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Energy
EnergyProcedia
Procedia157 (2019) 000–000
00 (2017) 512–521
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy, Environment and Sustainability, TMREES18,
Technologies and Materials for Renewable
19–21 Energy,
September 2018,Environment and Sustainability, TMREES18,
Athens, Greece
19–21 September 2018, Athens, Greece
Tribological and Mechanical Characteristics of Dental Fillings
Tribological and
The 15th Mechanical
International SymposiumCharacteristics
on District Heating of and
Dental Fillings
Cooling
Nanocomposites
Nanocomposites
Assessing the feasibility of using the heat demand-outdoor
Faiza M. Salim*
temperature function for a Faiza
long-term
M. Salimdistrict
*
heat demand forecast
Department of Science, Opened Educational College, Ministry of Education, IRAQ
Department of Science, Opened Educational College, Ministry of Education, IRAQ
I. Andrića,b,c*, A. Pinaa, P. Ferrãoa, J. Fournierb., B. Lacarrièrec, O. Le Correc
Abstract
a
Abstract
IN+ Center for Innovation, Technology and Policy Research - Instituto Superior Técnico, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
b
Dental fillingsc nanotechnology Veolia Recherche
considers & Innovation,
a significant and291 Avenue Dreyfous
increasingly Daniel,
in need 78520 the
to obtain Limay,
bestFrance
and stable dental fillings with
excellent
Dental fillings Département
performance Systèmes
and long
nanotechnology Énergétiques et Environnement
life. Tribological
considers a significantand - IMT
and mechanical Atlantique, 4
increasingly characteristics rue
in need to obtainAlfred Kastler,
of the
poly 44300
bestmethyl Nantes, Francefillings
methacrylate
and stable dental (PMMA)
with
nanocomposites
excellent performance reinforced
andbylong nanoparticles of Titaniaand
life. Tribological (40% TiO2) and characteristics
mechanical Calcium aluminate (60%methyl
of poly CaAl2Omethacrylate
4 ) in terms of(PMMA)
different
volume fractionsreinforced
nanocomposites ( 1 Vol.%by - 5nanoparticles
Vol.%) haveofbeen studied.
Titania (40%Ultrasonic
TiO2) anddispersion technique (60%
Calcium aluminate used to prepare
CaAl 2O4) intheterms
nanocomposites
of different
specimens followed
volume fractions ( 1by cold –- casting
Vol.% 5 Vol.%) technique using
have been flash Teflon
studied. molds
Ultrasonic accordingtechnique
dispersion to standard conditions.
used to preparePin-on-disc technique
the nanocomposites
Abstract
is used to measure
specimens followed wear
by coldcoefficient
– castingand coefficient
technique usingofflash
friction.
Teflon Tribological tests of
molds according to specimens were conducted
standard conditions. at temperature
Pin-on-disc technique
37°C
is usedandto in the environment
measure of artificial
wear coefficient saliva. Hardness,
and coefficient compressive
of friction. Tribological strength,
tests ofYoung modulus,
specimens were and toughness
conducted have been
at temperature
District heating networks are commonly addressed in the literature as one of the most effective solutions for decreasing the
measured
37°C and according to ASTMofstandards.
in the environment artificial Results of tribological
saliva. Hardness, tests were
compressive led to Young
strength, improvemodulus,
the coefficient of friction
and toughness haveand to
been
greenhouse gas emissions from the building sector. These systems require high investments which are returned through the heat
decrease
measured the wear coefficient
according to ASTM with increasing
standards. of volume
Results fractiontests
of tribological and were
increase
led towith slide lifetime,
improve especially
the coefficient for 5 Vol.
of friction and %to
sales. Due to the changed climate conditions and building renovation policies, heat demand in the future could decrease,
specimens.
decrease theResults
wear of mechanical
coefficient properties
with show
increasing of that the values
volume were
fraction andincreased
increaseprogressively by succession
with slide lifetime, of volume
especially for 5 fraction
Vol. %
prolonging the investment return period.
of fillers. Simulation
specimens. Results ofprograms
mechanical of tribological and mechanical
properties show that the valuestestswere
for (TiO 2 + CaAl
increased 2O4) / PMMA
progressively nanocomposites
by succession werefraction
of volume carried
The main scope of this paper is to assess the feasibility of using the heat demand – outdoor temperature function for heat demand
out using Simulation
of fillers. finite difference method.
programs The program
of tribological and was written tests
mechanical in FORTRAN90
for (TiO2 + CaAllanguage
2O4) /using
PMMA a computer type HPwere
nanocomposites Pavilion g.
carried
forecast. The district of Alvalade, located in Lisbon (Portugal), was used as a case study. The district is consisted of 665
The program
out using finiteassumes a load
difference is directed
method. towards was
The program a specimen
written in of FORTRAN90
the composites. Densityusing
language and optical microscope
a computer type HPimages were
Pavilion g.
buildings that vary in both construction period and typology. Three weather scenarios (low, medium, high) and three district
employed
The program to aid interpretation
assumes a load of results. The
is directed resultsa of
towards study were
specimen reached
of the that the Density
composites. optimumand volume fraction
optical was 5 Vol.
microscope images%. were
renovation scenarios were developed (shallow, intermediate, deep). To estimate the error, obtained heat demand values were
employed to aid interpretation of results. The results of study were reached that the optimum volume fraction was 5 Vol. %.
compared with results from a dynamic heat demand model, previously developed and validated by the authors.
© 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
©The results showed that when only weatherLtd.
change is considered, the margin of error could be acceptable for some applications
© 2019
This
2018 The
is an
The Authors.
open accessPublished
Authors. article under
Published by
by Elsevier
the CC BY-NC-ND
Elsevier Ltd. license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
(theiserror
This in annual
an open accessdemand was lower
article under the CCthan 20% for license
BY-NC-ND all weather scenarios considered). However, after introducing renovation
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Selection
This is an and
openpeer-review
access articleunder responsibility
under of the scientific
the CC BY-NC-ND license committee of Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy,
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Selection
scenarios,and thepeer-review
error value under responsibility
increased of the
up to 59.5% scientificon
(depending committee
the weather of Technologies
and renovation andscenarios
Materialscombination
for Renewable Energy,
considered).
Environment
Selection andand
Environment and Sustainability,
peer-review TMREES18.
underTMREES18.
Sustainability, responsibility of the scientific committee of Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy,
The value of slope coefficient increased on average within the range of 3.8% up to 8% per decade, that corresponds to the
Environment and Sustainability, TMREES18.
decrease in the number of heating hours of 22-139h during the heating season (depending on the combination of weather and
Keywords: Tribological, Dental Fillings, Titania, PMMA, wear, friction, Calcium Aluminate.
renovation scenarios considered). On the other hand, function intercept increased for 7.8-12.7% per decade (depending on the
Keywords: Tribological, Dental Fillings, Titania, PMMA, wear, friction, Calcium Aluminate.
coupled scenarios). The values suggested could be used to modify the function parameters for the scenarios considered, and
improve the accuracy of heat demand estimations.

© 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

* Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and
Email: sci.phy.ppk@uomustansiriyah.edu.iq
* Cooling.
Email: sci.phy.ppk@uomustansiriyah.edu.iq
1876-6102 © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Keywords: Heat demand; Forecast; Climate change
This is an open
1876-6102 access
© 2018 Thearticle under
Authors. the CC BY-NC-ND
Published license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
by Elsevier Ltd.
Selection
This is an and
openpeer-review under
access article responsibility
under of the scientific
the CC BY-NC-ND licensecommittee of Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy, Environment
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
and Sustainability,
Selection TMREES18.
and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy, Environment
and Sustainability, TMREES18.
1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
1876-6102 © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy,
Environment and Sustainability, TMREES18.
10.1016/j.egypro.2018.11.215
 Faiza M. Salim / Energy Procedia 157 (2019) 512–521 513
2 Faiza M. Salim/ Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

1. Introduction

One of the failure types which deal with the service life time of material tools is the wear. Of course, wear
depend on many parameters and properties like mechanical, thermal and structural properties as well as the design,
processing and manufacture materials under service. Dental tribology is dealing with the description of friction,
wear and lubrication of the friction nodes of living organisms.
About the effect of the amount of fillers and reduced dimensions of the particles, both Munksgaard with his
coworkers, Van Dijken with his coworkers and Ferracane were reported that "Many properties of material for
composite restoration are improved by increasing the amount of fillers. Fillers are used in dental composites to
provide strengthening, increased stiffness, reduced dimensional change when heated and cooled, reduced setting
contraction, enhanced aesthetics, and improved handling. There is a direct relation between the physical/mechanical
properties of the resin composite and the amount of filler added. Nanocomposites are available as nanohybrid types.
An increased filler load is achieved by the reduced dimensions of the particles, along with their wide size
distribution. This consequently reduces the polymerization shrinkage and increases the mechanical properties, such
as tensile strength, compressive strength and fracture resistance" [1, 2, and 3]. Dental amalgam is still one of the
most popular restorative materials, despite the introduction of several new filling types. Berry, Nicholson and
Troendle said in their paper that "dental amalgam is the most popular restorative material for posterior teeth, and has
proved outstanding for many years of clinical service" [4]. There has been a considerable growth, in recent years, in
the restoration of posterior teeth using resin composites. Significant improvements in the adhesion to enamel and
dentine as well as the physical properties of resin composites have contributed to the increasing tendency to use
resin composite in the posterior teeth [5].
Polymer composites have gained great attention as high-performance materials; this is because of the
dimensional stability with high strength to stiffness ratio and worthy thermal, electrical, mechanical and tribological
properties [6]. A composite material is a physical mixture of materials. It is defined as a "three-dimensional
combination of at least two chemically different materials with a distinct interface separating the components" [7].
Dental composites are made of three chemically different materials: i) the organic matrix (organic phase), ii) the
inorganic matrix (filler or disperse phase), and iii) coupling agent to bond the filler to the organic resin.
Manufacturers of dental materials offer ever new materials for fillings. The main groups of materials that rebuild
hard tissue are composite materials. They combine good performance and aesthetic properties. The tribological and
mechanical properties of the composites depend largely on the type, particle size of the filler and its quantity. Wear
and its character is influenced by the amount and type of consumed food and drinks, composition and presence of
saliva, oral hygiene and the use of additional hygiene measures, such as the type of toothpaste and toothbrushes,
abnormalities and malocclusion.
Alla, Sajjan, Alluri, and Ginjupalli as well as Tham, Chow, and Mohd Ishak were comparing between fillings
materials as follow "Although PMMA has been commonly utilized in the fabrication of removable denture bases, a
number of polymeric materials, such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polyamide (PA), and poly (L-lactide)
(PLLA), have been studied for their prosthodontic applications. Furthermore, polystyrene polyvinyl acrylic and
light-activated UDMA have also been used in the construction of denture bases. These materials must be durable
and strong enough to withstand masticatory forces, particularly for patients with parafunctional habits. However,
none of these polymers provides the unique combination of physical and aesthetic properties exhibited by PMMA.
Thus, PMMA remained a main component of denture base polymer for many years because it is hard, rigid, and
easy to repair and can be color-matched to the patient’s teeth and gum tissue" [8, 9].
Calcium aluminate is formed when the appropriate proportions of calcium carbonate and aluminum oxide are
heated together until the mixture melts. It melts incongruently at 1663K. The crystal is monoclinic and pseudo-
hexagonal, and has density 2945 kg.m−3. In calcium aluminate cements, it exists as a solid solution in which the
amount of minor elements depends upon the bulk composition of the cement. It reacts rapidly with water, forming
the metastable hydrate or a mixture of gel. These reactions form the first stage of strength development in calcium
aluminate cements [10].
In view of this, many researchers are interested to study the wear properties at different loadings and found that,
different inorganic fillers show distinct effect on the wear behaviors of polymer composites, so the mechanism of
filler in reducing wear has been largely focused [11-20]. The objective of this work is to investigate the friction and
514 Faiza M. Salim / Energy Procedia 157 (2019) 512–521
Faiza M. Salim/ Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 3

wear as well as mechanical characteristics of PMMA matrix reinforced by particulate filled Titania and Calcium
aluminate nanocomposites.

2. Theoretical Considerations

According to the conditions of the Pin – on – disc machine the wear rate (WR) in (g/cm), wear volume (WV) in
(mm3/cm) and specific wear rate (WS) in (mm3/Nm) are calculated according to the following equations respectively
[21]:
∆𝑊𝑊
𝑊𝑊� � … … … . �1�
𝑆𝑆�
𝑊𝑊�
𝑊𝑊� � … … … . �2�
𝜌𝜌
∆𝑉𝑉
𝑊𝑊� � … … … … . . ���
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿�
Where: ΔW is the weight loss of the specimen before and after the wear test (gm). ΔV is the volume loss of the
specimen before and after the wear test (mm3). L is the normal load (N). SD: is the sliding distance (m).
𝑆𝑆� � ���� … … … … … ���
Where D: is the circular sliding diameter (cm). ϴ: is the number of revolutions of the rotating disc (rev. /min) and
t is sliding distance time (second). Wear coefficient can be calculated using the Archard’s equation [22]:
∆𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉�
𝑊𝑊����� � … … … … … . ���
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿�
Where WCoeff is wear coefficient and HV is the hardness. Hardness can be defined as the resistance to permanent
indentation or penetration.
According to the conditions of Pin – on – disc machine, the coefficient of friction can be calculated by using the
following relationship:
𝜏𝜏
�� … … … … … . . ���
�𝐿 � 𝐿𝐿
Where  is coefficient of friction, τ is friction torque in (mN), r is the radius of counter face steel disc in (m), and
L is the applied normal load in (N). The friction torque value is obtained from the integrating disc counter before
and after the wear test.
One of the most important properties of dental materials is their ability to withstand the various mechanical
forces applied on the material during its use. The mechanical behavior of materials describes the response of
materials to mechanical force or deformation. Force divided by area is named tensile or compressive stress c. In
tension and compression tests, the area is that perpendicular to the force [23]:
𝐹𝐹
𝜎𝜎� � … … … … . ���
𝐴𝐴�
F: the compressive force, Aₒ: the area. There is a variation in dimensions, or deformation elongation, ΔL outcome
from the tensile or compressive stress. To permit comparison with specimens of different length, the elongation is
also normalized, this time to the length l. This is called strain, ε [23]:
∆𝑙𝑙
� � … … … … . . ���
𝑙𝑙
The modulus measures the resistance of a material to elastic deformation, for linear elastic materials the stress σ
is connected to the strain ε by Young’s modulus E (Hook’s law) [23]:
𝜎𝜎
� � … … … … . . ���
ɛ
Hardness testing has been broadly used in the study of optimal cure of composite resins and includes Vickers
hardness testing. The Vickers tests are classified as micro hardness tests in comparison with the Brunel and
Rockwell macro hardness tests. Hardness is commonly interrelated to physical as well as tribological properties of
composite resins. Vickers Hardness Number (VHS) of materials is obtained by dividing the applied force (load) L to
square average length of diagonal (d).Vickers Hardness principal can be measured by using the flowing equation
[24]:
 Faiza M. Salim / Energy Procedia 157 (2019) 512–521 515
4 Faiza M. Salim/ Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

𝐿𝐿
𝐻𝐻� � ������𝐸 � � � � � ����
𝑑𝑑 �
Toughness of material is its ability to withstand both plastic and elastic deformation. It is measured by the
amount of energy a material can absorb before actual fracture take place. The total area under the stress – strain
curve is numerically equal to the energy required in deforming one cubic meter of the material until it fractures. This
work or energy is called the toughness. Toughness is related to impact strength, i.e., resistance to shock loading. A
tough material requires a great deal of work, while a brittle material requires little of work. The fracture toughness,
Gc, then defined as [25]:
2𝑊𝑊
𝐺𝐺� � � � � � � ����
𝐴𝐴
Where: W is either the area under the load deflection curve or the energy absorbed from the pendulum and A=2B
(D-c) = cross sectional area of the fracture ligament and B is the specimen width. For specimen to contain a sharp
notch whose depth, c, is in proportion of the specimen thickness, D. The work of fracture, F, was calculated
from the following equation [25]:
𝑊𝑊
𝛾𝛾� � � � � � � ��2�
2��� � ��
So, equation (14) becomes:
𝐺𝐺� � 2𝛾𝛾� � � � � ����
For a number of reasons concerned with the calculation of stresses around a crack and the development of the
theory of linear elastic fracture mechanics, it is convenient to define a parameter K, known as the “stress intensity
factor”. Fracture occurs when K reaches a critical value Kc in MPa (m)1/2:
(𝐾𝐾� � � �𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸� 𝐸� � � � ����
Where, E is Young's modulus in GPa.

3. Materials and Methods

Nanocomposites are prepared by dispersing nanoparticles of TiO2 and CaAl2O4 kinetically by ultra-sonication
technique. For dispersion state the nanoparticles were treated with alcoholic medium (ethanol or acetone) for the de-
agglomeration of the nanoparticles. The treated nanoparticles are then added to the pure PMMA resin and solicited
for 2 hours at room temperature. The mixture is cured at (363K) for 10 hours followed by hardener addition by
using simultaneous magnetic stirring (100 rpm) for an hour to homogenization.
The prepared specimens are treated at (353K) for 6 hours in the oven to remove the moisture contents of the
specimens. The specimens are placed between two metal plates under pressure to reduce porosity forming during
hardening before mechanical measurements; the surfaces of the specimens are mechanically polished to minimize
the influence of surface flaws, mainly the porosity. To prepare the nanocomposite specimens, molds are made from
Teflon. The mold smeared by wax before the mixture is poured into the mold after homogeneity.
Wear and friction coefficients tests have been created out via Pin-on-disc machine type friction and wear monitor
which was used to evaluate the wear behavior of the nanocomposite, against hardened counterpart steel disc with
hardness (55HRC). Tribological tests of specimens were conducted at temperature 310 K and in the environment of
artificial saliva as a lubricant.
Impact strength test was recommended by the specification ASTM D790 with Charpy impact testing device. The
Charpy impact strength of un notched specimen was calculated in KJ/m2. Compression strength test are carried out
according to ASTM D 659 – 85, digital device measuring maximum force. Testing was conducted compressive
strength of specimens prepared from PMMA material before adding reinforcement materials nanoparticles together,
and other specimens after the addition of nanoparticles mentioned materials of different proportions of volume
fraction 0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5% (and get the curve) stress-strain and by knowing the slope of these curves, it was
obtained Young modulus. Compressive strength created out using a universal testing machine (Instron model 1122,
Instron Corp, Canton, MASS). The specimens were performed at room temperature.
516 Faiza M. Salim / Energy Procedia 157 (2019) 512–521
Faiza M. Salim/ Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 5

4. Simulation

Simulation programs of tribological and mechanical tests for (TiO2 + CaAl2O4) / PMMA nanocomposites were
carried out using finite difference method. The program was written in FORTRAN90 language using a computer
type HP Pavilion g. The program assumes a load is directed towards a specimen of the composites. The method of
calculation was suggested and applied for the first time in this work. The calculations continue until the specimen is
failure. Two mathematical expressions have been formulated for the dependence of the elastic modulus on the
volume fraction of the constituent phases for a two-phase composite. These rules of mixtures equations predict that
(for example) the elastic modulus should fall between an upper limit and a lower limit represented by equations (18)
and (19) respectively [26]:
𝐸𝐸� � 𝐸𝐸� 𝑉𝑉� � 𝐸𝐸� 𝑉𝑉� � � � � � ����
𝐸𝐸� 𝐸𝐸�
𝐸𝐸� � � � � � � � ����
𝑉𝑉� 𝐸𝐸� � 𝑉𝑉� 𝐸𝐸�
In these expressions, E and V denote the elastic modulus and volume fraction, respectively, whereas the
subscripts c, m, and p represent composite, matrix, and particulate phases. In this study the Nielsen model was used
to simulate the tribologiacal and mechanical properties [27]:
𝑓𝑓� �� � ��𝜙𝜙�
� � � � � � � ����
𝑓𝑓� �� � �𝜓𝜓𝜙𝜙�
Where:
𝑓𝑓�
� � ��
𝑓𝑓�
�� � � � � � ����
𝑓𝑓�
� � ��
𝑓𝑓�
𝜙𝜙�
𝜓𝜓 � � � �� � � � 𝜙𝜙 � � � ����
𝜙𝜙�
f : property under study, 𝜓𝜓 : weight fraction,  : volume fraction of additives, m : maximum volume fraction, A:
geometry of additives.
Finite difference method relays on using difference approximations to be substituted in the partial differential
equations. For example, first derivative of a function f (x) can be approximated by [28]:
f ( x  h)  f ( x)
f ' ( x)  Lim
h0 h …….. (20)
While second derivative is given by:
f ( x  h)  f ( x  h)  2 f ( x)
f " ( x)  Lim
h0 h2 …….. (21)

Partial differential equations are encountered in many branches of physics and engineering in which more than one
dimension exist in the differential equations. (Heat transfer, diffusion, mechanical, electrical, magnetic and even
Schrödinger) equations are examples of partial differential equations. These equations transforms to ordinary
differential equations when they become one dimensional only. Numerical solutions of partial differential equations
are an important class of solutions since many of the above equations cannot be solved analytically. Many such
numerical methods were invented such as finite difference method (FDM), finite element method (FEM), boundary
value method--- etc. The simplest of these methods is FDM.

5. Results and Discussion

Compositional structure of particle size results of the components of the nanocomposite shown in Table (1, 2 and
3). Particle size for a substance PMMA within the bulk size and the reinforced material of TiO2 and CaAl2O3 it site
in the nano size field.
 Faiza M. Salim / Energy Procedia 157 (2019) 512–521 517
6 Faiza M. Salim/ Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

Most tribological studies with polymer nanocomposite sliding against metal (steel or iron) disc at applied load
50N emphasis those tribo-chemical reactions are responsible for enhanced bonding of a transferal film to the disc.

Table 1. XRD, particle size results of PMMA matrix.

NO. Peak NO.  2Theta  FWHM  Particle size (D)  Average particle size 

nm (D)av nm 
(deg.)  (deg.)
1  20  30.5876  0.41000  125.67  166.459 
2  21  31.2779  0.26110  194.628      ‐ 
3  14  27.2971  0.32500  179.18      ‐ 

Table 2. XRD, particle size results of TiO2 nanoparticle.

NO. Peak NO.  2Theta  FWHM  Particle size (D) nm Average particle size (D)av 

(deg.)  (deg.) nm 

1  1  25.3357  0.49390  127.04  85.374 

2  6  48.0569  0.57100  57.93      ‐ 
3  4  37.8308  0.59o6o  71.152       ‐ 

Table 3. XRD, Particle size results of CaAl2O4 nanoparticle.

NO. Peak  2Theta  FWHM  Particle size (D)  Average particle size 

NO.  nm (D)av nm 
(deg.)  (deg.)
1  3  46.2341  0.59320  59.0325  69.77 
2  1  41.5473  0.57750  75  ‐ 

3  2  44.6033  0.54840  75. 537  ‐ 

The transferal film of a uniform thin film extends protection to the nanocomposite surfaces from aggressive
damage of hard metal asperities which causes reduce the wear rate. Sliding against metal disc exhibits two main
mechanisms, abrasion and adhesion and the process of form a thin polymer film began from one stage to another
until steady state is reached.
It is well known that adding small particles or powder fillers to the matrix at the frictional surfaces of
nanocomposites are mostly easily transfer to the counterpart surface with the matrix. In addition the filler of
nanometer size are impossible to rub noticeably against the surface of matrix based nanocomposite and counterpart
surface as compared with the filler of too large size. Therefore, after the transient wear state, the nanocomposites
filled with various amounts of nano (TiO2 and CaAl2O4) exhibits excellent wear properties.
The wear results show that the reinforced specimens have improved wear resistance than the unreinforced
specimens. It is clear from Table 4 that the increasing of volume fraction of (TiO2 and CaAl2O4) improved the wear
resistance of unreinforced PMMA resin. So the increasing of volume fraction of nano- TiO2 + CaAl2O4 enhanced
the wear resistance of unreinforced PMMA resin. The specific wear rate and wear coefficient of net PMMA resin at
the same trend shows that the filler nano material played a main role in the wear property of matrix - based nano
composites. The wear properties are studied for all ratio of additives that observed the values of (WV , WS , Wcoeff )
were decreased continually for specimens. This improvement in wear values is because of the fact that net PMMA
resin can easily take out at sliding surfaces but in the nanocomposite case they working as resistance material and
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act as a rough surface relative to the counter face against which they slide and this is probably due to the fact that
nanoparticles TiO2 and CaAl2O4 have a good dispersion inside specimens.
The optimum value of coefficient of friction is at 5 Vol. % ratios, whereas the coefficient of friction increases for
all volume fraction for nano TiO2 and CaAl2O4 composite as illustrated in Table 5. The decrease in coefficient of
friction is attributed to the presence of CaAl2O4 acting as a solid lubricant.
The Figure (1), images (a) for pure PMMA and (b) for (1 Vol. % of TiO2 + CaAl2O4) showed the absence of
adhesion mechanism. The peeling and scratching mechanism can be observed clearly with different degree. Images
(a) and (b) illustrated some types of abrasive mechanism such grooving, peeling and scratch and appearing of
cracks. Image (c) displayed worn surface of 3 Vol. % of TiO2 + CaAl2O4, which shows the domain of adhesion wear
mechanism. Image (d) showed reinforced PMMA resin with 5 Vol. % of TiO2 + CaAl2O4. This image showed low
adhesion as well as scratch mechanism occurred on the surface of specimen. It is clear that the wear occurred on the
surface of specimens decrease. Images a, b, c and d showed the film of nanocomposites on the surfaces of specimens
as well as the abrasive mechanism. It can be seen that more obvious ploughed furrow appear on the worn surface of
the PMMA resin block specimen. The scuffing and adhesion on the worn surface of 5 Vol. % TiO2 + CaAl2O4
nanocomposites is noticeably reduced. The relatively smooth, uniform, and compact worn surface is in good
agreement with the noticeably increase wear resistance of the TiO2 + CaAl2O4 nanocomposites. Therefore, it can be
deduced that the incorporation of TiO2 + CaAl2O4 contributes to restrain the scuffing and adhesion of the PMMA
matrix in sliding against the iron counter face. As a result, the TiO2 + CaAl2O4 nanocomposites show greatly better
wear resistance than the pure PMMA resin. We can observe the direct relation between the wear coefficient and
friction coefficient by Tables (4 and 5).

Table 4. Tribological experimental results [t =30min, L=50N, SD=452.16 m].

Sample  ΔW  WR 10‐6  WV 10‐5  WS 10‐6  Wcoeff.  Density 

Code  gm  gm/cm  mm /cm 
3
mm3/Ncm  ×10‐6  Kg/m3 
PMMA  0.0062  0.137  11.152  2.304  2.120  1190 
1%TiO2/ CaAl2O3  0.0048  0.106  8.861  1.772  4.534  1198 
2%TiO2/ CaAl2O3  0.0044  0.097  7.834  1.567  4.716  1242 
3%TiO2/ CaAl2O3  0.0041  0.090  7.111  1.422  5.376  1275 
4%TiO2/ CaAl2O3  0.0036  0.079  6.152  1.230  6.325  1294 
5%TiO2/ CaAl2O3  0.0028  0.061  4.497  0.899  6.889  1377 

Table 5. Static and kinetic friction coefficient, hardness and roughness of specimens (experimental results).

Sample Code  Hardness MPa  roughness µm  µs  µk 

PMMA  9.2  0.22  0.02158  0.01084 
1% TiO2/ CaAl2O3  25.6  0.31  0.00876  0.00756 
2% TiO2/ CaAl2O3  30.1  0.34  0.00764  0.00654 
3% TiO2/ CaAl2O3  37.8  0.37  0.00659  0.00552 
4% TiO2/ CaAl2O3  51.4  0.39  0.00542  0.00450 
5% TiO2/ CaAl2O3  76.6  0.43  0.00427  0.00306 

From the mechanical properties results illustrated in Table 6 it can be noticed that the all mechanical properties
under the study were improved and have an increment progressively with succession increasing the volume fraction
of TiO2 + CaAl2O4. That can be explained according to classical composite theory which predicates that "the good
bonding between the matrix and the reinforcing fillers leads to enhance mechanical properties". There are two kinds
of bonding case; weak bonding case (the stress was regulated via friction mechanism) and the good bonding case
(the strain was regulated via shearing mechanism). But we know in generally "the adding of inorganic fillers into
polymer products an increase in stiffness, but decrease toughness, while addition of rubber particles increases
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8 Faiza M. Salim/ Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

toughness, but decreases stiffness". The addition of nanoparticles into polymer matrix at low concentrations has
affected in notable combination of high toughness and stiffness [29]. That means, the 5 Vol. % of TiO2 + CaAl2O4
which is had a high values of all properties localized in the range of low volume fractions of reinforcing fillers, so it
can be used volume fractions more than 5 Vol. %.

C D

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 1. Optical microscope images (a) pure PMMA; (b) 1 Vol. % of TiO2 + CaAl2O4; (c) 3 Vol. % of TiO2 + CaAl2O4; (d) 5 Vol. % of TiO2 +
CaAl2O4.

Simulation results for tribological and mechanical properties are illustrated in Tables 7 and 8 respectively.
Simulation results can be explained by mechanical phenomena using fracture mechanism that state "when a solid is
loaded to failure, the fracture process may occur in three stages: the initiation of a crack, its stable growth under
rising or constant load, and finally its unstable propagation. All three stages do not necessarily occur in all materials.
The mode of fracture is dependent on the mechanism of crack propagation. Ductile fracture is characterized by
extensive plastic deformation in the area of an advancing crack. Also, the process proceeds relatively slowly as the
crack length is extended. Such a crack is often said to be stable. It resists any more extension unless there is an
increasing in the applied stress. In adding, there will ordinarily be evidence of significant gross deformation at the
fracture surfaces (e.g., twisting and tearing). For brittle fracture, cracks may spread extremely speedily, with very
little accompanying plastic deformation. Such cracks may be said to be unstable, and crack propagation will
continue spontaneously without an increasing in magnitude of the applied stress. Brittle fracture occurs abruptly and
catastrophically without any warning; this is a result of the spontaneous and rapid crack propagation. While the
ductile fracture gives warning that failure may be taken. Many metal alloys are ductile, while ceramics are typically
brittle, and polymers might exhibit a range of behaviors" [30].
Spanoudaki and Young were emphasis that "Encounter of crack with the particles, during its progressive through,
the composite material, lead to creation of hindrance of its movement from this particles, which represented the
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obstacles front of the crack, works as a fixed positions at particle existence. To exceed the crack for this obstacles,
and to continue in its growth, it well be changed of its configuration and exchange to groups of elliptical secondary
cracks, attempt to transfer between the particles. That lead to increment in crack surface, so, the energy requirement
was increased to take place the fracture. In other word, the energy, which is given to the crack to propagate, will be
distributed between the propagation of elliptical secondary cracks changing of origin crack configuration, and to
exceed the obstacles, instead of exploit it to propagate the crack only and this behavior was in good agreement with
that published in References" [31].

Table 6.Compressive strength Young modulus, toughness and stress intensity factor in term of volume fraction (experimental results).

Sample Code  Compressive Strength (MPa)  Young's odulus, (GPa)  Toughness (kJ/ m2)  Stress intensity factor, 

MPa (m)1/2 

PMMA  82.8  0.382  8.437  1.795 

1% TiO2/ CaAl2O3  96.1 0.563  9.603  2.325 
2%  TiO2/ CaAl2O3  110.7  0.776  12.139  3.069 
3%  TiO2/ CaAl2O3  126.6 0.972  17.272  4.097 
4%  TiO2/ CaAl2O3  132.8  1.520  19.824  5.489 
5%  TiO2/ CaAl2O3  144.3  1.716 23.459  6.344 

Table 7. Tribological simulation results [t =30min, L=50N, SD=452.16 m].

Sample Code  ΔW gm  WR 10‐6  WV 10‐5  WS 10‐6  Wcoeff.  Density 

gm/cm  mm3/cm  mm3/Ncm  ×10‐6  Kg/m3 
PMMA  0.0062  0.139  11.375  2.350  2.162  1190 
1%TiO2/ CaAl2O3  0.0048  0.109  9.126  1.825  4.670  1198 
2%TiO2/ CaAl2O3  0.0044  0.100  8.147  1.629  4.904  1242 
3%TiO2/ CaAl2O3  0.0041  0.094  7.466  1.493  5.644  1275 
4%TiO2/ CaAl2O3  0.0036  0.083  6.521  1.303  6.704  1294 
5%TiO2/ CaAl2O3  0.0028  0.064  4.766  0.953  7.302  1377 

Table 8. Compressive strength, Young modulus, toughness and stress intensity factor in term of volume fraction (simulation results).

Sample Code  Compressive Strength  Young' s modulus (GPa)  Toughness  Stress intensity factor, 

(MPa)  (kJ/ m2)  MPa (m)1/2 

PMMA  86.112  0.397  8.774  1.866 

1% TiO2/ CaAl2O3  101.866 0.596  10.179  2.464 
2%  TiO2/ CaAl2O3  118.449  0.822  12.988  3.283 
3%  TiO2/ CaAl2O3  136.728 1.040  18.653  4.424 
4%  TiO2/ CaAl2O3  144.752  1.656  21.608  5.983 
5%  TiO2/ CaAl2O3 157.287  1.870  25.570  6.914 

6. Conclusions

The maximum load that dental fillings teeth can be carried without premature wear depends upon the radii of
curvature of tooth profiles, young modulus and roughness limits of specimens. Toughness results play an important
rule to resist fracture while hardness has an acting effect such as resistance to wear rate as well as wear coefficient,
scratching and deformation. Using the retio of volume fraction at Titania (40% TiO2) and Calcium aluminate (60%
 Faiza M. Salim / Energy Procedia 157 (2019) 512–521 521
10 Faiza M. Salim/ Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

CaAl2O4) in terms of volume fractions (5 Vol. %) with 95 Vol. % PMMA led to excellent dental fillings for teeth
repairing technology. From simulation results it can be concluded that the fillers and the matrix was in good bonding
and the 5 Vol. % of fillers was sufficient for dental fillings reinforcing.

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