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Usability Testing:
• Usability testing fits in as one part of the user-centered design process.
• Usability testing helps validate design decisions and find usability issues.
• Usability testing is a method used to evaluate the usability and user experience of a product or system by
observing how real users interact with it.
• It involves collecting feedback and data from users while they perform specific tasks or scenarios, aiming to
identify usability issues and gather insights for improvement.

Key steps typically involved in usability testing:

1. Define objectives and tasks:
Start by setting clear objectives for the usability test. Determine what aspects of the product you want to assess
or what specific questions you want to answer. Create a set of tasks or scenarios that users will perform during
the test to simulate real-world usage.

2. Recruit participants:
Identify the target user group for your product and recruit participants who represent that group. Usually, a
small group of 5-10 users is sufficient to uncover most usability issues.

3. Conduct the test:

Set up a controlled testing environment where participants can interact with the product while being observed.
Provide clear instructions and ask participants to think aloud, verbalizing their thoughts and feedback as they go
through the tasks. Observe and take notes on their actions, difficulties, and feedback.

4. Analyze and interpret the results:

Review the observations, notes, and any other collected data from the usability test. Look for patterns, recurring
issues, and user feedback. Identify the usability problems or areas where users encountered difficulties or
confusion.

5. Report and prioritize findings:

Document the usability issues discovered during the test along with recommendations for improvement.
Prioritize the issues based on their impact and severity to guide the design and development team in addressing
them.

6. Iterate and improve:

Use the findings from usability testing to make iterative design changes to the product. Implement solutions for
the identified usability issues, and then conduct additional rounds of testing to validate the improvements.

Heuristic Evaluation:
• Evaluating interfaces based on predefined usability principles or guidelines.
• Evaluators examine the interfaces to identify potential usability issues and provide recommendations for
improvement.
• Heuristic evaluation is a usability inspection method for computer software that helps to identify usability
problems in the user interface (UI) design.
• During a heuristic evaluation, evaluators go through the product and compare its features and interactions
against the established heuristics.
• Evaluators can be usability experts or individuals with experience in design or user experience.
 • Heuristic evaluation is a valuable technique because it helps identify usability problems early in the design
process.
• This method is relatively quick and cost-effective, as it does not require involving actual users.

Nielsen’s 10 Heuristic Principles (Guidelines):

1. Visibility of system status
System should always keep users informed about current status. (users know what the system does)

2. Match between system and real world

System should use language, concepts, and conventions familiar to the users, making it easier for them to understand
and interact with the interface.

3. User control and freedom

Freedom in movement and to navigate and explore the system without feeling trapped. (redo/undo actions, exit)

4. Consistency and standards

The interface should follow consistent design patterns, conventions, and standards, both within the system and in
relation to other similar systems.

5. Error prevention
The system should anticipate and prevent errors through clear instructions. (example: try catch, error exceptions)

6. Recognition rather than recall

The system should minimize the need for users to remember information.

7. Flexibility and efficiency of use

The system should provide the needs to both novice and expert users, fulfill the needs of both.

8. Aesthetic and minimalist design

The system should have visually appealing interface, present important information and avoid unnecessary clutter.

9. Help users recognize, diagnose, recover from errors

Error messages should be clear, specific, and provide guidance on how to recover from errors.

10. Help and documentation

The system should offer help and documentation that is easy to find, searchable, and provides relevant assistance to
users.

Heuristics for websites focus on key criteria:

1. Clarity:
The interface should be clear and easy to understand.

2. Minimize unnecessary complexity and cognitive load:

The design should be simple, avoiding unnecessary complexity.

3. Provide users with context:

Users should always have a clear understanding of their current location within the website and how to navigate
to different sections or pages.

4. Promote positive and pleasurable user experience:

The website should strive to create a positive experience for users. This can be achieved through attractive visual
design, engaging content, intuitive interactions, and responsive performance.
Conducting a heuristic evaluation:
1. Briefing Session:
Start by explaining to the experts what they need to do and what to focus on. (guidelines or principles to follow
during the evaluation)

2. Evaluation Period:
Experts spend 1-2 hours individually exploring the product.

➢ First, they get a general sense of how it works.

➢ Then, they take a closer look at specific features to evaluate how well they work.

3. Debriefing Session:
Experts come together to discuss their findings. They prioritize the problems based on their importance and
suggest ways to fix them.

Advantages of Heuristic Evaluation:

1. Few ethical and practical issues to consider because users not involved
2. Expert evaluators:
can spot potential problems based on their knowledge and experience.

3. Knowledge of domain and users:

The best evaluators understand the specific area the product is designed for and the needs of the users.

Problems and Limitations of Heuristic Evaluation:

1. Important problems may be missed
2. Trivial problems and false alarms
3. Expert biases:
Evaluators can be influenced by their personal preferences and experiences, which can affect their judgment and
lead to biased evaluations.

4. Difficulty and cost of finding experts:

It can be challenging and expensive to find qualified evaluators with the necessary expertise.

Usability Testing with Heuristic Evaluation:

1. Choose a group of evaluators who know about usability and design.

2. Teach them some guidelines called heuristics that help identify usability problems.

3. Prepare the interface or prototype that you want to test.

4. Let each evaluator explore the interface on their own and take notes.

5. Collect the issues or problems they found during the evaluation.

6. Group similar issues together and remove duplicates.

7. Decide which issues are most important and need to be fixed first.

8. Give recommendations on how to fix those issues.

9. Create a report summarizing the evaluation findings and share it with the development team.
3 stages for doing heuristic evaluation:
1. Preparation:
First, the evaluator gets familiar with the product and understands its goals and target users. They set clear
objectives for the evaluation.

2. Evaluation:
The evaluator carefully looks at the product and compares it to a set of usability principles or guidelines. They
note down any problems they find with the interface.

3. Analysis and Reporting:

The evaluator combines their findings with other evaluators and looks for common problems. They prioritize the
problems based on their seriousness and frequency. Finally, they create a report with the identified problems
and suggestions for improvement.

Walkthrough Evaluation:
• Walkthroughs involve evaluators simulating user interactions with an interface, step-by-step.

• The purpose is to find usability issues and evaluate how well the interface supports task completion.

• Evaluators pretend to be users and analyze how the interface responds to their actions at each step.

• This method helps uncover problems and provides feedback to make the interface more user-friendly and
supportive of tasks.

Benefits of a walkthrough
• Early identification of design problems.
• Highlighting usability issues before the development stage.
• Providing insights into user interactions and expectations.

Limitations of a walkthrough
• The reliance on evaluators' expertise and assumptions.
• Potentially missing real user perspective.
• The inability to capture the full range of user experiences.

Two Types of walkthroughs:

a) Cognitive Walkthrough:
• Cognitive walkthroughs focus on how easy it is for users to learn and understand the system.

• A designer presents a part of the design and provides scenarios for how it will be used.

• An expert evaluator is given information about the intended users, the context of use, and task details.

• The evaluator walks through the design prototype, following the scenario.

• During the walkthrough, the evaluator asks three key questions to assess usability.

• The goal of the cognitive walkthrough is to find usability issues, analyze the system's response to user actions,
and collect data.

• Based on the findings, a report is created, and changes are made to improve the user interface.

• Cognitive walkthroughs focus on specific tasks and can be used alongside other evaluation methods to enhance
the overall user experience.
Benefits of a Cognitive Walkthrough:
It focuses on the users' cognitive processes and task completion, provides insights into users' understanding and
expectations, and helps identify usability issues related to the interface's feedback and guidance.

b) Pluralistic Walkthrough (User-Centered Walkthrough):

• Pluralistic walkthroughs are a variation of cognitive walkthroughs.

• They involve a carefully managed team consisting of users, developers, and usability professionals.

• The team members initially work separately to evaluate the interface.

• Afterward, a guided discussion takes place where they reach collective decisions.

• Pluralistic walkthroughs are suitable for participatory design approaches.

• It allows different experts to share their insights and perspectives.

• The group, including users, evaluates the interface as typical users would.

• The main objective is to identify usability problems and enhance the user-friendliness of the interface.

• By combining the expertise of diverse professionals, this method aims to improve overall usability.

• The issues identified during the walkthrough are addressed to create a better user experience.

Benefits of a Pluralistic Walkthrough:

Pluralistic walkthroughs bring together a team of diverse experts, including users, developers, and usability professionals,
to collaboratively evaluate the interface, resulting in a comprehensive assessment, realistic user representation,
enhanced problem identification, informed decision-making, and a user-centered focus.

c) Heuristic Walkthrough:
• Heuristic walkthroughs evaluate interfaces based on pre-established usability guidelines.

• Evaluators assess how well the interface follows these guidelines.

• The goal is to identify potential usability issues or problems.

• The focus is on adherence to specific principles or guidelines.

• Evaluators look for areas where the interface may not meet these guidelines.

• This method helps uncover usability problems and improve the overall user experience.

Benefits of a Heuristic Walkthrough:

It provides a systematic approach based on established heuristics, helps identify broad usability issues, and can be
performed by usability experts without involving actual users.

Usability Testing with Walkthrough Evaluation:

1. Preparation:
• Define the goals and objectives of the usability testing.

• Choose evaluators who can simulate user interactions effectively.

• Determine the specific tasks or scenarios for the evaluation.

2. Conducting the Evaluation:

• Evaluators act as users and follow the predefined tasks or scenarios.

• They assess how well the interface supports task completion.

 • Evaluators take notes on usability issues and areas for improvement.

3. Consolidation and Analysis:

• Collect and review the findings from all evaluators.

• Identify common usability issues and prioritize them.

• Generate a report summarizing the findings and recommendations.

4. Iteration and Improvement:

• Share the findings with the design team and stakeholders.

• Use the feedback to improve the interface design.

• Reevaluate the updated design to validate the improvements.

Exam Question:
Describe one circumstance when the actions for the cognitive walkthrough should be constructed and
analyzed at the micro-level (e.g. mouse-clicks and keystrokes).
• Actions for the cognitive walkthrough should be constructed and analyzed at the micro-level (e.g., mouse-clicks
and keystrokes) when:
• The interaction involves precise and detailed input, such as data entry or manipulation that requires specific user
actions.
• The interface has complex interactions or multi-step tasks that require careful analysis of each action's timing
and sequence.
• The goal is to estimate task completion time accurately or evaluate the efficiency of user interactions in terms of
speed and effort.

Keystroke Level Model (KLM):

• The Keystroke Level Model (KLM) is a technique used to predict how long it will take users to complete tasks.

• It breaks down user actions into small cognitive and motor operations, each with a pre-defined time value.

• By adding up the times for each operation, we can estimate the total time required to complete a task.

• KLM is especially useful for evaluating interfaces that involve repetitive user actions, like navigating menus or
entering data.

The primary operators used in the KLM:

The Keystroke Level Model (KLM) consists of several operators that represent different types of user actions.

1. Keystrokes (K):
Estimate the time required to press individual keys or buttons.

2. Pointing (P):
Estimate the time required to move a pointing device (e.g., mouse) and perform actions like clicking or dragging.

3. Homing (H):
Estimate the time required to move a hand or fingers between the keyboard and the pointing device.

4. Mental Preparation (M):

Estimate the time required for cognitive processes, such as decision-making or information retrieval.
Benefits of the Keystroke Level Model (KLM):
• Time estimation for tasks

• Design evaluation and comparison

• Supports iterative design

• Cost-effective usability assessment

Limitations of the Keystroke Level Model (KLM):

• Simplified modeling approach

• Limited operator coverage

• Sequential action assumption

• Ignoring user variability

• Context and complexity oversight

Usability Testing with Keystroke Level Model (KLM):

Usability testing with the Keystroke Level Model (KLM) involves using the model to predict and evaluate the efficiency of
user interactions with an interface.

1. Define Tasks:
Determine the specific tasks or scenarios that users will perform during the usability test. These tasks should
represent typical interactions with the interface.

2. Calculate KLM Times:

Apply the Keystroke Level Model to estimate the time required for each task. Break down the tasks into
individual operations and assign predetermined time values to each operation based on the KLM guidelines.

3. Conduct Usability Test:

Have participants perform the defined tasks while their interactions are timed. Note the actual completion times
for each task.

4. Compare Predicted vs. Actual Times:

Compare the predicted task completion times based on the KLM calculations with the actual completion times
observed during the usability test.

5. Analyze Discrepancies:
Identify any significant discrepancies between the predicted and actual times. This can help uncover areas where
the interface may be less efficient or where improvements can be made.

6. Iterative Design:
Use the insights from the KLM-based usability test to inform the design process. Make adjustments to the
interface based on the identified usability issues or inefficiencies.

7. Repeat and Refine:

Repeat the usability testing with KLM calculations after making design changes to assess the impact on task
completion times. Iterate and refine the design based on the findings.
GOMS (Goals, Operators, Methods, and Selection):
GOMS (Goals, Operators, Methods, and Selection rules) is a model used to observe human-computer interaction. It
breaks down user actions into goals, operators, methods, and selection rules.

• Goals: What the user wants to achieve.

• Operators: Actions performed to reach the goal.

• Methods: Sequences of operators to accomplish a goal.

• Selection rules: Guidelines for choosing a method.

By using GOMS, designers can estimate task completion time, identify usability problems, and compare interface designs.
It helps understand and predict user behavior, optimize interfaces, and improve efficiency.

Benefits of GOMS
• Predictive modeling for task analysis.

• Identifies usability problems.

• Compares interface designs.

• Estimates task completion time.

Limitations of GOMS
• Simplified user behavior representation.

• Ignores context and variability.

• Limited in capturing complex tasks.

• Selection rules often overlooked.

GOMS Components
1. Goals: Goals are what users want to accomplish when interacting with a system. They represent the specific
objectives or tasks that users intend to achieve.

2. Operators: Operators are the actions or operations performed by users to reach their goals. These actions can be
physical (e.g., pressing a button), cognitive (e.g., making a decision), or perceptual (e.g., perceiving information).

3. Methods: Methods are the step-by-step sequences of operators that users follow to accomplish their goals. They
describe the specific order and combination of operators required to complete a task or reach an objective.

4. Selection rules: Selection rules determine when a user would choose a particular method over others. These
rules consider the current situation or context and guide the selection of the most appropriate method for a
given task.

GOMS Methods
1. Step-by-step process: Methods in GOMS are the ordered sequences of actions that users follow to complete a
task.

2. Task analysis: Methods are derived by breaking down a task into individual actions and organizing them in a
logical order.

3. Standardized approach: GOMS methods can be standardized and represented as templates or guidelines for
performing common tasks.
 4. Iterative refinement: Methods can be improved through an iterative design process by studying user
performance and feedback.

5. User expertise: Methods may vary based on the user's level of expertise, with experienced users employing
more efficient methods.

6. Minimizing cognitive load: Methods aim to reduce cognitive effort by optimizing the arrangement and
sequencing of actions.

Usability Testing with GOMS

1. Define goals: Clearly define the goals and objectives of the usability testing, specifying what aspects of the
interface will be evaluated using GOMS.

2. Task selection: Choose specific tasks or scenarios that represent typical user interactions with the interface.

3. GOMS modeling: Create GOMS models for each task, breaking them down into goals, operators, methods, and
selection rules.

4. Expert analysis: Have usability experts or designers analyze the GOMS models to identify potential usability
issues and evaluate the efficiency of the interface.

5. Task completion time estimation: Use the GOMS models to estimate the time required for users to complete the
tasks, providing insights into task efficiency.

6. Iterative design: Use the findings from GOMS-based usability testing to refine the interface design, addressing
identified usability issues and improving task completion time.

7. Comparison of design alternatives: Compare different interface designs by creating and evaluating GOMS
models for each design, allowing for informed decision-making.

Fitts’ Law:
• Fitts' Law predicts that the time it takes to point at an object using a device depends on two factors: the distance
to the target and the size of the target.

• The farther away and smaller the object, the longer it takes to locate and point to it.

• Fitts' Law is especially helpful in determining the optimal placement of objects on a screen.

• It is commonly used to evaluate systems where the speed of locating an object is crucial, such as smartphones,
handheld devices, and mobile devices.

Benefits of Fitts' Law:

1. Predicts movement time accurately.

2. Guides interface design optimization.

3. Applicable to various pointing devices.

4. Enhances user performance and efficiency.

Limitations of Fitts' Law:

1. Simplified model, may not capture all factors.

2. Limited to one-dimensional movements.

3. Assumes linear relationship between distance and difficulty.

 4. Individual variations may affect predictions.

The foundational principles of Fitts' Law include:

1. Distance:
The distance between the starting point (cursor or pointer) and the target object affects the time required to move and
point accurately.

2. Target Size:
The size of the target object or area determines the ease of acquisition. Larger targets are easier to locate and select.

3. Speed-Accuracy Trade-off:
Fitts' Law reflects a trade-off between movement speed and pointing accuracy. Faster movements may result in less
accuracy, while slower movements allow for more precise targeting.

4. Predictive Nature:
Fitts' Law provides a predictive model for estimating movement time based on the distance and size of the target. It
helps designers anticipate and optimize user performance in pointing tasks.

5. Task Relevance:
Fitts' Law is particularly relevant for tasks that involve pointing and selection, such as clicking on buttons, icons, or
interactive elements on digital interfaces.

Mathematical formulation of Fitts’ Law:

• The equation calculates the average time (T) required to complete a movement.

• The variables in the equation have specific meanings:

• D represents the distance from the starting point to the target.

• W is the width of the target area.

• a and b are constants that depend on the device used for pointing.

• The logarithmic term (log2(D / W + 1)) represents the task difficulty, with larger ratios indicating more
challenging tasks.

• By measuring and determining the values of a and b through experiments, the equation can be used to predict
the time it takes to complete pointing tasks.

In simpler terms, Fitts' Law provides a mathematical way to estimate how long it will take to move and accurately point
at a target based on its distance and size. It helps designers analyze and optimize interface design by considering the
difficulty of target acquisition.
Usability Testing with Fitts’ Law
Usability testing with Fitts' Law involves applying the principles of Fitts' Law to evaluate the usability of an interface.
Here's how it can be done:

1. Define the Testing Goals:

Determine the specific usability aspects you want to evaluate, such as target acquisition time or the efficiency of
pointing tasks.

2. Identify the Targets:

Select the target objects or areas within the interface that users will interact with, such as buttons, links, or
interactive elements.

3. Measure Distance and Size:

Measure the distance between the starting point and the targets, as well as the width of the targets. These
measurements will be used in the Fitts' Law equation.

4. Conduct the Testing:

Have participants perform pointing tasks or target acquisition tasks using the interface. Measure the time it takes
for them to complete the tasks.

5. Analyze the Data:

Calculate the average movement time using the Fitts' Law equation with the measured distance and target size
values. Compare the results across different targets or interface variations.

6. Draw Insights:
Interpret the data to gain insights into the usability of the interface. Identify any areas where targets are difficult
to acquire or where the interface design can be optimized.

7. Iterate and Improve:

Based on the findings from Fitts' Law testing, make design modifications to improve the ease and efficiency of
target acquisition. Test the updated interface again to validate the improvements.