Indian Muslims’ Socio-Political and

Economic Challenges in the Globalised World

Sadia Khanum* and Tasawar Hussain**

Abstract

India is a multi-religious and multiethnic society, the rise of Hindutva in the

country‟s politics has polarised it in an unprecedented way. The state‟s
inclination towards Hindutva is evident from the plight of Indian Muslims,
who constitute one of the largest minority communities anywhere in the
world. In today‟s globalised world, analysing Muslim minority‟s socio-
economic conditions is imperative especially in the context of the United
Nations Millennium and Sustainable Development Goals. This paper
primarily examines the post-globalisation socio-economic and political status
of the Muslim minority in India. The study focuses on the changing social and
political dynamic of Indian society and repercussions for Muslims under the
BJP‟s government. The findings bring forward an alarming situation by
highlighting that Muslims minority in India is systematically deprived and by
implication, lagging behind vis-à-vis other communities in a state that claims
to abide by liberal, secular and democratic norms. Economic and political
deprivation, communal riots, prevailing illiteracy, poor health and social
conditions are the main characteristics of the Muslim community of India.

Keywords: India, Muslim Minority, Globalisation, Hindutva, South

Asia, BJP, Communalism.

Introduction

Indian Muslims‘ socio-political and economic status has been the subject
of debate for a long time, however, the neoliberal reforms of the 1990s
*
The author is Assistant Professor, Department of Social Sciences, Iqra University,
Islamabad Campus. Email: sadia.khanum@iqraisb.edu.pk
**
. The author is Assistant Professor, Department of Social Sciences, Iqra University,
Islamabad Campus. Email: tasawar.hussain@iqraisb.edu.pk

@2022 by the Institute of Strategic Studies Islamabad.

Strategic Studies, Winter Issue, Vol. 42, No. 2, 2022: 87-106.
https://doi.org/10.53532/ss.042.02.00235

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 Strategic Studies

and India‘s fast pace economic growth have raised the bar of
expectations for the Muslim minority as well. The globalisation of India
has further intensified the issue of mal-treatment of more than 14 per
cent of its population. Muslims population of India is the world‘s third-
largest Muslim population and the largest Muslim-minority anywhere in
the world, yet, they are one of the most deprived religious/ethnic groups
in the twenty-first century. As per the available statistics, Muslims lag
behind other ethnic and religious minorities in education, economic
wellbeing and political representation. The situation is more critical
under the BJP‘s rule in the last decade where frequent communal riots
always end in depriving them of their lives and livelihood. Against this
pretext, it is pertinent to note that Indian constitution promises all kinds
of civil liberties and protection to minorities but in practice these are
nowhere near to reality. This scenario, in turn, pose a threat to India‘s
long held tradition of secularism, pluralism and liberal democracy.

The political rise of Hindu right (Hindutva) and by implication,

Bhartiya Janata Party‘s (BJP) constant victory in elections contributed
immensely in triggering anti-Muslim sentiments in India. Under the
leadership of Prime Minister Narendra Modi, the ruling BJP has created
an atmosphere of ultra-nationalism and tried to consolidate their
popularity and acceptability in majority population by using Hindu card
since their first tenure in government in 2014. The BJP government has
taken radical steps to highlight controversial agendas and convert them
into policies. The critics consider the Hindu nationalist agenda as anti-
Muslim and an attempt to deprive the country‘s largest minority of their
legal and constitutional rights. The waves of violent riots against
Muslims in different parts of India justify critics‘ concerns that the Modi
government is changing the country‘s secular identity and trying to make
it a Hindu republic, denying basic human rights and liberties to non-
Hindu citizens of the country.

The present study shows empirical picture of socio-economic and

social-political conditions of the Muslim minority in India. In doing so, it
first provides an extensive detail of demographic play of Muslim
population making them the largest minority community. The next two
sections offer the socio-economic and socio-political conditions of the
Muslim community leading to the assertion that Muslims are the
forgotten minority in terms of their rights and they are lagging behind

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 Indian Muslims‘ Socio-Political and Economic Challenges

socially, economically and politically. It is concluded that such a

situation is alarming for India itself because no country in the present
globalised world can be developed in true sense while ignoring its largest
minority community in the whole process of development. It is advisable
for the global community to push India to dispense its constitutional as
well as global promises of equal and fair treatment to all of its citizens
without any ethnic, racial, religious and other prejudices.

Muslims in India: Demographic Understanding

The data related to the demographic composition of Indian Muslim

would be helpful in analysing their socio-economic conditions as well as
understanding their political status. According to the Indian censuses, the
proportional decadal growth of the Muslim population is 10.70 per cent
(1961), 11.20 per cent (1971), 11.36 per cent (1981), and 11.45 per cent
(1991).1 A big number of Indian Muslims reside in the three states of
Uttar Pradesh (UP), Bihar and West Bengal. More than a half (52.01 per
cent) of total Muslim population in the country is located in these three
states, more than 1/5 (22.43 per cent) Muslims live in the south Indian
states of Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and the union
territory of Pondicherry. About 1/7 (14.9 per cent) Muslims reside in
western states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Goa and 2 union
territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. 1/20 (5.05 per
cent) live in seven states of north-eastern region and 1/25 (3.87 per cent)
in Madhya Pradesh and Orissa.2

1
Hafeez Malik, ―Indian Muslims: Adaptation to Indian Secularism,‖ Journal of
South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, vol. XXXI, no. 1(Fall 2007): 17.
2
M. Motiur Rehamn, ―Muslim Population in India: Demographic Changes,‖ Radiance,
vol. XXVII, no. 24, (April 1992): 67. Cited in Shahzana, Malik, Hindu Revivalism and
the Indian Muslims (Karachi: Royal Book Company), 1994. 68.

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 Strategic Studies

Table No. 1

Decadal Growth of India and Muslim Population

Decades India‘s Population increases in % Muslims‘ population increases in %

1961 21.51 25.61

1971 24.8 30.85

1981 24.69 30.59

1991 23.56 28

Source: S.K. Ghosh, Muslim Politics in India, (New Delhi: Ashish Publishing House,
1987), 91.

Early 90s balance of payment crisis resulted in economic reforms in

India and the economic development in the next two decades brought
substantial improvements in longevity and better earning and living
choices. India witnessed a rise in population along with better economic
credentials and that concerned the policy makers as the rising population
is considered a big hurdle in the way of the country‘s development and
growth. Indian government‘s measures to curtail population have been
fruitful as population growth has slowed in the last three decades.
Population growth was 25. 61 per cent in the 1960s and in the 1970s it
reached to nearly 31 per cent per decade, however, the population
growth in between 2001-2011 decreased to 20 per cent.3

3
Stephanie Kramer, Population growth and religious composition, Pew Research
Centre, www.pewresearch.org/religion/2021/09/21/population-growth-and-
religious-composition/

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 Indian Muslims‘ Socio-Political and Economic Challenges

Table No. 2

India’s Population Size (1951-2011)

% Increase of India‘s Population Sizes between Census Years

All Hindus Muslims Christians
1951-61 21.6% 20.7% 32.7% 29.0%
1961-71 24.8 23.7 30.9 33.0
1971-81 24.7 24.0 30.7 17.0
1981-91 23.9 22.7 32.9 17.8
1991-2001 21.5 19.9 29.4 22.6
2001-11 17.7 16.7 24.7 15.7
Source: Pew Research Center analysis of Indian census data, 1951-2011. “Religious
Composition of India”

The slowdown in population growth is visible in all religious

identities in India including Muslims. Indian Muslims have always faced
criticism for over breeding from Hindu rightists but the national census
shows that even Muslims‘ population has slowed over the last few
decades. Muslim grew at 4 per cent per annum at times but slowly the
difference in growth rate of Muslim and Hindu population is now almost
the same.

Graph No. 1

In India, Fertility Rates have Fallen and Religious Gaps have Shrunk

Source: National Family Health Survey, 1992-2015. “Religious Composition of India”

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 Strategic Studies

Now after a quick review of Indian Muslims‘ population growth and

concentration it is also imperative to see if Muslims are a cohesive
monolithic body in India or a scattered entity and divided in states and
regions.

According to the India‘s national census 2011, the ratio of Muslims

in total population of India is 14.23 per cent that means they constitute
the second largest Muslim population in the world after Indonesia. The
states with large number of Muslims are Assam (34.22 per cent), West
Bengal (27.1 per cent), Kerala (26.56 per cent), Uttar Pradesh (19.26 per
cent), Bihar (16.87 per cent), Jharkhand (14.53 per cent), Maharashtra
(10 million), Andhra Pradesh (9.56 per cent), Lakshadweep (96.58 per
cent) and Jammu and Kashmir (68.31 per cent).4 Jammu and Kashmir
(J&K) and Lakshadweep are Muslims majority areas, elsewhere
Muslims are minority. As per the states, Muslims are not a monolithic
block in India rather scattered in different regions and states. Their
demographic location is important to know since their political
representation depends on their number and the vote bank politics also
depends on how large or small a group they are in any state. In the light
of the demographic presence of Muslims, it would be easier to find out
their socio-political and economic status in modern globalised India.

Muslims’ Socio-Economic Condition in the Globalised India

Growing Muslim population‘s socio-economic development indicators do

not portray any fancy picture. Data collected by different government and
non-government commissions and surveys show that Muslims lagging
behind in almost all human development indexes. Since their social
acceptability is problematic in the Indian state and society, therefore,
achieving an overall economic and social equality of the Muslim minority is
also a tough task. Statistics show that Indian Muslims are more deprived
economically than other religious identities. As reported in Economic
Times, a survey conducted by the National Council of Applied Economic
Research (NCAER) shows that Muslims‘ chances of living below poverty
line as compared to other Indians are bigger as 31 per cent of Muslim
population lives below poverty line compared to 26 per cent of overall

4
Muslim Religion Census 2011, Census 2011,
https://www.census2011.co.in/data/religion/2-muslims.html on 04-09-2022.

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 Indian Muslims‘ Socio-Political and Economic Challenges

Indians. Survey further revealed that nearly one-third of Muslims in India

earn less than 550 rupee a month in the year 2004-2005.5

Muslims‘ economic backwardness has many reasons and one and

most important is illiteracy and lack of interest in modern education.
Most of them are skeptical of sending their children to modern education
institutions and prefer madrassa education, meanwhile there is
negligence on the part of the state and private organisation and
institution since they don‘t provide enough facilities to Muslims in the
field of education. Affordability is another concern as they do not earn
well to spend on their children‘s education.6 The NCAER survey reveals
that ―Muslims are most likely to generate income from small family
businesses, partly because of educational differences across the
community. It said social group differences in enrollment are striking.‖7
The Sachar Committee Report explains Muslims‘ educational deprivation in
these words:

―Regarding school education, the situation of

Muslims is gravely concerning. The data points out
that, while the overall levels of education in India
measured through various indicators are below
universally conventional criteria, the educational
standing of the Muslim community, in particular, is
even worse than that… When alternate indicators of
educational achievement, more illustrative of the
growth in education, are considered, a noteworthy
inconsistency between the status of Muslims and that
of other SRCs (except SCs/STs) is noted. For
example, both the Mean Years of Schooling and
attendance levels of Muslims are low in
unconditional terms and contrast to all SRCs except
in some cases SCs/STs. In fact, in many contexts,
SCs/ STs are found to have overtaken Muslims.‖8

5
―31 Percent Muslims Live Below the Poverty Line: NCAER Survey,‖ Economic
Times, https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/indicators/31-per-cent-
muslims-live-below-poverty-line-ncaer-
survey/articleshow/5734922.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&ut
m_campaign=cppst on 05-09-2022
6
Syed Shahabuddin, ―Economic Status of Muslim Community in India: An Overview,‖
Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, vol. V, no. 1 (1983-84): 246.
7
NCAER Survey.
8
Rajinder Sachar, ―Social, Economic, and Educational Status of the Muslim
Community of India, 2006.‖

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 Strategic Studies

Muslims‘s enrollment in higher education institutions is also lower than

other Scheduled Classes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Other
Backward Classes (OBCs). The table below contains the data collected by
All India Survey on Higher Education Reports (AISHE) (conducted by the
Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government Of India).9

Table No. 3

Indian Muslim’s Enrollment in Higher Education

Years Muslim STs (%) SCs (%) OBCs (%)

(%)
2010-11 3.8 4.4 11.1 27.6

2011-12 3.9 4.5 12.2 30.1

2012-13 4.2 4.4 12.8 31.2

2013-14 4.3 4.6 13.1 32.4

2014-15 4.5 4.8 13.4 32.8

2015-16 4.7 4.9 13.9 33.75

2016-17 4.9 5.1 14.2 34.4

2017-18 5.0 5.2 14.4 35.0

2018-19 5.2 5.5 14.9 36.3

Source: All India Survey on Higher Education Reports (AISHE), conducted by MHRD,
GOI.

Muslim OBCs illiteracy rate is further alarming as they lagged

behind in education from general Muslims, OBC Non-Muslims and
general non-Muslim population 7 per cent, 8 per cent and 20 per cent (as
per enrolment per year) respectively. India‘s national average literacy

9
―Educational status of Muslims in India: An Overview/Scope for Improvement,‖
Muslim Mirror, https://muslimmirror.com/eng/educational-status-of-muslims-in-
india-an-overview-scope-for-improvement/

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 Indian Muslims‘ Socio-Political and Economic Challenges

rate is 65 per cent, and the gap for OBC Muslim is 15 per cent higher.10
Muslims literacy deprivation is reflected in their participation and
representation in government jobs as well.

Table No. 4

Muslims in Indian Administrative Services since 1981

Year Total Muslims Percentage

1981 126 1 0.79

1982 167 5 2.99

1983 235 1 0.43

1984 233 6 2.58

1985 214 4 1.87

1986 216 6 2.78

1987 178 5 2.81

1988 249 15 6.02

1989 246 13 5.28

1990 298 9 3.02

1991 217 8 3.69

1992 157 3 91

1993 147 2 1.36

1994 131 2 1.53

1995 91 8 8.79

1996 81 3 3.70

10
―Socio-Economic Disability and Unemployment Problems Among Muslims Of
Other Backward Classes,‖ 6
https://niti.gov.in/planningcommission.gov.in/docs/reports/sereport/ser/stdy_muslim
pdf on 06-09-2022

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 Strategic Studies

1997 76 3 3.95

1998 55 1 1.82

1999 56 2 3.57

2000 93 6 6.45

Total 3266 103 3.15

Source: „Muslim Representation in the IAS and IPS: An Overview,‟ Nation and the
World, March 2002, cited in Muslim India, No 238, October 2002, p 462. 11

Muslims lag behind and struggle in overall living standards as well.

As per the Gallup statistics ―Muslims of India (51 per cent) are less
likely than Hindus (63 per cent) or others (66 per cent) to be satisfied
with their standard of living. Similarly, Muslims (65 per cent) are more
likely than Hindus (53 per cent) and others (51 per cent) to say their
standard of living is staying the same or getting worse.‖ 12 The graph
below shows the Gallup findings (survey conducted in 2010-11) of
satisfaction with living standards among different religious communities
in India.13

11
Syed Najiullah, ―Representation of Minorities in Civil
Services,‖www.epw.in/journal/2006/08/commentary/representation-minorities-civil-
services.html
12
―Muslims in India: Confident in Democracy Despite Economic and Educational
Challenges,‖ https://news.gallup.com/poll/157079/muslims-india-confident-
democracy-despite-economic-educational-
challenges.aspx#:~:text=Muslims%20represent%20India‘s%20largest%20religious,
except%20for%20Indonesia%20and%20Pakistan
13
Gallup.

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 Indian Muslims‘ Socio-Political and Economic Challenges

Graph No. 2

Satisfaction Level Among Different Communities of India

Source: Gallup, https://news.gallup.com/poll/157079/muslims-india-confident-democracy-

despite-economic-educational-
challenges.aspx#:~:text=Muslims%20represent%20India‟s%20largest%20religious,except
%20for%20Indonesia%20and%20Pakistan

Gallup‘s inquiry about other social indicators like feeling well and
happy shows that Muslims as compared to Hindus and other Indians
receive less respect and regards as a community. The margin is not big,
however, comparatively 70 per cent Muslims feel respected in India as
compared to 75 per cent Hindus and 84 per cent other Indians. As per the
Gallup survey, Muslims do not rest well or have quality time in a day. 14
The graph below exhibits Gallup‘s findings on happiness and positive
life experiences among different religious groups.

14
Gallup.

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 Strategic Studies

Graph No. 3

Positive Experiences are Less Common Among Muslims

Source: Gallup, https://news.gallup.com/poll/157079/muslims-india-confident-democracy-

despite-economic-educational-
challenges.aspx#:~:text=Muslims%20represent%20India‟s%20largest%20religious,except
%20for%20Indonesia%20and%20Pakistan

Globalisation and neoliberal economic reforms were expected to

boost per capita income of Indians and over the last three decades per
capita income had increased, too, but Muslim population once again
couldn‘t reap the benefits of growth. The National Sample Survey
Organisation‘s statistics show the difference in annual income of
Muslims and Hindus in the 1990s was marginal, however, this margin
has been increasing in the first decade of the twenty first century. 15
Muslims economic deprivation is tantamount to failure of neoliberal
economic reforms along with the state and society. State‘s discriminatory
policies and community‘s own ideological and faith related insecurities
keeping them backward in educational and economic spheres.

15
Sadia Khanum, Muslims in Globalized India: An Analysis (Germany: Laplambert
Publications, 2012), 87.

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 Indian Muslims‘ Socio-Political and Economic Challenges

Table No. 5

Annual Income of Religious Communities According to NSSO

Category 50th Round 61st Round

1993-1994 2004-2005

Hindu 24,691 72,618

Muslim 22,786 63,943

Christian 33,178 1,03,453

National 24,980 73,145

Source: Syed Najiullah, The Status of Muslims in India, http://www.indianmuslims.info/

statistics/economic.html

Table No. 6

Annual Per Capita and Household Income of Different Religious

Minorities

Category Muslims Christians Other Minorities

Annual per capita Income 3,678 5,920 2,9427

Household Income 22,807 28,860 30,330

Source: A study by the National Council for Applied Economic Research (NCAER)
August 2006, www.minorityaffairs.gov.in/sites/default/files/sachar_comm.pdf

A big number of Muslims are employed in temporary labour related

work. Muslims‘ employment in public or private sector salaried jobs is
less than Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST). Hindu
SC/ST have 25 per cent of regular jobs while Muslims have only 13 per
cent share in regular salaried jobs.16 As per Sachar Commission report,
Muslims key sources of earning are: ―(i) Merchants and shopkeepers
(especially for males and in urban areas); (ii) Sales persons and shop
assistants (especially for males and in urban areas); (iii) Tailors,

16
Sachar Committee Report, 2006, 92.

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 Strategic Studies

dressmakers and the like (especially for women in urban areas);

(iv)Transport equipment operators (especially for males and in urban
areas); (v) Tobacco preparers and tobacco product makers (especially
women); (vi) Spinners, weaver, knitters and dyers (especially for males
in urban area: and (vii) Machinery fitters, assemblers and precision
instrument makers (especially for males and in urban areas).‖17

Apart from government‘s negligence regarding empowering the

Muslim minority, there is constant threat of anti-Muslim rioting in areas
where Muslims have their own small scale business and doing
comparatively well. 18 If we see the record of communal rioting in
different parts of India in the last few decades, economic interests are
clearly involved in each confrontation. Muslims were the soft target for
the Hindu right wing rioters for their already distorted identification as
anti-state/nation (goes back to partition of India and the demand of a new
Muslim country out of the united India). Muslims profiling as traitors
and not loyal to the state has always been used against them to deprive
them of economic and political opportunities. 19 Furthermore, there‘s a
long history of their struggle to seek justice after suffering
discrimination, despite the country‘s constitutional guarantees to protect
minorities.

Muslims‘ socio-economic deprivation leads to their socio-political

disadvantages. Lack of political will, organisation and under
representation has further added to their miseries.

Socio-Political Condition of Indian Muslims

Minorities anywhere usually follow two methods to participate in

electoral politics; first, in a less hostile and threatening social
environment they choose to follow the majority and do not feel the need
to set a distinct agenda as either they find their identity safe despite being
a minority or they feel obliged to shun their identity and assimilate in
society well. Second, if minority keeps its distinct identity then result
could be a forced isolation or discrimination on the basis of ‗we‘ vs.

17
Sachar Committee Report, 103.
18
Moin Shakir, Islam in Indian Politics (New Delhi: Ajanta Publications, 1983), 49-50.
19
Christophe Jaffrelot, ―Communal Riots in Gujarat: The State at the Risk?,‖
Working Paper no.17, South Asian Institute, University of Heidelberg.

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 Indian Muslims‘ Socio-Political and Economic Challenges

‗others.‘ Indian Muslims followed the second approach and tried to

preserve their distinct identity.20 Muslim community usually participates
in electoral politics as a cohesive unit despite their scattered
demographic presence. In some constituencies, their voting choices and
party preferences have a great impact on election outcomes. Their
significance in determining the election results is one of the reasons
behind vote bank politics of major national and regional parties. Muslims
throughout the post-independence period supported secular parties
especially Congress party because of its secular agenda but their support
and vote was not constant for any one party. They played the role of
kingmakers in states where there is significant Muslim population like
Bihar, UP, Kerala. Their voting behaviour changed against Congress
after the demolition of the Babri Mosque in 1992 and that benefited JD
in UP and adjacent states of Hindi Belt.

Table No. 7

Shift among Muslim Voters (1995-2000)

Party 1995 1996 1998 1999 2000

Congress 21.9 23.3 14.9 33.9 6.6

BJP+ 7.5 5.6 4.2 13.4 7.9

Janata Dal+ 57.3 68.9 19.0 – –

RashtriyaJanata – – 59.6 48.2 61.4

Dal

Source: Sadia Khanum, Muslims in Globalised India: An Analysis, 114.21

Muslims‘ vote bank clearly favoured the Congress party in 2004 and
2009 election by casting 36 per cent vote in both elections while BJP
could secure 7 per cent and 3 per cent votes respectively due to their

20
H W Blair, ―Minority Electoral Politics in a North Indian State: Aggregate Data
Analysis and the Muslim Community in Bihar,‖ The American Political Science
Review, vol. 67 (4) (1973): 1275- 87.
21
Khanum , Muslims in Globalised India: An Analysis, 114.

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communal agenda and Gujarat Riots of 2002. 22 In 2014, Lok Sabha

elections, BJP secured 9 per cent Muslims votes while Congress
managed 38 per cent votes. 2019 general elections saw a sharp change in
Muslim voters‘ behaviour as despite BJP‘s communal rhetoric and
practices Muslims vote percentage increased to 20 per cent for BJP and
Congress party could win 30 per cent Muslim votes.23 It seems Muslim
voters are now coming out of their fear of the rise of Hindu nationalism
and the reason again is poor performance of the Congress party in
delivering their promises to them.

An alarming development witnessed over the time is that Muslims

are not having their fair share in the country‘s legislature despite having
a considerable vote bank. Muslims representation in Lok Sabha is
decreasing gradually. In the graph given below a sharp decline in
Muslims representation in Lok Sabha from 1952 to 2021 can be seen.24

Graph No. 4

Number of Muslim MPs in India

Source: Statista, March 4, 2020, www.statista.com/chart/21025/muslim-representation

-lok-sabha-parliament-india/ on 07-09-2022

22
Fact sheet: Muslim representation in Parliament, India Today, March 10, 2014,
https://www.indiatoday.in/india/muslim-representation/story/fact-sheet-muslim-
representation-in-parliament-184338-2014-03-10 on 07-09-2022.
23
Pew Survey quoted by AditiPhadnis in Business Standard, June 30, 2021,
https://www.business-standard.com/article/politics/20-muslims-voted-for-bjp-in-
2019-general-elections-says-pew-survey-121063000059_1.html on 07-09-2022
24
Katharina Bucholz, Number of Muslim MPs Stagnating Despite Faith Growing,
Statista, March 4, 2020, www.statista.com/chart/21025/muslim-representation-lok-
sabha-parliament-india/ on 07-09-2022

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 Indian Muslims‘ Socio-Political and Economic Challenges

Muslim representation by states is also marginal as compared to their

population. Table given below shows Muslim representation in 2014
general elections. Ironically, there‘s no Muslims MP from 8 states in
LokSabha.25

Table no. 8

Muslim Representation in 2014 General Elections of India

State Muslim Total Muslim % of Muslim

populatio M MP Musli candidate
n (%) Ps s m MPs s in polls

Assam 30.9% 14 2 14.23% 30

Andhra Pradesh 9.17% 42 1 2.38% 48

Bihar 16.5% 40 3 7.5% 93

Gujarat 9.06% 26 0 0% 22

Jammu & 66.97% 6 4 66.67% 50

Kashmir

Jharkhand 14.00% 14 0 0% 18

Karnataka 12.23% 28 0 0% 48

Kerala 24.7% 20 3 15% 39

Madhya Pradesh 6.36% 29 0 0% 31

Maharashtra 10.6% 48 0 0% 116

NCT of Delhi 10.3% 7 0 0% 25

Rajasthan 10.5% 25 0 0% 26

Tamil Nadu 5.56% 39 2 5.13% 33

25
Fact sheet: Muslim representation in Parliament, India Today, March 10, 2014,
www.indiatoday.in/india/muslim-representation/story/fact-sheet-muslim-
representation-in-parliament-184338-2014-03-10 on 07-09-2022

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 Strategic Studies

Uttar Pradesh 18.5% 80 7 8.75% 154

Uttarakhand 11.92% 5 0 0% 10

West Bengal 25.25% 42 7 16.67% 58

All India 13.43% 543 30 5.52% 832

Source: “Fact sheet: Muslim representation in Parliament,” March 10, 2014, India
Today, https://www.indiatoday.in/india/muslim-representation/story/fact-sheet-muslim-
representation-in-parliament-184338-2014-03-10

The underrepresentation of Muslims in national and states‘

legislature is an indication of polarisation in society, especially under the
Modi led BJP government. The rise of Hindu right has changed the
political atmosphere in India altogether, all political parties are under
pressure to prove themselves loyal to Hindu nationalism and this trend
has further marginalised Muslims politically and socially. And while the
BJP has made no qualms about its dislike for Muslims, even the states
that claim to be secular have not made adequate efforts to accommodate
this community. States where secular parties have substantive control
and influence, such as West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra
Pradesh and Telangana, ditched saffronisation based polarisation,
however, Muslims population there, too, is ignored and marginalised
politically and their stake in politics again is limited to the notorious vote
bank politics of majority parties.

Political underrepresentation and marginalisation are having a

negative impact on the community‘s social status in the country. They
are unable to get rid of discriminatory policies and unable to organised
them against biases and prejudices.

In the last three decades the trend to target Muslims‘ belief, culture,
language and education system has been mainstreamed by the ruling
elites themselves. The ruling BJP‘s whole election campaign was based
on anti-minority slogans; the target was once again Muslim minority.
Uttar Pradesh (UP) is the most populous state of India and it has a
significant number of Muslims. During the election campaigns BJP and
Sangh Parivar leaders created a very hostile environment against the

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 Indian Muslims‘ Socio-Political and Economic Challenges

Muslim minority and used communal slogan loud and clear to ignite
their Hindu voters. The Hindu right under the protection and patronage
of Chief Minister of UP, Yogi Adityanath targeted Muslims in the name
of ―cow protection‖ and ―love jihad.‖26 BJP and other right wing Hindu
groups‘ communal rhetoric have spurred a violent vigilante campaign
against Muslims eating cow meat. As per the Human Rights Watch
report, ―between May 2015 and December 2018, at least 44 people —36
of them Muslims — were killed across 12 Indian states. Over that same
period, around 280 people were injured in over 100 different incidents
across 20 states.‖ 27 The campaign not only costs human lives and
physical abuse but also casts a fear spell on minorities as most of the
victims and their families do not file and pursue their complaints. It is
also the failure of the judicial system and local law enforcing authorities
to ensure the protection of citizens as per their constitutional
responsibility. Indian constitution and international human rights laws
make it imperative for the state to protect the lives and livelihood of
vulnerable minorities.

Conclusion

India‘s economic triumph and democratic tradition are phenomenal and a

ray of hope for the global south and particularly for South Asia where
people are still struggling to get rid of poverty and non-democratic
system. However, this is also a truth that Indian secularism and
economic growth could only be consolidated if Indian secularism
remains the guiding principle for any regime in power. Protecting and
promoting secular tradition and following the Global Human
Development Index could only be the way forward to consolidate
democratic and economic success.

Muslims‘ socio-political and economic poverty and marginalisation are

not only a challenge for the community but for the state of India as well.
26
Divya Trivedi. U.P. becomes the first state in the country to pass an ordinance on
‗love jehad.‘ Frontline, https://frontline.thehindu.com/cover-story/uttar-pradesh-up-
becomes-first-state-in-the-country-to-pass-an-ordinance-on-love-
jihad/article33213952.ece
27
Meenakshi Ganguly, It‘s Not Just Cow Vigilantes. Mob Madness is Spreading
and Undermining the Rule of Law in India,‖ Scroll in, July 26, 2017,
https://scroll.in/article/845002/its-not-just-cow-vigilantes-mob-madness-is-
spreading-and-running-down-the-rule-of-law-in-india

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 Strategic Studies

India‘s secular, democratic identity needs to be preserved and consolidated

and for that it is essential to protect the constitutional rights of minorities.
Muslims constitute a significant chunk of the total proportion of India‘s
population and ignoring them would only add in economic and
developmental hurdles for the country. A brief review of the socio-political
and economic conditions of the Muslim minority in India suggests that they
are the victim of radical Hindu nationalism and negligence on the part of
state and society both. The introduction of neoliberal economic reforms
could have changed the fate of Muslims but that required government level
patronage to equip them with modern education and competitive skills to
excel in a free market economy. They gradually lost their traditional sources
of earning with the growing capitalist market and illiteracy further added in
their miseries. The lack of education facilities in their localities and almost
no incentive from the state to participate in government machinery on merit
basis further contributed to their impoverishment. There‘s a constant fear
and the sense of ―others‖ as the frequent violent rioting and anti-Muslim
campaigns keep targeting their houses, businesses and lives. The Indian
judiciary also has a record of tilting in favour of the Hindu nationalists and
their verdicts deprive Muslims of justice. The trust deficit in judiciary
further broadens the cleavage existing between the state and the Muslim
minority.

In sum, Indian government needs to win the confidence of the Muslim

minority by providing them incentives to participate in the country‘s
political, administrative and social institution on merit. They not only need
acceptance as an equal citizens of the state but also require encouragement
and facilitation to be a productive part of the state and society without any
discrimination, prejudice and biases based on their past.

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