Lecture 1: Overview & Def.

 IOT: Network of physical objects (clearly identified elements) embedded with sensors,
actuators & software to sense, communicate & interact with each other and with the
external environment through ubiquitous computing to achieve some object

Stages of IOT architecture

1. Networked sensors/actuactors
2. Internet gateways, A/D and data aggregation & filteration
3. Edge computing for analytics, preprocessing and critical actions
4. Data center for big data and archive
Lecture 2: Overview of Ref. Model: 5 Layers, the 6 Elements & 8
QOS criteria
 A vertical market is a market in which businesses specialize in serving a specific industry or
group of customers with specialized needs.
 A horizontal market, on the other hand, is a market in which businesses provide products or
services that can be used by a wide variety of industries or customers.
o Smart objects (Sensors/actuators) are the vertical market (domain specific)

o Analytics & ubiquity (big data, cloud) are horizontal market (independent services)

 ubiquitous/pervasive computing: embedding computational capability into everyday objects

into everyday objects & minimizes the end user's need to interact with computers as
computers.

1. Perception: heterogenous sensors & actuators

2. Object Abstraction: transform data into known form securely for service mgmt.
3. Service management: work & decide with heterogenous data & devices abstractedly
4. Application layer: provided services requested
5. Business layer: analytics & monitoring, business model and big data

Clustered perception layer is

where there is a sensor acting as
master for data collection
6 Elements of IOT ISCP SS
1. Identification: Addressing methods of IoT objects include IPv6 and IPv4.
Distinguishing between object’s identification and address is important:
 since identification methods are not globally unique,
 so, addressing methods assists to uniquely identify objects.
2. Sensors
3. Communication
 The NFC protocol
o works at high frequency band at 13.56 MHz

o and supports data rate up to 424 kbps.

o The applicable range is up to 10 cm

o communication between active readers and passive tags or two active readers can
occur.

4. Process Data: Realtime or batch (cloud)  LiteOS TinyOS RiotOS

5. Services

6. Semantic: use data to make right and senseful decisions to provide right service
QOS criteria (how we measure how good is the IOT service?) 
ARM PM SIS
1. Availability
2. Reliability: refers to the proper working of the system based on its specification. (related to
availability)
3. Mobility
4. Performance
5. Management Must have methods and protocols I place to be able to manage exp. growth in IOT
devices
6. Scalability
7. Interoperability: heterogenous devices and protocols
8. Security & Privacy
 Lecture 3: Perception/Object Layer: Sensors & Actuators
Two main requirements for sensors: Sensing & Addressing
 “Things” in IoT are sensing and addressing.
 Sensing is essential to identify and collect key parameters for analysis,
 addressing is necessary to uniquely identify things over the Internet.

 A sensor is a device (typically electronic) that detects events or changes in its physical environment
and provides a corresponding output.

 Simple (collect-transmit)
 smart (IOT Sensing device need sensor, mc, connectivity)
 Proprietary (closed system)
 Nonproprietary (ip-based)
 Autonomous (self-directed)  work on their own and learn
 Non autonomous (user controlled)  programed by user

Characteristics
 Must be small
 low power
 long battery
 fast processing
 sensitive
 accurate
 reliable

 Hysteresis (avoid it)

it means that the sensor will produce different output values depending on whether the
input value is increasing or decreasing, this is caused due to delay between sensor output
based on change in sensor input direction of change

To understand this, imagine a simple temperature sensor that measures the temperature of
a room. If the temperature is slowly rising, the sensor will detect this and produce an
output that corresponds to the current temperature. However, if the temperature starts to
drop again, the sensor will continue to produce the same output for a short time, before
eventually adjusting to the new lower temperature
 They take in analog inputs as electrical signals, so must need ADC to convert to digital signals
Sensors
1. There are four types of temperature sensors:
 Thermocouple Sensors :
o aging because of harsh environment.

o impurities change the accuracy

 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

o more accurate

 Thermistors
o general purpose

 Semiconductor Sensors Modern semiconductor temperature sensors offer high accuracy and
high sensitivity

2. pressure sensor (act as transducer)

 ABS cars
 aviation
 submarine
 blood pressure
 smartphones
3. Proximity sensors detect the presence or absence of objects using
electromagnetic fields, light, or sound. (ICPU)
 Inductive Sensors: close range ferrous.
 Capacitive Sensors: close range nonferrous.
 Photoelectric Sensors: long range detection.
 Ultrasonic Sensors: long range detection difficult surface

4. IR sensor: IR waves in form of heat

5. Flow sensor
 Used to detect rate of fluid flow in system
 Detect flow leaks & blockages
 Measure flow of heat

6. Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) heart of all new devices

(trackers and small nodes for IoT)
 Accelerometer
 Gyroscope
 Fuel
 Magnetometer (navigation compass)

7. ambient noise sensor

8. Smart dust: small wireless nano-sillicon MEMS that are hard to detect
(don’t make any ez3ag)
9. air pollution sensor
10. Moisture and Humidity Sensors
11. speed sensor
12. Level sensor
 Level of fluid
 Ultrasonic sensor & non-contact level
 viscosity measure
  water treatment
 capacitance level sensors

13. RFID: Pre-embed information in a chip known as tag which is then

read by the RFID reader (also known as an interrogator) (using an
antenna at a certain radio frequency found in the RFID tag and reader)
using radio waves to restore this data
 Advantages
o Many distance options, from very close distance (NFC is a subset of RFID) to long
distances up to 10m and 100m
o Do not need to be in sight (can penetrate objects)

o Durable and can be hidden

o Can be encrypted

o Very fast, readers can read tags in parallel

 Disadvantages
o Can be jammed

o Interference happen especially in parallel reading

 Uses
o Tracking

o healthcare

o access control

o identification
14. LIDAR Light Detection and Ranging
 used to measure space or time
 Emit laser and reflect back (roundtrip) (time of flight)
 Very long range: used in exploring earth

15. Video tracking

 Time consuming
 Power consumption
 Slow, must do one of two steps in tracking
o localization (bottom up)

o filtering & association (top down)

 An actuator is a type of motor that takes action in a system. It takes a data or energy and converts
the data/energy to motion to control a system.

Control of IOT systems

 Local control: intelligent controller at edge (edge computation)
 Global: inexpensive sensors everywhere report back to the cloud (centralized)

Sensor fusion: can use

 Kalman filters
 Bayesian networks.
 Lecture 4 Part 1: IoT Requirements for Networking
Protocols(SMD SA)
1. Support for Constraint Devices
Devices and sensors in IOT have
 requirements (comp. requirements)
 restrictions (size, power resource)

IOT devices are heterogenous

 constrained devices: devices with limited processing, networking memory and power resources.
often used for specific tasks in specific environments (C0 C1 C2)
 High power & infinite energy sources
 Stay in sleep mode because comm. takes 3x more energy that processing

Three classes of constrained devices

 C0 very constrained and require helper devices to connect to network (e.g. sensor motes)
 C1 high constrained but can connect to network with IP alone
 C2 less constrained and have TCP/IP stack
 NB: communication 3x more energy than local processing

2. Massive Scalability (DCCW)

1) Device Addressing
 Build network that unifies all devices  Need ubiquitous addressing
o Remember: identification method not inherently unique, need addressing methods to
make it unique
 devices are second class citizens
 IPv4 address space was completely depleted by February 1, 2011
 IPv6 next step

2) Credential Management
 low weight security credentials management
 Current credentials management (manual pre configuration) mechanisms are not viable in IOT,
why?
o many devices
o limitations in UI of constrained devices
o cannot use pre-shared keys anymore  not lightweight

3) Control Plane
 Uses protocols to maintain state of nodes.
 When number of nodes increase, the amount of state data increases and the messages required
for keeping state table synced becomes very big
 Trying to adapt/scale protocol leads to worse network response
 for IOT we need more flexible and elastic control plane
 4) Wireless Spectrum
 We need wireless connection for IOT devices
 increasing number of devices whilst the wireless band spectrum is finite and scarce

3. Determinism
 Given system state, event happens, we can predict output system state
 Prediction of network performance (latency, reliability)
 we can give SLAs and guarantee QOS if we have determinism
 Important for IOT because of critical use cases
 Reasonable model: suffice for the target use case of networking

4. Security and Privacy

 Ubiquity increase risk
 Authenticate device identity
 Good algorithms are bad for IOT constrained devices:
o need high processing power & resources
o High-touch (need user pre configuration)
 We may not be able to access IOT devices for long life span (need good initial settings)
 IOT devices outlive encryption algorithms
 create lightweight algorithms

5. Application Interoperability
 We cannot have expensive closed nature
 All application entities
o must be abstract
o have APIs to support semantic interoperability
 Semantic interoperability all data can be accessed & be interpreted by all devices/application
entities unambiguously
o It is basis of IOT in sharing data
 At base of semantic interoperability is format/structure of data exchange (syntactic/structure
interoperability)
 Lecture 4 Part 2: IOT Protocol Stack
Link Layer (DTAS)
We have 4 challenges

1. Device characteristics
 heterogeneous nodes need low power consumption
 80% energy wasted in retransmission of MAC layer

2. Traffic characteristics
 relaxed requirements vs tight requirements (packet loss, availability, latency)
 short burst vs long-tailed

3. Access Characteristic
 Wireless vs wired
 Long vs short range

4. Scalability
 We said we have 4 main concerns for scalability:
Addressing, Wireless Spectrum, Control Plane, Credential Mgmt.

Internet Layer
 Use Low-power Lossy Network (LLNs): thousands of constrained devices
 5 challenges:
1. minimize amount of state needed (control plane)
2. optimize energy (sleep-wake cycle)
3. Restrict frame size
4. Reliability
5. traffic patterns (p2p p2m m2p unicast multicast)

Application protocol
 used to handle communication

Data Serialization Format

 3 challenges
1. Interoperability of format
2. Format processing must be low power
3. Format must be short

Communication paradigm
 can be (
1. request-response: 2-way (reliable with ACK)
2. publish-subscribe: 1-way
3. block-non-block
QOS (RTAU)
1. reliable
2. available
3. timely
4. utilize

RESTFul
Lecture 5: Edge Computing
Edge Computing: distributed computing in a location that is close or at source where the data is
generated by the IoT (i.e., sensors) without having to send data to cloud

What led to edge computing?

1. Explosive growth in IoT

2. Growth in volumes of data
3. Outpacing of network capabilities
4. Faster & more critical response times were needed

Two types of edge computing?

Near-edge: This is the layer closer to the cloud. Includes edge servers that provide data processing and
analytics at the local level without needing to resort to the WAN. (e.g., physical factory local server)

1. Some perform data processing and analytics

2. Can cache data temporarily
3. Can perform critical actions
4. Can perform local switching and SDWAN functions as they coexist with WAN infrastructure

Far-edge: The layer farthest from the cloud. Includes the edge devices (sensors) that have some
processing and data storage/caching capabilities.

1. Some perform data processing for critical actions only

2. Can cache data temporarily until communication with edge servers is possible
 Nodes at the far-edge are non-IP systems (Fan out)

Benefits of Edge Computing (4R)

1. Reduced latency: when critical actions and low latency is needed by avoiding network hops
2. Reduced Cost: no need to bother cloud with trivial data processing
3. Reduced Security & privacy concerns: comply with regulations & less chance for attacks with
less data in transit
4. Resilient Computing: can work even in worse conditions where network performance is bad
(can use local caching)

Use Case Examples for Edge Computing

1. Automation
2. AR/VR
3. PAN aggregation (non-IP devices)
4. Data processing
5. Resilient Fleet Management
Ambient Computing: Computing environment where edge, IOT, AI, AR, etc. are used to simulate natural
computing that is seamless without actual usage of a computer (Google Home, CityTouch, Synth Sensors) (IEFI)

1. Invisible: does not draw attention

2. Embedded: intelligent
3. Frictionless: human is the center not computing
4. Interconnected: heterogenous entities

Multi-access Edge Computing (MEC)/Mobile Edge computing: It is like FOG Computing, where the
nodes exist at the edge of local network and the WAN and connect them in low latency (like 5G and
RAN) and act as a gateway between local and WAN

 Used in telecom infrastructure

Cloudlets: small-scale cloud data center. Can lower latency and overall pressure on centralized cloud.

Fog Computing: architecture of distributed cloud services/Layer that exist between edge layer and cloud
layer. They can be abstracted as a set of graphically distributed cloud servers that act as one cloud
server
 Lecture 6: Fog Computing
Cloud Computing: A model that provides shared pool of compute, network and storage resources with
on-demand access using networks & virtualization (can be provisioned and released quickly)

Fog Computing: architecture of distributed cloud services/Layer that exist between edge layer and cloud
layer. They can be abstracted as a set of graphically distributed cloud servers that act as one cloud
server

What led to fog computing? (DR DR)

1. Data Deluge: More data is generated that can be managed & analyzed
2. Rapid Mobility: Edge nodes are moving through space causing worse network conditions (Resiliency)
a. Physical mobility: embed resources in the edge node
b. Virtual mobility: allow close proximity to fog servers by following the node and connecting
to closest fog server
3. Reliable Control: Constraint devices offload highly intensive computations for control decisions but
with low latency
4. Data Management & Analytics: High footprint applications require real-time analytics within
context

Characteristics of fog computing

1. Low latency (close to network edge)

2. Distribution
3. Large number of server nodes
4. Mobility
5. Real-time processing
6. Wireless connectivity
7. Heterogeneity of resources

Containers are less secure but has less memory footprint

 Docker: packaging software
for distributing apps with
dependencies (containers)
Requirements of fog computing

1. Virtualization: efficiency, On-demand HW/SW, sandboxed, flexibility, migration, portability

a. CPU ISA Level  Emulators translate guest ISA to host ISA
b. Hardware Abstraction Layer (HAL): Bare metal (type 1)
c. OS level: type 2
2. Network support for mobility: seamless mobility of identity addr (MAC) with location addr (IP)
3. Orchestration: automation
Differences in Cloud vs Fog orchestration
a. Topology: fog orchestration understands constraint devices, changing bandwidth &
heterogeneity
b. Things connectivity: deploy apps with direct access to legacy Things using special drivers
c. Performance Guarantees: Placement decisions rely on max. latency needs
4. Data Management:
a. Data in motion: constant stream of sensor-generated data that defy traditional
processes. Has low shelf-life
b. Data at rest: data in wareho.uses that can be analyzed later. deprecated approach
c. Fog Search Engines: separate logically into Things and Search plane. Query in search
propagated to Fog and distributed around to find the required info using fuzzy matches
5. More gaps ahead: Replication of cloud & physical security

Cold migration  suspended change VM to another host machine

Live migration  powered-on change VM to another host (with same
VDI, IP, MAC)
 Lecture 7: Security
IOT Security Challenges (MMM RR SABD)

1. Multiple technologies: each with its own vulnerabilities. Weakest point

2. Multiple verticals: unique needs require unique security needs
3. Mobility
4. Resource limitations constrained devices can be overwhelmed (DOS) & CPU intensive cryptography
5. Remote locations
6. Scalability old methods won’t work on billions of devices
7. Availability may prefer no security but no downtime (due to false positive)
8. Big data
9. Delay sensitive services

IOT Security Requirements (CI AAA FN FB)

1. Confidentiality: message only understood by receiver

2. Integrity: message remains unchanged
3. Authentication: verify identity of sender/receiver
4. Availability: allow uninterrupted (timely sender & receipt)
5. Authorization: allow certain identities certain permissions
6. Freshness: no replay messages to return to old state
7. Non repudiation: can prove action performed (sent or receipt)
8. Forward Secrecy: after leaving, cannot know new messages
9. Backward Secrecy: before entering, cannot know old messages
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a protocol or
procedure that connects an ever-changing Internet
Protocol (IP) address to a fixed physical machine
address, also known as a media access control (MAC)
address, in a local-area network (LAN).
Cloud Domain Attacks & Countermeasures
1- Hidden Channel Attack (stop tracert, whitelist)
Make use of shared resources between VMs (cache)

1) Mapping target VM
a. Cluster > zone/pod > servers
b. Know external IP maps to which cluster, then rent VM and query DNS for internal IP to
find server
2) Malicious VM placement
a. trace route to server of VM, until no hops and on same server
3) Cross-VM data leakage

2- VM migration attack
1) Control plane attacks: attack migration module
a. Migration flooding DOS
b. False Resource advertising
2) Data plane attacks: attack network links
a. Sniffing
b. Man-in-the-middle

3- Theft of service attacks

Malicious VM uses more resources than needed, resulting in lesser resources for other VMs

4- VM escape attack
Can get to hardware layer and execute commands on any VM in hypervisor layer

5- Insider attack
Homomorphic Encryption: performing operations on encrypted data yields same results when
decrypted as performing on unencrypted data
Fog Domain Attacks & Countermeasures
Same as previous PLUS +

1. Authentication and Trust Issues

Offered by less-trusted entities (reputation)

2. Higher Migration Security Risks

Migrations in fog happen over internet (auth & encrypt)

3. Higher Vulnerability to DOS

4. Additional Security Risks due to Container Usage
Because no logical separation of OS, easier to undergo hidden-channel attacks

5. Privacy Issues
Tracking of users and their edge devices (obfuscator)
Sensing Domain Attacks & Countermeasures
1. Jamming: Service disruption
Types

1. Receiver  physical layer

2. Sender  data link layer

Ways of jamming

1. Constant: random all time…. detectable, lots of energy

2. Deceptive: follow the MAC protocol rather than random
3. Reactive: triggered…. limited power budget
4. Random: time based

Ways of stopping

1. Frequency Hopping: change wireless technology freq.

2. Spread Spectrum: from narrow to wide band allow for error correction
3. Direct the antennas
4. Jamming detection

2. Vampire: Battery drain

Types

1. Denial of sleep: replay awake message (fix by including timestamp/sequence in msg)

2. Flooding: send/receive dummy packets (limit no. of packets that can be sent)
3. Carrousel: Looping of packet hops (detect & drop loop paths)
4. Stretch: elongate packet hops (detect long paths)

3. Selective forwarding: Send only some packets to fog (or none 

blackhole)
 Fix by allowing direct long-range transmission to fog node
 Fix by redundant sending along many paths

4. Sinkhole: all edge objects forward packets THROUGH one malicious obj
 Fix by intrusion detection system

Future?
 Lightweight crypto & networking
 Digital forensics (invade privacy)
 Focus on fog
 Collaborate with all domains
 Lecture 8: Blockchain
Blockchain: A distributed, decentralized & immutable ledger among all users (uses hashes & time
stamps)

Characteristics of Blockchain

1. Decentralized
2. Immutable
3. Works on consensus
4. Trustless
5. History

Terminologies of Blockchain

1. Node
2. Ledger
3. Mining: process of generating new block using proof-of-work
4. Consensus: algorithm to trust or distrust a new block in order to sync all users
5. Cryptocurrency
6. Decentralized Application
7. Secure Hash Function: one-way hash function
8. Merkle Tree Root: result of all leaves hashed together

Components of block header

1. Version
2. Previous block hash
3. Merke root hash To calculate the hash, three inputs are used:
4. Timestamp 1. previous block hash,
2. the Merkle root hash,
5. Bits
3. and the nonce.
6. Nonce: random number
7. Transaction Count