Chapter 3

Water Supply
Infrastructure
Lesson Outcomes

By the end of this chapter, student should be

able to:
1. Explain water intake structures
2. Explain preliminary treatment units
3. Explain primary treatment units - coagulation
WATER INTAKE
Water Intake
Structure
STRUCTURE
 The major water treatment processes are as
follow:
1. Raw water intake
2. Coagulation & Flocculation
Introduction 3. Sedimentation
4. Filtration
5. Disinfection

CEW 555 WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT INFRASTRUCTURE DESIGN

Classes Of Water Treatment
Class Treatment
A No Treatment Required
B Disinfection Treatment Only
C Normal / Conventional
Treatment
D Special Treatment
Source of water
Clear well, tube well, water source
direct from hill, underground water -
individual usage
Class A but for community usage
Reservoir, rivers, canal, lakes – for
community usage
High contains of algae, organic
material. – treat for industrial usage.
 Recommended Treatment
Treatment Categories Class B Class C Class D

Pre-treatment Aeration 1. Coarse Screen Class C treatments with additional of:

2. Fine Screen 1. Softening
3. Pumping 2. Algae removal
4. Balancing
5. Neutralization
6. Aeration
7. Pre-chemical Treatment

Primary Treatment 1. Coagulation and Same as class C treatments

flocculation
2. Sedimentation
3. Filtration
Disinfection Yes Yes Yes
- - 1. Activated Carbon
Additional Treatment
2. Membrane technology
Fluoridation Yes Yes Yes
Distribution Yes Yes Industry
Introduction
–Treatment
process
Water Intakes Structure
 A device or a structure (tower) that is constructed
at the water source (reservoir, lake, river, canal
etc.)
 Purpose: for drawing water from the source and
conveying it to the water treatment plant
 Important intake elements:
 A sturdy intake structure/tower
 Conduit with screen at inlet end and control
valve to control water flow
 Pump system to withdraw water from source
 The structure is made of reinforced concrete,
brick or other robust material
 Able to resist all forces e.g. hydraulic forces, wave,
wind, debris, flood, geology action.
Water intake site selection

 Ideally :
1. Location – upstream, not curved, easily accessible
2. Quantity – able to withdraw sufficient water
3. Quality – far from pollution sources
4. Economy – near to treatment plant, reduce cost

 Intake consideration = inlet point + (pump for suction and conduit

for water transport)
 protection of inlet and equipment against damages
 avoid coarse sedimentation, floating materials, fish etc.
Screened Pipe Water
Intake
 At the intake point, it is important to install
pipe screening.
 This is to prevent the entrainment of biological
organisms or other submerged debris
 Classified
according to
Submerged or exposed structure
position of
intake:

Classification Classified

Of Intake according to
water in intake
structure:
Wet or dry structure

Structure
classified Canal Intakes
according to
Reservoir/lake Intakes
the surface-
water sources River Intakes

CEW 555 WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT INFRASTRUCTURE DESIGN

Submerged or Exposed
Intake

1. Submerged Intake
 The intake mouth is fully constructed
under water. Less initial construction
cost, but high maintenance cost,
commonly used at lake (or river little
change of water level)

2. Exposed Intake
 A form of a well or tower where the
intake is exposed (can be seen),
common at riverbank or reservoir.
 Easy operation and maintenance
Dry Intake Or Wet
Intake
1. A dry intake tower has only intake pipes. No
water inside the tower and easy for
maintenance work inside the tower.
2. A wet intake tower is filled with water. The
water level inside the tower are at same level
to the source of water. Water inside the
tower is pumped and conveyed through
pipe outside the tower.
Canal Intakes

 When canal is used as water

supply
 Made of brick or concrete
admitting water through an
inlet pipe.
 The tower is constructed inside
the canal bank
River Intake Structures

 A tower may be constructed

inside the river or near the
riverbank.
 Must ensure the inlet point
able to withdraw sufficient
water through the year or
season.
 Small channel may be
constructed, to channel the
flow directly to the tower.
 Weir may be constructed to
increase water level in case of
low water level.
Reservoir Intakes

 Like river intake but are located

near the upstream face of the
dam.
 Usually where maximum depth of
water is available.
Pumping

 Cheaper approach is by using gravity intake where the water is

channel directly through inlet pipe.
 When there are low water pressure or when sufficient head is not
available, a pump may be used.
 It able to deliver water to higher elevations or at higher pressure.
 The operation of lifting water or any fluid is called “pumping”.
 A pump called as “Low lift water pump” is normally used to draw
large quantity of water at for treatment purpose.
Preliminary
Treatment
 Introduction

4 main processes in preliminary

treatments:
1. Screening
2. Pre-chemical treatment
3. Aeration
4. Pre-sedimentation

CEW 555 WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT INFRASTRUCTURE DESIGN

1. Screening

Purpose
 To restrict the entry of large solid (e.g. debris, rags, trees etc.) from
entering the pipe conduit.
 This approach will protect the treatment equipment's (pumps,
conduit, and structure) from damage.

Two type of screens available (depend on size of restriction)

1. Coarse Screen (CS)
2. Fine Screen (FS)
Course screens

 Consists of steel bar racks

vertical or inclined bars setup
 Place at angle of 60 – 80
degree
 Using steel bar size of 25-50
mm arrange at 50 to 100 mm
c/c
 Flow restriction at normal flow
(0.6-1m/s) and high flow (1.2-
1.4 m/s)
 Able to screen garbage, twigs
Fine screens

 Is used to remove particle passed through course screen

 consist a series of steel bars or mesh with an opening about 3 – 10
mm apart.
 Filter floating leaves, smaller water plants

Should be cleaned from time to time either manually or

automatically to function effectively
2. Pre-chemical Treatment

 Purpose
1. To improve effectiveness of subsequent treatment process.
2. To eliminate taste, odor, color
3. To eliminate metal substances
4. To eliminate microorganism, plants and seed

 Chemicals used:
a) Chlorine as Pre-chlorination
b) Activated carbon / activated charcoal
c) Copper (II) sulphate
a) Pre-chlorination

 Used for the water that is low in turbidity, but high in coliform
 Normal dose of 1 mg/L and max at 5 mg/L is used.
 Added in balancing tank prior coagulant tank process
 Improve the performance of coagulation process
 Reduce taste and odour.
 Able to precipitate iron and manganese.
 Reduce nitrogen compound such ammonia
b) Activated carbon / activated
charcoal (AC)
 Common charcoal is made from coal or wood by normal burning
process. Then “activated charcoal" can further be made by heating
(600-900) common charcoal in the presence of a gas e.g (CO2). This
process causes the charcoal to develop lots of internal spaces or
"pores“ able function and served as adsorbent area.
 1g of AC = 500 m2 surface area

 Used for the water – having persistent foul odour and algae problem
 Used in form of powder or granular
 Used to remove photosynthetic algae
 Improvement of colour and odour
 Able to remove selective organic compound
 Normal dosage 3 to 20 mg/l
c) Copper(II) Sulphate (CuSO4)

 Can be used to control the growth of algae and other aquatic

plant treatment.
 The dosage of CuSO4 depend on the water quality, temperature
and alkalinity
 Dosage used in between 0.12 mg/L to 0.3 mg/L.
3. Aeration

 Aeration initially used for groundwater and less common for surface water
(expose to O2)
 Nowadays it is used for:
1. To release excess H2S gas which may cause undesirable tastes and odor
(rotten eggs)
2. Remove other constituents such as:
1. Volatile organic chemicals, such as benzene (found in gasoline), or
trichloroethylene, dichloroethylene, and perchloroethylene (used in
dry-cleaning or industrial processes)
2. Ammonia, Chlorine, Carbon dioxide, Methane, Iron and Manganese
3. Increase oxygen to improve taste and odour due to photosynthetic algae
(fishy smell)
How Aeration Is Done?

 Oxygen is added into water by two ways:

1. Water-Into-Air Aerators
 Cone Aerators (fig)
 Cascade Aerators (fig)
 Slat and Coke Aerators
 Draft Aerators
 Spray Aerators
 Tray tower
 Principle of this method is to exposed the water
into the air (O2)
How Aeration Is Done?

 Oxygen is added into water by two ways:

1. Air-Into-Water Aerators
 Pressure Aerators
 Centrifugal Aerators
 Diffuser (Fig)
 Venturi (Fig)
4. Pre-sedimentation

 Is necessary when water

contains very high solids
(turbid), and/or organics
especially during raining
season/spring season.
 The solid contain is considered
high if its concentration more
than 1000 mg/L
 The tank need to retain water
between 30-60 minutes or
more.
Primary
Treatment
COAGULATION AND RAPID MIXING
Introduction

4 main processes in primary treatments:

1. Coagulation & rapid mixing
2. Flocculation
3. Sedimentation
4. Filtration
Coagulation & Rapid Mixing

1. Definition And Types Of Coagulant

2. Mechanisms For Coagulation
3. Factors Affecting Coagulation Effectiveness
Coagulation

 What is coagulation?
 In water treatment, coagulation is a process of adding chemical in
coagulation tank known as coagulant, having a contra charge with
the colloidal particle.
 The colloidal particle is negative charge in nature and scattered in
water contributing what is known as total suspended solids
indicated as turbidity level, measured in NTU unit.
 Common coagulants are aluminum sulphate, ferric sulphate, ferric
chloride, ionic electrolyte and other polymers.
 The coagulants work as the destabilizing agent, either to carry
positive charge to neutralize the colloidal charge, weakening the
repulsive protective charge, or to function as trapping agent.
Colloid

 Colloid in nature carries

negative charge. They are
collectively
thermodynamically stable
(scatter and suspended
freely), repellant to each
other and not easy to settle
down by gravity due to
lightness in weight.
 Thermodynamically stable
means that the particles will
be remained suspended in
the water indefinitely if
nothing is changed.
Thermodynamically Stable

 The cause of the stability is static electricity. Balance forces between

repulsive forces and attractive force (van der Waals)
 Particles in natural waters are coated with macromolecules called
‘natural organic matter,’ which are produced by the decomposition of
organic matter such as leaves, living organisms, aquatic plants, etc.
 Natural organic matter has functional groups that at neutral pH’s are
negatively charged, giving the overall charge of the colloidal surface.
 Because all the particles are negatively charge, they are repelled by
one another so that the particles cannot collide and stick together to
form larger particles.
 Therefore, the goal of coagulation, is to destroy the stability, allow them
to collide and stick together and force them become larger particles.
(known as floc)
Mechanisms For Coagulation

 There are four main mechanisms for coagulation:

1. Double layer compression (ionic layer compression)
2. Adsorption and charge neutralization
3. Sweep flocculation (entrapment in a flocculent mass)
4. Inter-particle bridging. (adsorption and interparticle bridging)
Colloidal particle

 Particle in nature posses electronegative

charge
 Is covered by repulsive forces result from
Electrical Double Layer
 Electrical Double Layer consist of Fixed
Layer & Diffused Layer
 Fixed Layer is a layer formed due
attraction of opposite charge to its
surface
 Diffused Layer is a layer formed outside
the fixed layer with weak electrical
charge
1. Double layer compression

 This can be accomplished by addition of an “indifferent electrolyte”

(charged ions with no purpose to the attraction of colloid surface).
 Adding indifferent electrolyte increases the ionic strength of solution
which has the effect of compressing the Double Layer. (thin)
 As double layer become thin, weaken the repulsion forces and
becomes easier to negate by van der Waals forces (attraction).
 the thickness of diffuse layer is reduced, van der Waals force becomes
predominant, thus net force becomes attractive
 Real phenomenon:
Mixing of rivers (low in ionic strength) with sea water (high in ionic
strength) causes the particles in river to be destabilized by double layer
compression, coagulation and settling of particles will occur (Deltas
are formed)
2. Adsorption And Charge
Neutralization
 Some chemical capable of being adsorbed at the surface of
colloidal
 If the chemical carries a charge opposite to that of colloid, it
reduces the colloid surface area and destabilization of colloidal
occurred.
 The concentration of chemical is proportionate with the colloidal
particles.
 Reverse charge might occur if overdose of chemical is used.
3. Sweep flocculation (entrapment
in a flocculent mass)
 Sweep flocculation is the primary mechanism used for drinking water
treatment. Safe, effective & efficient.
 This approach does not base on neutralization of surface charge
 Common coagulant based on iron or aluminum are easily dissolve into
the water.
 Main mechanism is and particle entrapment
 When chemicals are added in water at optimum concentration, they
will begin to precipitate in the form of metal hydroxide, e.g. Fe(OH)3 or
Al(OH)3
 The formation when precipitate activates the “sweep” or “entrapped”
action with its fluffy and sticky layer.
3. Sweep flocculation (entrapment
in a flocculent mass)
 inverse relationship between the coagulant dosage and the
concentrations of colloids.
 low concentrations
large excess of coagulant is required to produce a large amount of
precipitate
 high concentrations
Lower chemical dosage because the colloids will serve as nuclei to
enhance precipitate formation
4. Inter-particle Bridging

 Using natural organic polymers (e.g., starch, cellulose) or synthetic

polymers, that having long, repeating chains of molecules.
 The polymer may have characteristic as adsorber, charge
neutralizer or having same or different charge with colloidal.
 The “tail” of the polymer in water will attach on colloidal particle to
form a chemical bridge along with other colloidal.
 This bridging action function as binding agent of the colloidal
particle.
Rapid Mixing

 Among the most important factor in coagulation is circulation,

spreading and mixing of coagulant and particle in water.
 To disperse chemicals uniformly throughout the mixing basin
 This provide adequate contact between the coagulant and particles
 To get the proper or uniform mixing, the coagulant must be injected at
specific location having turbulent water condition. Those condition
occurs at:
1. The suction side of pumps
2. At the mixing chamber entrance (fig)
3. At the weir location
4. Upstream part of hydraulic jump (fig)
Injection Locations
Optimum Dosage

 Another most important factor is mass of coagulant to be injected

for per unit volume of water to be treated, commonly called as
dosage. Express in term of mg/L.
 Optimum dosage is important to balance the input coagulant to
match the level of colloidal in water. Expressed as effectiveness of
coagulant to remove turbidity. Must not too much or too less.
 The optimum dosage is obtained by conducting Jar Test
experiment.
 It is common practice/routine, for every phase or shift of treatment,
jar test experiment is to be conducted everyday.
Dosing Strategies

 Optimum dosage is important to balance the input coagulant

dosage to match the level of colloid in water.
 Effect of dosing can be classified into zone as follow:
1. Zone 1: Low dosage indicated as insufficient coagulant added to
produce destabilization. No or less destabilization occur.
2. Zone 2: Dosage sufficient to cause efficient and rapid
destabilization
3. Zone 3: Dosage high enough to cause re-stabilization (charge
reversal)
4. Zone 4: Dosage high enough to get full sweep floc which results in
good and the best destabilization ➔ optimum dosage
Jar Test Experiment
 A laboratory procedure that simulates
coagulation/flocculation with differing
chemical doses.
 Samples of water to be treated are placed
in six jars.
 The optimum values obtained from the test
can be either optimum dosage or optimum
pH. Constant either parameter.
 The test is conducted by varying dosage of
coagulant (or pH) into each jar, then they
are stirred by different mixing speed, and
letting the floc to settle at the end of the
experiment.
 The turbidity data from each jar is obtained
and data is plotted.
 The lowest dosage of coagulant that
provides minimum turbidity is used as the
dose of the day.
Factors Affecting Coagulation
Effectiveness
 Key factors that affect coagulation effectiveness are ‘interacting’ and
complicated :
1. Type of coagulant that come with different charge densities,
characteristic, purpose and function.
2. Appropriate dosage of coagulant
3. Characteristics of water in term of type and quantity of colloidal,
dissolved substances, temperature, and pH. e.g.:
 High NTU water are easier to coagulate than low NTU waters
 Dissolved gases can interfere with charge neutralization.
 Water temperature affect the solubility of coagulant or electrolyte
 Changing the pH of the water changes the colloidal surface charge
4. Mixing speed and mixing methods.
Exercise 1

A water treatment plant treats raw water at the rate of 40000 L/hr in a
day. The optimum coagulant dosage used is 15 mg/L. Estimate the
weight of coagulant required for a daily, weekly and monthly usages.
 Finally, Tired,
Any
the end is sleepy?
Question?
real… Normal…