Fluid Statics

- Pressure and its Effect

MAIN TOPICS
 Definition
 Absolute, gauge, and vacuum pressures
 Pressure at a Point
 Pressure variation in a Fluid at Rest

 Measurement of Pressure
 Manometers
 Mechanical and Electronic Pressure Measuring Devices

 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface

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 Pressure
 Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a
fluid per unit area.
 Units of pressure are N/m2, which is called a Pascal
(Pa).
 Since the unit Pa is too small for pressures
encountered in practice, kilopascal (1 kPa = 103 Pa)
and Mega Pascal (1 MPa = 106 Pa) are commonly
used.
 Other units include bar, atm, kgf/cm2, lbf/in2=psi.

Absolute, gauge, and vacuum pressures

Actual pressure at a give point is called the

absolute pressure.
Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and
therefore indicate gage pressure, Pgage=Pabs -
Patm.
Pressure below atmospheric pressure are
called vacuum pressure, Pvac=Patm - Pabs.

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Absolute, gauge, and vacuum pressures

Absolute and Gauge Pressure

Absolute pressure: measured with respect to vacuum.
Gauge pressure: measured with respect to atmospheric
pressure.

p gage  pabsolute  patmosphere

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Pressure at a Point 1/3
How the pressure at a point varies with the
orientation of the plane passing through the point ?

w 7

Pressure at a Point 2/3

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Pressure at a Point 3/3
 The pressure at a point in a fluid at rest, or in motion, is independent
of the direction as long as there are no shearing stresses present.
 The result is known as Pascal’s law named in honor of Blaise
Pascal (1623-1662).

 Pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all directions.

 Pressure has a magnitude, but not a specific direction, and thus it is

a scalar quantity.

Pressure is a Scalar quantity

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Variation of Pressure with Depth

 In the presence of a gravitational
field, pressure increases with depth
because more fluid rests on deeper
layers.
 To obtain a relation for the variation
of pressure with depth, consider
rectangular element
 Force balance in z-direction gives
F z  ma z  0
P2  x  P1 x   g  x  z  0
 Dividing by x and rearranging gives

 P  P2  P1   g  z   s  z

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Variation of Pressure with Depth
 Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the shape of the
container.
 Pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a
given fluid.

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 Lecture No. 3

Scuba Diving and Hydrostatic Pressure

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 Scuba Diving and Hydrostatic Pressure
 Pressure on diver at
1
100 ft?
 kg   m  1m 
Pgage ,2   gz   998 3   9.81 2  100 ft   
 m  s   3.28 ft 
 1atm 
 298.5 kPa    2.95 atm
100 ft  101.325 kPa 
Pabs ,2  Pgage ,2  Patm  2.95 atm  1atm  3.95 atm

 Danger of emergency
2 ascent?
1 1  P2V 2
PV Boyle’s law
V1 P2 3.95 atm
If you hold your breath on ascent, your lung   4
V2 P1 1atm
volume would increase by a factor of 4, which
would result in embolism and/or death.

Pressure-Height Relation
The basic pressure-height relation of static fluid :
Integrated to determine the
pressure distribution in a
static fluid with appropriate
boundary conditions.
Restriction:
Static fluid.
Gravity is the only body force.
The z axis is vertical and upward.
How the specific weight varies with z?
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8
Pressure in Incompressible Fluid
A fluid with constant density is called an incompressible
fluid.
p2 z2
ɣ

p1
dp  ɣ  dz
z1

p1 － p2 = ɣ(z2－z1)=ɣ h
p1=ɣ h +p2

h= z2－z1，h is the depth of fluid

measured downward from the
location of p2.
This type of pressure distribution is
called a hydrostatic distribution. 17

Pressure Head in Static Fluid

 The pressure difference between two points in a fluid at rest:
 p1 － p2 = ɣ (z2－z1)=ɣ h
p  p2 h is called the pressure head and is
h 1 interpreted as the height of a column of

 fluid of specific weight ɣ required to give

a pressure difference p1-p2.
 The pressure p at any depth h below the free surface is given by p =
ɣ h + po
The pressure in a homogeneous,
incompressible fluid at rest depends on
the depth of the fluid relative to some
reference plane, and it is not influenced
by the size or shape of the tank or
container in which the fluid is held. 18

9
 Pascal Law
As the left hand piston is pushed down, fluid
is forced out of its port, along the pipe and
into the right hand cylinder. Since the fluid
is virtually incompressible, the right hand
piston must move up to accommodate the in-
going fluid volume.

Pascal’s Law
 Pressure applied to a
confined fluid increases the
pressure throughout by the
same amount.
 In picture, pistons are at
same height:

F1 F2 F A
P1  P2    2 2
A1 A2 F1 A1

 Ratio A2/A1 is called ideal

mechanical advantage

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 ....... or to increase the area of the actuator
piston
F = P x A W

PUMP ACTUATOR

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13
The Manometer
 An elevation change of z in
a fluid at rest corresponds to
P/g.
 A device based on this is
called a manometer.
 A manometer consists of a
U-tube containing one or
more fluids such as
mercury, water, alcohol, or
oil.
 Heavy fluids such as
mercury are used if large
P1  P2 pressure differences are
anticipated.
P2  Patm   gh
1 ρ

Mutlifluid Manometer
 For multi-fluid systems
 Pressure change across a fluid
column of height h is P = gh.
 Pressure increases downward, and
decreases upward.
 Two points at the same elevation in a
continuous fluid are at the same
pressure.
 Pressure can be determined by
adding and subtracting gh terms.

Patm + ρ1gh1 + ρ2gh2 + ρ3gh3 = P1

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Mutlifluid Manometer

P1 + ρwater gh1 + ρoil gh2 – ρmercury gh3 = Patm

Measuring Pressure Drops

 Manometers are well--
suited to measure pressure
drops across valves, pipes,
heat exchangers, etc.
 Relation for pressure drop
P1-P2 is obtained by starting
at point 1 and adding or
subtracting gh terms until
we reach point 2.
P1 + ρ1g(a+h) - ρ2gh – ρ1ga =
P2
P1 -If Pfluid
2 = in
(ρpipe
2 - ρ1is
) gh
a gas,
2>>1 and P1-P2= gh

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Manometry
A standard technique for measuring pressure involves the
use of liquid column in vertical or inclined tubes.
Pressure measuring devices based on this technique are
called manometers.
Piezometer Tube.
U-Tube manometer.
Inclined-Tube manometer.

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Piezometer Tube
The fundamental equation is
P = P0 + ɣ h PA = ɣ1 h1
PA : gage pressure ( P0=0)
ɣ1 :the specific weight of the liquid in the
container
h1: measured from the upper surface to point(1)

Only suitable if the pressure in the container is

greater than atmospheric pressure, and the pressure to
be measured must be relatively small so the required
height of the column is reasonable. The fluid in the
container must be a liquid rather than a gas.
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16
Simple U-Tube Manometer

The fluid in the manometer is called the gauge fluid.

A(1)(2)(3)Open
P2 = P3
PA + ɣ1 h 1 = ɣ2h 2 +Patm
>> PA =ɣ2h 2 –ɣ1 h 1

If pipe A contains a gas

then ɣ1h 1= 0
>> PA =ɣ2h 2 33

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Differential U-Tube Manometer

A(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)B
P2 = P3
PA＋ɣ1h1 ＝ PB +ɣ2h2 +ɣ3h3
The pressure difference is
PA－ PB＝ɣ2h2＋ɣ3h3－ɣ1h1

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Example : Simple U-Tube Manometer

 A closed tank contains compressed

air and oil (SGoil = 0.90) as is shown
in the figure. A U-tube manometer
using mercury (SGHG = 13.6) is
connected to the tank as shown. For
column heights h1 =0.9m, h2
=0.15m, and h3 =0.225m,
 determine the pressure reading of
the gage.

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18
 Solution
p1  pair   oil (h1  h2 )

pair   oil (h1  h2 )  p2   Hg h3

pair  ( SGoil )( H 2O )(h1  h2 )  ( SGHg )( H 2O )h3  0

pair  (0.9)  (9800)  (0.9  0.15)  (13.6)  (9800)  0.225  0

Pair = 20727 Pa = 0.20727 bar
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Example: U-Tube Manometer

 As will be discussed in a following lecture, the volume rate of flow,
Q, through a pipe can be determined by means of a flow nozzle
located in the pipes as illustrated the figure. the nozzle creates a
pressure drop, pA － pB, along the pipe which is related to the flow
through the equation Q  K p  p
A B , where K is a constant
depending on the pipe and nozzle size. The pressure drop is
frequently measured with a differential U-tube manometer of the
type illustrated.
(a) Determine an equation for pA － pB in terms of the specific gravity
of the flowing fluid, γ1, the specific gravity of the gage fluid, γ2, and
the various heights indicated.
(b) For w1= 9.80kN/m3 , w2 = 15.6 kN/m3 , h1 = 1.0m, and h2 = 0.5m,
what is the value of the pressure drop, pA － pB?
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 Solution1/2
(a) Although the fluid in the pipe is moving, the fluids in the columns of the
manometer are at rest so that the pressure variation in the manometer tubes is
hydrostatic. If we start at point A and move vertically upward to level (1), the
pressure will decrease by ɣ 1h1 and will be equal to pressure at (2) and (3). We
can now move from (3) to (4) where the pressure has been further reduced by
ɣ2h2 . The pressure at levels (4) and (5) are equal, and as we move from (5) to
B, the pressure will increase by ɣ 1(h1 + h2). Thus, in equation form

p2  p3

p A   1h1  p B   2 h2   1 (h1  h2 )
or
p A  pB  h2 ( 1   2 ) (Ans)
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Solution2/2

It is to be noted that the only column height of importance is the differential

reading, h2. The differential manometer could be placed 0.5 or 5.0 m above
the pipe (h1 = 0.5m or h1 = 5.0m )and the value of h2 would remain the same.
Relatively large values for the differential reading h2 can be obtained for
small pressure differences, pA－pB , if the difference between γ1 andγ2 is
small.

(b) The specific value of the pressure drop for the data given is

p A  p B  ( 0 .5 m )(15 .6 kN / m 3  9 .80 kN / m 3 )  2 .90 kPa (Ans)

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Inclined-Tube Manometer
To measure small pressure change, an inclined-tube
manometer is frequently used:

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The Barometer
 Atmospheric pressure is
measured by a device called a
barometer; thus, atmospheric
pressure is often referred to as
the barometric pressure.
 PC can be taken to be zero since
there is only Hg vapor above
point C, and it is very low relative
to Patm.
 Change in atmospheric pressure
due to elevation has many effects:
Cooking, nose bleeds, engine
performance, aircraft
PC   gh  Patm performance.

Patm   gh

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Mechanical and Electronic Devices
Manometers are not well suited for measuring very high
pressures, or pressures that are changing rapidly with time.
Manometers require the measurement of one or more
column heights, which, although not particularly difficult,
can be time consuming.
Making use of the idea that when a pressure acts on an
elastic structure, the structure will deform, and this
deformation can be related to the magnitude of the
pressure.

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Bourdon Pressure Gauge

Bourdon tube pressure gauge uses a hollow, elastic, and
curved tube to measure pressure.
As the pressure within the tube increases the tube tends to
straighten, and although the deformation is small, it can be
translated into the motion of a pointer on dial.

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 Lecture No. 4

Fluid Statics
 Fluid Statics deals with problems associated with
fluids at rest.
 In fluid statics, there is no relative motion between
adjacent fluid layers.
 Therefore, there is no shear stress in the fluid trying
to deform it.
 The only stress in fluid statics is normal stress
Normal stress is due to pressure
Variation of pressure is due only to the weight of the fluid
→ fluid statics is only relevant in presence of gravity fields.
 Applications: Floating or submerged bodies, water
dams and gates, liquid storage tanks, etc.

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Hoover Dam

Hydrostatic Forces on a Plane

Surface
Specifying the magnitude of the force.
Specifying the direction of the force.
Specifying the line of action of the force.
To determine completely the resultant force acting on a
submerged force.

48

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 49

Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces

 On a plane surface, the
hydrostatic forces form a
system of parallel forces
 For many applications,
magnitude and location of
application, which is called
center of pressure, must
be determined.
 Atmospheric pressure Patm
can be neglected when it
acts on both sides of the
surface.

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 謝志誠

Resultant Force

The magnitude of FR acting on a plane surface of a

completely submerged plate in a homogenous fluid
is equal to the product of the pressure PC at the
centroid of the surface and the area A of the
surface

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 53

Center of Pressure
 Line of action of resultant force
FR=PC A does not pass through
the centroid of the surface. In
general, it lies underneath where
the pressure is higher.
 Vertical location of Center of
Pressure is determined by
equation the moment of the
resultant force to the moment of
the distributed pressure force.
I xx ,C
(CP) y p  yC 
(C) yc A
,

 Where Ixx,C is tabulated for simple
geometries.

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55

56

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57

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Example :
 A pressurized contains oil (SG = 0.90) and has a square, 0.6-m by
0.6-m plate bolted to its side, as is illustrated in the figure .When the
pressure gage on the top of the tank reads 50kPa, what is the
magnitude and location of the resultant force on the attached plate?
The outside of the tank is atmospheric pressure.

59

Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces

 FR on a curved surface is more involved since it requires

integration of the pressure forces that change direction along
the surface.
 Easiest approach: determine horizontal and vertical
components FH and FV separately.

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Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces
 Horizontal force component on curved surface: FH=Fx. Line
of action on vertical plane gives y coordinate of center of
pressure on curved surface.

 Vertical force component on curved surface: FV=Fy+W, where

W is the weight of the liquid in the enclosed block W=gV.
 X-coordinate of the center of pressure is a combination of line
of action on horizontal plane (centroid of area) and line of
action through volume (centroid of volume).

 Magnitude of force FR=(FH2+FV2)1/2

 Angle of force is  = tan-1(FV/FH)

On a Curved Surfaces
 Consider the curved section
BC of the open tank.
F1 and F2 can be determined FH  F2 FV  F1  W
from the relationships for 2
FR  FH  F V
2

planar surfaces.

The weight W is simply the

specific weight of the fluid
times the enclosed volume and
acts through the center of
gravity (CG) of the mass of
fluid contained within the
volume.
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31
On a Curved Surfaces
 Consider the curved section
BC of the open tank.
FH and FV can be determined
from the relationships
A′ FV

,
′ ′
′ ′
C’
FH
CP’

2 2
FR  FH  F V

tan

63

On a Curved Surfaces
A′
Where
,
• A’ is the projected area on vertical plane. ′ ′
′ ′
• C’ is the center of the vertical projection area.
• CP’ is the center of pressure of the vertical
projection area at which FH acts. 2 2
• V is the volume extending from the curved FR  FH  F V
surface up to the plane of zero pressure.
• By taking the moment about the center of tan
curvature, the line of action of the vertical force X
component can be obtained.
• Y
FH

FV FR

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