUs). In addition , Network Elements (NEs)
have clocks called SOH Equipment Clocks (SECs).
- ~
The Stratum-level clocks are accurate to the. degree shown below, as defined in
A TIS-09001 01.2006:
• Stratum 2: 1.6 X 1o-8
• Stratum 3: 4.6 X 1o-6
• Stratum 4 : 3.2 x 1o-5
Figure 3.1-6 shows a hierarchical, master-slave relationship to one Primary Reference Source
(PRS) in a SONET network. Figure 3.1-7 shows a hierarchical system in an SOH network, with
a PRC adhering to the ITU-T G.811 standard . Figure 3.1-8 shows an example of distributed
timing.
__, ~~t\~~ ~~~

-~ ~A' utk>l -~ ~ /
C~~A·~ f /¥(f"t.-
p~~
Q
'VJ-- ~ riV """'
v~~
1._}:-- ~
• .. Primary synclu onizati on reference
+ - - - -Socau""'Y S>'OCIODHi,atl•u 'ete<euc. a ~t .,
Figure 3 ..1-6: Hierarchical, Master-slave Timing in a SONET Network _5~...0.\V. J

~
~~N-11----

~~~
~-?
Figure 3.1-7: Hierarchical Timing in an SOH Network
All optical networks require at least one network element to be externally timed . Usually, the
PRS is (or is referenced to) a Global Positioning System (GPS) located outside the node. The
e:;· GPS system includes satellites, each with three or four on board atomic clocks. The US Naval
Observatory monitors the satellite clocks and sends control signals to minimize the differences
between their atomic clocks and a master atomic clock for accuracy and traceability to national
standards (known as Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)) and international standards (known
as Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)). The master SOH reference clock uses the E1 frequency of
2.048 MHz, and the master SONET cloCk uses the T1 frequency of 1.544 MHz.
The signal is received and distributed by a PRS to other nodes on the network, using a
-----
Phase-Locked Loop (PLL). A PLL ensures that the incoming and outgoing clock signals are
synchronized .
·ICf#&aA* TO Lexington
Figure 3.1-8: Distributed Timing in an SOH Network

Synchronous timing in a synchronous digital network also uses recovered timing. In cases
where there is no reference clock (such as an outside physical plant), the network device gets
the timing from the incoming and outgoing synchronous digital transmission . Customer
Premises Equipment (CPE) draws its timing from the incoming and outgoing optical signals.
The precise timing allows the bytes in a SONET I SOH frame to be located and extracted at
any point in the network.
The following guidelines characterize clock behavior: _j.,., }

,., @-\. 3)
(J ~ul!IA J &.-
• Ideal operation: Clock is receiving the input reference signal without interference
Stressed operation : Stressed means real operating conditions, including jitter,

protection switching, and loss of the reference signal. ·l!\.6l-· Cb1-tfit ·
• Holdover operation: When reference timing from all sources is lost, the internal clock of
the device will hold correct timing for a specified period of time (for example, >24 hours
for a Stratum 3 clock).
Even in ideal operation, the clock falters as adjustments are made. The stressed operation can
occur as often as 100 times per day. If timing is not restored very quickly, the clock must switch
to another reference source. Eventually a timing error will occur, necessitating adjustments.
Such adjustments, despite the use of PLL, often result in a type of jitt~r.
--=---
Phase variations due to protection switching, network rerouting, jitter, or wander can occur
between network devices or between networks. Both SONET and SOH have a variety of
standards that specify different definitions for jitter depending on the interface of the network
device. Generally, the standard defines jitter as short-term phase variations above 1OHz and
defines wander as long-term phase variations below 1OHz.
Payload scrambling is used to keep timing accurate. Payload scrambling encodes the 1s and
Os to conform to a 1s density requirement, which is no more than eight 1s. Data transmission
can include long strings of Os, which inhibit the ability of a receiver to read the correct timing.
The scrambling randomizes the bits according to GR-253 for SONET, which uses an algorithm
that scrambles all except the first two bytes of the section I regenerator section overhead .

Table 3.1-3 shows the Synchronization Status Messages (SSMs) that are exchanged between
nodes to convey the quality of timing among the clocks in a hierarchical relationship , thus
enabling them to select the most accurate clock.
Clock Quality Level SOH E1 SONETT1

Abbreviation Abbreviation
~ l'o le. Stratum 1 Traceable G.811 PRS
Synchronized Traceability STU STU
Unknown
Transit Node Clock TNC
Traceable
Stratum 2 Traceable SSU-A
Transit Node Clock
Traceable
Stratum 2 Traceable ST2
Stratum 3E Traceable SSU-8
Stratum 3 Traceable
Stratum 3E Traceable STE3E
SONET Minimum Clock G.813 SMC
Traceable
DON'T USE for DNU DNU
Synchronization
Reserved for Individual RES
Administrations
Provisionable by the PNO
Network Operator
Table 3.1-3: Synchronization Status Messages

Asynchronous Timing
Asynchronous timing occurs when low speeds such as DS-1 are being multiplexed into higher
speed signals . As we know, the digital bit stream is characterized by 0 and 1 pulses, indicating
the absence or presence of voltage, respectively. To IJlaintain synchronization , the DS-1 signal
cannot contain more than 15 successive zeros For yojce transmission , bit 7 was generally the
1 bit,b ut this solution was not applicable to data transmission. --
The data solution is Bipolar Eight Zero Substitution (B8ZS), which uses the ones density
requirement of no more than 15 consecutive zeros. If a byte has all zeros, a specific 8-bit
pattern replaces the byte. At the receiving end, the pattern is recognized and the zeros are
replaced because they are valid .
Figure 3.1-9 shows an example of the effects of asynchronous timing . As Clock 1 runs too slow,
eventually Clock 1 slips so much that a 0 bit is not read at all. It is easy to see how far off the
timing is at the receive end . If bit 7 is a 1 and bit 8 is a 0, bit 8 might be read as the start bit
rather than as a data bit.
Clock 1 (slow):
Figure 3.1-9: Effect of Asynchronous Timing
The difference between asynchronous and synchronous transmission is that the receiver does
the work to determine the timing of bits received in asynchronous transmission. The
transmission can be faster, but more prone to errors. In synchronous transmission , both the
transmitter and receiver have an agreement about which clock will be the reference clock (due
to the clock hierarchy); thus, the transmission might be a little slower, but it is more accurate.
~ -R~ f!.tovO
e 0J/0 VJ w~x ( :J f.-1.; b(jitJ

v fJff¥V ~f)-1.._/ J;_h_lw '-'\.,
Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights resetVed. 131

Synchronous Digital Networks

The conversion to digital technology led communications networks to demand higher bit rates
and a more efficient multiplexing technique. Synchronous digital networks that met these
challenges were developed . These networks also offered performance monitoring and
management overhead with little waste of bandwidth. In addition , standards for synchronous
networks specifically addressed the use of fiber optic technology in transport networks.
History of Synchronous Digital Networks
As previously described , Bell Laboratories designed the T-Carrier transport network in the early
1960s. TheE-Carrier transport network was developed during the same time period in Europe.
Expanding business and residential needs led to the need to aggregate more and more DS-1 s
and E1 s to move more traffic. Some solutions incurred a high cost for equipment, while less
expensive alternatives provided less protection and instances of overloaded links.
An additional problem was the necessity to use standardized equipment when connecting to
these transport systems. Because AT&T owned most of the transmission lines, its Western
Electric subsidiary manufactured most of the standardized equipment used to transmit and
receive signals. Companies were creating their own LANs and trying to link their equipment to
the Western Electric equipment. In addition , smaller telephone companies connecting their
lines to AT&T lines were forced to buy Western Electric equipment. Consequently, companies
were either building non-standard , proprietary equipment or reluctantly purchasing Western
Electric equipment.
Digital transmission was the answer to the bandwidth explosion, but no one except AT&T was
satisfied with how the solution was implemented. In addition to long-distance transmission lines,
AT&T also owned many smaller telephone companies, which were referred to as Bell
Operating Companies (BOGs). Many other Local Exchange Carriers (LEGs) delivered local
service, and used AT&T trunk lines for long distance service. Interfacing equipment in the
networks had to match . And , because AT&T owned most of the lines, the LEGs bought their
equipment from the AT&T company, Western Electric.
An antitrust suit was filed against AT&T for their monopoly on transmission lines. The suit was
filed by smaller companies (such as MCI) who wanted to compete for long-line business. On
January 1, 1984, the US Department of Justice settled the suit by creating seven separate
companies known as Regional BOGs (RBOCs). The original AT&T remained a long-distance
carrier.
The settlement provided for equal access, which meant that LEGs could use any long-distance
carrier they desired . Now, the new long distance carriers, called Inter-exchange Carriers (IXCs ),
had to figure out how to connect the smaller compan ies' lines to a variety of long-Ciistance lines,
in a variety of switching settings. The problem was called the mid-span meet. If the new IXCs
did not want to use Western Electric equipment, an alternative way to interconnect equipment
was required .
By this time, transport systems were ba?ed on digita~eA-G¥e.di ber connections, but
they were not based on a-common sef of standards. Transmission rates vari eo , and "equipment
from different vendors cou ld not intercon nectThe intent of thdntitrust suit was being lost, as
carriers had to agree to purchase e~g ment from a single veo.QQ!:._or lose the ability to interface
their services.

Bellcore, the research and development company that served the RBOCs and eventually
became Telcordia, proposed a fiber optic transmission standard to the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI). The standard addressed the following :
• Equipment compatibility
• A digital signal and transmission rate hierarchy
• A bit-interleaved multiplexing process to expand bandwidth capability
Development of the standard involved three years of research and political struggle. The first
system introduced was the SYNTRAN (Synchronous Transmission) system from Bellcore,
which was revised .to become SONET.
The international community objected to the transmission rates defined for SONET because
they did not match those used outside Canada and the United States. In response, the ITU
began development of the SOH standards . Eventually, the ITU and ANSI worked out a
compromise. By setting the basic bit rate of SONET to 51.84 Mbps, international carriers could
interface their SOH signals to SONET. In 1989, the Consultative Committee International for
Telephone and Telegraph (CCITT), now ITU-T, published standards for SOH.
Overview of SONET and SOH
SONET and SOH offer many of the same features, including:
• Uses a synchronous, multiplexing format that can transport low-level digital signals
over high speed connections
• Provides a simplified interface to digital switches, digital cross connect switches, and
add I drop multiplexers
Offers a generic definition in standards, so products from different vendors can be
mixed
Provides a flexible architecture to accommodate a variety of transmission rates
• Provides greater reliability than previous networks
• Allows provisioning of overhead bytes for:
• Individualized management of the payload
• Centralized Operation, Administration, Maintenance, and Provisioning

(OAM&P)
• Require less equipment than earlier networks
SONET and SOH provide synchronous transport because every NE in the network either has
or is referenced to a stable clock. In turn, each clock is traceable to a PRS or a G.811 PRC;
therefore, all data in the network is..s¥J1Cbr.or:l.iz.e~ ed . This precision allows for a level of
monitoring and error recovery t_h arfar_exceeds th-e-capafril.ities of earlier systems.
Copyright© 20 10-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved. 133

SONET
SONET is a standards-based network for optical telecommunications transport over fiber

networks. The Exchange Carriers Standards Association (ECSA) initially developed the
SONET standard for ANSI. SONET is defined in the following ANSI and Alliance for
Telecommunications Industry Solutions (A TIS) standards :
ANS I T1.1 05-1991 (R1995) I ATIS-0900105.2008: Synchronous Optical Network

(SONET) - Basic Description Including Multiplex Structure, Rates, and Formats
ANSI T1 .105 .09-1996(R2008) I A Tl S-09001 05.09 .1996(R2008 ): Synchronous Optical

Network (SONET)- Network Element Timing and Synchronization
ANSI T1.1 05.06-1996(R2007) I ATIS-09001 05.06 .2002(R2007): Synchronous Optical

Network (SONET): Physical Layer Specifications
• ANSI T1.105 .01-1994 I ATIS-0900105.01.2000(R201 0): Synchronous Optical Network

(SONET) - Automatic Protection Switching
• ANSI T1.1 05.02-1996 I ATIS-0900105 .02.2007: Synchronous Optical Network

(SONET) - Payload Mappings
The SONET signal hierarchy consists of both optical and corresponding electrical levels. The
optical signal levels are defined as Optical Carriers (OCs). The _e~LL~I s_grn_Qefined
as Synchronous Transport Signals (STSs). The 63Sic rate STS ~nal is STS-1. which operates
at 51.84 Mbps. The electrical S I S-1 s1gnal can be carried in an optical OC-1 signal.
Additional SONET signal levels are defined in the form of STS-n and OC-n . Levels are
increments of the STS-1 rate of 51.84 Mbps. For example, an STS-3 signal operates at a rate
of 3 x 51.84 Mbps, or 155.520 Mbps. SONET signal rates are listed in Table 3.1-4.
SONET Signal Levels Bit Rate
Electrical Optical
STS-1 OC-1 51.84 Mbps

/
STS-3 OC-3 155.52 Mbps
STS-12 OC-12 622 .08 Mbps
STS-48 OC-48 2.488 Gbps
STS-192 OC-192 9.953 Gbps
~ 4 STS-768 OC-768 39 .813 Gbps
Table 3.1-4: SONET Signal Levels

In 1988 T1 X1, an ANSI subcommittee, presented a proposal that specified fiber rates and
format. This proposal led to approval of the SONET Phase I Canadian and American standard,
which covered the following points:
• Byte-interleaved multiplexing
• STS-1, 3, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48 line rates
• Mappings to DS-0, DS-1, DS-2, and DS-3
• Performance monitoring
• Network management
Two additional phases of SONET standards were adopted, covering the following points:
• Phase 2
• SO NET format revisions

• SO NET timing and synchronization revisions
• Automatic Protection Switching (APS)
• Phase 3
• OAM&P standardization including message format
SOH
SOH is the international standard for optical telecommunications transport over fiber networks.
ECSA developed the SOH standard for the European Telecommunications Standards Institute
(ETSI).
The ITU has several standards defining SOH, including the following:
• ITU-T G .707: Network node interface for the synchronous digital hierarchy (SOH)
• ITU-T G.702: Digital hierarchy bit rates
• ITU-T G.783: Characteristics of synchronous digital hierarchy (SOH) equipment

functional blocks
• ITU-T G.803: Architecture of transport networks based on the synchronous digital

hierarchy (SOH)
SO NET was in development as a result of the breakup of AT&T, whose networks were
T-Carrier-based. At the same time, developers and telecommunications providers all over the
globe were working on faster, more efficient methods to transport data over fiber. SOH and
SONET were the methods selected by most of the international community. By 1988,
collaboration between standards bodies produced the SOH international standard . The SOH
Synchronous Transport Module-1 (STM-1) was modified to 155.52 Mbps to conform with three
SONET STS-1s. -
The SOH signal hierarchy is linear, in increments of the STM-1 rate of 155.52 Mbps. For
example, an STM-16 signal operates at a rate of 16 x 155E2l'V1bps, or 248K32D-Mbps. SOH
signal rates are listed in Table 3.1-5. STM-0 is rarely used. ·
Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights resetved. 135

SOH Signal Level Bit Rate
STM-0 51.84 Mbps

,-
~- STM-1 155.52 Mbps
STM-4 622 .08 Mbps
STM-16 2.488 Gbps
STM-64 9.953 Gbps
STM-256 39.813 Gbps
Table 3.1-5: SOH Signal Levels

Advantages of Synchronous Networks
The synchronous digital networks are a great improvement over POH networks. The
synchronization concept enables efficient multiplexing and demultiplexing, with far less
equipment. Bandwidth is used more efficiently and more data is transported faster. The
deployment of synchronous networks made data transport more efficient and reliable . This
helped foster growth in data transport, which led to the need for higher transmission rates.
SONET and SOH Today
Table 3.1-6 shows the compatibility between SONET and SOH signal rates. The SONET
STS-1 rate of 51.84 Mbps was set to accommodate the STM-1 rate of 155.52 Mbps
(155.52 I 3 = 51 .84 ).
Signal Levels
Bit Rate
SOH SONET
Equivalent Equivalent
nla STS-1 51.84 Mbps
STM-1 STS-3 155.52 Mbps
STM-16 STS-48 2.488 Gbps
STM-256 STS-768 39.813 Gbps
Table 3.1-6: Signal Rates
As optical transport backbones, SONET and SOH are still in wide use. In addition, SONET and
SOH are capable of working with a variety of transport protocols carrying any combination of
voice, video, and data. This capability ensures their place in optical communications in the
foreseeable future .
SONET and SOH are used to transport other protocols, including the following examples (we
describe these protocols in a later lesson):
~~a !);rJ E'Y ~
• ATM over SONET I SOH
~
• Packet over SONET I SOH (PoS)
'f::tro.; ~ rvofCJL h-v)~ -wAA-
• Ethernet over SONET I SOH (EoS) ~. ~Jrl~ ~ ·
~Vt~
w~~<-1/\_{)c..t;co vc

H0w ~~ ~( f1f' Vj otovJ) ( (J:J · !tv~~

Data-centric Networks
fwue ~~~
From Circuit to Packet Switching
The first digitized networks used circuit switching to multiplex and switch traffic. Circuit
switching provides a set amount of bandwidth at a connection that is available all the time. The
distinguishing feature of circuit switching is that the path is not shared; the path is dedicated for
the duration of the transmission.
For this description, we consider a connection to be the circuit between two points in a network,
as shown in Figure 3.1-10. There could be several circuits on a link between two points
(represented by the dotted lines), but circuit switching does not search for alternative circuits .
The PSTN is an example of circuit switching , as PSTN allocates a set amount of bandwidth for
each call. The connection is established when two callers connect and torn down when they
hang up. For another connection , or if the first connection is not successful , an alternative
circuit (following the dotted lines in the figure) is set up .
{ f) &"'' ~JY Figure 3.1-10: Circuit Switching
"'"~, h,
o\L
vY
1
itJ.
,
Circuit switching is adequate until the traffic becomes bursty (for example, when a web page is
loading). The service provider can make allowances for some bursts by setting an average and
peak rate for the customer. This solution is not an ideal because setting a peak rate allowance
l f - -,...,. \})~'f.. leaves some bandwidth unused for much of the time.
_.\NJ-o,\?
Packet switching solves the problem of bursty traffic by putting data into packets that can be
multiplexed with data packets from other sources. With packet switching, bandwidth is used
steadily rather than sporadically.
In the case where many sources have bursty traffic simultaneously, total bandwidth may still be
compromised with packet switching. The service provider then buffers the packets and
releases them according to Quality of Service (QoS) agreements with customers. The QoS
agreements specify the priority level of various packets (among other things). For
delay-sensitive applications such as video, QoS agreements are critical to ensure the

maximum packet delay and the maximum variation in that delay. A network that uses packet
switching can handle a dynamically variable mix of services at different bandwidths and speeds,
making the network useful for applications such as transporting digital video.
The Internet is a good example of packet-switched transmission. The Internet routes the
packets from source to destination using protocols such as IP routing or Multiprotocol Label
Switching (MPLS). Figure 3.1 -11 shows packet switching finding the best circuit from Device A
to Device B. The dotted lines represent other circuits, which are considered less efficient by the
routing protocol.
Device Device
A B
Figure 3.1-11: Packet Switching
X.25 was the first packet switching technology, implemented in the early 1970s. X.25 was
designed to work gv.er-ao.ai.Qg facilities, but had high error rates . With the advent of digital
transmission, the performance of networks improved . In the early 1990's, the
telecommunications industry for mulated Frame Relay standards that were based on X.25 .
Frame Relay was followed by ATM. ATM was developed to use the same network for different
services such as voice, data, and vid~o. The ideawas to have a smgle, unified, communication
network for all services-:---"
In the meantime, another version of packet switc~ing tech~ology w.a~~~ oped . This
technology, Transmission Control Proto~ol I IP (TCP. I _I P), is different from X.25 because
TCP I IP is connectionless. Connectionless packets have a destinatiorll b, so the packets can
be routed the most efficient way across the network. In contrast, connection-oriented packets
have a connection ID, so the packets are routed to the next node in a predefined route that
does not change.
IP
IP is very widely used as both the Internet and the intranet protocol that connects computers in
most LANs. IP is successful because IP operates over most physical communications
transmission media. IP can be mapped onto low-speed links such as token ring or local
Ethernet, or high-speed links such as SONET I SDH or WDM. IP uses packet switching.


WDM is the transmission of multiple optical signals, in the form of wavelengths, across one
optical fiber. ATM over SONET I SOH , SONET I SOH, and Ethernet can all be carried across
the same fiber as different wavelengths. In WDM transmission, optical fiber has
wavelength-specific lasers attached to filters that enable the multiplexing of several optical
signals onto the fiber. Each signal can be multiplexed and demultiplexed independently of the
other signals in the fiber.
In the early days of optical transport, WDM offered two wavelengths : 1310 nanometers (nm)
and 1550 nm. The wavelengths were multiplexed at the transmit end by a multiplexer and
demultiplexed at the receive end by a demultiplexer. Little has changed since this technology
debuted in the 1970s, except that the number of wavelengths that can be carried has increased ,
the terminal equipment has gotten more precise, and amplifiers are widely used . Before we
describe the improvements, we describe the evolution of multiplexing.
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a signaling technique used to divide the bandwidth
that is available i[l a physical medium into a number qf_§m_aller, independ§lt, lq_gical _ghannels.
Each channel has a small bandwidth assigned . Microwave transmission , broadcast radio, -and
television and cable television uSE;FDM . - - - -
FDM differs from TOM in that FDM multiplexes several signals from different frequency carrier
waves to create a composite signal. This com posite sjgnaLis usu<!l!y a sio.gle, .lal:g.e frequency
band that is shar~d among a group of users. A ~a rd space se_p arate~dLvid.ualbaJ:u:J s with
varying degrees of success. TDM allocates a timeslot of the entire bandwidth for a defined
period of time. ·
FDM is similar to WDM because both are transmitting frequencies . WDM applies to
wavelengths in optical fiber, whereas FDM~ec1ri.cal transmission . A radio signal is
an easy to understand FDM syst~ The transmission medium is air, and the radio is the
demultiplexer. ·
For long routes, FDM multiplexed telephone signals onto a single, coaxia l cable for increased
efficiency. The equipment used to t ransmit FDM was unreliable, as well as expensive relative
to the line bandwidth and quality. -
WDM is both a transmission technology and an umbrella term covering WDM, CWDM, and
DWDM . It is important to be aware that WDM can be used to mean DWDM or CWDM. We
have already defined WDM as a transmission technology. Now, we describe WDM in general
and then describe CWDM and DWDM .
WDM development has been enhanced by the use of optical amplifiers, which manage signal
attenuation and increase span distance. WDM systems are scalable. Rat tr: bao._adding
regenerators for 0-E-0 conversion at fiber ends or intersectiog__n_a.d.e.s.,JD.LDM adds
transponders to turn up adCfedS1gnals. The amplifiers that are already in ~n be
provisioned to amplify the new signals as well.
Prior to WDM, when higher bandwidth was needed in a network, service providers bought new
equipment. With WDM, the same equipment can be scaled for higher bandwidth by allowing
multiple boxes to use the same fiber plant, where multiple signals can be sent.
In WDM transmission, wavelength-specific lasers are attached to filters that enable the passive
multiplexing, or combining, of several optical signals onto the fiber. With the proper equipment,

each channel can be multiplexed and demultiplexed independently of the other channels in the
fiber.
Backwards as it may seem, DWDM came well before CWDM, which appeared only after the
booming telecommunications market drove prices to affordable lo.w_S,._J WDM breaks the optical
spectrul}l into big chunks. wb.ereas_DW.DI'vtdicesJt finely. Figure 3.1-12 shows the spacing
between WDM, CWDM, and DWDM channels. This figure illustrates how tightly spaced the
DWDM channels are in relation to CWDM and WDM channels . DWDM fits 100-plus channels
into the same frequency range used for fewer than three CWDM channels.
The difference between CWDM and DWDM is primarily channel spacing: 20 nm for CWDM
and as little as .125 nm for DWDM. The tighter wavelength spacing of DWDM fits more
channels onto a single fiber, but costs more to implement and operate. Each system has
positive and negative elements, as described in the following paragraphs.
WDM
13·10 nm 1550 nm
~
M
.
II I I
;
CWO M r
..
!
11 ' I nm
~
·1310 nm ·1550
DWDM
1310 nm '1550 nm
Figure 3.1-12: WDM, CWDM, and DWDM Comparison

DWDM Systems
5o ~ lA~ ~ r e7b ~ w~
j ov tketMA-L~ --) '"tv M '2---
The following standards body defines DWDM:
• ITU-T G.694.1 defines DWDM systems as more than eight channels or wavelengths
densely combined in one optical fiber, with a spacing between signals of 12.5 , 25, 50 ,
or 100 GHz (1 00 GHz = .8 nm).
Features of DWDM
Some of the features of DWDM that have made DWDM an important communications
technology include:
• Provides increased wavelength capacity without adding fiber
• Transmits over long distances
• Provides high bandwidth
• Accommodates amplification to extend reach
DWDM Systems Today
The demand for bandwidth has increased beyond the perceived need . Forecasts made in the
mid-1990s were far under the needs of today.
DWDM systems enable service providers to carry a variety of protocols such as IP, ATM, and
SONET I SOH . Rates can vary and are currently as fast as OC-768, which gives new life to the
existing fiber infrastructure. Projections by the International Engineering Consortium (IEC) that
DWDM could carry up to 80 wavelengths of OC-48 (200 Gbps) or even 40 wavelengths of
OC-192 (400 Gbps, the equivalent of 90,000 encyclopedia volumes in one second) are already
being outpaced . The maximum capacity of fibe r is constantly being challenged and is inhibited
only by the optical impairments described in an earlier lesson.
Another advantage of DWDM is scalability. Service providers can expand capacity at

congested areas, such as at intersecting nodes where rings connect and there is a high volume
of channels .
While capital and operational budgets are shrinking, competition between telecommunication
and cable companies for consumer and enterprise voice, video, and data services is increasing .
Now service providers are faced with the challenge of lowering the cost of their current network
infrastructure. Networks are needed that will support not only existing services, but also those
required in new markets.
Today's communications transport networks are built with disparate systems from multiple
vendors who support different parts of the network (such as core, regional , and metro). Such a
cong lomeration creates complexity, which leads to higher capital and operating expenses.
DWDM systems offer the flexibility and scalability to reduce these expenses. Networks can be
simplified so that service providers need pay only for the features and capabilities they need.
DWDM provides the transport for an emerging technology, OTN, which is described later in this
lesson .
142 Copyright© 2010-201 3 Ciena® Corporation. All rights res erved.

CWDM Systems
CWDM (ITU-T G.694.2) uses short optical links (up to about 80 km) with wide channel spacing
(20 nm) to separate 18 wavelengths between 1271 - 1611 nm in unamplified transmission. Due
to the wide spacing, CWDM networks are less expensive than DWDM networks, because the
laser tolerance is less strict and the lasers do not need special cooling equipment. Additionally,
the filters are not as complicated or expensive as those used for DWDM . Although 18
wavelengths are available, vendors generally use 8-1 0 with CWDM .
Features of CWDM
Some of the features of CWDM that have made it an important communications technology
include:
• Excellent for short-range communications
• Widely spaced wavelengths
• Shorter distances do not require amplification
CWDM Systems Today
Originally, CWDM systems were implemented in campus LANs, where they added capacity to
multimode fiber cable routes.
CWDM networks are found today in metropolitan areas and can carry a variety of services and
protocols. CWDM is used in applications such as:
• LAN expansion
• Short routes off DWDM networks
• ·Storage area networking
• Video head-end feeds
'-f
3(11°
- ---.- C1J
&6~/ 0
; ( .1

Optical Transpo rt Networks

Defined by the following ITU-T standards, OTN is designed to tcansport a variety of cll_ent
signals over WDM networks. These ITU-T standards cove b.e...pbysical layer, siqnal rates, and
equipm ent functional requirements and are described in the following documents:
• ITU-T G. 709 I Y1331 , Interfaces for the Optical Transport Network (OTN)
• ITU-T G.798, Characteristics of Optical Transport Network Hierarchy Equipment

Functional Blocks
• ITU-T G.872, Architecture of Optical Transport Networks
Introduction to OTN
OTN is based on a layered network structure with defined interfaces. This optical transport
hierarchy includes both an optical and an electrical domain. OTN was developed in the late
1990s, and the first ITU-T standard was defined in 2001. When the telecom bubble burst,
interest for new products waned. However, in the past five years interest and use of OTN
products has gone up sharply.
OTN supports transmission of various types of signals, such as those shown in Figure 3.1-13.
Client signals are wrapped with OTN overhead that provides OAM&P functions across the
OTN optical domain .
. . d).vJ''~ \'
~n - . c_YO~ Client Ports
J -M-'1.}- FlCON 1. 2 , 4G
f ibre Channel (fC)

1. 2. 4.10G
SONETISOH
OC·3, 12, 48, 192, 76tl
STM·1 .4, 16,64.256
1, 10.40, 100GbE
ESCON 2:00 Mbps 4ttitiJ}_"

Vldeo (HO·SDl. OVB*AS!.
SO·SOI)
ETR, Cl.O, !SC, STP
FICON =Fibre Channei-ESCON , GbE = Gigabit Ethernet, ESC ON = Enterprise Systems Connection ,
= =
HD-SDI High Definition-Serial Digital fnterface, DVB-ASI Digitat Video Broadcasting-Asynchronous
Serial interface, SD-SDI = Standard Definition-SOl, ETR = External Timing Reference. CLO = Control
=
Link Oscillator, ISC = Inter-System Coupling, STP Server Time Protocol
Figure 3.1-13: OTN with Wrapped Client Signals
Client signals sent over OTN are transported in their entirety, with no bits deleted or inserted.
Because the signal received at the far-end client is exactly the same as the transmitted client
signal, OTN transport is transparent to the client. This transparency preserves timing
information in client signals. Transport of both synchronous and asynchronous services is
enabled over the same optical wavelength.

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide Module 3, Lesson 1: Introdu ction to Optical Networking
OTN technology was deployed initially in Japan and some European countries . Until the
mid-2000s, North American service providers could not justify the expense of adding a new
network layer and purchasing more equipment. As transmission distances lengthened and
bandwidth demands increased, deployment of OTN was justified.
The following features of OTN have driven its widespread deployment:
• Enhances SONET I SDH with standards-based technology
• Includes Forward Error Correction (FEC) that improves transmissio_n perf9rmance with
lower bit error rates and enables longer optical spans ( (JC9 l'it ~-1--D GhC!'::f2-
• Supports fault isolation in the optical domain , as well as the electrical domain fO~)
• Provides a standardized method for managing optical wavelengths end-to-end, without
requiring optical-to-electrical signal conversion
• Scales to higher data rates than SONET I SDH networks
The Future of OTN
The future of OTN is closely associated with Ethernet. Ethernet, which was primarily a
transmission protocol for LANs just a few years ago, is now the long haul transport of choice for
many carriers. Long haul networks are becoming increasingly photonic. Optical mesh networks
cover the earth both on land and under the sea. OTN standards are in place to support data
rates of 40 and 100 Gbps over carrier-grade Ethernet WANs.
Currently, study groups are examining 400 Gbps and 1 terabit per second (Tbps) transmission.
Research is showing that 100 Gbps transponders, OADMs, and transceivers can be upgraded
to support 400 Gbps. As in any industry, market influences will force a resolution.
~l ~-
J&rA- f£ c. __, f V\'O.A d

Network Topologies
The physical topology of a network refers to the physical arrangement of NEs. This description
covers the definition , identification, and operating characteristics of the three fundamental
network topologies used in optical transmission over fiber networks:
Linear
• Ring
• Mesh
Network operators decide on a topology based on their future needs . Determining the best
topology based on a shorter-term view may result in an expensive infrastructure overhaul. On
the other hand, designing a network based on the outlook beyond a ten-year guideline could
result in an over-commitment to technology that is changing or being replaced .
A network may be based on a combination of topologies. Each tier in such a network

commonly uses a topology that is appropriate for the amount of traffic, speed, and reliability
required to support the overall network requirements. Each fundamental network topology
provides a network designer with a set of performance characteristics that affect the ability of
the network to deliver the services it needs to support. A network designer must understand
these characteristics to make efficient use of bandwidth and the associated switching and
multiplexing equipment.
The following network characteristics are directly affected by the choice of a network topology:
• Resilience provided in event of a failure
• Fault detection capabilities
• .Costs involved in setting up a network
• Costs involved in expanding the size of a network
• Complexity of monitoring services

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A). Student Guide Module 3. Lesson 1: Introduction to Optical Networking
Linear Topology
Linear topologies can be Point-to-Point (P2P) or Linear Add I Drop Multiplex (LADM)
configurations. In a P2P configuration , two network devices are connected by an optical fiber
link. Traffic flows over an optical fiber from the transmit end to the receive end. Typically, the
optical fiber link consists of a fiber pair, allowing traffic to flow in both directions. Figure 3.1-14
illustrates the P2P linear topology.
Customer Sites Customer Sites
Traffic Flow
• II
0 tical Fibers
II •
Traffic Flow
Figure 3.1-14: P2P Linear Topology
The LADM configuration is an extension ofthe P2P configuration. In this configuration, one or
more OADMs are inserted between the two terminal multiplexers , as shown in Figure 3.1-15 .
The OADMs allow traffic to be added or dropped at the intermediate points on the linear path .
Customer Sites Customer Sites
Optical
Fiber
Figure 3.1-15: LADM Topology ( stal-L ~~·

· I
YV')
~ G
/
Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena'~ Corporation. All rights reserved. 147

Ring Topology
In the ring topology, network devices are attached to each other in a series with other devices
(such as OADMs or optical switches), forming a circle or ring shaped network. Network rings
are generally used to provide a high level of resiliency in alar e eogra hie area. (Resiliency is
the at5I!!~ oJ~ ~o survivefa1 ures witn1n e networ~ . ) ·
Figure 3.1-16 shows an example of a network ring with foi:J r OADMs. The OADMs have two
paths to connect to each other in the ring. This configuration ensures that the failure of a single
link in the ring does not cause loss of connectivity among the network elements in the ring .
Network elements in a ring can_ b ~c;mnected.Jo~id.e the ring, to interconnect that

ring with other networks . For example, in the ring in Figure 3.1-16, one bfthe OADMs connects
to the network core. Network rings can also connect to linear networks deployed near the
access network.
In terms of advantages as a network topology, the ring topology:
• Ensur~-~...::_:mnectivity am..o.og...d.euic..es by not rei ing on a central hub
--
•
•
Has failover capability (Failover is the ability of a networ~ sys!em , or de\lic.~_to switch
~------...,
Provides service access ~
--------. large ----------.....-----
automatically to a secondary redundant devrce-if the primary device fails.)
geographic area
Metro
Network
Core
Network
Figure 3 . 1-16: Network Ring

Mesh Topology
c {?»1-Jff ~~ Lw ~ & ~ (L,oA/l;f;tJ,e)JpVL -f-6
- u ~fM-R.A·-
In am sh op.ology.,..each NE in the network is directl~ted ever)!_ other NE in the network.
This top ~ogy provide~ ultiple ,__r:edundant paths among the NEs in the network. This ·
configuration offers better network survivability than other network topologies , as some
services can continue to function even if an NE or a link fails . The mesh network ensures
continued connectivity by forming new paths between NEs when a failure occurs. The process
of creating new pathways is typically automated, resulting in a highly reliable network.
Figure 3.1-17 shows a mesh network implementation. In this example, all network elements
have a direct connection to all other NEs in the network. This configuration is referred to as a
full mesh topology. A mesh network is configured using the following formula, where N = node:
N x (N-1) =Number of links required for full mesh

2
Because the equipment costs associated with a full mesh can be high , partial mesh
configurations are often deployeq. In a partial mesh, all NEs are not directly connected to all
other NEs in the network. Therefore, the partial mesh provides less reliability than full mesh.
Because of the volume of customer traffic in the core, a single link failure has the potential to
cause widespread service outages . Therefore, the mesh topology is commonly used at the
network core.
Metro
Network
Core
Network
Metro Metro
Network Network
Metro Metro
Network Network
Figure 3.1-17: Mesh Network

Some advantages of mesh topology are:
• A fully meshed network provides the highest level of network resi liency by providing
alternative paths to the network core and to every device on the network.
• The failure of a single device or link does not disrupt network connectivity to other
devices in the mesh.
• Mesh topology provides the flexibility to expand the network without disrupting the
existing NEs.
A limitation of mesh topology is that mesh networks require more hardware than other network
topologies.
150 Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights resetved.

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide Module 3, Lesson 1: Introdu ction to Optical Networking
LANs, MANs, and WANs: Another Way to look at Networks

While network topologies are defined by shape, LANs, MANs, and WANs are defined by
geographic size.
local Area Networks
A LAN is a group of connected network devices within the same building or group of buildings,
such as a hospital or college campus. Such a network could be a few devices or several
thousand devices, all of which share access to printers, file servers, and other services.
A LAN can be connected to a larger network, such as another LAN or a WAN , to link the
computers and other devices within an organization to each other and I or to the Internet. LAN
connections are high-speed and inexpensive relative to WAN connections.
Metro Area Networks
A MAN is a medium-sized network that spans several buildings in the same suburb, town, or
city.
Wide Area Networks
A WAN is a long-distance network that covers a large geographic area such as a state or
country. A WAN connects several LANs and I or MANs.
Telephone companies and cellular carriers deploy WANs to service large regional areas or an
entire country or group of countries . Large enterprises use private WANs to link remote offices.
The Internet is a public WAN spanning the world.

Network Architectu re
End-to-end network architecture is divided into the following three network types or sections
(as shown in Figure 3.1-18):
Core: The network core is the long-haul portion of a network, optimized for bulk data
transport at high speeds. Network core devices make up the backbone of any network
and are specialized to connect networks across cities and even nations. The links in
the core are multiple fiber pairs spanning long distances.
Metro: The metro network connects groups of data centers or COs in a city or region
and distributes traffic to or collects traffic from customer sites in the access network.
• Access (or customer edge): The access network serves individuals or groups of
homes and businesses.
Metro
Network
Figure 3.1-18: Network Architecture
Each of these sections of the end-to-end netw.or: . uses a topology that arranges links and NEs
to est support ra 1c ana service a-emandsln that sec 1on. ------

Optical C ommunications A ssociate (OC -A): Student Guide Module 3, Le sson 1: Introduction to Optical Networking
Optical Networking Applications

Cloud computing , triple-play, remote storage, and other bandwidth-intensive services are
driving demand for higher-speed connectivity. Customers of service providers are finding
advantages in consolidating voice, data, storage, and video networks into a high-performance
metro or regional optical network. Such a network supports all applications between large
locations and data centers. In some applications , increasing customer demands for bandwidth
are driving service providers to replace existing 10 Gbps links with 100 Gbps links.
Optical networks provide bandwidth for even the most d emanding applications. For example,
using DWDM in metro networks, 40 or more protected 10 Gbps channels can fit on a single
pair of optical fibers . As demands for data replication, Voice Over IP (VoiP), and LAN extension
continue to grow, service connectivity requirements of 1 Gbps or more are becoming common .
Several service providers have observed aggregate bandwidth demands exceeding 10 Gbps,
driving the need for a new approach to networking among primary locations .
Optical networking enables application traffic to be handled transparently, reducing network

management complexity and packet inspection to manage congestion. In the next sections, we
describe the applications that are evolving as a resu lt of optical networking technology.
Triple Play Services
~t
Optical technology has enabled triple Q!ay, the simultaneous transmission of video, vQii;e, and
data. The delivery of triple pia}' is possible by combining OTN with connection.:Qriented
Ethernet to provide QoS , ~a fability, and flexible bandwidth . OTN can supply 40 or more
wavelengths 5o the cable or lV supplier can aggregate video, voice, and data (in the form of
Internet) to t~ptical switching at the ri1errolevel maintains the bandwidth necessary
for this feature . In some cases, residences also enjoy FTTH or Fl i t. - "
Cloud Computing
Cloud computing is not defined by any standard, but generally includes:
• Centralized applications, servers, and storage
• Automated provisioning and maintenance
• Virtual machines and storage
• Internet access
Individualized access, so that IT departments do not have to provide assistance
• Monthly subscription fees rather than software purchase or license fees
Two examples of cloud computing are Google and Amazon. Cost is one of the most significant
drivers of cloud computing : Amazon charges as little as 1/40 of what a large company pays for
its own internal storage.

Optical networking provides the high-speed transmission necessary for the user or business to
interact with a cloud . As Figure 3.1-19 shows, both public and private clouds are being built.
Amazon Google
App!icatioo S.tor<>ge
Server
; !
Com p ~
Database Database
Enterprise Data
Ce nter
Private
Cloud
Public
GbE, Cloud
10Gb E
Fibre Channel
Optical
Switches
Figure 3.1-19: Cloud Computing
Storage Area Networks
A SAN connects data storage devices to customers who wish to store and access stored data.
A SAN stores data by connecting customers' computer systems to backup systems. A backup
system might be a tape library or a mirrored server setup . SANs transport data to a backup and
recover data in the event of a failure.
SANs offer a technology solution for medium to large sized business and government entities .
Governments, hospitals, utilities, financial, manufacturing, retail, and transportation companies
who store terabytes and even petabytes of data use SANs .
Early SANs were inside a single building or campus, where the backup device was attached
directly to a customer server. Today SANs connect storage devices that reside on their own
network and are also connected to a customer server system. A SAN might span a metro or
even a long-haul network. These networks can have thousands of connections between the
data centers that host the storage devices.
The protocols used for transporting and recovering SAN data are: IBM's ESCON, FC, internet
Small Computer System Interface (iSCSI), Fibre Channel over IP (FCIP), Fibre Channel over
Ethernet (FCoE), and GbE. ESCON is an interface for transactions between IBM servers and
storage devices, operating at speeds up to 200 Mbps. ESCON is now combined with FC for
speeds of approximately 1 to 2 Gbps, using the name FICON . FC is a high-speed (up to 10
Gbps) connection protocol that enables access to storage devices over a network.

Storage devices on a SAN are connected using high-speed switches. As competition for
bandwidth becomes more intense, an advantage of SAN technology is that it does not copy
data through customer servers or across LANs. SAN uses an intelligent gateway to route
storage data away from servers and mainframes. Figure 3.1-20 shows storage arrays and the
high-speed switches that connect to them. The switches and storage servers use a mesh
network for protection and reliability.
/ '100$ -1000s miles

'"" ~/
"~(
·",:
d Link Metro Network /
Mainframe Extens
Data Center
Figure 3.1-20: Storage-Area Network
Carrier Ethernet Networks
Carrier Ethernet (CE) is an implementation of Ethernet technology suitable for large carrier or
service provider networks. CE is based on a set of standards, definitions, and extensions to
traditional Ethernet. The ability of OTN to transport Ethernet over OTN has enabled or
enhanced services such as:
Private line service, connecting two offices at different geographic locations, or

connecting two locations such as data centers using a secure channel
Virtual Private Network (VPN), connecting geographically separated networks to each

other as if they are a part of the same LAN
IP telephony, communicating between office locations and within offices
Videoconferencing, lowering the cost of communication with clients, suppliers, and

various offices
Passive Optical Networks
In comparison to an active optical network, a passive optical network (also referred to as an

Optical Distribution Network (ODN)) reduces both capital and operating expenses. The output
of one optical transceiver at the CO can be shared with multiple customers. A single fiber to a
remote node with a splitter can serve many dwellings. Rather than an active device such as an
. OADM, a_re ate node u assive device such as an optical star cou ler introduced in an
--e;::::: earlier lesson). The star coupler has just one fiber inpu an mu 1p e outputs, which connect to
Optical Network Units (ONUs). Operating expense is keP-lloJtLb.e.cau.s_e_tl:le-AetwGFk- is-passive
and because fiber longevity is much greater than copper.
- ~

Passive Optical Networks (PONs) are defined by ITU standards G.982, G.983 , 987, and
G.988.
In some areas, the optical fiber extends to a location nearby, or even to individual residences
and businesses. In an earlier les_son, we described FTTC and FTTH . These setups (and similar
arrangements such as Fi~o.=.tb.e=gHilding (FTIB)) use PONs to transmit data from fhe
Optical Line Terminal (OL Tl_~~.~.QJQ.!emote no~~ on to ONUs . -
Figure 3.1-22 shows an example of a PON. In the CO, video and other signals are combined
onto a single fiber with a wavelength division multiplexer. Using EDFAs, the signal is sent
across the PON . A single fiber (or fiber pair) serves each remote node, where the signal is split,
passively, and sent to the end customer. In some cases, the signal is sent to another remote
node where it is split again .
In the FTIC and FTTB scenarios, an ONU steps down the speed and converts the signal from
optical to electrical , for transmission over copper to each house or business. An _Qtill mlght be
on a pole that serves multiple res.i,g_ao..ces-Or buE ir.~esses or in the case of ao_olfu;e buildi(lg or
similar institutional structu[e,. it might be on or within the building.
--
In the FTIH scenario, the fiber extends to an Optical Network Termination (ONT) that delivers
the signal to the residence or business . The ONT is a e.dial nverter installed inside or
outside the buildiQ_g, to convert the o tical signal to electrica coo ec_ to existing ouse
wiring . In the case of Verizon FiOS installations, the ONT delivers ml!.illQie Plain OlCJ Telephone
Service (POTS) lines, internet data, an clvideo. The ONT uses an AC gow~ supply that is
backed up by a battery. - .. -
0
I-
I-
u..
OLT(CO)
Figure 3.1-22: Passive Optical Network Example

Ethernet Passive Optical Networks
The IEEE 802.3ah standard defines an Ethernet PON , also referred to as Ethernet-in-the-First
Mile (EFM). The definition is similar to what has just been described. Ethernet devices are
already in use throughout different netwo_rk topologies: from home (or small business) to
access, metro, and core. In addition, the variable-length Ethernet packets are well-suited for
carrying IP traffic.
Ethernet frames are broadcast through the passive splitter and extracted by each destination
ONU based on the Media Access Control (MAC) address. The specifics of MAC addressing
and other points of Ethernet transmission taught in the Ciena Carrier Ethernet Associate class.
Converged Optical Ethernet Networks
Data transport has expanded to encompass the residential, wireless , and enterprise services
just mentioned. In response, the industry is positioning itself to accommodate the need for
telecommunications companies and Internet Service Providers (ISPs) to work together.
Telecom companies have provided TDM and voice services, and ISPs have built the worldwide
web .
While traditional telecom carriers are trying to integrate residential broadband services,
advanced enterprise data connectivity services, and video into existing voice networks, cable
operators are trying to add VoiP and 'commercial services to video and cable modem services.
The goal for each type of provider is to offer the greatest number of services on the least
amount of infrastructure. '
Some of the solutions that are emerging 9re EoS and Ethernet over OTN. OTN is emerging as
the standard to provide a link between these two worlds . As we described in the OTN section ,
OTN provides transparency by using a digital wrapper to encapsulate many different services
for high-speed optical transport over long distances.
In addition, OTN offers a simplified layering structure. In the past, IP data would have been
encapsulated in Ethernet frames, whic.bJn tum would be segmented arui..packaged into ATM
cells . The ATM cells woulgJ:le packaged into SONEU SDH frames, which would then be ~
transported along an optical wavelength. The converged solution is IP data e"'flcapsuiated in
Ethernet frames that are transported directly on an optical wavelength.
Part of the attractiveness of the solution is the low capital expense outlay. The additional
bandwidth can be accomplished by upgrading the speed of network links, rather than by adding
new fiber. For example, replacing a 10 Gbps transceiver with a 100 Gbps transceiver yields a
tenfold increase in bandwidth.
The networks we have described have many differences and some similarities. For example,
all networks are configured based on the same basic topologies and architecture.

Lesson Activities and Review

Lesson Activities
Your instructor may use the following activities during this lesson or at the end of the lesson .
Supplemental materials may be distributed for use during the activity. The certification exam for
this course may include questions about information in the supplemental materials.
1. Read the white paper: "The Value of OTN for Network Convergence and IP I Ethernet
Migration ." Be prepared to discuss the following questions in a class discussion of the
white paper.
• As network operators strive to converge their networks, what is the value

of OTN in the arena of network convergence?
• Why do network operators support network convergence?
• To satisfy network operators, transport platforms of today must be able to

combine diverse services such as triple play, VoiP, and advanced
enterprise data connectivity; and protocols such as SONET I SDH,
Ethernet, and storage on a common infrastructure. What is the transport
mechanism that can do this, and what is the common name for the method
of aggregation?
1. Describe, at a high level, the steps involved in multiplexing a PDH signal. Point out the
·inefficiencies of this process. Why is synchronous digital multiplexing more efficient?
~--\\~~~o~~(j t/) m~ p~ arl1 .lf~
ft_O:KI>"
Discuss p~ versus s~ming. Does the timing travel with the

data? ~ v.n}-A.A- ~ n}tv '
t}IO. l-1 vVL C9bJI
'1 _fwo.b7{ f~M
Explain the difference between SONET and SDH signal levels.
4. What do you consider the most significant difference between circuit and packet
switching? , ~
~~~e:'~~
,A.Q~oJ?ff1A-

5 . Compare and contrast WDM, CWDM, and DWDM. t 2.- ·S 4Hz._) ~· 'J'D f.J 12. .
~~
n4<' JJ) CftJ:l ~
---N
·-
6. Name one of the most important attributes of OTN.
7. List some advantages and disadvantages of a mesh network.
8. List the three architectures used most commonly in optical networks .
9. What networking scenarios are likely to use PONs?
10. List three optical networking solutions.

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Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 3, Lesson 2: SONET Basics
Module 3, Lesson 2: SONET Basics

lesson Overview
In this lesson, we examine the structure of SONET signals and the function of each component
of a SONET signal. Specifically, we describe SONET frames and how payloads are organized
and transported in SONET frames .
lesson Objectives
• Explain the SO NET signal hierarchy
• Explain the structure of the SO NET frame
• Explain the use of virtual tributaries, signaling , and concatenation in SONET payloads
• Describe the use of pointers and buffers
SONET Signal Hierarchy

The SONET signal hierarchy consists of both pptical and corresponding electrical levels . The
optical signal levels are defined as Optical Carriers (OC). The electrical signal levels are
defined as~ynchronous Transport Signals (STS). The basic rate STS signal is STS-1 , which
operates at 51.84 Mbps. The electrical STS-1 signal can be carried in an optical OC-1 signal.
The base STS-1 rate results from compromises between the standards bodies for SOH and
SONET as the DS-1 and E1 signals were mapped into these rates. All higher-rate signals are
integer multiples of 51 .84 Mbps. The value of 51.84 Mbps is computed by:
frame r a te x fr ame c a paci t y = bi t rate

8 , 000 frames I se co nd x 6 , 480 b its I fr a me= 51. 840 Mbps bit rate
Additional signal levels are defined in the form of STS-n and OC-n. For example, an STS-3
signal operates at a rate of 3 x 51.84 Mbps, or 155.520 Mbps.
Table 3.2-1 shows the SONET signal in both electrical and optical domains. STS is the
electrical domain, with frame formatting, assignment of overhead bytes , lower-rate signal
processing, add I drops, and cross connects. OC describes the composite signal as
transmitted over the optical fiber. The difference between line rate and payload capacity is the
amount of the signal that is set aside for internal network operations.
r-
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Module 3, Lesson 2: SONET Basics Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
Call Capacity
Signal Level Bit Rate Payload Capacity (Maximum DS-Os)
Electrical Optical
STS-1 OC-1 51.84 Mbps 50 .112 Mbps 672
STS-3 OC-3 155.52 Mbps 150.336 Mbps 2,016
STS-12 OC-12 622.08 Mbps 601.334 Mbps 8,064
STS-48 OC-48 2.488 Gbps 2.405 Gbps 32 ,256
STS-192 OC-192 9.953 Gbps 9.621 Gbps 129,024
STS-768 OC-768 39 .813 Gbps 38.486 Gbps 516 ,096
Table 3.2-1: STS-n and OC-n Line Rates
SONET Frames
In this section, we describe SONET frames in the context of frame structure and payloads.
STS Frame Structure
The STS frame is the most basic unit of SONET transmission . Two areas make up the STS
frame: the Transport Overhead (TOH) and the Synchronous Payload Envelope (SPE). The
SPE contains the client signal and Path Overhead (POH). The TOH contains Section
Overhead (SOH) and Line Overhead (LOH). We describe SONET layers in a later lesson. For
now, we show the relationships of SONET section, line, and path in Figure 3.2-1, with the
associated devices in each .
Terminal Switch A Regenerator Regenerator Switch B Terminal
Section
...___ ....._ ___,II...____
__,1 1 __,.___ ____,..____,__ ___.
Line
._____ __, L v c_q ~ 1 1.....- - - - - - - J ...___ __,
Path
Figure 3.2-1: SONET Layers and Devices

Optical Communications A ssociate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 3, Lesson 2: SONET Basics
The STS-1 frame has 810 bytes. These bytes are arranged in 90 columns by 9 rows , as shown
in Figure 3.2-2. The bytes are transmitted by rows, top to bottom and left to right, so the first
byte sent is in row 1, column 1; and the last byte sent is in row 9, column 90.
90 Columns (Bytes)
3 Columns
(Bytes)
87 Columns (Bytes)
I
Section
Overhead.
(SOH)
SPE Pointer
-- J1
-
6
Line I"
Rows 0
Overhead e:..
l
(LOH) ""0
"'
Q)
.!: STS-1 SPE
(l)
>
0
£
"'
a..
<'0 ~ ~\J Figure 3.2-2: STS-1 Frame
\~ The SPE in the STS-1 frame is composed of 9 x 87 bytes and contains the client signal. The
first column of the SPE contains the POH, which is multiplexed into the frame one byte at a
time. While the SPE is not fix~within th~~loaQ_ bytes of the frame, it always begins at the
first byte oft e_e.Q.tj . Because tFilscoli:i"ri1il can move throughout the frame, it is located by a
pointer in the LOH column . The pointer is made up of a count, li-'fbytes, between the location of
the pointer bytes to the location of the first byte of the POH.
The purpose of the floating SPE is to avoid the need to bit stuff or buffer the payload, both
when an STS-1 frame arrives at its location and when STS-1 frames are combined to make a
higher-rate signal (STS-3, STS-12, and so on). Because the payload does not need to be
aligned within the frame, the phase variations of the various payloads can be compensated for
without buffering. Therefore, transport time through the network is reduced. Additionally, the
floating SP,E_e. abies retimin o the payload (if a timing difference should occur between the
SPE and th~ck) by makin~. {Tile H block~are pointer bytes.)
We descrit:ie pointers later in this lesson. ~
Figure 3.2-3 shows an STS-3 frame (with three SPEs). Figure 3.2-4 provides a graphic
example of how the SPE can move about within a frame.
An STS-3 frame consists of 2 ,430 bytes, arranged in a table of nine rows by 270 columns. The
first nine columns contain the TOH (section and line), and the rest of the frame is SPE . The
SPE is essentially three separate STS-1 s combined, with three separate payloads and three
separate POH fields.
Copyright© 20 10-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights resetVed. 163

9Columns
. (Bytes} • ....__ _ _ _ _s_y_n_chronous Payload Envelope (SPE)
.• ~ ,.... 261 Columns (Bytes) --------
I 1
13 Section
_:)._1
Rows Overhead
(SOH) I I I
~ 0
e:.
0
e:.
0
e:.
"U "U "U
!ll !ll !ll
-r ~P£_ £~..;- ~
f:
<l>
J::.
<l>
J::.
~ 0; Q;
6 :> :> :>
Rows Line
Overhead
0
..c
.....
ro
0
J::.
(;5 -
0
J::.
ro
l
!LOH) 0.. 0.. 0..
#3 #1 #2
Figure 3.2-3: STS-3 Frame
Frame A
-------------------
I
I
H1 H2 H3 ~r lspe
I
I
I
I
Frame A+ 1 -----~-------------
I
~
I
H1 H2 H3 H3 I I
I
I I
I
I
-----~-------------
I
H1 H2 H3
~I SPE
I
I
I
I
Figure 3.2-4: Floating SPEs
164 ~l v cr..f,e ~ \1\J Copyrig~t© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved.
~o; rn ?-cv kLe_ .-Jcaf1A ·v. CJ-'~ AY

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Cl Module 3, Lesson 2: SONET Basics
SONET overhead bytes contain critical information regarding the performance of the SONET
circuit in the section . line, and path . The communication of aTi error in one or more of the
overhead bytes helps the netwoTktechnician determine the cause, severity, anq prQ.b.able
loca~n of a problem . Specific functions contained in .these bytes enable effective in-service
testing of a SONET network by passing on failure indicators between sections, lines, and
-
paths . -
For example, a loss of signal or pointer would cause an alarm indication signal to be sent
downstream . In response, mainten ance signals would be sent upstream to the source of the
alarm . /' "" - - -
' class.
SONET overhead is dscribed in detail in the OC-Professional
SONET Payloads
S tp~ ital signals are the DS-<n>, used in America and Canada, and international E<n>
signals. All upper~ed by byte interleaving these signals into a Virtual
Tributary (VT). ' -
.....___.-.
A VT is the mechanism that enables the subrate signals, generated from various sources
operating at various rates , to be mapped into the SPE of a SO NET signal. VTs combine these
N. ~ signals into a higher-speed , channelized signal.
' ,,..$) 'l'l)
t1\ C r \ "'tv' . J, There are four types, or sizes, of VT:
1)\ ./ ~~w e. ,.v .
lJ · . W • VT1 .5: 9x3 bytes, 1.728 Mbps (DS-1) (most common ly used)
!)Sg, L~
, ..,...$ • VT2 : 9x4 bytes, 2.304 Mbps (E-1)
, > ?J f-Vv • VT3: 9x6 bytes, 3.456 Mbps (DS-1c) (c stands for concatenation, which we
., \ \ , " ~ describe later in this lesson)
~ '\J ,t:<,~~v{0V .
v {\ . • VT6: 9x12 bytes, 6.912 Mbps (DS-2)
(]-~ The ability of VTs to ca rry payloads with a variety of data rates is one of the benefits of SONET.
Service providers can groom and aggregate lower-rate services into a VT for SONET transport
at a higher speed . For example, some customer~ may have T1 rate seJ:.Yi_ces of 1JB.i Mbps
mapped into VT1 .5s. Others may require an E1 rate service of 2.048 Mbps to be mapped onto
aVT2
....._ .
The VT2 transports the E1 signal, which is used outside North America. For compatibility, a
service provider can transport an E 1 signal inside a VT2 and hand off the DS-0 channels inside
(intact) to a SONET receiver. In the past, the 32 channels carried on an E1 lost six channels in
the hand off to a DS-1 , so channels paid for were not available for use.
The availability of different sizes of VTs maximizes tl.e_bQndwidth that is available in an STS-1
frame. For example, a customer who needs to transport DS-1C signals requiring 3.152 Mbps is
assigned a VT3 (3.456 Mbps). --- - - - ....:=== ---==-
Of course, not every subrate sigJ:lill_{its_perfectly into its assig_ned VT. The SONET standard is
the floating mode, in which each VT SPE floats inside the Doating"}3TS-L SP I;__E_ayload pointer
processing ensures synchronized timing and enables VT cross connects. We describe pointers
later in this lesson. - - ----..... -
Copyright© 2010-201 3 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved. 165

Like STS-1 frames, the VT has overhead bytes: the payload pointer, the VT POH , and payload
data bytes. The VT POH and the payload data bytes combine to make the SPE. The VT SPE
size, unlike the STS-1 SPE size, is unique to that VT.
Virtual Tributary Group
VTs are mapped into the SONET SPE in a container called a VT Group (VTG), as shown in
Figure 3.2-5. A VTG can be represented as a 9-row by 12-column table of 108 bytes . A VTG is
a fixed TOM signal with a bandwidth of 6.912 Mbps. Seven VTG_s_c_a be trans _2rted inside the
SPE ~ - There cannot be one or three VTGs in an STS-1 frame; either tliere
are seven VTGs or there are none. Each VTG carries one subrate signal (DS-1, DS-3), but
different VTGs in an SPE can carry different subrates .
VTG
l
9Rows
--- -==---.."---·-·--
B B B
1 2 3
~---- . -'k5-e---· -------a,.

---- V:rt..5...B- · - ---v.T
Figure 3.2-5: VT1.5s Interleaved into a VTG
~ ~~ l~ [5 CL /feC u&J~
(101ct nYl ~ Cf'J c§ o w:xJ'LQ.o-d bD~

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide Module 3, Lesson 2: SONET Basics
The VTGs are byte interleaved into the SPE; however, the seven VTGs do not divide equally
into 86 columns. Therefore, two columns (30 and 59) are ignored. The contents of these two
columns are fixed stuff bytes that are not used. Figure 3.2-6 provides an example of how VTs
interleave into a VTG . The interleaving process ensures that any signal carried in the SPE can
be located.
Stuffed
•
Stuffed
OVerhead
• 2 21 • 59 60 65 8()
t
\. I
\ I
A A A
1 2 3
VTs
Figure 3.2-6: VTs Interleaved into VTGs, Interleaved into SPE

Module 3, Lesson 2: SONET Basics Optical Communications A ssociate (OC-A) : Student Guide
Higher-rate SONET Signals
SONET includes the following higher-rate signals:
• STS-3
• STS-12
• STS-48
• STS-192
• STS-768
Each higher STS-n rate is formed by interleaving n STS-1 s. Using STS-48 as an example,
each STS-1 has three columns of section and line overhead for a total of 144 overhead
columns, and 87 columns of SPE for a total of 4176 payload columns.
The individual STS-1 scan be added or dropped at an ADM, or cross connected. The H1, H2
pointer that is part of the overhead of each STS-1 is used to locate the desired STS-1 within the
SPE.
Figure 3.2-7 shows how any service type is accepted and multiplexed .
1DGbps
~----------------- 140Mbps
6Mbps
2Mbps
1.5Mbps
Figure 3.2-7: SONET Multiplexing Hierarchy

Opti~l Commonicatioo' A" oc'''' (OC-A)cStodent::~~ . ..;iJ v; ~~
Mod ole 3, ''""" 2.· SONET "'"'"
Concatenation
If the total signal rate is greater than the capacity of an STS-1, a process known as
concatenation (c) may be used. Concatenation allows cost-effective data transport, because
concatenation creates a smaller number of higher-rate interfaces from a larger number of
lower-rate interfaces. Not all STS-1s (or OC-1s) must be concatenated in the SPE. A set of
STS-3cs can be transported along with a set of STS-48s .
A concatenated signal is treated as one contiguous payload rather than as individual STS-1 s.
For example, an STS-3c carries a combined rate of about 155 Mbps. As one contiguous
payload , the signal has only one POH to relay end-to-end information . Additionally, only the
section and line overhead bytes from the first STS-1 are used , otherwise the same information
, would be relayed repeatedly. The H1, H2 bytes of the LOH indicate concatenation.
The advantage of concatenation carries a disadvantage with it. The process of combining rates
results in large jumps between the available rates, so a customer might buy more bandwidth
than is needed. Ethernet rates do not map to the concatenated rates . Additionally, networks
are not always provisioned to accommodate dropping higher-rate signals on intermediate
nodes, so the signals are often only point-to-point.
Virtual Concatenation
Virtual Concatenation (VCAT), defined in ANSI T1.1 05 , provides the opportunity for closer
mapping of payloads that do not match standard SONET frame sizes and line rates. At the
source, bandwidth is placed in individual payload containers, but it is represented logically to
the network as a VCAT Group (VCG). The members of the VCG are assigned overhead in the
form of unique, consecutive Sequence Numbers (SQs) beginning with 0. The members are
routed and transported individually across the SONET network and then are recombined at the
sink.
Differential delay is the term used to describe the differences in arrival times between the
fastest and slowest members of a VCG . To compensate for these differences, an overhead
byte (an identical Multiframe Indicator (MFI)) is sent with each member. At the sink, the
members are stored in a buffer to be realigned. The buffer size indicates the differential delay,
which is defined as a minimum of 125 microseconds. The SQs are used at the sink to
reconstruct the original signal. Virtual concatenation is separated into high and low order
tributary paths. High::_o rde 'J-CA:r-all.o..c.aie.s_bar:Jdwidtb.,._using the H4 QOinter in the POH, iQ
groups of 51 Mbps (STS-1) or 155 Mbps (STS-3c). High order VCAT is useful for provisioning
subrate traffic using GbE. - -
Low order VCAT allocates bandwidth , using the Z7 byte in the POH, in groups of 1.6 Mbps
(VT1 .5) or 2 Mbps (VT2). These lower rates are useful for provisioning subrate traffic.
;:t-IN., U..U r Wl» tML SvrJ eT

}OJVJ -~ . ~ rl- bl~
CJ)~CL~ -'1.

Table 3.2-2 shows the payload bandwidth sizes that are available with concatenation and the
increase in bandwidth available with VCA T. The lowercase c signifies concatenation. The
lowercase v signifies virtual concatenation .
Container Type Payload Capacity (Mbps)
VT1 .5 Low order 1.600
VT2 Low order 2.176
STS-1 High order 49.536
STS-3c High order 149.76
STS-12c High order 599 .04
STS-48c High order 2396 .16

Virtual Concatenation:
VT1.5 Xv Low order X X 1.600 (X= 1-64)
VT2 Xv Low order X X 2.176 (X= 1-64)
STS-1-Xv High order X X 48.384 (X = 1-256)
STS-3-Xv High order X X 149.76 (X= 1-256)
Table 3.2-2: SONET Payload Capacities with Concatenation
~ rs sc- !.-
vc. ~> ::§) ~ ~Q~.
,, '2.

Figure 3.2-8 shows high order VCAT applied to GbE transport. The SO~~OI':Jtion for
transporting 1 Gbps is STS-48, which i ~ 2.488 Gbps. As shown in Table 3.2-2, ,using VCAT
STS-3c accommodates-GtJE. - - -
• Step 1: At the source of the path, the signal is virtually concatenated into a VCG
notated STS-3c-7v. The notation is 7 because STS-3 carries 155 Mbps, and 1 GbE
(1000 Mbps) divided by 155 Mbps equals 6.45.
• Step 2: The STS-3c members are assigned SQs so the members can be realigned at
the sink Path Terminating Equipment (PTE). H4 pointer bytes travel with each payload.
-
• Step 3: Each member can take a different route across the SONET network.
• Step 4: At the sink PTE, the members are received in the buffer.
• Step 5: Also at the sink PTE, the members are validated, realigned , and recombined
into a high order VCAT payload. The GbE signal is ultimately extracted .
An advantage of VCA T is that intermediate network elements along a path do not need to be
aware of the VCAT status of the traffic. The corresponding limitation is the complexity of the
equipment that must realign, buffer, and combine signals at the customer edge. Additionally, if
~
one member of a VCG fails, the entire VCG fails.
------ ~
\\o r\~
SOI~ET SONET
High-mder VC. High-order VC
PTE
~:-~~ PTE
Step 5
vv:;:~· ~
1 GhE ·1 GhE
Step 1 (Source) (Sink}
., 2 7 7 1820
STS-3c-7v STS-3c-7v
IIJI ~~ •• I
(1.043 Ght)S) (1.048 GI)I)S)
'
.~ Step 3 1~1?0
~ ~J" ~y.§
Step 4 N "
(c<p. · ')CY . Step 2 H
Lega.c y SONET Network
•••••
.......... H
4
.... ii
fiT~ ll
.3c.. STS-
~~/
~J ~ .....
4 ••••• •••••• s~ 7 4 lr 3c
• •••••••••••••••••••••• ........
~
4
50= '1;.............,. •• S0=1
~ ~ ··································~ SQ=2
,/" ) S0=2 ._S.a.Q..&.=l----'-'"'
Two-stage framing bu1fen~d at Rx
Figure 3.2-8: l:figh Order VC Applied to 1 GbE
Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (
Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (LCAS) was developed to address the issue of failed VCG
members and as a means of changing the size of a VCG. The LCAS adds or removes VCG
members with no traffic disruption. LCAS uses a messaging system to give precise instructions
about adding or removing members.

Module 3, Lesson 2: SONET Basics Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide
SONET Byte Interleaving

SONET multiplexes by byte interleaving to reduce the complexity associated with the
transmission of higher-rate signals . The individual bytes are laced together so that each STS-1
signal is visible with ift the high order STS-n signal. Byte interleaving ensures that each byte
can be located in both time and space, and the ability to locate data byte by byte is the key to
the success of SONET.
Interleaving means tbaUb.flJ)_)@.s are_seoUo__r:ows... Because the frame is divided by columns,

some ov~ent , th,en some paY.Ioad b~vtes are sent, and again more overhead
bytes are sent. Figure 3.2-9 shows the overhead bytes of three STS-1 frames interleaved into
an STS-3 signal. The user can count the interleaved bytes and determine the STS-1 they
accompany:
• First STS-1 : Bytes 1, 4, 7 ..... '-H ·~ f(J) ~w fu ~ ~t~

• Second STS-1 : Bytes 2, 5, 8 .. ... 3 ~ rla>c.cd.0 ~ ~ ~1~ .
• Third STS-1 : Bytes 3, 6, 9 ... ..
Synchronous Payload Envelope (SPE}:
Path Overhead and Payload
H1 H2 H2
B2 Bl __-·__ __ __ _. ____ __
~ts_ $P_~ ___ ___ ____ __ _
04 04
07 07
010 010
Payload Capacity
Figure 3.2-9: Three STS-1 Frames Interleaved into an STS-3
SONET clocks are based on a single reference source. The base signal rate, STS-1, is always
51.85 Mbps. Thus, several synchrooous STS::~Lsign~l"! be ~~d_ .Qnd sent together
without bit stuffing to synchron1_ze e rate . Also, individual STS-1 $ als..c_ao be accessed at
the higher STS-n ra e without demulflplexingthe e ntire strw,.::,i)ecause the position of each is
known precisely. An Add f Drop Multiplexer (:A.Dr\11) demcrltipfexes the desired channels.

SONET Po i nters
A high order SONET pointer is positioned in the TOH and locates the SPE. As mentioned
previously, the SPE always begins at the first byte of the POH, as shown in Figure 3.2-10.
Because this column can move throughout the frame, the column is located by a pointer in the
LOH column (bytes H1 and H2). The pointer is made up of a count (in bytes) between the H3
byte(s) and the location of the first byte of the POH (J 1 ). The byte (shown by dotted lines) to the
right of H3 is the start of the count to locate the SPE.
90Columns
H1 1 H2 1 H3
STS-1 SPE
125
psec
____
\..._
Transport
..,;}
250
psec
Overhead
Figure 3.2-10: High Order SONET Pointer to SPE
IJ ~ L
.-
~J~uJU?Y ~
("

Fig ure 3 2 -11 sh ows th e pOSIIOn I f tve t o POH 1na

T 0 f potn ers rea
90 Columns (Bytes)
. VTf
rn7
I I I
/ I
/
I I
H1 I H2l
~ Stan/S-1 SP
)
Start of VT SPE
I I I~ ~ / \
VI""~
I I
I I , Vo I
I
I
I
I
--
-J1
I i VT :
I
I
I
I
- STS-1 s
"-JI 'i
;
~~. +f~~
I I
I I -
- ~
~ V;1-
I I
I I -
I I
t -tfbY~
I I
I I
I I STS-1
I I POH (o~·
I I
Column
I I
\ j
Transport
Overhead
Figure 3.2-11: Low Order SONET Pointer to VT
The counting method provided by the pointer enables individual STS and VT payloads to be
located , dropped, added, and cross connected throughout the network. Any frequency or
phase variations between the STS-1 frame and the SPE increases or decreases the counter
value in the H1 and H2 bytes; thus, locating and acting upon specific parts of the payload is
maintained .
If the position of the first POH byte moves because the buffer has been over or under run, the
pointer adjusts for it, byte by byte. The adjustment negates the need for large buffers, and
individual STS-1s can still be located .
Now, we describe buffers, so we can understand how buffers compromise bandwidth.
fvJM.L
:h> ..-::} i~"~tAJ.MU'.. )_.o~A-
Jt :::) SfE. to CJJt.~

174 J 2- ~) Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All ri"ghts reserved.
Buffers
SO NET buffers are divided into groups of eight bits, which are equal to one byte. During
multiplexing, the bytes from different buffers are organized and combined to create the transmit
signal. Due to timing differences among the sources, there might not be exactly eight bits in the
buffer at the proper time. If the clock referenced by the transmit device is accurate to 60 parts
per million and the link is operating at 1 Mbps, 60,000,000 bits can be transmitted and received
in or1e minute. ·-
The tolerances for clock inaccuracy allow for 60,000,060 bits maximum and 59 ,999,940 bits
minimum to be sent in a minute. Jitter could result from this mistiming, so a buffer ia. available to
either donate or receive bits and resto~nization. It may seem-more sensible to send
the next fram ea little earlier;- or o J e next rame back. While this strategy wi'iieVen tually
resolve the mistiming, it resu lts in more jitter errors. -
To accommodate the various input signals as they are multiplexed and aligned, SONET frames
are designed with spare capacity for stuffing bits. These bits carry no information but are
required to fill up the frame .
The H1 and H2 pointer bytes in the LOH, shown in Figure 3.2-12, adjust and send each frame
out on time. The H3 pointer action byte, which is just after H2, holds a byte if more than 783
(the number of bytes in the STS-1 SPE) bytes are needed. This situation might occur if the
transmit clock is running faster than the receive clock. If fewer than 783 bytes need to be sent,
------- -----
the SPE that follows the H3 byte can ·hold a special byte, called a stuff byt~. Th isSit"l:iation can
occur if the receive clock is faster than the transmit clock. , - - - - -
:::::
SONETFrame
-
SOH 0 Synchronous
c. Payload Erwelope
1-----l
(SPE}
LOH
H1 H2 H3
Figure 3.2-12: SONET H Pointer Bytes

Positive Justification
If the timing from the originating node is slightly slower than that of the receiving node, a
stuffing byte is inserted to replace the data not received in time to be transmitted in the current
frame. Shown in Figure 3.2-13, this practice is known as positive justification. The positive stuff
byte is just after the H3 byte, inside the SPE. The pointer is incremented by one count in tlje
following frame , and the subsequent pointers contain the new value . ..-- - -
....
Frame A
H1 H2 H3
-Pointer
- J •J
Frame A+ 1 Pointer
H1 (H2 H3
~
J1
Frame A+ 2
I!
H1 'H2 H3 _j
J1
, -
l
• I
Frame A+ 3 Pointer plus 1 byte

H1 H2 H3
J1
I
Figure 3.2-13 : Positive Justification

Negative Justification
If the SPE frame is moving faster than the STS-1, the SPE capacity must be moved forward,
and data is written to the H3 byte. The pointer is moved back by one byte in the next frame, and
following pointers contain the new value. Shown in Figure 3.2-14, this practice is known as
negative justification. At least three frames must pass in which the pointer value is constant
before another stuffing operation (causing a pointer value change) can occur.
Frame A
Frame A + 1 w~;~, IHz~fHz "'~~"' Pointer

I -------~.. 1-+-----------1
I ~------------------~J1
1
Frame A+ 2 ·-~~-L~~"' "'~~w ~ - -~,;~ .. ~" hu+~
n Tr ' •' •,1-..._-:_~~-=--=--=--=--=-=:::::':f:::-tJ-1!----------------l
I
500 JlSec elapsed
Figure 3.2-14: Negative Justification

lesson Activities and Review

lesson Activiti es
this course may include questions about information in the supplemental materials.
1. Using your knowledge of the position of OH bytes, sketch the locations of the SOH,
LOH, and POH bytes in an STS-3 frame. If possible, note the number of bytes (or
columns and rows) for each type of overhead.
Columns
(Bytes)
I· ·I '
Columns (Bytes)
~t5 !1
f
-1
~I
Rows
·- ----- H I <;I <:> 1
,LoVl
\
\
;:vb .1

Now sketch the position of the Overhead (OH) bytes (SOH, LOH , and POH) in an
STS-3c frame.
Columns
I• (Bytes} •!--------- Columns (Bytes)
p
-, ger11 0
Rows
1---- -----,
+J
~11
2. Review the following figure . Be prepared to discuss the signal mapping shown in the
figure.
ELECTRICAL OPTICAL
1 DS-3 line
II
=1 OC-1 line
(52 Mbps}
0
()
(..)
r::O~C~-7~6~8~(4~0~G~b~p~s)~~~
[ 4 OC-192
lines
DS-0: 1 commercial phone line,

64Kbps

1. What are the two levels of signaling defined for SONET? Describe two functional
distinctions between thet e levels .
~~~tol p n~
2. Considering the sketch you made of the STS-3 frame above, can you explain the
difference between the bit rate of an STS-n frame and an SPE?
,___ __:) L--J
-ll- Vuw-e-
t u.uJ-_.e.c~~-eLl
-F-J-oa a!,
3. How are older signals such as DS-1 and E1 transported through a SONET network?
Describe the construction of the payload . Does each sy·. nal have its own container?
Are the signals mapped into one container? How is the ransport and maintenance
informati~':J~"~j ~ignaJ? \ (feJi.
y
4. What happens to the data when a stuff byte is needed to synchronize timing?
~> ~ - CTo ~4- ~\)A~ V'l~)
J)~C>
tA h'fC. Vft,;-
]).S.! rr -:::. \'\ ·=-
J).S2- TJ-- ;:;;-
j)~ 2> '\'?:> L( f N hf~ ~ s;;n>'
{hPLUS .Jbo ~m ~-~ ~ ~

~{9{\{\g- ~ kD w . (A ~ ~G
4-e:J-cz VVt) ~ I GtYtl+ 0 (' ~ua~ 1A

180
Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide Module 3, Lesson 3: SOH Basics
Module 3, Lesson 3: SOH Basics

Lesson Overview
In this lesson , we examine the structure of SOH signals and the function of each component of
an SOH signal. Specifically, we describe SOH frames , the use of overhead bytes, and the
handling of payloads in SOH frames.
l esso n Obj ectives

• Describe the SOH signal hierarchy
• Explain the structure of the SOH frame
• Explain the use of containers, signaling , and concatenation in SOH payloads
• Describe the use of pointers and buffers
SDH Signal Hierarchy

SOH signal levels are defined as Synchronous Transport Modules (STMs). Electrical and
optical signal levels have the same format.
Even though the SOH signal hierarchy includes an STM-0 at 51.84 Mbps, the basic rate STM
signal is STM-1, which operates at 155.52 Mbps . The STM-0 frame is rarely used . Additional
signal levels are defined in the form of STM-n. Levels are increments of the STM-1 rate of
155.52 Mbps. The value of STM-0 at 51.84 is computed by:
frame rate x frame c apaci t y = b it ra t e
8 , 000 f r a me s I seco nd x 6 , 480 b i ts I frame= 51.840 Mbps b it r at e
The SOH signal rates that comprise the SOH signal hierarchy are listed in Table 3.3-1.
Signal Levels Bit Rate

SOH SONET Equivalent
N/A STS-1 51.84 Mbps
STM-256 STS-768 39 .813 Gbps
Table 3.3-1: STM-n Bit Rates
Copyright© 2010-201 3 Ciena® Corporation. All rights rese!Ved. 181

Module 3, Lesson 3: SOH Basics Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
SDH Frames
In this section, we describe SOH in the context of structure and containers.
STM Frame Struct ure
Shown in Figure 3.3-1, an STM-1 frame contains a payload and its associated overhead. The
payload is the client signal, which is arranged in Virtual Containers (VCs). VCs are sections of
the payload area of the frame that carry various sub rate signals. Because the VC varies in size,
the configuration and total number of bytes also varies. VCs are described later in this lesson .
The STM-1 frame has 2430 bytes. These bytes are arranged in 270 columns by 9 rows. The
bytes are transmitted by rows, top to bottom and left to right, so the first byte sent is in row 1,
column 1; and the last byte sent is in row 9, column 270. Larger STM frames are designated as
STM-n, where n is the integer that multiplies 155.52 Mbps. Thus, STM-16 is transmitted at
2488 Mbps (16 x 155.52 =2488.32).
Co lumns J 1- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 270
(Bytes): l_ _ 9 ___.. , 1 j. ...------------ 260 :I
1 9 10 11 270
(I
! 3
1
Regenerator
Section
Virtual Container (VC)
Overhead
] _! 3
(RSOH }
I'
0
!:h
4 AU Pointer "0
Rows : )
1
l
-. - 5 ~
a;
.!:
....
Qi
>
! 5 Multiplex 0
Section -.6
~
Overhead ll.
(MSOH)
l _l .
Figure 3.3-1: STM -1 Frame
Because of clock differences, the start of the frame may not coincide with the starts of the VCs
in the payload. Therefore, the Administrative Unit (AU) pointer is needed to locate the
beginning of each VC within the STM-1 frame. The AU comprises the VC, Path Overhead
(POH), and pointers.
The STM-1 Section Overhead (SOH) is arranged in nine columns by nine rows. The SOH
bytes provide framing, section performance monitoring, maintenance, and operational control
information.
The SOH bytes make up the beginning of the STM-1 frame and are divided into the
Regenerator Section Overhead (RSOH) and the Multiplex Section Overhead (MSOH). We
describe SOH layers in a later lesson. For now, we show the relationships of the SOH layers in
Figure 3.3-2, with the associated devices in each .

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide Module 3, Lesson 3: SOH Basics
Regenerator
Section II II II II II ]
Multiplex
Section II II II
Path
Figure 3.3-2: SOH Layers and Devices
The first column of the VC contains the POH , which is multiplexed into the frame one byte at a
time. While the VC is not fixed within the frame, the VC always begins at the first byte of the
POH. Because this column can move throughout the frame, this column is located by the AU
pointer in row 4. The pointer is made up of a count (in bytes) between its position and the
location of the first byte of the POH.
The purpose of the floating VC is to avoid needing to bit stuff or buffer the VC, both when an
STM-n frame arrives at its location and when lower-rate STM-n frames are multiplexed to make
a higher rate signal (STM-4 , STM-16 , and so on). Because the VC does not need to be aligned
within the frame, the phase variations of the various payloads can be compensated for without
buffering, which reduces transport time through the network. Additionally, the floating VC
enables retiming , if a timing difference should occur between the VC and the SOH clock, by
making pointer adjustments.
As an example, an STM-16 frame is made up of 16 STM-1 frames. While each frame was
synchronized by the same clock, the frames may have traveled from different locations and
incurred different transit times, so at the receive end the frames are out of phase. Because the
VC floats within each STM-1 frame, the phase differences can be compensated for by
adjusting the pointers rather than adding complexity by buffering 16 payloads within one
STM-16 frame.
SOH Overhead
SOH overhead bytes contain critical information regarding the framing , performance monitoring,
maintenance, and operation of the SOH frame on several layers, including the regenerator,
multiplex, and path. The communication of an error in one or more of the overhead bytes helps
the network technician determine not only the severity of a problem, but also its probable
location . Specific functions contained in these bytes enable effective in-service testing of an
SOH network by passing on failure indicators between regenerator, multiplex, and path
sections. For example, a loss of signal or pointer would cause an alarm indication signal to be
sent downstream . In response, maintenance signals would be sent upstream to the source of
the alarm indication signals.
SOH overhead is described in detail in the OC-Professional class.

SDH Containers
SDH signals are transmitted by byte interleaving the signals into containers, which are the input
to the VC . The containers use bit stuffing to make up uniform VCs for synchronous multiplexing .
As shown in Figure 3.3-3, the VCs are aligned into Tributary Units (TUs) to make use of the
pointers. Next, the TUs are multiplexed into TU Groups (TUGs), the TUGs are multiplexed into
high order VCs (VC-3 and VC-4 ), and the VC-3s and VC-4s are multiplexed (using fixed byte
stuffing if necessary) into AUs. Finally, the Administrative Unit-3s (AU-3s) and AU-4s are
multiplexed into AU Groups (AUGs).
POHSignals
J+.------------....,1 ,.---......, OS-4!E4

C-4 J139.264
Mbps
ITUG-3 . .__x1-.......; TU-3

•., 1 ..___ __, OS-3ie3
....A.Li-3'~·-f·vc·-3·~~~·-----------~..........-.....,~-.~:
7
............ ···········~ .· . - _··· --. Mbps

x7 ~ OS-2
l'!_UG-2 6.312
Mbps
MUitip l.eXihg"" •
Aligning "" ••• ., • •.•••. • ~ ·~ ··{ vc-1iJ• fc~12] z~!s
Mapptr"fg"' -- Mbps
,..........-~~ 0$-1
1.544
L-.---1 Mbps
Figure 3.3-3: SDH Multiplexing Structure
The VC carries client signals at varying rates and sizes:

• VC-11: 1.728 Mbps, DS-1 0\_~~
• VC-12: 2.304 Mbps, E1
•
---=-/ p.-v {1U ·
VC-2 : 6.912 Mbps, DS-2
• VC-3: 48.960 Mbps, DS-3 I E3
• VC-4: 150.336 Mbps, DS-4 I E4 --"'=' {)l 0 .
VC-11,VC-12, and VC- 2 are consi~ered low order VCs; and VC-3 and VC-4 are high order
VCs. H1gh and low order VCs use different po1nter methods. We describe pointers later in this
lesson.
184
Copynght© 2010-2013 Ctena Corporation. All rights res erved.
Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 3, Lesson 3: SOH Basics
Table 3.3-2 lists and describes container types.
Container Type Container Contents Container User

C-n n = 11 , 12, 2, 3, 4 Lowest-level payload
VC-n (low order) n=11,12,2 Single C-n, VC POH added
VC-n (high order) n = 3, 4 C-n, TUG-2, TUG-3, POH
added
TU-n n = 11, 12, 2, 3 VC-n , TU pointer added
TUG-2 n = 1, 3, 4 (TU-n) Various TU-ns
TUG-3 n = TU-3 or 7 TUG-2s TU-3 or 7 TUG-2s, mapped
__ / ' . AU-n n = 3, 4 VC-n, AU pointer added
/
AUG 1, 3 AU-n 1 AU-4 or 3 AU-3s
STM-n n = 1, 4, 16, 64,256 AUGs n multiplexed STM-1 signals
Table 3.3-2: SOH Containers

SOH Byte Interleaving

SOH multiplexes by byte interleaving to reduce the complexity associated with the transmission
of higher rate signals. Byte interleaving ensures that each byte can be located in both time and
space. This ability to locate data byte by byte is the key to the success of SOH.
Individual bytes are laced together so that each STM-1 signal is visible within the high order
STM-n signal. As shown in Figure 3.3-4 , TUs are byte interleaved into TUGs, AUs are byte
interleaved into AUGs , and so on. At each level, these subdivisions float independently
between the payload areas of adjacent frames , so the inevitable clock variations that occur as
payloads are interchanged and multiplexed with other signals can be accommodated.
The location of each VC is established because each subdivision has its own pointer in the
overhead bytes . The AU pointer can find its high order VC, and the TU pointer can find its low
order VC .
STM-1 Stream
AU Poi~~~~ ""~----~----------·-- . - ..................-..-...."-.
~-~~~L-------------~
VC-4 +AU Pointers ~------------~
:~uP::n~eu~ ~ J
Figure 3.3-4: SOH Byte Interleaving Example
186 Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserve d.

SDH Container Mapping

Containers of various sizes are mapped into containers of greater sizes for efficient use of
bandwidth. For example, a 2 Mbps PDH signal, consisting of 32 bytes of data, is mapped
directly into a C-12 container. (In Table 3.3-2 we saw that C-n containers are the lowest level
containers.) The C-12 container does not map directly into a VC-12 container; instead, four
C-12s (including fixed stuffing , overhead, and justification bytes) are mapped to a VC-12
multiframe, as shown in Figure 3.3-5 . The multiframe contains 140 bytes with a duration of 500
microseconds.
• Frame 1 has two bytes of fixed stuffing added; one byte at the start and one at the
end. In addition, one byte of overhead control information (V5, POH) is added at the
start.
• Frame 2 also has two bytes of fixed stuffing at the start and the end. The J2 overhead
control byte, added at the start, is used to check the continuity of the 2 Mbps path .
• Frame 3 also has two bytes of fixed stuffing at the start and the end. The N2
overhead control byte, added at the start, is the network operator or tandem control
byte, used to transmit performance monitoring information to individual vendors when
the circuit spans more than one vendor's network.
• Frame 4 has one byte of fixed stuffing added at the end , and one byte of variable
stuffing added at the start. The K4 overhead byte, added at the start, is for Automatic
Protection Switching (APS). This byte automatically switches a 2 Mbps circuit to an
alternative path if there is a fault.
The S1 and S2 bytes in frame 4 provide the justification opportunity. Ideally, S1 is used for
stuffing , and S2 is used for data. S2 is also used for stuffing if the PDH signal is too slow, and
S 1 is used for data if the signal is too fast.
V5
R
C-12frame 1
32 Data Bytes
R R
)
R
C-12frame 2
31 Data Bytes
R R
Legend
32 Data Bytes
R
)
C-12frame 3
D: Data bits
R: Fixed stuff bits
S: Justification bits
C: Justification control bits
V5: Path overhead
)
J2: Low o rder path trace
N2: Network operator byte
C-12frame 4 K4: APS
R R
Figure 3.3-5: Mapping C-12s into a VC-12 Multiframe
Copyright© 2010- 201 3 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved. 187

Module 3, Lesson 3: SOH Basics Optical Communications Associate (OC -A): Student Guide
Now that the VC-12 is constructed, the VC-12 is multiplexed into the next larger container, the
TU-12 . The VC-12 is located by pointer bytes (V1-V4), which are added to each multiframe to
detect the V5 POH byte. The V1-V4 bytes comprise the TU pointer. Figure 3.3-6 shows the
frames within a VC-12 multiframe as the frames are multiplexed into a TU-12.
TU -12
VC-12 V1
Frame 4
Frame 1
legend
V3
0: Databits
R: Fixed stuff bits
S: Justification bits
Frame 2 C: Justification control bits
V5: Path overhead
J2: Low order path trace
V4 N2: Network operator byte
K4: APS
V1: VC pointer 1
V2: VC pointer 2
Frame 3 V3: Reserved
32 Data Bytes V4: Reserved
R R
Figure 3.3-6: Multiplexing VC-12s into a TU-12
TUs are grouped so that different types can be contained within a VC-4, as shown in the
following list:
• TU-11 : 27 bytes . 1. 728 Mbps at frame rate of 8000 Hz. Accommodates North
American (NA) DS-1 1.544 Mbps signal. 84 TU-11 scan be multiplexed into an
STM-1 VC-4.
• TU-12: 36 bytes. 2.304 Mbps at frame rate of 8000Hz. Accommodates E1 2.048

Mbps signal. 63 TU-12s can be multiplexed into an STM-1 VC-4.
• TU-2: 108 bytes. 6 .912 Mbps at frame rate of 8000Hz. Accommodates NA DS-2
signal. 21 TU-2s can be multiplexed into an STM-1 VC-4.
• TU-3: 774 bytes. 49 .54 Mbps at frame rate of 8000Hz. Accommodates E3 34.368
Mbps signal or NA 44.768 DS-3 signal. 3 TU-3s can be multiplexed into an STM-1
VC-4.

As shown in Figure 3.3-7, each VC-4 that is carrying TUs is divided into three TUG-3s, each of
which can contain seven TUG-2s or a single TU-3 .
TUG-3 TUG-3 TUG-3

A B c
1 86 1 86 1 86
l......L."··· ;..._ .J
Stuffing " ' -
·"'·
............ ,.___
...... __.
- -- - ,... _.. ······!! ... .....
·"'··- ... I
I
~·:I
POH~') ~·-- - ....
1~11m~m1~~
lA A A
VC-4 IE E E
lc IC lc
_____________________
- _,.. 261
1
Figure 3.3-7: Multiplexing TUG-3s into a VC-4
TUGs do not carry overhead or have pointers; TUGs are containers for multiplexing and
organizing different TUs within the VC-4 of an STM-1. Diverse TUGs can also be grouped; for
example, one TUG-3 can contain 12 TU-12s and three TU-2s , for a total of seven TUG-2s.
The TU frame structure is distributed by way of byte interleaving over a TU multiframe. A TU

multiframe is a 500-microsecond combination of four consecutive 125-microsecond VC-4
frames. The TU multiframe has overhead, bytes V1, V2 , V3, and V4. Each byte is the first byte
of one of the four TU frames that make up the multiframe.
The pointers allow the alignment of the low order VC-ns within the multiframe. Any VC in the
multiframe can float independently of any other VC , and the VC will be located by its pointer.
We describe TU pointers in more depth later in this lesson .
The rest of the bytes in the TU multiframe ma~e up the TU container, which carries the VC and
the POH. The capacity of the TU container varies according to the number of columns in each
different TU.
fl,~Cfo~ oM ~ S)'cow..LR
kuv__ ()}-LZ ~~ ~
~

Module 3, Lesson 3: SOH Basics Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide
Concatenation
Concatenation allows cost effective data transport, because concatenation creates a smaller
number of higher-rate interfaces from a larger number of lower-rate interfaces . Without
concatenation , there would be a series of containers carrying 140 Mbps signals. With
concatenation, the individual signals are treated as one contiguous payload, as shown in
Figure 3.3-8.
Concatenated signals are defined as VC-4-xc (where x is the size of the concatenation), as
shown below:
• STM-4 concatenation (VC-4-4c), a single circuit with a bit rate of 599.04 Mbps
• STM-16 concatenation (VC-4-16c), a single circuit with a bit rate of2 .239 Gbps
• STM-64 concatenation (VC-4-64c), a single circuit with a bit rate of 9.584 Gbps
• STM-256 concatenation (VC-4-256c), a single circuit with a bit rate of 38.338 Gbps
1G standard VC4s
4 concatenated VC4-4cs l
VC44c VC44c VC44c VC44c
l
Figure 3.3-8: Concatenated STM-16
The advantage of concatenation carries a disadvantage with it. The process of combining rates
results in large jumps between the available rates, so a customer might buy more than is
needed. Ethernet rates do not map to the concatenated rates. Additionally, networks are not
always provisioned to accommodate dropping higher-rate signals on intermediate nodes, so
the signals are often only point-to-point.
~m&u"f (f~=' ~~)"""

e..,o ,..,L .

VCAT
VCAT, defined in ITU G.707 I Y.1322 , provides the opportunity for closer mapping of payloads
that do not match standard SOH frame sizes and line rates . At the source, bandwidth is placed
in individual payload containers, but the bandwidth is represented logically to the network as a
VCG. The members of the VCG are assigned overhead in the form of unique, consecutive SQs
beginning with 0. The members are routed and transported individually across the SOH
network and then recombined at the sink.
Differential delay is the term used to describe the differences in arrival times between the
fastest and slowest members of a VCG. To compensate for these differences, an overhead
byte (an identical MFI) is sent with each member. At the sink, the members are stored in a
buffer to be realigned . The buffer size indicates the differential delay, which is defined as a
minimum of 125 microseconds. The SQs are used at the sink to reconstruct the original signal.
VCAT is separated into high and low order tributary paths. High order VCG members operate
at VC-3 and VC-4 containers that are notated by VC-3-Xv and VC-4-Xv, where the range of X
is 1-256 and v represents VCAT. The H4 pointer in the POH signifies a virtually concatenated
payload . Low order VCAT is similarly notated , using the Z7 byte in the POH.
Table 3.3-3 shows the payload bandwidth sizes that are available with concatenation and the
increase in bandwidth available with VCAT. The lowercase c signifies concatenation .
Container Type Payload Capacity (Mbps)
vc 11 Low order 1.600
VC12 Low order 2.176

~J'
J VC3 High order 48.384
VC4 High order 149.76
VC 4-4c High order 599.04
VC 4-8c High order 1198.08
VC 4-16c High order 2396 .1 6
VC 4-64c High order 9584 .64
Virtual Concatenation:
VC 11 Xv Low order X X 1.600 (X = 1 .64)
VC 12 Xv Low order X x 2.176 (X= 1.64)
VC 3-Xv High order X X 48.384 (X = 1.256)
VC 4-Xv High order X X 149.76 (X= 1.256)
Table 3.3-3 SOH Payload Capacities with Concatenation

Module 3, Lesson 3: SOH Basics Optical Communications Associate (OC -A) : Student Guide
Figure 3.3-9 shows high order VCAT applied to GbE transport. The SOH solution for
transporting 1 Gbps is VC-4.
• Step 1: At the source of the path , the signal is virtually concatenated into a VCG
notated VC-4-?v. The notation is 7 because VC-4 carries 155 Mbps, and 1 GbE
(1 000 Mbps) divided by 155 Mbps equals 6.45.
• Step 2: The VC-4 members are assigned SQs so that members can be realigned at
the sink PTE. H4 pointer bytes travel with each payload.
• Step .3: Each member can take a different route across the SOH network.
• Step 4 : At the sink PTE, the members are received in the buffer.
• Step 5: Also at the sink PTE , the members are validated, realigned , and recombined
into a high-order VCAT payload . The GbE signal is ultimately extracted .
An advantage of VCAT is that intermediate network elements along a path do not need to be
aware of the VCA T status of the traffic. The corresponding limitation is the complexity of the
equipment that must realign, buffer, and combine signals at the customer edge. Additionally, if
one member of a VCG fails , the entire VCG fails.
SDH
Step5
1 GbE
Ste.p 1 {Sink)
12 7 7 1820
VC-4-7v VC.4-7v
(1.048 Gbps) (1.048 Gbps)
l~
Step3
Step4
1 '><'vso
"' N
Legacy SOH Network ~ vc~ I
••••••••• ~ H4 ••• ri"'+V_C
_-4
_.-r-1
•••••••••••••• SQ=7 H4
• • • • • ·• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • ....... .__.._,_--t--'1
"JJ""'" 50=1
SQ=2.
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••~ SQ~
SQ=7 Two-stage framing buffered at Rx
Figure 3.3-9: High Order VCAT Applied to GbE Transport
Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme
LCAS (ITU-T G.7042) was developed to address the issue of failed VCG members and as a
means of changing the size of a VCG. The LCAS adds or removes VCG members with no
traffic hits. LCAS uses a messaging system to give precise instructions about adding or
removing members.

Optical Communications A ssociate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 3, Lesson 3: SOH Basics
SOH Pointers
Having mentioned SOH pointers several times in this lesson , now we describe their meaning in
depth. SOH pointers are used to find the floating VC in the AU or TU. The AU pointer finds high
order VCs and the TU pointer finds low order VCs .
Low order pointers (TU pointers) locate VC-11 s, VC-12s, and VC-2s within high order VC-3s
and VC-4s. High order pointers (AU pointers) locate the payload in VC-3s and VC-4s. For
example, in a VC-4 the pointer is in columns 1 and 4 in the fourth row of the overhead. Pointer
bytes H 1 and H2 show the offset (in bytes) between the pointer and the first byte of the VC.
Figure 3.3-10 shows TU-n pointers, fixed within a VC-4. The first byte of the VC-n is indicated
by its TU-n pointer.
86Columns
I' r---- I
TU-2
TUG-2
·I r---- I
TU-2
TUG-2
Pointer Pointer
- ....···• ~
It:: It:
::l ::l
(/} (i)
" "
~ ~
Q.l (!)
)(
u.:
X
u.: .......•.... VC-11
VC-12
u
VC-11
I
Figure 3.3-10: TU-n Pointers Locating VC-ns within a VC-4

Module 3, Le sson 3: SOH Basics Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
Figure 3.3-11 shows how the bytes are organized within a low order and a high order container.
The low order TU frame is byte interleaved into a TU multiframe. V1 and V2 are pointers
showing the start of the payload, V3 has a 64 Kbps channel that provides room for pointer
movement, and V4 is reserved .
I V1 V2 I• V3 V4
I ll l l l l l l I /I l l II I
I H1 I H2 I H3
I I I II I I I III I II I I I
Figure 3.3-11: Low and High Order Pointer Structures
The high order pointer locates the payload or VC in a VC-3 or VC-4 . Because the VC can move
throughout the frame, the VC is located by the pointer represented by bytes H1 and H2. The
pointer is made up of a count (in bytes) between the H1 and H2 bytes and the location of the
first byte of the POH .
The counting method provided by the pointer enables the payloads to be located , dropped,
added, and cross connected throughout the network. Frequency or phase variations between
the STM-1 frame and the payload cause the number of bytes in the pointer to be increased or
decreased . This arrangement maintains the ability to locate and act upon specific parts of the
payload:
Pointers compensate for frequency and phase variations . If the position of the first POH byte
moves because the buffer has been over or under run, the pointer adjusts byte by byte. The
need for large buffers is avoided , and individual STM-1 s can still be located .
Next, we describe buffers so we can understand how buffers can compromise bandwidth.

Buffers
SOH buffers are divided into groups of eight bits, known as bytes. During multiplexing , the
bytes from different buffers are organized and combined to create the transmit signal. Due to
synchronization differences among the sources, there might not be exactly eight bits in the
buffer at the proper time. If the clock referenced by the transmit device is accurate to 60 parts
per million and the link is operating at 1 Mbps, 60 ,000 ,000 bits can be transmitted and received
in one minute. The tolerances for clock inaccuracy allow for 60,000,060 bits maximum and
59 ,999,940 bits minimum to be sent in a minute. Jitter could result from this mistiming, so a
buffer is available to either donate or receive bits and restore synchronization. It may seem
more sensible to send the next frame a little earlier, or hold the frame back, and eventually the
mistiming will resolve. However, this strategy results in more jitter errors.
To accommodate the various input signals as the signals are multiplexed and aligned, SOH
frames are designed with spare capacity for these stuffing bits. The bits carry no information,
but are required to fill up the frame.
The H1 and H2 pointer bytes adjust and send each frame out on time. The H3 pointer action
bytes, which are just after H2 , hold three bytes (in a VC-4) if more than the total number of
bytes in the payload are needed. This situation might occur if the transmit clock is running
faster than the receive clock. If fewer than the total number of payload bytes need to be sent,
the payload container that follows the H3 bytes can hold special bytes, called stuffing bytes .
This situation can occur if the receive clock is faster than the transmit clock.
Positive Justification
If the payload container is moving more slowly than the STM-1 and becomes about one byte
off, an additional byte is stuffed to move the alignment of the container back to the correct time
phase. This practice is known as positive justification. The bits that make up the stuff byte do
not carry data. The positive stuff byte is just after the H3 byte, inside the payload container. As
shown in Figure 3.3-12, the pointer is incremented by one byte in the following frame, and the
subsequent pointers contain the new value.
Frame A H1 H2 H3
"'w n1 Hzn: :~z H:~;.H; Pointer
1-
- J1
- J1
Frame A + 2 H;~;\;, H<~f," H:~~-E rt~

I,: ~lllt:l !JIU;:) 1 JJYlt:
t------------IJ1
Frame A + 3 H1 H2 H3 IH3H3HJI
HlWHJ H?rl""' "''"H' '-----'Pointer plus 3 bytes J1
•
I
Figure 3.3-12: Positive Justification
Copyright© 2010-20 13 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved.

195
Negative Justification
If the payload container is moving faster than the STM-1 , negative justification is performed.
Because the alignment of the container advances in time, the payload must be moved forward,
and data is written to the H3 byte. As shown in Figure 3.3-13, the pointer is decremented by
one byte in the next frame, and following pointers contain the new value. At least three frames
must pass in which the pointer value is constant before another stuffing operation (causing a
pointer value change) can occur.
Frame A
.] - J1
Frame A+ 1 ~~~~~}~~,~P--o-in-te-r--------------+-+---------------------------1
I ... J1
Frame A+ 2 . H1 H2 H3 Or. i n+o. r rnin '"' i hHro.

<-i ; ~ ~ -'!~ H2 H?rl"J HJH3H3
.'
~----------------~ J1
i
Frame A+ 3 H1 H2 H3
--! ~ !-< ~ ~ ~
I
H2 !i2rl2 M>H'JH'J
:~~~~~~::::::::::::::--iJ1
500 j.lsec elapsed
Figure 3.3-13: Negative Justification

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 3, Lesson 3: SOH B asics
lesson Activities and Review

1. What is the basic rate of the SOH signal hierarchy?

\ 6"5~J
vc_~\{
c~tM-1 )
2. An STM-1 frame can be viewed as a table of 270 columns by 9 rows . Despite this
framework, the VC, with~he payload, varies in size. How is the VC located within the
frame? 4 ~:r ~cr. (P~{ ~ > . lv

:n ~ f~ fcJ. ~ _Q..Q.j)A 't u (:,__0.9 ~ ~
(}" '
What is one of the limitations ofVCAT, and ~ solu;on ~ed to address it?
t_---...j
Vbt()J1e.
4. SOH uses more than one order of point~rs. What is the purpose of having more than
one order, and how many different orders are used in SOH networks?
J-\0 ~ CJ) •.
t0z( o__. ~· t\oJk 1 -Jf~ '

Module 3, Lesson 3: SOH Basics Optical Communications Associate (OC -A): Student Guide

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide Module 3,Lesson 4: SONETI SDH Devices and N etworks
Module 3, lesson 4: SONET I SOH Devices and Networks

Lesson Overview
In this lesson, we learn about the devices used by SONET and SOH, the different types of
networks that can be configured using SONET I SOH , the protocols that can provision those
networks, and mechanisms to protect the networks.
Lesson Objectives
• List the devices used by SONET and SOH
• Explain protection switching options in a synchronous digital network
• Describe access, metro, and core network systems
• Define protocols that can be used with synchronous digital networks, such as
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (A TM) over SO NET I SOH, Packet over SO NET I SOH
(PoS), and Ethernet over SONET I SOH (EoS)
SONET I SOH Devices

Dividing SONET I SOH networks into network layers enables efficient monitoring and
maintenance. In general, SONET I SOH network equipment can be categorized by network
layer, as shown below:
• SO NET
• Section Terminating Equipment (STE)
• Line Terminating Equipment (L TE)
• Path Terminating Equipment (PTE)
• SOH
• Regenerator Section Terminating Equipment (RSTE)
• Multiplex Section Terminating Equipment (MSTE)
• Path Terminating Equipment (PTE)
As shown in Figure 3.4-1 , SO NET I SOH networks are made up of four primary device types:
Terminal Multiplexers (TMs), Digital Cross Connect Switches (DCSs), regenerators, and Add I
Drop Multiplexers (ADMs ). Each of these devices is described in the following paragraphs .

Module 3, Lesson 4: SONETI SDH Devices and Networks Optical Communications Associate (OC-A). Student Guide
Regenerator
Section/Section
I II II II II II 1
Multiplex
Section/Line II II _jl
Path
Figure 3.4-1: Synchronous Digital Network Layers and Devices
Terminal Multiplexer
The TM marks the beginning and end of the synchronous digital network, multiplexing I
demultiplexing the payload , section I regenerator section, line I multiplex section, and path
overhead bytes for transmission across the network. At the receive end, the terminal
multiplexer demultiplexes the payload and 12rocesses_the overhE2ad, distributing the payload as
lower-rate signals within the customer network. As shown in Figure 3.4-2, several signals enter
the device and are multiplexed into one OC-n I STM-n signal for transmission.
STS-3/
STM-1 4 • STS-3/ STM-1
STS-3c I STM-1
4
•
OC-n I
DS-1 I 4
E-1 • DS-1/ E-1 VT/TU
OC-n J STM-n STM-n
•
l
4
DS-31 STS-1 I STM-0
DS-3 I E-3
E-3
I
Figure 3.4-2: SONET I SOH Terminal Multiplexer

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 3,Lesson 4: SONET/ SDH Devices and Networks
Add I Drop Multiplexer
The ADM can add , drop, or cross connect tributary channels of any synchronous digital
network rate, dropping and inserting only the desired channels and passing remaining traffic
through the network element undisturbed. Figure 3.4-3 shows an ADI\1 C!Q.Qing~and dropping a
variety of signals such as OC I STM, STS I STM, VTs, and subrate signals such as DS-1 and
~·
E 1. ADMs are configured to accept a specific signal, such as STM-16 or OC-48.
ADMs can also perform electrical to optical conversion to send the SONET I SOH signal over
optical fiber. In addition, ADMs can groom subrate sighals into highei ral s1g'nals. - -
STS/STM-n Bus
OC/STM-n OC/STM-n
!i!
OCISTM-n DS -1JE1 DS-3!E3
+I +I +I
Figure 3.4-3: SONET I SOH Add I Drop Multiplexer
In many cases , a single device performs more than one function, and a device might be used in
more than one SONET I SOH layer. For example, the ADM shown above might be used as a
TM.

Module 3, Lesson 4: SONET/ SOH Devices and Networks Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
Digital Cross Connect Switch
As synchronous digital networks are essentially based on trunking protocols, rather than
switching protocols, these networks do not use switches. The DCS is most similar to a switch in
the synchronous digital network. The DCS grooms subrate traffic so that output ports (at
STM-4 I OC-12 and higher) are filled efficiently.
The DCS performs the same functions as an ADM; however, the DCS interconnects or
segregates a much greater number of low-rate DS-n or E-n signals, or higher rate OC-ns or
STM-ns , than an ADM. When multiple links come into a node, a DCS can be provisioned to
move signals from one link to another. A cross connect can connect rings or link linear
networks to create a mesh . -
''
'' I '
' '
Tran~JJaren
s..,'itch
Matrix
'
...,.'..._
' ___ ...,
.. ........
Figure 3.4-4: Digital Cross Connect Switch

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 3,Lesson 4: SONET/SDH Devices and Networks
0 . .JJ...rl:_ ~ ~ (). yJo..M J

Regene rator ~~ \~· J U·
As described previously in the course, a regenerator (shown in Figure 3.4-5) is designed to
extend the reach of a fiber span. In addition, a regenerator provides signal regeneration, and
performs frame alignment, scrambling, error detection, and mon itoring. A regenerator can be a
discrete device or an integrated function within a multiplexer. A regenerator provides 0-E-0
conversion .
A regenerator commonly performs the 3R functions:
• Re-cover I Re-amp lify: Recovers (converts from optical to electrical), separates clock
from data signal
• Re-shape: Filters the resulting signal to return the extinction ratio to acceptable
standards
• Re-time: Realig ns the signal with respect to a Stratum 1 clock
The regenerator recovers the timing from the received signal, and replaces the RSOH bytes
before retransmission . No other overhead bytes are removed .
3R
0-E-0 Regeneration
Signal
OUT
04:
Con11e E..O
!
i
lTim.i ng
:Recovery
'i
"---r-
Figure 3.4-5: 3R Regenerator

Module 3, Lesson 4: SONET/SDH Devices and Networks Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
Protection Switching
No matter how fast or cost effective synchronous digital networks are, a network without
protection is susceptible to outages that can lead to lost revenue. To keep traffic flowing across
the network, various protection techniques can be used. A synchronous digital network can use
one or two fiber pairs to provide protection: one (or two) for working traffic, and one (or two) for
protection switching . Another method, structural diversity, is to separate fiber paths into
separate conduits. Route diversity creates separate route); for working and protection fibers to
leave a building. l~~ ()A./ ~- ('\lJXJJI)
Automatic Protection Switching
APS is a network protection protocol, at the line I multiplex section level, in which NEs
automatically take on tasks depeoding on the source o ne fault. APS communicates the status
of the nodes closest to_a fault bt way of overhead bytes. ~ ~ ~ &
~tAl 0 ,
cuJn,({J ,
APS uses 1+1 and 1 :1 to 1:n schemes. In 1+1 APS, each working channel or working fiber is
paired with a corresponding protection channel or fiber, with permanently bridged traffic. This
configuration means that the data being transmitted on the working line is also being
transmitted on the dedicated protection line. With 1+1 protection, the tail-end node (that is, the
node that detects the fault and cannot transmit to the next node) can switch from the working
channel or fiber to the protection channel or fiber in the event of a failure, without notifying the
head-end node. The head-end node is at the other end of the link, as shown in Figure 3.4-6.
Head-end Node
I/
i
Bridge__
----------
Node
c
i :)
I w ouJJJi·.e-
Node
2- {o ()lOAAJ P;J
D
()1) vvJ {1 ·~
Figure 3.4-6: Head-end and Tail-end Nodes in APS
~---ro ~'1-tA- .
I : ¥V
~t ~l))~
~ \t\~ .k\~1

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 3,Lesson 4: SONET/S DH Devices and Networks
In 1 :nAPS, n working channels depend on one protected channel. In 1:1 switching, each
working channel has a protected channel. The flaw with 1 :n protection is obvious: what
happens if two or more channels fail? In 1 :1 protection, the signal is sent over batt"! links; here
the flaw is the wasted bandwidth when the,w_9rking ch_anoel is functioning normally. F.igure
3.4-7 shows a 1 :n protection scheme on a linear network. ·
Head-end
Prot ection Fiber
Bridge Switching
Process Switching
Pro·cess
Figure 3.4-7: 1 :n Protection Switching
f.k_ '() ~ t);;,Vu

;;-') {3L!;/Z
~I

Module 3, Lesson 4: SONETISDH Devices and Networks Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
Local Access , Metro Access, and Core Networks

local Access System
The local access part of a synchronous digital network carries the signal to and from
res idences and businesses, also known as the customer edge. These local links are not
usually fiber; more commonly, these links are either coax or copper.
For residential customers, an Optical Network Unit (ONU) converts the optical signal to an
electrical signal, suitable for copper wire. The ONU is located at the residence or on a pole at
the street (Figure 3.4-8). The ONU interfaces with a Digital Loop Carrier (DLC), which
concentrates low-speed services from outlying terminals before the services arrive at a central
office for transport elsewhere.
O NU/ OLC
Figure 3.4-8: Fiber to Coax in Access Network
For business customers, the synchronous digital network signal terminates at a Remote Fiber
Terminal (RFT). The RFT is essentiall y the same piece of equipment as the residential DLC;
the RFT is the first (or last) piece of equipment in the synchronous digital network. The RFT
can interface with a Private Branch Exchange (PBX) for voice service, or a switch or router
connecting with PCs for data service.

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 3,Lesson 4: SONETI SOH Devices and Networks
Metro Access System
The synchronous digital network metro access system distributes signals going to, and
aggregates signals coming from, residences and businesses . This part of the network could be
considered a Linear Add I Drop Multiplexer (LADM) network. It is often , but not always, fiber.
These links are generally outdoors, so the equipment is protected , or environmentally
~- hardened.
The equipment multiplexes the signals from the RFT and I or DLC, grooming and aggregating
the signals for transport, either on a ring for business customers, or on links for residential
customers .
ADMs in metro access systems can be used to drop-and-repeat; that is, a signal can be
dropped at a node yet duplicated to be sent on to other nodes. Both telephony and cable 1V
providers use this capability. Individual video channels can be dropped, duplicated, and
dropped repeatedly.
The rings can have many nodes, which might be located in a telephone company CO, a cable
company serving office, a hospital campus, and so on. An ADM adds and drops channels,
whereas a DCS can reroute them; therefore, the functions of the DCS are broader. Both the
ADM and the DCS can provide connections between service provider rings.
Some ADMs are used as hubs so that a synchronous digital network can extend to a long haul
link or a rural link. Hub ADMs are usually high speed. In rural applications, an ADM can be
deployed at a terminal site to aggregate traffic from separated locations.
Core System
The core is a long haul network owned by an Inter-Exchange Carrier (IXC) and uses both rings
and long links. Traffic enters the network as lower-rate signals such as DS-1 I E1, DS-3 I E3,
OC-3 I STM-1 , OC-12 I STM-4 private lines, IP traffic, and I or ATM traffic. The signals are
multiplexed to the higher rates by ADMs and DCSs. ADMs are connected to WDM terminals
and operate at rates of OC-48 I STM-16 or OC-192 I STM-64.
As long haul carriers expand into localities, some IXCs are building their own metro access
rings.
Figure 3.4-9 shows an example of a synchronous digital network with equipment and signal
levels identified .

Module 3, Lesson 4: SONETISDH Devices and Networks Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
Local Access Metro Access Core
100 GbE
STM-256/
STS-768
Figure 3.4-9: Synchronous Digital Network

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 3,Lesson 4: SONETISDH Devices and Networks
The example in Figure 3.4-10 shows an end-to-end network solution that spans the core to the
access using mesh, ring, and linear topologies (we desribed these in an earlier lesson). The
points where two networks converge are referred to as transition points .
In this network, the mesh topology is implemented in the network core. The mesh network is
providing connectivity to the business service ring network, which in turn serves the business
and residential linear networks.
M
esh/
Topology
Figure 3.4-10: An End-to-end Network Example
Having described local access, metro access, and core networks, now we describe how these
networks are used with other protocols.

Module 3, Lesson 4: SONETI SDH Devices and Networks Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
Protocols Used by Synchronous Digital Networks

The network configurations we have described can use a variety of transmission protocols,
such as:
• ATM over SONET I SDH
• PoS
• EoS
These protocols have different mapping techniques. As shown in Figure 3.4-11 , ATM is
mapped directly into SONET I SDH ; whereas EoS and PoS require additional encapsulation or
handling .
!P
SONETJSDH
=
lP lntemetProtocol
=
.ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode
Enet= Ethernet
HDLC =High-level Data Unk Control
GFP= Generic Framing Protocol
Figure 3.4-11: Data over SONET I SOH

I)
ATM over SONET I SOH

· -4~~~
ATM over SONET I SDH is defined in ITU-T I. 432.3. ATM over SONET I SDH transmits
packets in the form of cells (53 bytes), which are mapped into the SONET SPE or SDH
container. ATM is a high bandwidth , fast pack~t switchin ...en.Q_multiplexing technique, with
excellent Quality of Service (Qo~) that can ca.J:!Y. near ly any type of paylo<2d. ATM over SONET
I SDH was the first successful attempt to increase the efficiency of the SONET I SDH backbone
to carry data in addition to voice.
Today, A TM is used to provide switching in some LAN hubs and _rot,Jters. ATM switches are
also used for WANs to link remote sites. Switches must have the ability to manage both ATM
and SONET I SDH traffic, so the ·SWltches qm sep.§rate the SON_I;T I SQH traffic from the ATM
traffic for routing . If client ATMCells are not available when the p ~s filled , idle ATM cells
are used ; therefore, bandwidth is wasted.
210 Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserve d.
l-1.. t r.,'~ ~ .
Optical Communications A ssociate (OC-A) : Student Guide Module 3,Lesson 4: SONET/SDH Devices and Networks
After services have been dropped at the customer site using the SONET I SOH ADM, the
SONET I SOH terminal multiplexer demultiplexes the services. Because synchronous digital
equipment is interoperable among different vendors, the services that are demultiplexed can
be video, voice, data, and so on.
While ATM provided service that was compatib le with SONET I SOH, the technology fell
l behind because it is not compatible with the Ethernet technologies used in today's LANs .
Compared with Ethernet, ATM is expensive because ATM fixed-size cells result in bit stuffing
and wasted bandwidth. ATM also suffers from jitter when transporting DS-1 signals, and
bandwidth is used inefficiently.
However, for long haul, service providers use ATM over SONET I SOH to take advantage of
the ATM QoS.
A TM over SO NET I SOH is mapped either (in the case of SONET) into STS-1 s or STS-3cs, as
shown in Figures 3.4-12 and 3.4-13. The concatenated STS-3c can accommodate the high
demand for A TM bandwidth.
1 Byte
66 Bytes
H • • •
::::::
0 gs
-
Q..
C?
(..)
>.
00
It:
=
-.
~
(/)
r-
(/)
.....
(/)
"'0
(1.1
:<
1.1..
• ••
30 59
Figure 3.4-12: ATM Mapped into SONET STS-1
3t ~ 4 °~ '
roto t)).L-
1)-o!L
~ ,J_ ~ . .1
t ~ ~WM- ~w...;~ r_ps.-r /l()ro_
~~ d 00 ~)U
~

Module 3, Le sson 4: SONETISDH De vices and Netwo rks Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
1 Byte
111--- 260 Bytes

- --1
IHI •\ lHJ IHI • • •
'\,
5-byle 48-byle
:r::: Cell Cell
0
0.. Header Payload
~
u
c.<..>
t?
<I'>
.....
0
• • • !HI
,(}\ "('~~o~e
,y
") Figure 3.4-13: ATM Mapped into SONET STS-3c
~ e:w tD ~.
~
\~ Packet over SONET I SDH ( {1-ei-;_f~.u.- 'J ~ fw-~AM- ~ _Q)NET)

The introduction of PaS offered a solution to the expense and inefficiency of ATM, in addition to
being compatible with existing synchronous digital networks. PaS is a scalable protocol for
transporting packets within the synchronous digital payload by using the High-level Data Link
Control (HDLC) protocol or Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) framing.
·- -----
PaS carries IP traffic. The IP pack~t of voice, video, and I or data, plus a PPP header, is
encapsulated inside an HDLC-delimited SONET I SOH SPE for transr:>ort across P2P
SONET I SOH links. PaS frames can vary in length , so he PaS frames can cross the
boundaries of the SO NET I SOH frame , as shown in Figure 3.4-14. The HDLC frames are
dynamically mapped into the SONET I SOH frame. The 7E frames are flags used for frame
synchronization. Two consecutive 7E frames equal an empty frame .
RSTE
Pointer
MSTE
Figure 3.4-1 4: Packet Mapped into SONET I SOH
212 Copyrigh t© 20 10-201 3 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved.

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 3,Lesson 4: SONET/SDH Devices and Networks
Ethernet over SONET I SOH
EoS is a standard developed for transmitting Ethernet traffic over SO NET I SOH net'«orks.
Thanks to the interoperability qualities of both Ethernet and SONET I SOH, network devices
are capable of carrying Ethernet over P2P SONET I SOH links. EoS offers the reliability,
standardized services, and QoS of Ethernet, plus the widespread availability of the
SONET I SOH infrastructure.
The most challenging part of encapsulating E~11.et wjtQ_in the SONET I SOH TOM signal is
transporting bursts of Ethe~ et-framed traffic within TOM time-§10~The additional overhead
data required to make the most efficient use o andwidth in Ethernet framing must be mapped
or fit into TOM timeslots using some form of encapsulation.
The Generic Framing Procedure (GFP) is the protocol (ITU-T G.7041) used for mapping
packet data into a synchronous transport. Unlike the HOLC protocol used to map PaS, GFP
does not use special characters to delineate the frames . The process is more similar to that
used by ATM to encapsulate variable length packets. GFP uses a fixed amount oLoverhead
that is independent of th~ents of tbe packets. This strategy allows matching of Bandwidth
l),a-eb g~ r-- -
between the Ethernet stream and the virtually concatenated Sc:)'I\:JC-T I SOri stream.-
·-7 v (;-Af /'
--7qff
·~ L M r .lef~:

Module 3, Lesson 4: SONET/ SDH De vices and Networks Optical Communications A ssociate (OC-A) : Student Guide

Lesson Activities
this course may include questions about information in the supplemental materials .
1. Make a sketch of a large network that encompasses the network architecture covered
in Lesson 1 of this module. Include P2P , mesh , and ring topologies.
1. What are the four primary network devices used by SOH and SONET? Point out their
locations in the network you sketched .
2. What types of protection switching are used on SONET I SOH rings?
l-t") J
3. What are the three network systems used for SY-nchronous digital transport? Draw
them on the sketch .
4. A variety of protocols can be transported oy er SO NET I SOH . Which of these is least

efficient? Which is most promising for today's transport?
~J?.,. ~ ,t\1 IV\ ~~~ 6~

- ~~ ~NSf. - ~[Nlit
/·

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide Module 3, Lesson 5: Optical Transport Network
Module 3, Lesson 5: Optical Transport Network

lesson Overview
In this lesson , we describe the OTN as defined in International Telecommunications Union-
Telecommunications Standards Section (ITU-T) standards. Topics include the OTN
architecture and frame formats at each level of the OTN.
lesson Obj ectives

• Describe the architecture of OTN , based on the Optical Transport Hierarchy (OTH)
• Explain the frame structure of each of the components of the optical transport
hierarchy
• Describe the protocols and multiplexing techniques supported by OTN
• Define payload mapping in OTN

Module 3, Lesson 5: Optical Transport Network Optical Communications Associate (OC -A): Student Guide
OTN Overview
OTN is a protocol-indef2endent system that can transmit variqus types of client signals
including IP, Ethernet, ESCON, ATM, SONET, and SDH. As shown in Figure 3.5-1, client
signals are digitally wrapped with OTN overhead that IJrovides Operating, Administrative, and
Maintenance (OA&M) functions across the OTN optical domain. -- -
Client Ports
FICON 1, 2, 4(';
Fibre Channel (FC)

1, 2,4, 10G
SONET!SOH
OC-3, 12, 48, 192,768
STM ~1 , 4, 1 G, 64, 256
ETR, CLO, ISC, STP
Figure 3.5-1: OTN Digital W rapper
Defined by the following ITU-T standards, OTN is designed to transport a variety of client
signals over WDM networks:
0 • .1-TU-T G. 7Q9 I Y1331, Interfaces for the Optical Transport Network (OTN)
• ITU-T G.798, Characteristics of Optical Transport Network Hierarchy Equipment

Functional Blocks
• ITU-T G .872, Architecture of Optical Transport Networks
These ITU-T standards co~ the physical layer, signal rates , and equ ipm ~ t functional
requirements. - • - - J ~
. BltclHJ~ c.oJ ~ IE(? 1t oJ_ V--,0 ~LM .
-tew PO.a•.~t-
( d;~<>-\ ) ,..
' u_ \ 0 kMLot ) I_
216 Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights rn i:'rved.

Optical C ommunications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide Module 3, Lesson 5: Optical Transport Network
OTN Architecture
OTN is based on a layered network structure with defined interfaces. ITU-T G.798 defines the
OTN architecture based on the Optical Channel (OCh). Unlike in DWDM systems, the structure
of the OCh is standardized , with the client signal encapsulated in the frame structure defined in
ITU-T G.709 .
Ad ministrative Domains
ITU-T G.872 describes the OTN architecture in terms of administrative domains and their
interfaces . As shown in Figure 3.5-2, administrative domains are portions of a network that
belong to a single entity such as a service provider, network operator, or end user.
Two types of domain interfaces are defined :
• Inter-Domain Interface (lrDI): A physical interface at the boundary between two

administrative domains Cf~ p
IA.J):Q~c_)
• Intra-Domain Interface (laDI): A physical interface within an administrative domain
~ - ---
.-
As shown in the figure, OTN lrDI interfaces are defined by 3R (re-amplify, re-shape , and
re-time) signal regeneration . The OCh provides transparent network connectivity between 3R
points in the OTN .
User
Intra- '
Domain Domain '~ Intra- /
~~·
o~:0~in. . . /
laD I l rDI
Intra-
Inter- D.o maln
Domain .____,l.:::.
aD ""I,______.
!rlJI
Figure 3.5-2: lrDI and laD! Interfaces
S1>H OTN
ern)
obu
~f U

Module 3, Lesson 5: Optical Transport Network Optical Communications Associate (OC-A). Student Guide
Optical Transport Hierarchy
ITU-T G.709 defines the optical transport hierarchy as the transport technology for the OTN (as
shown in Figure 3.5-3). The hierarchy includes an electrical and an optical domain . Signals in
the electrical domain are digital, and signals in the optical domain are analog, or photonic.
Packaging and transport of client signals across the OTN is defined in the context of an optical
transport hierarchy that includes the following photonic layers:
• Optical Channel (OCh)
• Optical Multiplex Section (OMS)
• Optical Transmission Section (OTS)
In addition, the OTN has the following digital layers:
• Optical Channel Payload Unit (OPU)
• Optical Channel Data Unit (ODU)
• Optical Channel Transport Unit (OTU)
Optlear Channel Digital

Payload l..lnit(OPU} ~O_H__..___ _ _ c_li_
·en_t_S_fg_n_a_I _ _ _--J
(Electrical)
Domain
Optical Cnanoel (~(\
OPU
Data Unit (OOU)
Optical Charmer
Transport Unit (OTUj "7-- - ' - - - - - - - - - - - - ==-
OTMOH
Signai(OOS)
Figure 3.5-3: Optical Transport Hierarchy
In an OTN, the client signal is carried in the OPU, as the payload in a digital frame with the
associated overhead . ~ -- •
OA&M overhead is added to the OPU to become the ODU . The ODU is the contai ner that
travels with the client service from t he beginning- to th e end of the network, in a way similar to
the SONET or SOH path. Because the ODU is multiplexed, ODU can also be compared to the
-
SONET line or SOH multiplex section .

Optical Communications A ssociate (OC-A) : Student Guide Module 3, Lesson 5: Optical Transport Network
The transport overhead, which aligns the frame , is added to become the OTU , similar to the
SONET section or SOH regenerator section. The OTU also contains the Forward Error
Correction (FEC). One OTU carries one ODU plus overhead and OA&M . One ODU can carry
several lower rate ODUs.
The OCh is the wavelength that carries one digital OTU . The OCh is mapped into the Optical
Channel Carrier (OCC). A separate wavelength , carryJng_management informa!jo ~ tween
two devices, is called the Optical Supervisory ChanneL (OSC).
The OMS , which is composed of multiplexed OCh, provides the link between locations where
the OCh are added or dropped. The OMS OH provides the ability to <iSsess the transmission
chan nel quality and connectivity fo.u.t.!2t layer. The Optical Physical Section"'(OPS) is the link
without the OSC .
An OTS provides the transport betwe_en NEs for one OMS and one..OSC. The OTS is the fiber
between any equipment that performs an optical function on the signal.
The OTN solution of digital wrapping is adding OTN overhead to the payload . As shown in
Figure 3.5-1 , the payload might be made up of several different clients. This common overhead
allows all the clients to be monitored by the same hardware. An additional component of the
wrapping is standardized FEC, which improves error performance and therefore, the distance
the signal can travel without regeneration.
Figure 3.5-4 provides another view of how the OTN layers relate to each other. Digital
wrapping takes place in the OTU layer.
OMS with OSC OMS with OSC

OPS withoutOSC OPS withoutOSC
Amplifier
Terminal ~' ~.
Multiplexer
~
, OCh OCh OCh

OTU OTIJ OTU
OCh
'·'')
C,.
I\
\..I
~. ODU
('[_' OPU
Figure 3.5-4: OTN Layers

-~~ iM ().._.
. ~ oMr~ 6T.L~.
Module 3, Lesson 5: Optical Transport Network (!,~Optical Co~munications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
The entire information structure transported across the OTN is OTM , shown in Figure 3.5-5.
OTM is appended by -n, where n equals the number of multiplexed optical channels . There is
also an OTM-0 which is a single optical channel with no specific wavelength assigned . Along
with the OCh , the OTM has overhead, which can be transported either in a common OSC or in
the OTM Overhead Signal (OOS).
Opmal Multiplex Sectinn OTMOH

(OMS) Signai(OOS)
Optical Transmission
Section {0 T S)
Opticaf Transport ModUle (0 TM)
Figure 3.5-5: The Optical Transport Module
01)0 & 0 f c)
B'T U _,;;;, c}to I< t.Ui. LO ""'-- he /!) ~ oJ?~ aJ:- ~ {!I! (Yl k1l ti-lt
~u±.WM.'
o~ ~e!){J.}:~~ c;hoMht) ~ D.;V\.D~A ·
r '~·fo to rmo-V\-1~ ~ ~ ~ s: ~r
~e to ,~ CtJYI"V'M • ~h)
-~ ~4 +v
I(y()K.J. ~ ctu..e__
220 Copyright© 20 10-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserve4.
Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 3, Lesson 5: Optical Transport Network
OTN Frame Structure

To understand the OTN frame structure, we begin by describing the signal elements in the
electrical or digital domain of the optical transport hierarchy, shown in Figure 3.5-6. The OTN
signal format supports four ITU-defined OTU rates . (The letter k is used in the figure to
represent generically the four signal levels .)
[ Client Signal I
OPUk ~~·--'00"'- PH!."-O~k-~. .1 o~P-U_k_P_ay_lo_a_d_ _~]
__
1-£ levelsofODUk
Tandem Connection Monitoring
ODUk Path ~.-[o-'g""'

•··~.; . .k
-'1'----___o_P~U_k_ _ _ _ _......,J OOI..Ik TCM leveH
OOUkTCM I 00Uk I
TCMOH
ODlJk TCM level n
OTUk
Optical Channel (OCh)
Figure 3.5-6: OTN Format in the Electrical Domain
~ (?w ~tNJ iOvv ~ ( iDrl ~ b'TN ·fturt

wt .t~-\1\; --fD fJ.QJ- ur ~ f)~ 1/V do1Yt11 ~ '
O~l~V 1iJ) Jf ,
. I
tJ-· s ·~r~

" 0--f/"'-";J}vJp.~A.--~.W -;51 111Af2h_(~/vt-
()\fJ \)> ~ . . ---- ~ ~~~
Module 3, Lesson 5: Optical Transport Network Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide fJ
0
Optical Channel Payload Unit Frame
The OPU frame, shown in Figure 3.5-7, is created by combining the client signal payload and
the OPU overhead . The OPU frame occupies columns 15-3824. The overhead occupies
columns 15-16, and the payload occupies the rest
The OPU overhead contains indicators for the ga)'].Qad type, rn ultiframe structure, and
frequency justi!!£ation information (for adapting the client signal into the payload area).
However, unlike SONET r soH paths, the OPU frame relies on the next lower level (ODU) for
end-to-end error detection.
OPU overhead bytes consist of:
• RES (Reserved): Use of these bytes depends on specific client signal mapping and
use of concatenation.
• PSI (Payload Structure Identifier): 256 bytes, identifies the multiframe signal.
• JC, NJO, PJO : These bytes are for asynchronous mapping . For synchronous mapping,
the value for JC is 0, and the PJO (positive byte) is a data byte.
Column#
16 17 .............. ........................................... :582:4
Client Signal Mapped to OPUk: Payload
...
4 ~--~r-------------------------------~
.
... ..
..
*
Figure 3.5-7: OPU Frame

Optical Channel Data Unit Frame
As shown in Figure 3.5-8 , the ODU consists of the OPU and the associated ODU overhead,
and provides path layer, connection monitoring functions. The ODU overhead supports the
following functions:
• Path performance monitoring '-
• Identification of fault type and location
• Generic communications channels
• Automatic Protection Switching (APS) and Protection Communications Channel (PCC)
• Six levels of tandem connection monitoring

... /
In addition, the ODU OH contains a set of bytes reserved for experimental purposes.
ODU overhead bytes consist of:
• RES: Located throughout overhead; not currently used
• PM: Performance Monitoring of certain sections in network and fault location . PM bytes
located in Row 3, Columns 10-12.
• TCMi (Tandem Connection Monitoring): Defines six ODU TCM sublayers.
• TCM ACT: Tandem Connection Monitoring Activation I Deactivation byte .
• FTFL (Fault Type and Fault Location) : Transports FTFL message, spread over
256-byte multiframe, to send forward I backward path-level fault indications .
• EXP (Experimental): Two bytes for network administrators to support applications

requiring additional ODU overhead. ·
• GCC1 / GCC2: Two bytes each, supporting General Communication Channels (GCCs)
between two network elements for remote man?gement, software download, cpntrol
plane signaling, and other control functions. C2. O.LvU ...-IIJIIIQ ,CJ..! ~~ t.t-11 )
j-' s:o tJ~
• APS I PCC (Automatic Protection Switch ing I Protection Communication Channel) :
Four bytes supporting up to eight levels of nested APS I PCC signals, associated with
dedicated connection monitoring.

Module 3, Lesson 5: Optical Transport Network Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
1 1415 16 17 ................................................... . ....... 3824

1
2 Client Signal Mappedto OPU k Payload
OPUkOH
3 ODUkOH
4 . . • ••• *
.... • • • lit' .....
.....
"····· • • • • Ill
...... .. .. .......
....
•• TCM4 FTFL
PM. EXP
...
:RES
.
..
.·.
PM
TTl I BIP-SJ
The current amendment to the ITU-T G .872 standard , published in July 2010, describes three
new ODU frames: ODUO, ODU4, and ODUflex. As mentioned in an earlier lesson, transport of
Ethernet over OTN was a driving factor in publishing these new standards.
Historically, sub-2.5 Gbps payloads were transported over SONET I SOH. With the proliferation
of OTN networks and the increasing Ethernet traffic, the ITU created an ODUO container by
splitting the 2.5 Gbps tributary slots found in ODU1 in half.
ODUO has 1.25 Gbps tributary slots, to carry a 1 GbE (or STM-1 I OC-3, STM-4 I OC-12 ,
_ )(0 oX: FC-1 00, video at 270 Mbps) signal. · -
"\V'~ - "'·~ ODU1 can transport 2.5 Gbps (STM-16 I OC-48 and FC-200) signals or be divided into two
~1\\}Y'""' ~ 1.25 Gbps tributary slots.
~ ~ ~~ ODU2 can transport 10 Gbps (STM-64 I OC-192, 10 GbE WAN) signals or be divided into four
( v\)v (Li"Ao# 2.5 or eight 1.25 Gbps tributary slots. SttoJJoJJA
'o~e& Ct.._
(j . \~~&/~--- ODU2e (ODU2 exten_9ed) can tr~sport 10.3995 Gbps (10 GbE LAN, FC-1200). ~ ,.{~ h1f-
O\\J v
>~ ~· x:tl ODU3 can transport40.150 Gbps (STM-256 I OC-768 and 40 GbE) or be divided into sixteen'-~VV:\'
~K'ho S~uio
W . 1
,.:.\'vi!.· 2.5 or thirty-two 1.25 Gbps tributary slots. ..o' •.. (} .J'
'"()..l ·\)Y" ~<w~

~ CJI ~ ODU4 can transport 104.794 Gbps (100 GbE) or be divided into eighty 1.25 Gbps tributary
4
· (_}) YllSl.ft . slots.
qj,. <:. ODUflex has been designed to accommodate the varying rates of many different clients (for
example, Fibre Channel and video). These signals cannot fit into any defined OTN container
without sacrificing bandwidth. Because it would be expensive and impractical to define a new
--') Q 'J) U 2. e_ .
Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 3, Lesson 5: Optical Tran sport Network
container whenever a new client signal is introduced, ODUflex has been defined. ODUflex can
transport client signals with rates higher than OPU1 by wrapping these signals with an ODU
frame. Then , the ODUflex is mapped into 1.25 Gbps tributary slots using the Generic Mapping
Procedure (GMP). The use of the tributary slots and GMP ensures that virtually any client rate
o f the future can be carried over OTN . GMP is described in a later section .
Optical Channel Transport Unit Frame
Shown in Figure 3.5-9, the OTU consists of the ODU, the OTU overhead, and the appended
FEC. The OTU prepares the ODU, which is in digital format, for transmission over an individual
OCh connection . Each OTUk uses an OCh that is assigned to a specific wavelength.
The OTU frame, unlike a SONET I SOH frame, does not have a fixed frame rate . As the line
rate increases, the frame size remains constant, and the frame rate increases . Before the OTU
is transmitted on the OCh, the OTU is scrambled to ensure reliable receiver clock recovery.
The OTU overhead provides error detection, correction , and section layer, connection
monitoring functions. OTU overhead bytes consist of:
GCCO : Used for network~ anagement or contro~ g
• RES: Not currently used
• SM : Section Monitoring bytes shown in the following list:
• TTl (Trail Trace Identifier): One byte to support 64-byte trace signals, used to
identify a signal from the source to the destination within the network. Contains
Access Point Identifiers (API) field that specifies Source Access Point Identifier
(SAPI) and Destination Access Point Identifier (DAPI). APis contain information
regarding country of origin, network operator, and adm inistration data.
• BIP-8: One byte parity error detection code signal, computed over OPUk area of a
specific frame and inserted in OTUk BIP-8 overhead two frames later.
• BEl/ BIAE (Backward Error Indicator I Backward Incoming Alignment Error): Four
bits signal to convey upstream the number of errored interleaved-bit blocks
detected by the section monitoring BIP-8 code. Also conveys upstream Incoming
Alignment Error (IAE) in section monitoring IAE overhead.
• BDI (Backward Defect Indicator): One bit to convey signal fail status detected
upstream .
• IAE: Incoming alignment error
fDP·vJA a,}
rt A'tj1f\-G
Copyright© 20 10-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights res erved. 225

8 14 15 16 17 ............ ..................................... ......... 3824 3825 ...... 4080

1 ...
I OTUOH
2 . < ·OPUk Client Signal Mapped to OPUk Payload
·oR ....
OTUk
....
•••
3 OOUki:OH FEC
4 . -
. ! > <
.. ...
·. ..
8 I 9 I 10 111 I 12 13 I 141
I 1 RES
8
I 9 110 Il.
TTl
. BIP-8 . ........
.
"' .,
Section
·.
fl "' . ....... .
Monitoring
Overhead SAP I ··c;~ 1 BDI 1 ~:~·r~~~ ~
DAPI
Operator
Specific
~I ·:::.) ~O~tJ.A-U--
Figure 3.5-9: OTU Frame

o.d c! ft · t: ~e-'ifu,
C.·
·vtrf c al~M , rPJdd

fJl ~-~~
Opt ical Channel Transport Unit Frame Alignment Sjgnab...,, ·, )

cp.'U._()._M,~ (A 7~"" (~ ~VI.. .i .
Shown in Figure 3.5- 10, Frame Alignment Signal (FAS) and Multiframe FAS (MFAS) are the
framing bytes that enable receivers to identify the boundaries of the frames.
FAS uses the_first six bytes in Row 1, Columns 1-6, to pro~vide framing for the entire signal and
to identify Out-Of-Frame (OOF) and Loss Of Frame (LOF). OA1 designates the byte divided
into bits 1111 0110, and OA2 designates bits 0010 1000.
OCh Transport Lane Level 4 Logical Lane Marker (OTL4 LLM) replaces the third OA2 byte in
the FAS OH and identifies each of the 20 logical lanes in an OTU4 multilane signal.
The ITU has defined the OTL as a layer on top of the OTU. The OTL layer is referenced as
OTL x.y (where xis the data rate andy is the number of optical lanes). As an example, OTL 4.4
represents an OTU4 signal running on four wavelengths at 28 Gbps. The OTL protocol maps
and de-maps data as blocks, which are realigned using a marker in the FAS and MFAS bytes.
This method of data transmission is described later in this lesson, in the section about Physical
Coding Sublayer (PCS) lanes.
MFAS uses one byte in Row 1, Column 7 to notify the receiver of OTUk and ODUk signals
spanning multiple frames. - - - -

14 15 16 17 . •. •••.••. ••...•••• ••• ..•• ..•.. •...•. . .• .••• ••• ••. •••. ..•• 3824 3825 ···· ··4080
1
2 ..
Framing I.,. .
OTUOH
OPUk
Client Signal Mapped to OPUk Payload
OTUk
3
·..
•• •. o :o uk 6H'·· ....... OH FEC
4 .
. ...
......
...·· .
..·· ....
I 'l' I'
3 1
FAS
4
.·...·..·.
. .
2 3 1 4 5 6
FAS
OAt OA1 OA1 OA2 OA2 OA2
1 2 3 4 5 6
OTL4 FAS w ith LLM
OA1 OA1 OA1 OA2 OA2 LLM
\ Figure 3.5-10: OTU I ODU Frame Alignment Overhead L ~
( 1/v U\J<_.~ ~ pft • n u;vr4- '\'i- lA.J(\_., (Aat ~ f~lA.>

Forward Error Correction ~ L- '?!. nL lltv\4- --t~tt L • •J
•'YV..._ X) \ 0 h.. v 0-/vu-'' ~q 'Y
, ·~~"' As shown in Figures 3.5-9 and 3.5-10, FEC is appended to the OT!J frame . FEC is one of the
~t- r~ . chief benefits of OTN as defined in ITU-T G.709 . FEC enables the detection and correction of
~ 6' ~r»- bit errors that are caused by physical impairments in the transmission medium. FEC uses a
'ltD of' t!V" · Reed-Solomon algorithm to correct these errors, which results in longer optical spans and thus,
_ejg ~ E) less regeneration . ~wuv ~ op~ ~ ~'I.M- f').{.?-\b lfoc1., ·
~ v\ The scope of this error correction is much greater than what FEC offers for SONET I SOH . An
improvement in Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) of up to 6.2 dB results in_reduced_powe! need.
Optical Multiplex Section I Optical Transm issio n Section I Optical Tra ns port Mod ule Overhead
Signal Frames
In the previous pages, we described components of the OTN frame format that are part of the
optical transport hierarchy digital domain. In this topic, we describe the OH bytes that are part
of the photonic (or optical) domain, shown in Figure 3.5-11.
. .. occ
[~~
. .
i OTS r OMSOH
OTMOH
Sign al (OOS)
OTSOH
GCC
Figure 3.5-11: OTN Format in the Photonic (Optical) Domain

Module 3, Lesson 5: Optical Transport Network
The OOS carries:
• One set of OTS-n overhead
• One set of OMS-n OH and OCh-n overhead
• One set of general management communication overhead
• In most cases, vendor-specific overhead
Figure 3.5-12 shows the structure of OTS , OMS, and OCh OH bytes in the OOS.
OTS overhead bytes consist of:
• TTl (Trail Trace Identifier): Used at source and destination access points to verify
connectivity [ ,~~ ~ e>·W-- \'Jp'h' ~~ .
• BDI-P (Backward Defect Indication-Payload): Used to not,!!Y the trqnsmit end that the
receive end detects an incoming OTS-n QayJoad defect
• BDI-0 (Backward Defect Indication-Overhead): Used to notify the transmit end that the
receive end detects an incoming OTS-n OH defecf _____,..
• PMI (Payload Missing Indication): Used to notify the receive end that the OTS-n
payload is absent -
• A>, .
9H ............... ;. I
~A
OMSn end-to-en~..
,. . -~~,.~~ ·
Vendor Vendor
specific specific
0Ch i2E OH
I ~ :. I
12E- Intermediate-to-end

OMS overhead bytes consist of:
• FDI-P (Forward Defect Indication-Payload): Used to notify the receive end that the
incoming OMS-n payload is missing due to an upstream defect
• FDJ-0 (Forward Defect Indication-Overhead): Used to notify the receive end that the
incoming OMS-n and OCh OH is missing due to an upstream defect
• BDI-P: Used to notify the transmit end that the receive end detects either an incoming
OMS-n payload defect or has received an incoming OMS-n FDI-P
• BDJ-0: Used to notify the transmit end that the receive end detects either an incoming
OMS-n OH defect or has received an incoming FDI-0
• PM I: Used to notify the receive end that the OMS-n payload is absent
OCh overhead bytes consist of:
• FDI-P: Used to notif\llh e receive end that the incoming OCh payload is missing due to
an upstream defect
• FDJ-0: Used to notify the receive end that the incoming OCh OH is missing due to an
upstream defect
OCJ (Open Connection Indication): Used to notify the receive end that the OCh signal
is missing due to an Q_p ~n matrix..Gondition caused by cpn a~ ment o~ control plane
_,__,__, -
misconfiguration, o"r due to an unequip ed tributary slot
General Management Communications overhead bytes consist of:
• OTSn DCC (Data Communication Channel): Used to send management information to

or from optical amplifiers
• OMSn DCC: Used to send management information to or from optical line terminating
equipment such as a terminal or OADM
"Cf'rJUP b11t
rj)
~~ <J»- cteN>-- cr-U~ 9()) {) ( kUJ 1/-->
tG -f:1'v-.-LL ~b ~ O-'"- ODU i

OTN Fu nctional Features

In the following paragraphs, we describe the functional features of OTN, including:
• Multiplexing in OTN
• Payload mapping
Multiplexing in OTN
The ITU-T G.709 standard defines how ODU frames can be multiplexed for transport in the
OTN. Asynchronous multiplexing is primarily used in the OTN , rather than the pointer-based
technique used in SONET I SDH. The raflonale is la avoid the pointer processors and
synchronization challenges of SONET I SDH. Because the client clock is not synchronized to
the clock of the container, there will be unused bandwidth in the container, and positive or
negative justification is done. The receiver is informed of the justification by way of the JC, NJO,
and PJO OH bytes that we mentioned earlier in this lesson. =
~ultiplexing is performed at the ODU level. Each client signal is mapped into a Low Order (LO)
ODU , and multiple clients are carried in a High Order (HO) ODU by multiplexing the low order
ODUs into the high order ODU . OPU1 - OPU4 (the OPU contains the client signal plus OPU
overhead) containers are divided into tributary slots that are interleaved within the OPU . The
tributary slot includes part of the OPUk payload area and part of the OPUk OH area. These
tributary slots can carry any combination of low order ODU clients, up to the capacity of an
ODUk. A low order ODU container is appended by j 0 =0, 1, 2, 2e, 3, 4, flex) and is multiplexed
into a high order ODUk (k =1, 2, 3, 4).
An ODUj that is multiplexed into a high order OPUk is first structured as an Optical Data
Tributary Unit (ODTU). First, the ODTU includes the framing bytes in the OH (JC, NJO, and
PJO) for justification . The next step is the byte-synchronous mapping of the ODTU into high
order OPUk tributary slot(s). ODTUs may be multiplexed into an ODTU Group (ODTUG).
A Multiplex Structure Identifier (MSI) (which is an OPU overhead byte) indicates the content of
each tril::lutary slot. Groups of tributary slots are assigned overhead to maintain timing .
Table 3.5-1 shows the number of tributary slots that can be assigned to each low order ODU
container based on rate.
230 Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reseN ed.

2.5 Gbps Tributary 1.25 Gbps Tributary Slots

Slots
LOODU
OPU2 OPU3 OPU1 OPU2 OPU3 OPU4
ODUO 1 1 1 1
ODU1 1 1 2 2 2
ODU2 4 8 8
ODU2e 9 8
ODU3 31
ODUflex *1 *2 *3
(CBR)
ODUflex ** ** **
(GFP)
*: Based on cl ient signal. Since clients with rate < OPU1 are mapped directly into
OPUO or OPU1, ODUflex(CBR) (Constant Bit Rate) always occupies at least 3 tributary
slots.
**:An ODUflex(GFP) (Generic Framing Procedure) can occupy any number of tributary
slots, because the ODUflex rate is any value from 1.244 Gbps to the bit rate of the
largest OPUk payload .
Table 3.5-1: Tributary Slots in an ODU Container

Module 3, Lesson 5: Optical Transport Network Optical Communications A ssociate (OC-A): Student Guide
ODU multiplexing is transparent with respect to timing, bit integrity, and delay. As an illustration,
if four OC-48 I STM-16 signals are mapped into ODU1 s that are multiplexed into an ODU2, the
. timing relationship of the signals is preserved until the signals are demultiplexed back into
ODU1 sat the receive end.
-~ ~
fV
Figure 3.5-13 shows the multiplexing structure for OTN.. ODUk containers are both low order
,~
? and high order. For example, the ODUO does not map one-to-one with an OTUO (no OTUO
exists). The ODUO is a low order ODU for sub-wavelength networking .
Low OrderOOU High Ord erODU

. ~ U\..
0
\A)J)
~~ .
&JJ<-
1 GbE. 'STM l ! OC-3 STM-4JOC-12.
vi cleo. 'lG FC
4 ~-:;_~ .
CBR 2G5, STM-lS!OC-43. 2G FC
v ideo
1DGbE. STM-64JOC- l 92. 10GbE

V\U•NPHY
1DGbE LL..NPHY, lOG FC
40 GbE. STM-25&0C- 7€8
~
100GbE ODU4 "":)I OTU4
Figure 3.5-13: Multiplexing Structure for OTN
Payload Mapping in OTN
The value of OTN is its ability to carry a combination of both synchronous and asynchronous
client services on a single wavelength (transparently). The key to this transport is mapping
different services to OTN frames. The method of carrying payload and overhead varies with the
type of service. The ITU has developed standards to accommodate a variety of different
payloads. Table 3.5-2 shows payloads and their associated OPU containers, as defined by
ITU-T G.709 . A complicated process of scrambling and transcoding is followed to create
containers that can carry the large and small signals (as shown in the following tables). The
approximate bit rates are a result of this process.
Table 3.5-3 shows ODU clients and their associated containers. Table 3.5-4 shows the
correspondence of ODU to OTU containers.
~ ~~ tfiD ~ ~1vf b/t,u

CiJ~--(J { ~ ( f?JD u & oTu (J) 11-ttA!~ )
232 Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reselved.

OPU Clients OPU Containers
Sub-1.238 Gbps CBR OPUO

Supra-1.238- sub-2.488 Gbps CBR OPU1
Near 9.995 Gbps CBR OPU2
Supra-2.488 Gbps CBR OPUflex
Table 3.5-2: OPU Clients and Associated Containers
ODU Clients ODU Containers
-1 .25 Gbps bit rate ODUO

-2.5 Gbps bit rate ODU1
ODUO
-10 Gbps bit rate ODU2
ODUO, ODU1, ODUflex

-10.3125 Gbps bit rate ODU2e
ODUO, ODU1 , ODU2, ODU2e, ODUflex
ODUO , ODU1, ODU2 , ODU2e, ODU3, ODUflex
CBR clients > 2.5 Gbps - 100 Gbps; GFP ODUflex
mapped packet clients 1.25 Gbps- 100 Gbps
Table 3.5-3: ODU Clients and Containers
ODU Containers OTU Containers
ODUO '7
I
--
ODU1 ) -- - -') OTU1
ODU2 OTU2
ODU2e --
ODU3 ) C) OTU3
ODU4 OTU4
ODUflex --
Table 3.5-4: Correspondence of ODU Containers to OTU Containers

High Speed Ethernet over OTN
As we have said, the need for bandwidth continues to grow. Server farms, cloud computing
vendors, and large research labs (to name just a few industries) have tried to meet demand by
using multiple 10 GbE links. This volume creates many problems in the areas of port density,
traffic management, and power.
Lower-speed Ethernet was successful with a simple modulation format (Non-Return-to-Zero

(NRZ)) that matched the bit rate with the baud rate. The bit rate is the number of Os and 1s
transmitted in one second. The baud rate is the number of tl!nes_C!_ sigrlal changes state. These
values match when the modulation algor ithm sets the nu111ber oLb.Lts_equaU o the number of
baud . Different modulation alg Orithms set the num D'er of bits to be slightly more or less than
one baud. The relationship of bit rate to baud rate is always :
Bits per second = baud per second X th e number of bits per baud
Algorithms for frequency modulation such as QuaQ_rature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) modulate
the phase of the carrier wave to encode b1ts of digital information in each phase change. For
SONET I SOH rates, the modulation format is binary: the 0 bit is off and the 1 bit is on .
QPSK transmits four different, discretfL.Phase states that car!}' two bits per baud, or s Jil bol. A
symbol rate is computed by dividing the bit rate by the number of bits transmitted in a symbol
(two for QPSK). Symbol rate can be measured either in symbols per second (symbol Is) or
...
baud. -- - -- --
As an example, a 100 Gbps QPSK signal, transmitting symbols with two bits each , operates at
50 G symbol Is. A phase shift keying algorithm with eight phase states (8PSK) transmits
---
signals with three bits each, so a 100 Gbps 8PSK signal operates at 33.3 G symbol Is.
For high speed Ethernet (40 and 100 GbE), the IEEE 802.3ba standard defines a single
architecture based on the concept of virtual lanes, known as Physical Coding Sublayer (PCS)
lanes. PCS lanes are multiplexed and transported over four 25 Gbps or ten 10 Gbps parallel
wavelengths on a single fiber. The ITU and IEEE have cooperated so that this architecture can
be transported using ODU3 and ODU4 containers.
The Ethernet packets that make up the 40 or 100 GbE electrical signal are broken into blocks
that are mapped into the PCS lanes by way of a round-robin distribution . Figure 3.5-14
provides an example of a 100 GbE signal processed through a CFP. Marker blocks in each
/ '-
~
J
lane, sent at a fixed cycle of 210 1-JS, ensure that the signal can be reassembled at the receive
end. In the CFP, the PCS lanes are processed and converted into four optical lanes. ~(@Jc"{J ,
t~ Lff1do~ ~ rP
a. o.~ ((}6 GJ i ~
~~ 4 ~~6br 'fi,jflv WLIJ~Vv
{)..-efl1('1 ~. Cl) --tW-
(99-v )o /o Gt bp <> •

Optical Communications Associate (OC -A): Student Guide Module 3, Lesson 5: Optical Transport Network
5 Gbps PCS lane #0

5 Gbps PCS lane #1
5 Gbp~ PCS lane #2
Network 20 .10,
10:4 optical lanes
t!~ ~·
0 1. Add MAC header to Ethernet frame
~'1~<>~ 2.
3,
Group abytes into symbol D
Use round robin to distribute symbols into PCS lanes
4 Add PCS Jane markers(}:very 210 IJS for proper reas sem bly at re ceive end
\J~ .,;·
;,; In CF P. lanes multiplexed into4 optical lanes
Figure 3.5-14: Distribution of Ethernet Signal into PCS Lanes
IEEE 802 .b3a-201 0 has standardized the following nomenclature for the transmission fiber that
carries these lanes:
40GBASE-SR4: 40 Gbps physical layer device (PHY) using 40GBASE-R encoding over
4 lanes of multimode fiber reaching at least 100 m (short reach)
40GBASE-LR4 : 40 Gbps PHY using 40GBASE-R encoding over 4 WDM lanes on

single-mode fiber reaching at least 10 km (long reach)
1OOGBASE-SR1 0: 100 Gbps PHY using 1OOGBASE-R encoding over 10 lanes of

multimode fiber reaching at least 100m (short reach)
1OOGBASE-LR4: 100 Gbps PHY using 1OOGBASE-R encoding over 4 lanes of

single-mode fiber reaching at least 10 km (long reach)
1OOGBASE-ER4: 100 Gbps PHY using 1OOGBASE-R encoding over 10 lanes of

single-mode fiber reaching at least 40 km (extended reach)

Mappi ng in OTN
OTN uses several different kinds of mapping. The following sections describe Bit-synchronous
Mapping Procedure (BMP), Asynchronous Mapping Procedure (AMP), Generic Framing
Procedure (GFP), Generic Mapping Procedure (GMP), and Timing Transparent Transcoding
(TTT), as well as the associated client services.
Bit-synchronous Mapping Procedure
BMP adds OTN overhead to a client signal. OC-48 I STM-16, OC-192 I STM-64 , and
OC-768 I STM-256 are mapped into ODU1, ODU2, and ODU3 , respectively.
BMP maps Constant Bit Rate (CBR) clients other than SONET I SDH into ODUflex. Figure
3.5-15 shows BMP wrapping the ODUk I OPUk overhead around the client data. This
technique does not require any type of justification.
Ciie.nt
signal
1-------ij lt------------1
Jl
r-------r-------~ . ~------~
OPUk OPUk
OH payload
FAS I MFAS
OPUk OPUk
OOUk OH payload
OH
Figure 3.5-15: Bit-synchronous Mapping Procedure
oTu .
~~)Lo~
(M)__ Y1 J} ~ (It\ «_. Inti>({
~·f)
..._____.:._

(, .~-t1 IV -tJ~t ~ tl) CJ#vf lJrb ~ C0r·~

Asynchronous Mapping Procedure O ~ IY\~ )
AMP maps SONET and SOH, and muJ1ip le~s low ~rder OOU clientsJ!lto 1.25 and 2.5 Gbps
tributa'FY'slots. Justification bytes, such as those found in SONET I SOH, are used in AMP to
provide synchronization. - - ---- _..
Figure 3.5-16 is an example of an STM-64, also referred to as a CBR 1OG client signal, mapped
into OPU2. If the client rate is greater than the rate of the OPU container, the NJO byte can
accommodate the extra data, and when the client rate is lower, the PJO byte is used for extra
stuffing.
Q
Column#
~·~V)
15 16 17 1904 1905 ...1920 1921 3824
1
Row 11h 1.60 119x 160
rt\ oJLowJ ~v # 2
118 X 160 119x 160
~ r~~ 3 118 X 160 11 9x 160
eJ< fM' ~~KAY--

~~· 4 150 + {77 X 160} 119 )( 160
t-O~ NJO: Negative Justification Opportunity byte FS: Fixed Stuff byte
PJO: Positive Justification Opportunity byte 0: Payload Data byte
JC: Justification Control byte RES: Reserved byte
Figure 3.5-16: STM-64 (CBR10G) Mapped into OPU2
Generic Mapping Procedure ( ~V\ ~ .jt)'-t ~t)

GMP was defined in ITU-T G.709 specifically to map signals into the new OOUO and OOU2
containers. With the redefinition of existing OOU containers into low and high orders, there are
about 100 new multiplexing routes. GMP enables the use of these routes by using the tributary
slots described previously. GMP maps and de-maps the low order OOU signals (non SONET I
SOH CBR client signals) into and from OOU tributary slots. As an example, a client signal in an
OOUflex might be assigned to six tributary slots. GMP provides the mapping, inserting
overhead along with the OPUk overhead once every frame or multiframe.
GMP accommodates the bit-rate differences between clients and their OTN containers. Each
GMP frame (or multiframe) has entities that contain either data or stuff bytes. The data entities
are distributed evenly across the frame, using an algorithm, which also identifies the location
and number of these data entities. As the client data rate increases, so does the size of the
entity. To avoid jitter, GMP has the ability to transmit timing information (if necessary) to satisfy
client requirements between the mapping and the de-mapping devices.
Figure 3.5-17 shows the flow of data between the mapper and the de-mapper, using GMP in
OTN .
Table 3.5-5 shows AMP and GMP mapping OOU containers into OPU containers.

Payload
AJea
I
- r - - -_- - - - , '"'!Determine
# of data
entities,
Payload
Area
1nsert into
Payload
OH
Area j OH Payload Extract#
OH+-_...."'l!AJ~e;.;a•--+-~from OH
Payload Payload
OH OH Extract
Area Area
client data
Mapper Demapper
Figure 3.5-17: Flow of Data Using Generic Mapping Procedure
2.5 Gbps Tributary 1.25 Gbps Tributary Slots

Slots
ODU
Container
OPU2 OPU3 OPU1 OPU2 OPU3 OPU4
ODUO AMP GMP GMP GMP

(PT=20) (PT=21) (PT=21) (PT=21)
ODU1 AMP AMP AMP AMP GMP

(PT=20) (PT=20) (PT=21) .(PT=21) (PT=21)
ODU2 AMP AMP GMP

(PT=20) (PT=21) (PT=21)
ODU2e GMP GMP

(PT=21) (PT=21)
ODU3 GMP
(PT=21)
ODUflex GMP GMP GMP

(PT=21) (PT=21) (PT=21)
PT = Payload Type, a 1-byte signal in the PSI that indicates the composition of the
OPUk signal. PT=20 means an ODU multiplex structure supporting ODTUjk only, with
AMP. PT=21 means an ODU multiplex structure supporting ODTUk.ts (tributary slot) or
ODTUk.ts and ODTUjk, using GMP.
Table 3.5-5: AMP and GMP in ODU Containers

. _, .1 ~. ~MP) .
Generic Framing Procedure C~·--"]<LV'-'
GFP was designed (using virtual concatenation and LCAS) to create flexibly sized containers
for packet data transport over SONET I SOH networks. Thus, GFP can carry Ethernet and SAN
protocols (for example, §_SCON, Fibre Channel, and FICON). _
IEEE 802 .3 defined a WAN interface to be compatible with SONET I SOH so that the data rate
of a 10 Gbps signal could be limited to 9.95328 Gbps. This process uses specialized coding
and considers differing clock tolerances.
The GFP frames take up the whole payload area. If there is no data, then idle frames are sent.
There is no SONET I SOH overhead, and there are no fixed stuff columns. GFP headers
·provide GFP-specific information, such as frame boundaries. A GFP frame might cross the
OPUk frame boundary. Figure 3.5-18 shows how GFP frames are mapped into OPUk
containers .
Column#
15 16 17 ...................... ............................. ...... :1824
(4-65 535 bytes) ~ ~Ufc.Q

Figure 3.5-18: GFP Mapping into OTUk VJ~j
Co~~.
~Nff
~~ ·

Module 3, Lesson 5: Optical Transport Network Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide
Ethernet Mapping
As the OTN standard was being developed the transmission of optical data interfaces such as
GbE and 10 GbE, in addition to SONET I SOH, was considered and then rejected. AsSONET
and SOH were the primary optical transport mechanisms , they were the primary clients for
OTN . Other signals requ iring transport were mapped into SONET I SOH and then into OTN. As
Ethernet transport became more widely used , the decision not to support native Ethernet
clients directly became a handicap to the wide-scale deployment of OTN .
Historically, GbE client signals were compressed and mapped into SONET I SOH and then into
an OOU1 using TTT and GFP . This procedure necessitated a complex SONET I SOH TOM
layer to accommodate Ethernet frames , because the 1 .25 Gbps line rate of a GbE signal is
greater than the OPUO. payload capacity.
The addition of the OOUO container allowed a form of rate adaptation that allows timing
transparency for the client signal. In addition , it is applicable to any CBR client signal that has a
bandwidth less than the OPUO payload.
Figu re 3.5-19 shows two examples of GbE mapping into an OPUO. In both examples, the GbE
signal is first compressed to map into the OPUO payload. Signal compression is requ ired
because the OOUO is half the OPU1 payload rate of 1.24416 Gbps. After compression, the
GbE signal is mapped into the OPUO using GMP. Then, OOUk OH is added.
In upper example in Figure 3.5-19, the resulting low order OOUj is divided into two tributary
slots and mapped into the low order OOTUj with AMP. AMP works best for mapping clients with
rates close to the OOTU rate .
In the lower example, the GbE signals are mapped into a high order OOUk, so GMP is used .
GMP can map any non-SONET I SOH CBR client into an OPUk, as we described in the GMP
section .
In both examples, the OOTUs may be combined into a larger logical entity, the OOTUG; and,
with the addition of high order OPUk OH, the GbE signals are now part of a high order OOUk
payload .
ODT UGj
multiplexing
~
Signaf1s
compressed added
~~
multiplexing
-~ ~c::-J
---~
Figure 3.5-1 9: GbE Mapping

Optical Communications Associate (OC -A): Student Guide Module 3, Lesson 5: Optical Transport Network
Figure 3 .5-20 provides a summary of OTN mapping .
Dedicate as
uch or as little
of each
wavelength to
Ethernet as
Tran sparently
multiplex Ethernet
and non-Ethemet
traffic
Supportsfu ll 10 GbE
LAN PHY
I]
,..___ Segregate traffic classes by

; \ ,::::l Ethernet or physical LAN tunnels
Figure 3.5-20: Summary of OTN Mapping

Module 3, Lesson 5: Optical Transport Network Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide

1. Describe the architecture of OTN. ~~~g

S -~~~~ O~lJ ;' 0]) lJ ), OTU
':)~&tQ ~
D~f1, Dl'vf~ )ok .
2. List and describe the three layers of the digital OTN domain. 0 1.t s~ Yl ( ; A S~L ;
oPo ( un\ . r~().d) 3 N.!JfP1 ~ ~ - ClM~·
ODti F- tvU..t.D11q:fle~ \IAj .l / +o.Nb 1M ~f/1,11\(Q. rm..o1~ffi..<.r·~ ,
0~ --) ~ / ~ r-e~~~~~ -t~ ·. Pf.c.
3. Which layer supports multiplexing in OTN? How is multiplexing ordered? Is there a
one-to-one correspondence between layers? kJD ,
ObU
4. What is the protocol that maps signals into ODUO and ODU2? 4fv( p .
~

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Appendix A: Acronyms and Abbreviations
Appe ndix A: Acronyms and Abbreviations
Acrony m or Des criptions

Abbreviation
A
A Ampere
ADM Add I Drop Multiplexer
AIS Alarm Indication Signal
AIGaAs Aluminum Gallium Arsenide
AM Amplitude
ANSI American National Standards Institute
AOTF Acousto-Optic Tunable Filter
APD Avalanche Photodiode
API Access Point Identifier
APS Automatic Protection Switching
A TIS Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions
ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode
AU Administrative Unit
AUG Administrative Unit Group
AWG Arrayed Waveguide Grating
8
BA Booster Amplifier
BBE Background Block Error
BDI Backward Defect Indicator
BEl Backward Error Indicator
BER Bit Error Rate
BIAE Backward Incoming Alignment Error
BIP Bit-Interleaved Parity
B-ISON Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network
BiTe2 Bismuth Telluride
BLSR Bidirectional Line-Switched Ring
BOC Bell Operating Company

Appendix A: Acronyms and Abbreviations Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
c
C band Conventional band
CATV Community Access TeleVision
CAUl 100 Gbps Attachment Unit Interface
CBR Constant Bit Rate
CC ITT Consultative Committee International for Telephone and Telegraph
CD Chromatic Dispersion
CE Carrier Ethernet
CEPT Conference of European Postal and Telecommunications
CLEC Competitive Local Exchange Carrier
CMOS Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
co Central Office
CPE Customer Premises Equipment
CPM Cross-Phase Modulation
cv Coding Violation
CWDM Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing
D
DAPI Destination Access Point Identifier
DBG Distributed Bragg Gratings
DCF Dispersion-Compensating Fiber
DCS Digital Cross-connect Switch
DFB Distributed Feedback
DGD Differential Group Delay
DH Dual Homing
OIL Dual-In-Line
DLC Digital Loop Carrier
DPSK Differential Phase-Shift Keying
DQPSK Differential Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying
DRI Dual-Ring Interconnect
DS-n Digital Signal
DSF Dispersion-Shifted Fiber
DWDM Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing
E
E band Extended band
EB Errored Block

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide Appendix A: Acronyms and Abbreviations
ECSA Exchange Carriers Standards Association

EDFA Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier
EMR Electromagnetic Radiation
EO Electro-Optic
EoS Ethernet over SONET I SOH
ES Errored Seconds
ESCON Enterprise Systems Connection
ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute
F
FAS Frame Alignment Signal
FBG Fiber Bragg Grating
FC Fibre Channel
Ferrule Connector
FCIP Fibre Channel over Internet Protocol
FcoE Fibre Channel over Ethernet
FOOl Fiber Distributed Data Interface
FDM Frequency Division Multiplexing
FEC Forward Error Correction
FICON Fibre Channel I ESCON
FP Fabry-Perot
FTFL Fault Type and Fault Location
FTTC Fiber To The Curb
FTTH Fiber To The Home
FWHM Full Sidth Half Maximum
FWM Four-Wave Mixing
FXC Fiber Cross-Connect
G
GaAs Gallium Arsenide
GbE Gigabit Ethernet
GBIC Gigabit Interface Connector
GCCC General Communication Channel
GFP Generic Framing Protocol
GLM Gigabit Linking Module
GMP Generic Mapping Procedure
GMPLS Generalized Multi-Protocol Label Switching
•
GPS Global Positioning System

H
HDLC High-level Data Link Control
Hz Hertz
laD I Intra-Domain Interface

IAE Incoming Alignment Error
IEC International Engineering Consortium
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
lnGaAsP Indium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide
IP Internet Protocol
lrDI Inter-Domain Interface
iSCS internet Small Computer System Interface
ISO International Standards Organization
ISP Internet Service Provider
ITU International Telecommunication Union
IXC Inter-exchange Carrier
J
K
Kbps Kilobits per second
km kilometer
L
L band Long wavelength band
LA Line Amplifier
LADM Linear Add I Drop Multiplexer
LAN Local Area Network
LASER Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
LC Lucent Connector
LCAS Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme
LD Laser Diode
LDV Link Design Value ----- '
LEC Local Exchange Carrier
LED Light Emitting Diode
LOF Loss of Frame

LOH Line Overhead

LOMMF Laser Optimized MultiMode Fiber
LOP Loss of Pointer
LOS Loss of Signal
LTE Line Terminating Equipment
M
MAN Metro Area Network
Mbps Megabits per second
MEMS Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems
MFAS Multiframe FAS
MFI Multiframe Indicator
MHz Megahertz
MMF Multimode Fiber
MPLS Multiprotocol Label Switching
MSA Multi-Source Agreement
MSI Multiplex Structure Identifier
MSOH Multiplex Section Overhead
MSP Multiplex Section Protection
MS-SPring Multiplex Section-Shared Protection Ring
MSTE Multiplex Section Terminating Equipment
MTP Multi-fiber Termination Push-on
MT-RJ Mechanical Transfer Registered Jack
MTTR Median Time To Repair
MU Miniature Unit
mW milliwatt
MZI Mach-Zender Interferometer
N
NA Numerical Aperture
NADH North American Digital Hierarchy
NDSF Non-Dispersion Shifted Fiber
NE Network Element
nm nanometer
ns nanosecond
NZ-DSF Non-Zero Dispersion-Shifted Fiber
0

0 band Original band

OA Optical Amplifier
OADM Optical Add I Drop Multiplexer
OAM&P Operation, Administration, Maintenance, and Provisioning
oc Optical Carrier
OC-n Optical Carrier-n
OCh Optical Channel
ODTUG Optical Data Tributary Unit Group
ODU Optical Data Unit
0-E-0 Optical-Electrical-Optical
OIC Optical Integrated Circuit
OLA Optical line Amplifier
OMS Optical Multiplex Section
OMU Optical Multiplex Unit
ONU Optical Network Unit
OOF Out Of Frame
OOK On-Off Keying
oos Optical Transport Module Overhead Signal
OPU Optical Channel Payload Unit
osc Optical Supervisory Channel
OSNR Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio
OTH Optical Transport Hierarchy
OTM Optical Transport Module
OTN Optical Transport Network
OTS Optical Transmission Section
OTU Optical Channel Transport Unit
oxc Optical Cross-Connect
p
P2P Point-to-Point
PBX Private Branch Exchange
PC Physical Contact
PCC Protection Communications Channel
PCM Pulse Code Modulation
PCS Physical Control Sublayer
PDFA Praseodymium Doped Fiber Amplifier
PDH Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy
248 Copyright@ 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved.

POL Polarization Dependent Loss

PHY PHYsical layer
PIN Positive-Intrinsic-Negative
PLC Planar Lightwave Circuits
PLL Phase-Locked Loop
PLM Payload Mismatch
PM Performance Monitoring
PMA Physical Medium Attachment
PMD Polarization Mode Dispersion
Physical Medium Dependent
POH Path Overhead
PaS Packet over SONET I SOH
ppp Point-to-Point Protocol
PRC Primary Reference Clock
PRS Primary Reference Source
PSI Payload Structure Identifier
PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network
PTE Path Terminating Equipment
Q
QoS Quality of Service
R
RBOC Regional Bell Operating Company
RDI Remote Defect Indication
REI Remote Error Indication
RFT Remote Fiber Terminal
Rl Reflective Index
ROADM Reconfigurable Optical Add I Drop Multiplexer
RSOH Regenerator Section Overhead
RSTE Regenerator Section Terminating Equipment
s
S band Short wavelength band
SAN Storage-Area Network
SAP I Source Access Point Identifier
SBS Stimulated Brillouin Scattering
sc Standard Connector

Subscriber Connector
so Signal Degrade
SOH Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
SEC Synchronous Digital Hierarchy Equipment Clock
SEFS Severely Errored Framing Seconds
SERDES Serial izeriDeserial izer
SES Severely Errored Seconds
SFP Small Form Factor Pluggable
SMA Sub-Miniature version A
SM Section Monitoring
SMF Single Mode Fiber
SNCP Subnetwork Connection Protection
SNR Signal-to-Noise Ratio
SOA Semiconductor Optical Amplifier
SOH Section Overhead
SONET Synchronous Optical Network
SPE Synchronous Payload Envelope
SPM Self-Phase Modulation
SQ Sequence Number
SRS Stimulated Raman Scattering
SSM Synchronization Status Message
SSMF Standard Single-Mode Fiber
ssu Synchronization Supply Unti
ST Straight Tip connector
STE Section Terminating Equipment
STM Synchronous Transport Module
STS Synchronous Transport Signal
T
TCA Threshold Crossing Alert
TCM Tandem Connection Monitoring
TCP I IP Transmission Control Protocol I Internet Protocol
TCTE Tandem Connection Terminating Equipment
TOM Time Division Multiplexing
TE Terminating Equipment
TEC Thermo-Electric Cooler
TFF Thin Film Filter

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide Appendix A : Acronyms and Abbreviations
TFMF Thin Film Multicavity Filter

THz TeraHertz
TIA Telecommunications Industry Association
TIM Trace Identifier Mismatch
TM Terminal Multiplexer
TO Thermo-Optic
TOH Transport Overhead
TTl Trail Trace Identifier
TU Tributary Unit
TUG Tributary Unit Group
u
U band Ultra-long wavelength band
UAS Unavailable Seconds
UNEQ Unequipped
UPSR Unidirectional Path-Switched Ring
UTC Coordinated Universal Time
v
vc Virtual Container
VCAT Virtual Concatenation
VCG Virtual Concatenation Group
VCSEL Vertical Cavity Surface-Emitting Laser
VOA Variable Optical Attenuator
VoiP Voice over Internet Protocol
VPN Virtual Private Network
VT Virtual Tributary
VTG V irtual Tributary Group
w
w Watt
WAN Wide Area Network
WBXC Waveband Cross-Connect
WDM Wave Division Multiplexing
wss Wavelength Selective Switch
wsxc Wavelength Selective Cross-Connect
X
XFP 10 Gigabit Small Form Factor Pluggable

Appendix A: Acronyms and Abbreviations Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) : Student Guide
XLAUI 40 Gbps Attachment Unit Interface

y
YIG Yttrium-Iron-Garnet
z

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Introduction to Optical Communications

Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved.

ii Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved.

Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved. iii

iv Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved.

Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved. v

vi Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights re served.

Module 0: Optical Communications {OC) Certification Overview

The Optical Communications Certification Program is based on a tiered training curriculum

• Associate certification: Students gain a firm foundation in optical communications

Provides skills and

Develops analytical skills

Provides skills and

Figure 0-1: Ciena Optical Communications Certification Path

Copyright© 20 10-20 13 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved. vii

Optical Communications Associate {OC-A) Certification

Topics covered in the OC-A course include:

• Fiber optics technology fundamentals

• Basic concepts of optical transmission

• Optical transmitters and receivers

• Passive optical components, optical cross connects, and optical switches

• Evolution of optical networks

• Optical network basics

• Optical Transport Network (OTN) signals and applications

viii Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved.

Optical Communications Professional {OC-P) Certification

Topics covered in the OC-P course include:

• Optical communications technology review

Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights resetved. ix

Optical Communications Consultant (OC -C) Certification

Topics covered in the OC-C course include:

• Optical communications networks review

The OC-C certification is ideal for intermediate-level engineers seeking an understanding of

Optical Communicat ions Expert (OC-E) Certification

Type of Prerequisites Prerequisite

X Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved.

OC-A Optical Communications Applications Course

As explained earlier, this course provides a basic understanding of OC technology and is

Upon successful completion of this course, you should be able to:

• Describe how fiber optic technology evolved

Day Session Plan

Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved. xi

Day Session Plan

Lesson 5: Optical Transport Network (OTN)

The key responsibilities of students include:

xii Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved.

Module 1, Lesson 1: Fiber Optics Basics

lesson Objectives .--) +~ -V("Cti'\A...-

At the end of this lesson , you should be able to:

• List three major categories of applications for fiber optics

• Define light in terms of both wave properties and particle properties

• Explain the mathematical relationship of frequency and wavelength

• Describe how light exhibits both wave and particle properties

• Explain reflection and refraction of light

Introduction to Fiber Optics

• Telecommunications and data networks

• Laser delivery devices for laser surgery

• Surgical and dental lights

• Sensors for industrial applications, monitoring temperature, pressure, strain,

• Transportation system monitoring ~5 ~..;Y-Lviftee\. r..R-

Copyright© 2010-2013 Ciena® Corporation. All rights reserved.

Historical Events in t he Science Behind Fiber Optics