DEVELOPMENT

It refers to improvement in quality of life. Development occurs where there are improvements in
individual factors making up the quality of life. For example, development occurs in a low income
country when:

 Local food supply improves due to investment in farm machinery and fertilisers.
 The electricity grid extends outwards from urban areas to rural areas.
 Levels of literacy improve throughout the country

Indicators of development

1. Gross National Product (GNP)

This is the total value of goods produced and services provided in a country during one year
plus net income from foreign investments. If GNP is divided by total population, it gives GNP
per capita. If a country has a higher GNP per capita, people have an improved quality of life.
2. Literacy
Education is an important indicator of development. A low adult literacy rate is great
obstacle to development. Female education is one of the most fundamental achievements
for a developing nation to attain because so many aspects of development depend on it, for
example, infant and child mortality rates.
3. Life expectancy
It is an important measure of development as it is to a large extent the end result all factors
contributing to the quality of life in a country. It helps development to target those in need.
4. Infant mortality
It is important measure of healthy inequality both within and between countries. The infant
mortality rate in Africa is more than 13 times that of Europe.
5. Other individual indicators of development
These include:
 Doctors per 100 000 people
 Food intake (calories per capita per day)
 Energy consumption per capita
 % of population living in urban areas
 Number of motor vehicles per 1 000 population.
 Internet penetration rate

The Human Development index (HDI)

It is broader measure of development devised by the United Nations in 1990 and contains four
indicators:

 Life expectancy at birth (health)

 Mean years of schooling for adults aged 25 years (education)
 Expected years of schooling for children of school entering age (education)
 Gross National Income ( living standards)

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NB. The actual figures for each of these measures are converted into an index which has a maximum
value of 1.0 in each case. The index values are the combined are averaged to give an overall HDI
value.

Inequalities between countries

Countries can be grouped into the following stages of development : Less Economically Developed
Countries (LEDCs), Newly Industrialised Countries (NICs) and More Economically Developed
Countries (MEDCs). NICs are nations which have undergone rapid and successful industrialisation
since the 1960s. The first countries to become NICs in the 1960s were South Korea, Singapore,
Taiwan and Hong Kong. The reasons for the success of these countries were:

 A good level of initial infrastructure

 A skilled but relatively low workforce
 Cultural traditions that revere education and achievement
 Governments that welcomed foreign direct investment (FDI) from transnational
corporations
 The ready availability of bank loans at attractive interests rates.

The success of the four countries provided a model for others to follow, such as, Malaysia, Brazil,
China and India.

Reasons for the development gap between countries

1. Physical geography
 Landlocked countries have generally developed more slowly than coastal ones.
 Small island countries face considerable disadvantages in development.
 Tropical countries have grown more slowly than those in temperate latitudes.
 A generous allocation of natural resources has promoted economic growth in a
number of countries.
2. Economic policies
 Open economies that welcomed and encouraged foreign investment have
developed faster than closed economies.
 Fast growing countries have high rates of saving and low spending relative to GDP.
 Good governance and lack of corruption generally result in a high rate of growth.
3. Demography
 Highest rates of economic growth are experienced by those nations where the birth
rate had fallen the most.

Transnational (multi-national) corporations (TNCs)

Transnational corporations are large companies that operate as producers or sellers in many
countries or continents. They are willing to change the location of their activities to wherever
conditions for production or sales are most favourable. This is part of globalisation.

Globalisation is the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of the world, economically,

culturally and politically.

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TNCs control an increasing proportion of the global economy. The world’s top ten companies in
2010 (as measured by their sales) are shown below:

Rank Company Industry Sales(billion US$) Headquarters

1 Wal-Mart Retailing 408 USA
2 Royal Dutch Shell Oil and gas 368 Netherlands and
UK
3 ExxonMobil Oil and gas 301 USA
4 BP Oil and gas 297 UK
5 Saudi Aramco Oil and gas 233 Saudi Arabia
6 Toyota Motor vehicles 203 Japan
7 Japanese Post Holdings Various 200 Japan
8 ConocoPhillips Oil and gas 198 USA
9 Sinopec Oil and gas 197 China
10 Vitol Raw materials 195 Netherlands and
Switzerland
TNCs have a strong influence on LEDCs, where they often locate activities like production. The
presence of TNCs in LEDCs can lead to both advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages of TNCs for LEDCs

 Provide jobs for local people.

 Improve people’s skills.
 Bring in foreign currency which helps the country to develop.
 Increased employment increases the demand for consumer goods and this helps
other industries to develop.
 Lead to development of local raw materials such as mining minerals or growing
crops.
 Lead to development of infrastructure projects such as roads, dams, airports,
schools, hospitals.

Disadvantages of TNCs for LEDCs

 Most profits go abroad to mother countries.

 Levels of pay are lower than elsewhere in the world.
 TNCs might suddenly decide to leave the LEDC if conditions inside or outside the country
change.
 Raw materials such as minerals, are often exported and not processed in the LEDC.
 The operation of the company may cause environmental damage.

Globalisation

This is the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of the world, economically, culturally
and politically.

Factors responsible for economic globalisation

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  Advances in technology such as transport and telecommunication systems have speeded up
globalisation. The internet has also been essential to the development and speed of
globalisation.
 Major advances in trade liberalisation under the World Trade Organisation has reduced
tariffs, quotas and regulations.
 There is increasing number of newly industrialised countries.
 There is also an increasing complexity of international trade.

Global impacts of globalisation

1. Economic impacts
 Rapid growth of NICs has reduced the economic strength of MEDCs.
 Global cities have emerged eg Tokyo, London and Tokyo are the world’ s major
global cities.
 There are now 100 millions of migrant workers around the globe.
 People around the world have a greater choice of international commodities than
ever before.
 There is growing power of TNCs
 There is emergency of powerful trading blocs

2. Environmental impacts
 Air pollution
 Deforestation
 Salinization and contamination of water supplies
 Decline in biodiversity

3. Cultural diffusion

Cultural diffusion is the process of spreading of cultural traits from one place to another.
This has occurred through:

 Migration, which circulates ideas, values and beliefs around the world.
 Rapid spread of news, ideas and fashions through mass media, trade and travel.
 The internet, which allowed improved individual and mass communication.
 The transport revolution which facilitated the mass movement of people and
products around the world.

Impacts of globalisation on a local scale

 Small local businesses often find it difficult to compete with major global companies.
 Closure of a TNC branch plant can cause high local unemployment.
 Population of many local communities have become multicultural.
 Families are now more spread over different countries due to increased international
migration.
 There is development of ‘ethnic villages’ in large urban areas.

Case study : advantages and disadvantages of a TNC in an LEDC ( Nike in Vietnam)

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Nike has its headquarters in Beaveron, Oregon in USA. It started its commercial operations in
Vietnam in 1995. Nike has created employment for local people and it pays higher wages than the
local companies. The skills base of the local population has been improved. Nike has contributed to
local tax base and that has helped to pay for improvements to infrastructure. The exports from the
company are a positive contribution to balance of payments.

The disadvantages include the exploitation of cheap labour and poor working conditions in the
company, for example, the toxic solvents and glues used in the manufacturing caused dizziness,
nausea and respiratory ailments among workers. There are also allegations of use of child labour in
the production processes, for example, at the Tae Kwang Vina factory which employed 10 000
workers, a sizeable number were children. There are also concerns that the company has interfered
with local politics in Vietnam. The image of the company and advertising have helped to undermine
national culture in Vietnam.

INDUSTRY
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This means production or work done to produce something.

Industrial sectors

1. Primary Sector: these are industries involved in the production of raw materials. They
include farming, fishing, forestry, mining and quarrying.
2. Secondary Sector: these are manufacturing industries. Examples include food
processing, manufacture of iron and steel, motor vehicles and textiles. The goods can be
sold directly to consumers or other manufacturers.
3. Tertiary sector: consists of service industries. They include retailing, transport,
designing, education and health.

How employment structure varies between sectors

Employment structure means how the workforce is divided up between employment sectors.

As a country becomes more economically developed:

 The percentage of its population employed in primary industries decreases.

 The percentage employed in tertiary industries increases.
 The percentage employed in secondary industries increases at first, but then
decreases (as the tertiary sector continues to grow).

NB. These changes are shown by the sector model below:

Employment structure for MEDC, NIC and LEDC

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The table below shows employment structure for a developed country, NIC and a developing
country:

Country % primary % secondary % tertiary

Australia 4 21 75
Malaysia 11 36 53
Bangladesh 45 30 25

NB. LEDCs have a higher % of people employed in the primary sector and a smaller % employed in
the secondary and tertiary sectors. This is due to the following reasons:

 There is lack of investment in the tertiary and secondary sectors.

 There is lack of reliable infrastructure such as roads, railways and processing plants.
 There is less demand for services in LEDCs since people are poor and cannot afford services.
 Many people lack the qualifications or education to work in the tertiary sector.

MEDCs have a higher % of people employed in the tertiary sector and a smaller % employed in the
primary sector. This due to the following reasons:

 Agriculture is highly mechanised in MEDCs hence fewer people in primary industry.

 Primary produce is imported more cheaply from LEDCs so there is no need for employing
many people in primary industy
 There is more investment in the tertiary sector.
 There are many educated people who qualify to work in the tertiary sector.
 Many people are affluent and can afford many services.

Triangular graph

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  This is a graphical method used to compare the employment structure of countries.

 One side (axis) of the triangle is used to show the data for each of the primary, secondary
and tertiary sectors.
 Each sector is scaled from 0 to 100 per cent

Complete the employment structure of the countries on the graph on the following table:

Country % primary % secondary % tertiary

China 45 25 30
Bangladesh
Brazil
Bulgaria
USA

Industry as a system

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Manufacturing industry as a whole, or as an individual factory, can be regarded as a system. Industry
operates as a system that is it has inputs, processes and outputs as shown below:

1. Inputs : are elements required for the processes to take place. Inputs include raw
materials, labour, energy and capital.
2. Processes : are the industrial activities that take place in the factory to make the finished
product. In a car assembly , processes include welding and painting.
3. Outputs : these are finished products that are sold to customers. Sometimes by-
products are produced. A by-product is something left over from the main production
process which has some value and therefore can be sold. All industries also produce
waste products.

Factors affecting location of industry

Many factors affect industrial locations. The influence of each one varies, depending on the industry
concerned.

Physical factors

1. Raw materials: heavy industries such iron and steel used to be located near raw
materials for example near iron ore and coal mines. However, efficient transport
systems have reduced the need to locate near raw materials.
2. Site: large factories need flat, well drained land on solid bed rock.
3. Energy: in the past sites next to fast flowing rivers or coal mines were favoured.
However, today’s electricity grid systems have largely overcome this need. But, for some
industries like aluminium smelting that require large amounts of power, access to cheap
energy is important. Iceland has plentiful and cheap supply of hydroelectric and

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 geothermal power, so aluminium ore is brought by ship all the way from Australia to be
smelted in Iceland.
4. Water supply : manufacture of paper, certain chemicals and metals requires a lot of
water. These industries may need to be located where they have their own water
supplies from rivers or boreholes.
5. Natural harbours: ports are favoured locations for many industries because raw
materials can be imported and finished products exported more easily and cheaply.

Human and economic factors

1. Capital: the finance to establish an industry might be more freely available in one
country or area than another.
2. Labour: the quality of labour is just as important as its size. The reputation of the
workforce in an area is important nowadays.
3. Transport: transport is still an important factor in the location of industries with bulky
goods. Access to air transport is important for the location of high technology industries
and some tertiary services.
4. Markets: access to people willing to buy the products is important.
5. Political influence: government can directly influence location of industries by providing
financial incentives to companies to locate in particular areas. The tax systems of
countries also influence location of multinational companies.
6. Quality of life: a highly skilled workforce favours areas with good housing and leisure
facilities.

Manufacturing industries

These can be processing or assembly industries. Processing industries are based on direct
processing of raw materials, for example, iron and steel, using large quantities of iron ore, coal and
limestone. Processing industries are often located near raw materials. In contrast, assembly
industries put together parts and components that have been made elsewhere. Assembly industries
have usually a wider choice of location than processing industries and thus they are often described
as footloose industries.

The motor vehicle assembly industry

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This is when motor vehicles are made by combining various components. Motor vehicle
manufacturing industry as a system is summarised by the diagram below:

Inputs: inputs of motor vehicle assembly include capital, raw materials, labour, land market, political
influences and globalisation.

1. Capital is required to buy complex machinery required, to buy components and to pay
workers.
2. Raw material inputs for this industry come from various sources but the main raw
material by volume is steel.
3. Labour: large numbers of people are required to supply labour at production lines.
4. Land: a large , flat site is needed for production lines, vehicle storage, test driving,
parking worker’s cars.
5. Market: access to people who are able to buy vehicles is the single most important
factor in the location of motor vehicle assembly today.
6. Political influences: many countries have high taxation levels on imported manufactured
goods, but lower levels on components. Therefore, it is cheaper for the manufacturer to

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 transport the components to a country where there is a large potential market and then
assemble them there.

Processes

Raw materials are produced for example, sheet steel for the body, metal castings for the
engine, electrical wires and plastics for the interior. Components are manufactured eg the
engine, body, transmission system, battery, paint and electronic components. Components
are then put together to make the final vehicle.

outputs

Motor vehicles are the final product.

Environmental problems caused by motor vehicle manufacturing industries

 atmospheric pollution/smoke from factory

 exhaust fumes from vehicles
 pollution of rivers from oils used
 clearance of natural vegetation to create space for factory
 loss of habitats for animals
 disruption of ecosystems/food chains

Toyota in Japan

Toyata’s production centre is in Toyota city on the east coast of Honshu. Toyota has 12
separate factories in the area, which employ a total of more than 43 000 people. The
factories work together to make components, and then assemble the various models. The
company has developed great strength in technological skill and research and development.
Steel for use in vehicle manufacturing process is produced nearby at Nagoya. The land in this
area is large and flat to provide space for production lines, storage of completed vehicles
and test driving. The completed vehicles are shipped to the densely populated Kanto
District, which includes Tokyo-Yokohama.

Meat processing factory in Lobatse (Botswana)

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Input: cattle
Process: slaughtering/canning beef/taking bones from beef
Outputs: canned beef with bones removed, by-products such as leather.

Benefits for local people

 employment in factory;
 multiplier effect, more money circulating in area/more wealthy people living in the
area
 improvements to quality of life e.g. afford more food/education/health care
 development of transport network

Environmental problems caused by factory

 atmospheric pollution/smoke from factory

 exhaust fumes from lorries
 pollution of rivers/groundwater
 visual pollution
 clearance of natural vegetation
 loss of animal habitats
 destruction of ecosystems/food chains

Cement manufacturing

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An example of cement manufacturing company is Larfage Cement in Harare. A cement
manufacturing industry is characterised by inputs, processes and output as shown on the
diagram below:

Inputs/raw materials: limestone, clay, gypsum, fuel

.
Processes: roasting/heating (in kilns) crushing clinker to powder.

Output: cement

Benefits of the industry to local people

 employment in factory/income for people
 people can afford food/school fees
 schools and hospitals/clinics are built
 development of transport network/roads
 development of electricity and water supply
 improves availability of cement/building materials

Problems caused by the industry

 atmospheric pollution/smoke from factory
 exhaust fumes from lorries
 acid rain
 pollution of rivers/groundwater
 visual pollution
 clearance of natural vegetation
 destruction of animal habitats
 destruction of ecosystems/food chains

High Technology Industries

 High tech industries are industries which are use the most advanced technology to
make products that may or may not, be high-tech themselves.
 High tech companies use or make silicon chips, computers, software, mobile phones,
robots, aerospace components, medical, optical and other technically advanced
products.
 These companies put a great deal of money into scientific research with the aim to
develop newer, even advanced products.
 The manufacturing process is highly automated and computerised.
 High tech industries often cluster together in science parks eg The Cambridge
Science Park in UK.
Factors affecting location of High- tech industries

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 1. Capital: large amounts of money are required in the industry because the best brains
are needed to do research and development work. The top level, university
graduates who work in this industry demand high salaries.
2. Raw materials: the silicon or silicon chips and electricity inputs needed are not
expensive to transport, so there is no need to locate near the silicon. It is described
as footloose.
3. Labour: the industry needs large numbers of highly skilled and well qualified workers
so high- tech companies tend to locate in or near cities with universities, engineering
colleges and technological research institutes. They are frequently located in
suburbs, because this is where their workers prefer to live. To attract the highly
qualified workforce, industries need to locate where the climate is pleasant and
scenery attractive and where there are good quality housing and shopping
opportunities.
4. Land: high-tech companies usually locate themselves on science parks or technology
development parks that have been developed by governments and local authorities
to promote growth of industry. These parks need large areas of land.
5. Market: nearness to market is not an important influence, because many of their
products are exported worldwide.
6. Transport: most companies locate near international airports, expressways or
railways to beat competitors to the market.
7. Political influences: government influence is enormous in funding the science parks,
providing the necessary infrastructure for economic growth and attracting investors
through tax incentives.
8. Pre-existing high-tech industries: high-tech industries tend to locate in clusters. Being
close to other high-tech companies is important for promoting the competition that
leads to development of new ideas. If an area has a reputation as a location for
successful high-tech industry, new companies are likely to be attracted to it.

Case study: high-tech industries ( Cambridge Science Park in UK)

It was built in 1970. More than 90 high tech firms locate there. The majority of companies are
involved in scientific research and development. The companies have located here because
of the following reasons. The land in this area has low cost. The is also a large area of land
of about 152 acres. The working environment is pleasant as 20 of 152 acres are parkland
and landscaped. There is large supply of expert labour from nearby Cambridge University-
more than 5000 people. The area has links with Cambridge University for research and
development. Park facilities include conference facilities, restaurant and bar, child care
nursery, health and fitness centre and squash courts. The area is linked by roads, regular
bus service and cycle routes to the town centre. It is near the London Stansted airport for
international links. There is also the M11 motorway link to London for inputs and outputs.

TOURISM AND LEISURE ACTIVITIES

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  Tourism is defined as travel away from home environment for leisure, holiday, to visit
friends and relatives, for business or professional reasons.
 A leisure activity is something done for enjoyment in a person’s free time.

Reasons for the global growth of tourism

Economic

 Rising incomes or higher wages therefore people more money to spend on luxury.
 Development of larger and faster airlines able to transport a large number of tourists
 Reduced airfares due to growth of budget airlines.
 Development of information technology which enable travel and holiday bookings to be fast
and easy eg internet.
 Decreasing costs of holidays.
 Increased marketing of tourist destinations through advertising in magazines, newspapers,
as well as on television.
 Globalisation has increased business travel considerably.

Social

 Increase in the average number of days of paid leave.

 Increasing desire to experience different cultures and landscapes.
 High levels of international migration which means that more people have relatives and
friends living abroad.
 Better health so more older adults and pensioners now have adventurous holidays.

Political

 Many governments have invested heavily to encourage tourism.

 Government backing for major international events such as Olympic Games and the World
Cup.

Factors affecting the growth of tourism

1. Transport and accessibility: availability of efficient transport such as air, water, road
and makes it convenient for tourists to travel and reach their destinations.
2. Scenery: these are natural and man-made attractions. Natural attractions include
sandy beaches, coasts of outstanding beauty, mountains, lakes and rivers. Man-
made attractions include the pyramids of Egypt, Great Zimbabwe monuments.
3. Weather: tourists enjoy hot, dry, sunny summers. They also enjoy snow.
4. Accommodation: hotels, boarding house resorts, holiday camps, caravan parks and
campsites provide accommodation for tourists.
5. Amenities: active amenities include sailing, golf and water skiing. Passive amenities
include shops and cinemas. Other amenities include theatres, museums, music.
6. Ecotourism and sustainability: involve nature reserves and game parks.

Benefits or advantages of tourism

 Tourism brings in valuable foreign currency.
 It creates employment for the local people as tour guides, in hotels and entertainment.

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  By providing employment in rural areas it can help to reduce to reduce rural to urban
migration.
 Provides government with considerable tax revenues which help to pay for education,
health and other things.
 It promotes growth of local craft industries as tourists may want to buy souvenirs.
 Profits can be used to improve local housing, schools, hospitals, electricity and water
supplies.
 tourism helps to create openings for small businesses such as taxi firms, beach facility hire
companies and small cafes.
 It promotes infrastructural development eg roads, airports and hotels.
 It creates markets for local farm produce.
 Promotes cultural enrichment by blending local culture with foreign culture.

Disadvantages of tourism
 Hotels, airports and roads spoil the visual appearance and create noise, air pollution and
litter.
 Most hotels are foreign owned and profits go overseas.
 Most local jobs created are menial, low paid and seasonal. Overseas labour may be brought
in to fill middle and senior management positions.
 Farming economy is damaged as land is sold to developers.
 Local people cannot afford tourist facilities.
 Money borrowed to invest in the necessary infrastructure for tourism increases the national
debt.
 Local culture and traditions are destroyed.
 There is abuse of human rights by large companies and government in a quest to maximise
profits
 Rise of alcoholism and drug abuse as drink and drugs become more available to satisfy the
demands of foreign tourists.
 Crime and prostitution, sometimes involving children-‘sex tourism’ is a big issue in certain
locations eg Bangkok
 There is visitor congestions at key points, hindering the movement of local people.
 The building of hotels means that local people lose their homes, land and traditional means
of livelihood.
 At some destinations tourists spend most of their money in their hotels with minimum
benefit to the wider community.

Explain how international tourism brings foreign currency to countries such as Zimbabwe.
 Tourists use foreign currency to pay for their accommodation in hotels and these hotels in
turn pay tax to the government.
 They also spend foreign currency on buying souvenirs which they want to take back home.
 Tourists buy food and drinks in foreign currency.
 They hire transport from local transport operators for their tours.
 Tourists pay recreation eg boat cruising and bungee jumping.

For a named area you have studied , explain why the tourist industry was developed there. You
should refer to the area’s physical and human attractions. [7]
Case study : Victoria Falls (Zimbabwe)
Physical attractions: The main waterfall is one of the seven wonders of the world. The falls are
locally called ‘Mosi a Tunya’ which means smoke that thunders. Wildlife in the Victoria Falls
National Park attracts tourists, for example the lion, elephant, giraffe and rhino. The rainforest area
has green vegetation and different plant and animal species which attract tourists. The warm, sunny
climate in the area is good for tourists.

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Human attractions: Transport infrastructure has been developed, for example Victoria Falls
international airport and the roads which link Victoria Falls with other cities making the area highly
accessible. Good quality accommodation is provided at hotels such as Kingdom, Zambezi and
Elephant Hills. Traditional dance by local people is also a major attraction to tourists. Tourists also
enjoy the recreational activities such as boat cruising, rafting, skiing and bungee jumping.

Sustainable tourism
 impact of tourism is becoming of increasing concern due to mass tourism.
 The Mass tourism is when a large number of tourists visit the same destination.
 Mass tourism has led to many areas becoming built up, congested and polluted.
 Sustainable tourism is tourism organised in such a way that its level its level can be
maintained in future without creating irreparable environmental, social and economic
damage to the receiving area.
 Ecotourism is an example of sustainable tourism.

Ecotourism (Green tourism)

It is a specialised form of tourism where people where people experience relatively un touched
natural environments such as coral reefs, tropical forests and remote mountain areas and ensure
that their presence does no further damage to these environments. Ecotourism includes:
 visiting places in order to appreciate their scenery and wildlife and to understand their
culture.
 Creating economic opportunities (jobs) in an area while at the same time protecting natural
resources (scenery and wildlife) and the local way of life.
Compared with mass tourists, eco-tourists usually travel in small groups. They are likely to merge
and live with local communities and appreciate local cultures.

Name an area you have studied where tourism is important. Describe what has been done to
conserve the quality of the environment. [7]
Case study: Victoria Falls
The principles of ecotourism are being implemented in Victoria Falls in an effort to protect the
environment. Protected areas have been established, for example, Victoria Falls national park was
set up to conserve wildlife such as lion, rhino, elephant and giraffe. The number of tourists allowed
to visit a particular place at a given time is restricted so as to reduce pollution especially littering.
The Victoria Falls town council has provided plenty of litter bins in parks and rainforest areas. The
government has embarked on awareness campaigns to educate tourists on the importance of
conserving the environment.

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