Session 05 - Bridge Loading - Applications Part 2

Bridge Design Series Session 04:
Bridge Loading and Applications (Part 2)

Sensitivity: General
Bridge Design Series – Short Biography

Rohitha Silva, Technical Director, Transport & Infrastructure,
NSW, Beca Pty Ltd [Master of Engineering in Structural Engineering]
Rohitha is a Civil and Structural Engineer with over 25 years of experience in design and construction.
During this time, he has been involved in the design and construction of over 80 major projects in both
Australia and Thailand. Rohitha graduated from University of Moratuwa 1991, obtained his MEng from
AIT in 1994.
He worked with SMEC, Sydney Office from 2008 to 2020 as a Principal Bridge Designer and from 1994 to
2008 at Unique Engineering and Construction Public Co., Ltd, a company which carried out design and
construction projects based in Bangkok, Thailand and managed the Design and Technical Division.
Rohitha has been involved in detailed design, design deliveries, design verifications, design management,
construction activities, durability and risk management etc in buildings, bridges, tunnels, rail
infrastructure, underpasses, industrial plants, airports, and ports etc. Rohitha has extensive experiences
in design construction/fabrication of major steel structures including bridges, buildings, and temporary
works.
For more than four and half years, Rohitha worked in design and construction of 9km long NorthConnex
(NCX) Twin Tunnels in Sydney, Structures Team Leader on the Banora Point Upgrade Alliance Project in
the Pacific Highway Upgrade, Verifier on the South West Rail Link, and Viaduct Proof Engineer on the
North West Rail Link project. He has specialised in 3D Finite Modelling in fire design of major structures
in NCX tunnels.
Rohitha delivered many public lectures in Colombo, Sri Lanka and Bangkok, Thailand. He is a guest
lecturer at Western Sydney University, Sydney since 2010. Guest lecturer at University of New South
Wales, Canberra Campus. He co-authored technical papers, he was a reviewer for ASTM Journal for the
Testing and Evaluation. He was a technical reviewer of engineering conferences. Rohitha has been
actively involved in promoting engineering and became the 10th Chairperson of IESL NSW Chapter,
Australia.
Disclaimer
This disclaimer informs audience that the views, thoughts, and opinions expressed in the
presentation belong solely to the presenter, and not necessarily to the presenter’s past or
present employers, or any organizations, or any individuals. The information in this
presentation document should not be be used for comparison, evaluation of other works
and against any individuals or organisations. This document should be used only for
educational purposes not for any commercial purposes. The sole intent of this presentation
is to share presenter’s engineering experiences with future generation of engineers and use
them for the betterment of engineering and wellbeing of society.
Presenter’s Thought
If knowledge of bridge engineering is like a country, what you are going to see in this
presentation series is like exploring a small place in a village. Therefore, it is your
responsibility to explore the country (the knowledge) to further enhance your enthusiasm
to understand the beauty of the country (passion to learn bridge engineering) and to be a
confident explorer (a bridge engineer).
Presentation Format
❑ Session 01- Introductory Session – Key Elements (YouTube Streaming is Available)
❑ Session 02 – Bridge Elements and their Performances (YouTube Streaming is Available)
❑ Session 03 – Bridge Design Principles (YouTube Streaming is Available)
❑ Session 04 – Bridge Loading and Applications (Part 1) (YouTube Streaming is Available)
❑ Session 05 – Bridge Articulations and Applications (Part 2)
❑ Session 06 – Bridge Modelling and Application
❑ Session 07 – Bridge Designs
❑ Session 08 – Bridge Designs Contd.
❑ Session 09 – Bridge Drawings
❑ Session 10 – Reporting and Specifications
❑ Session 11 – SiD, Value Engineering, Constructability, IV, PE etc
❑ Session 12 – Summary and Discussion Session
❑ Session 13 – Introduction to Tunnel Designs
❑ Session 14 – Introduction to Fire Design
❑ Session 15 – Introduction to Rail Bridges
Session 05 - Overview
❑ Session 04 - Summary
❑ Bridge Loading and Applications (Part I)
❑ Bridge Loads
❖ Permanent, Transient, Thermal, Construction
❑ Dead Load and Superimposed Dead Loads
❑ Traffic Loads on Bridge
❖ Traffic load interaction with bridge
❑ Traffic Load Models
❖ Traffic load models in Design Standards and Applications
❑ Braking Loads and Centrifugal Force
❖ How to evaluate and interaction with Bridge
❑ Earth Pressure from Traffic Loads
❖ How to evaluate and interaction with bridge
❑ Thermal Effects
❖ How to evaluate and application
❑ Minimum Restraint Loading

❖ Why do we need and how to design
❑ Creep and Shrinkage
❖ How to evaluate and application
Session 05 - Overview
❑ Earthquake Effects
❖ How to include them in bridge design
❑ Wind Loads
❑ Flood Loading (Session 03)
❑ Differential Movement of Supports
❖ How to include them in bridge design
❑ Barrier Loading (Session 02)
❑ Performance level, risk assessment
❑ Collision Loadings (Session 03)
❖ Road traffic, Train, Over height structures, Waterway Traffic
❑ Load Combination
❖ Understanding and How to identify them, applications (Design Standards)
❑ Question and Answer Session
Minimum Restraint Loading
• Why do we need them

❖ Bridges are subjected to lateral loading
❖ Wind, Earthquake, Flood, Centrifugal forces, Collision, Braking,
Excessive Settlement (tilt), Skew Bridges (Cr/Sh, Thermal..) etc.
❖ Prevent superstructure – dislodged, excessive bearing deformation
❖ Positive lateral restraint between bridge superstructure and
substructure
Flood
Impact on Barrier Earthquake Collision
Qtrk
Qtk (CF)
• Loading
Vertical axis
❖ Evaluate from analysis
❖ Minimum loading specified in design standards
Longitudinal axis
Qlk (BF)
(Traffic Direction)
Minimum Restraint Loading
• Loading – Australian Standards

❖ 500 kN or 5% of Superstructure Dead Load (ULS)
❖ Evaluate from structural analysis
❖ 200 kN or 5% of Superstructure Dead Load for Pedestrian Bridges
• How to restraint
❖ Provide a physical restraint – concrete block, steel box, dowels
❖ Bearings (guided or fixed) or restraint devices
❖ Typically each bridge span
❖ For continuous span bridges – not required
Gap`10mm
Lateral Restraint Block Plan

Elevation
Creep & Shrinkage

• Shrinkage of concrete: Time dependent deformation of concrete caused by drying and
chemical changes (hydration process, shrink concrete volume)
• Creep of concrete: Time dependent deformation of concrete under sustained load

(Increase strain under constant stress)
❖ Creep strain~(2 to 4)* instantaneous strain 𝜎0
❖ Composition of the material, curing 𝜀 𝑐𝑐 = 𝜑 𝑐𝑐 ൗ𝐸
❖ Humidity water-cement ration, and temperature 𝑐
❖ Size of element considered 𝜑𝑐𝑐 - Design creep coefficient at time (t)
❖ Age of concrete when stresses is applied
❖ Period of sustained stress,
How to evaluate them?

❖ Use empirical methods in
Residual creep
design standards
❖ Only a estimation
Open to traffic
Construction Period How to use them?

❖ Simple methods
❖ Use time dependent analysis
Creep Shrinkage
Why is it so important?
❖ Caused member contractions
❖ Effect material properties (reduction in strength)
❖ Induced additional stresses and complex
❖ Effect on bridge behaviour, performance and articulation etc
❖ Member lengths are significantly large
❖ Main members are heavy
❖ Construction is time dependent (construction staging)
❖ Construction made of different materials (steel/concrete, concrete with different
strengths, properties)
❖ Member dimensions, exposure environment (tropical, temperate, arid)
❖ Members are prestressed of post-tensioned (strength)
Creep & Shrinkage – Hypothetical Thickness
Deck surfacing - Asphalt

Ag
𝑢𝑒 = 𝑢𝑒1 +0.5𝑢𝑒2
Exposed perimeter of
member 𝑢𝑒1
Ag 𝑢𝑒2
exposed perimeter of a member
𝑢𝑒 cross-section plus half the perimeter
of any closed voids contained
therein, used to calculate th
Hypothetical Thickness
𝑡ℎ = 2Ag/𝑢𝑒 Ag
hypothetical thickness of
a member used in 𝑢𝑒2 𝑢𝑒3
determining creep and
shrinkage, taken as
𝑢𝑒1
2Ag/ue (mm)
𝑢𝑒 = 𝑢𝑒1 +0.5𝑢𝑒2 + 0.5𝑢𝑒3

Creep & Shrinkage
Autogenous Drying shrinkage

Shrinkage Shrinkage
(chemical Process)
+ (contracting of hardened concrete,
due to the loss of capillary water).
Design shrinkage strain of concrete (εcs)
Chemical (autogenous) shrinkage strain (ε )cse
Drying shrinkage strain (ε )

csd
ε=ε +ε
cs cse csd
Creep & Shrinkage
Days Autogenous Drying Total Shrinkage

1d 1 7 16 22 • Autogenous
2w 14 53 100 153 • Drying
1m 30 67 150 216 • fc’= 40 MPa
2m 60 70 201 271 • th = 150
3m 90 70 230 300
4m 120 70 264 334 Basic drying shrinkage
5m 150 70 275 345 Sydney – 800x10-6
6m 180 70 275 345 k4 = 0.5 (for tropical and
near-costal environment
1y 365 70 310 379
2y 730 70 333 403 Modified drying shrinkage
3y 1095 70 343 413 Sydney = 0.5*0.68
4y 1460 70 349 419 800x10-6 = 272x10-6
5y 1825 70 352 422
6y 2190 70 355 425
7y 2555 70 357 427
8y 2920 70 358 428
30y 10950 70 367 437
Creep & Shrinkage
Design creep coefficient φcc
k4 = 0.5 (for tropical and near-costal environment

Creep & Shrinkage
Days jcc Creep

28 0.800 • fc’= 40 MPa
2m 60 1.109 • th = 150mm
3m 90 1.271 Basic creep coefficient – 2.8
4m 120 1.379 k4 = 0.5 (for tropical and
5m 150 1.457 near-costal environment
6m 180 1.517 Structure loaded after 28 day
k3 = 1.103
1y 365 1.710 k5 = 1.000
2y 730 1.841
3y 1095 1.895
4y 1460 1.925
5y 1825 1.945
6y 2190 1.959
7y 2555 1.970
8y 2920 1.978
30y 10950 2.026
Bridges Affected by Earthquake

Earthquake Critical Bridges
Total Height (24+14) 40m

Length more than 300m
Total Height~(55+70) ~125m,
Length more than 390m
Earthquake Occurrence Map
Earthquakes@GA
Earthquake Design
Performance requirement Feqv

of the bridge Feql
Vertical axis
Behaviour of structure,
ductility, substructure,
foundation material etc Transverse Direction
Earthquake Feqt
Design
Response of structure to
EQ Loading
𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
Limitations Analysis, Design &
Detailing
𝒎𝒙ሷ + 𝒄𝒙ሶ + 𝒌𝒙 = 𝑭(𝒕ሻ

Few seconds Time
Earthquake Design
Seismic hazard maps Importance Level and

developed of 1:500 year Probability Factor Kp
return period
Annual Probability of (magnification factor)
Exceedance
Design Seismic Hazard
Performance requirement Factor (Z) – ground
– Bridge Earthquake acceleration, location of
Design Category bridge
Factors effecting bridge Site Sub-Soil Class,

articulation (ductility), foundation Substructure - Ground
types and subsoil condition
Profile
Earthquake
Design
Ductility of structure
Method of Analysis
Design & Detailing Horizontal Seismic
response
Earthquake Performance Requirements – Bridge Earthquake

Design Category
BEDC-4: Bridges and associated structures that BEDC-3: Bridges that are designed
are essential to post-earthquake recovery, as to carry high volumes of road, rail
specified by the relevant authority, and major or pedestrian traffic, or bridges over
bridges whose operation is essential to other high traffic volume roadways,
economic viability at state or national levels. railways or buildings
BEDC-1: Minor single span bridges

BEDC-2: Minor bridges of two or more
carrying infrequent traffic, and not
spans, and not covered by BEDC-3 or
covered by BEDC-2, 3, or 4
BEDC-4.
Annual Probability of Exceedance
Limitations in the Code
• Conventional bridges Bridge Annual of Probability of
Earthquake Exceedance (P)
• Span < 100m
Design
• Skew angle < 35 degree
Category
• Maximum pier height < 30m
4 1/2000
• Design effect – ULS
3 1/1000
• Overall stability and horizontal movement
2 1/500
1 Not Applicable
Earthquake – Design Seismic Hazard Factor (Z), Probability Factor kp
Probability Factor kp
P kp
1/2500 1.80
1/2000 1.70
1/1500 1.50
1/1000 1.30
1/800 1.25
1/500 1.00
1/250 0.75
1/200 0.70
1/100 0.50
1/50 0.35
Z(Sydney)=0.08) 1/25 0.25
1/20 0.20
Seismic hazard maps
developed of 1:500 year
return period
Earthquake Load – Site Sub-Soil Class
Site subsoil class

The site subsoil class shall be determined in
accordance with AS 1170.4—2007. For
bridges with pile-supported foundations, the
site subsoil class shall be based on the
upper layers of the soil profile
Class Ae – Strong Rock Soil Profile: Slay and Sand
Class Be – Rock
Class Ce – Shallow Soil
Class De – Deep or soft soil
Class Ee – Very soft soil
Geotechnical Information: Geotechnical

Factual Report and Geotechnical
Interpretive and Design Report
Soil Profile: Rock
Earthquake Load – Site Sub-Soil Class - Definitions

Earthquake Load – Site Sub-Soil Class - Definitions

Earthquake Load – Site Sub-Soil Class – Borehole Information
Strong Rock - Basalt
Weak Rock - Sandstone
Soil at a depth 43-52m

Earthquake Load – Design Ductility Factor ( ) m
Continuous Span Bridges Bridge on Pot Bearings
Bridge on Elastomeric Bearing

m
Earthquake Load – Design Ductility Factor ( )
BEDC-3 BEDC-4
Earthquake Load – Acceleration Spectral Shape Factor



Earthquake Load – Earthquake Response
Seismic acceleration for elastic horizontal earthquake response
Seismic acceleration for ductile horizontal earthquake response
ULS, Kp=1.7, Z=0.09,

m = 1.5
Bridge frame horizontal earthquake force Kp*Z/m=0.102
Vertical response = (2/3) of horizontal earthquake force AS

5100.2 Clause 15.9.3
Earthquake forces determine from static analysis

Earthquake forces determine from dynamic analysis

Wind Load
Wind load – Environmental loads
• More critical in long span bridges
• Bridges open site
• Depends on bridge superstructure and substructure
(cable-stayed bridge, suspension bridges, arch bridges)
• Wind velocity
• Angle of attack
• The bridge members size and shapes
• Terrain, gust characteristic Wind
Tunnel
Average return interval
Test
For ULS – 2000 years, SLS – 20 years
Ex: Basic Wind Speed: Vuls 48m/s, Vsls – 37 m/s
Basic Wind Design Wind Design Wind

Speed Speed Pressure
WV Drag coefficient,
WL
Vertical axis
Aerodynamic
Aerodynamic Shape Factors
Design Force
Effect
Transverse
Direction
Wt
Wind Load
Wt = 0.6Vu2AtCd (Transverse and Longitudinal), units (N) WV

Cd - Dragged Coefficient; function of (b/d) WL
Vertical axis
WV = 0.6Vu2ApCL
CL - Lift Coefficient (0.75) Transverse Direction
Wt
Transverse Wind Longitudinal Wind Uplift Wind
Cd = b/d; At = d*L Cl = L/d; AL = d*b CL = L/d; Ap = L*b
b
d
Drag coefficient for all

superstructures with solid elevation
Flood Loading - Consequences
Bridge Damage – Pier tilted due to

flood load
Scouring
Bridge Collapse – Abutment Failure
Flood forces
Flood Loading - Scour
Braking
Scouring after flood
Exposed Piles- Reduced

Bridge may not Pile Capacity (lateral)
Ground Level
after Scour serviceable until
repair finished
In Major Routes Bridge may

Bridge should be need to replace
serviceable with
scour
Flood Loading - Criteria
Waterway and flood

• Flood immunity for road structures ARI See Table (average recurrence interval, ARI is the
average time period between floods of a certain size)
• Flood immunity for Rail bridges SLS – 100 year ARI
• Pedestrian and cycle path bridge SLS – 10 to 50 years ARI
• Bridge soffit level above flood immunity level or as specified the authority (50 years ARI)
• Road, rail and bridge system shall sustain the SLS flood event
• Bridge shall not collapse under any flood up to ULS (2000 year ARI)
• The afflux limit as specified by the relevant authority (0~300mm)
• Hydraulic capacity – 2000 year ARI flood without catastrophic failure
• Abutment to protect scour for flood up to SLS
Flood Immunity & SLS ARI for Road Structures
Elements Road Classification Flood immunity SLS
Motorways and Freeways 100 years 100 years
Cross-drainage Highways and Urban Roads 50–100 years 50–100 years
(Culverts & Bridges) Main Roads 50 years 50 years
Other Roads 10–50 years 20–50 years
ULS Flood: 2000-year ARI

SLS Flood: 100-year ARI
Flood Loading - Criteria
Forces due to flood

• Hydrodynamic forces without debris
• Forces due to debris mat
• Forces due to log impact
• Shipping containers and vehicles
Piers and abutments should be designed to
• Avoid trapping debris
• Remain stable after effect of scour
Flood data used in the design (Flood Analysis)
• Flood Velocity 100 Yr ARI - 2.3m/s
• Flood Velocity 2000 Yr ARI - 3.8m/s
• Design Scour Depth - 4.6 m (100 Yr ARI)
• Design Scour Depth - 6.4 m (2000 Yr ARI)
• Flood Level 100 Yr ARI - 10.8m
• Flood Level 2000 Yr ARI - 12.7m
• Depth of Debris Mat - 1.20m
Flood Loading - Drag Forces on Piers
Drag forces on piers

• Fd = 0.5 CdV2Ad
Cd = drag coefficient,
depending on pier shape
Ad = wetted area of the pier Cd 0.8 1.4 0.7

normal to the water flow Fd
Fd
Ad = Area of (Column + Footing + Piles)
Column = h*w
Footing = h1*w1
Piles = (h2*d)*(No of Pile) w Ad Flood level –
h
d – diameter of pile ULS or SLS
For accurate analysis – Flood velocity h1 w1

profile along the depth (footing in a river) Scour
h2
Flood Loading - Side Forces on Piers
Side forces on piers

• FL = 0.5 CsV2AL FL
Cs = side force coefficient
FL
Cs = 0.9 for θw <=30°
= 1.0 for θw > 30°
AL = wetted area of the pier, equal to the

width of the pier parallel to the direction of
the water flow multiplied by the height of
the water flow
Ad = Area of (Column + Footing + Piles)

Column = h*w2 AL h w2
Flood level –
Footing = h1*w3 ULS or SLS
Piles = (h2*d)*(No of Pile)
h1 w3
Scour
h2
Flood Loading - Superstructure
Drag force (Fd)

• Fd = 0.5 CdV2As Flood level
dsp = dss dwgs
Lift force (FL)
• FL = 0.5 CLV2AL Fd
Moment (Mg)
• Mg = 0.5 CmV2Asdsp Mg
Coefficients are function of
Submergence (Sr), Proximity ratio (Pr)
(+ve) (-ve)
FL(upward) + F FL(downward) + FL(Mg)
ygs L(Mg)
Water flow
Bed level
Flood Loading - Superstructure – Definition of Parameters
Submergence (Sr)
Proximity ratio (Pr)
Flood Loading - Superstructure – Drag Coefficient (Cd)
Partially Submerged Fully Submerged

Flood Loading - Superstructure – Lift Coefficient (CL)

Flood Loading - Superstructure – Moment Coefficient (Cm)

Flood Loading - Superstructure - Description
A superstructure that is partially or fully submerged in a flood is subjected to—

(a) a drag force normal to its longitudinal axis;
(b) a vertical lift force (positive upwards); and
(c) a moment about the girder soffit level (clockwise positive with the water flow from
left to right)
Drag force (Fd) on superstructures
• Fd = 0.5 CdV2As
Cd = drag coefficient
= function of submergence (Sr) and the proximity ratio (Pr)
As = net wetted area of the superstructure, including any railings or barriers, projected on a
plane normal to the water flow
dwgs = vertical distance from the girder soffit to the flood water surface upstream of
the bridge
dsp = wetted depth of the superstructure (including any railings or barriers)
projected on a plane normal to the water flow
ygs = average vertical distance from the girder soffit to the bed assuming no scour
at the span under consideration
dss = wetted depth of the solid superstructure (excluding any railings but including
solid barriers) projected on a plane normal to the water flow
Flood Loading - Superstructure - Description

CL = lift coefficient
AL = plan deck area of the superstructure
The value of CL shall be obtained from Figure 16.5.3. An upward and downward lift force
shall be calculated at each Sr.
The upward and downward lift force shall be combined with the moment to determine the maximum
uplift forces and downward forces acting on various elements of the bridge.
The drag and lift forces generate a moment about the longitudinal axis of the superstructure. The
design superstructure moment due to water flow (Mg) at the soffit level at the centreline of the
superstructure
The loads on a superstructure with a positive superelevation (upstream face raised) of up to
4% shall be calculated in accordance with Clauses 16.5.2 to 16.5.4. The loads on a
superstructure with a negative superelevation of up to 4% shall be calculated in accordance
with Clauses 16.5.2 to 16.5.4, but with the following adjustments to the coefficients:
(a) The value of Cd shall be increased by 5%.
(b) The magnitude of CL shall be increased by 20%.
(c) The value of Cm shall be the same as for a level superstructure.
If the superelevation is greater than 4%, the upward lift force shall be calculated as for wall
type piers in accordance with Clause 16.4.2, except that AL shall be taken as the plan deck
area and shall be taken as 0.9. For superelevation outside this range, study of specialist literature or
physical model testing shall be undertaken.
Flood Loading - Debris
Debris Load (Fd)

• Fd = 0.5 CdV2Adeb
• Adeb = projected area of debris = L*h

• L(max) = 20m or Average Span length Water Flow
• 1.2m< h <3.0m
Superstructure
A debris load acting on superstructures shall Pier
be considered for bridges where the flood
level is above a level of 600 mm below the
soffit level. The length of the debris mat shall
be the projected length of the superstructure.
Debris Mat
The debris load shall be applied at mid-height Elevation
of the submerged superstructure, including
any railing or barriers, where appropriate h
L
Flood Loading – Debris – Drag Coefficient
Superstructure
Pier
Debris load acting on piers shall be considered

for bridges where the flood level is below the
superstructure. The length of a debris mat shall
be taken as one-half the sum of the
adjacent spans or 20 m, whichever is the lesser.
The debris load shall be applied at mid-height
of the debris mat, assuming the top of the
debris mat is at the flood level
Flood Load on Superstructure – Log Impact
Where floating logs are possible, the ultimate and serviceability design forces exerted
by such logs directly hitting piers or superstructure shall be calculated on the
assumptions that a log with a minimum mass of 2 t will be stopped within a distance of
300 mm for timber piers, 150 mm for hollow concrete piers, and 75 mm for solid
concrete piers. If fender piles or sheathing, to absorb the energy of the blow, are placed
upstream from the pier, the stopping distance shall be increased. The design forces shall
be calculated using the water flow velocity at the surface of water flow at the flood
level relevant for the SLS, or for ULS, as appropriate
Log Impact Force (Flog)
• Flog = V2/S (kN)
In urban areas, the effects of impact and buoyancy from large floating items such as
pontoons, pleasure craft, shipping containers, and the like, shall be considered. The type and
size of large items considered shall be subject to approval of the relevant authority. The
forces due to log impact or large item impact shall not be applied concurrently
Differential Settlements
Reasons
• Variation in ground profile
• Loading on piles vary
• Behaviour of ground over the years
• Subsidence effect
Effect
• Additional forces (continuous span)
• Articulation
• Performance of bridge
Solutions
• Include predetermined differential D
settlement (20mm)
• 3D model with soil-structure interaction D = Differential
• Behaviour of ground over the years settlement
• Subsidence effect
Differential Settlements
3D Bridge Model with Soil-Structure Interaction

Bridge Barriers
Why do need Barriers

Contain traffic, Provide Safe
Driving Environment
Rigidly Connected To Bridge

Deck: Sufficient strength to transfer Different Barrier Types:
Performance requirement is Ok,
forces
But functionality requirement
Should design with sufficient

Strength: Select right type of barrier
and design
Bridge Barriers – Selection
What approach is used to select barriers

Wire rope
• Risk based approach
What parameters are used to select barriers:
• Traffic, AADT (Average annual daily traffic),
• Road Type (one way, two-way undivided, two-way divided)
(RT),
• Road gradient (up hill, down hill) (GD),
• Road Curvature (CU),
• Deck heigh and under-structure conditions (US), Concrete/
❖ High occupancy land use (major road over roads, railways, Concrete
houses, factories etc)
Railing
❖ Medium occupancy land use (roads AADT < 10000 vpdpl, walking
tracks less people, country rai lines)
❖ Low occupancy land (over open fields)
• Shoulder width,
• Vehicle speed,
• % of heavy vehicle
How do barriers categorised
• Barrier Performance Level
What are type of performance level
• Low, Regular, Medium, Special
Bridge Barriers – Selection Charts
(RT)
(GD)
(US)
(CU)
Bridge Barriers – Selection – Commercial Vehicle

Bridge Barriers – Selection of Barrier Performance Level
Performance Level
• AADT,
• % of commercial
• Shoulder or offset
Design Speed (threshold) – 100 km/h

Bridge Barriers – Design Forces

Collision Protection - Consequences

Collision Protection - Consequences
Low Clearance
Ship Impact
Collision Protection - Design
Road Traffic
• Relevant authority specified minimum clearance
• 2700 kN, 1.2m above ground level
Rail Traffic
• Avoid collapse of structure over rail impact due to derail train
• Reduce the probability of injury to occupants
• Design options
• To prevent or limit derailment
• So far as is reasonably practicable (SFAIRP) avoid potential collision
• Likely impact scenarios
• SiD issues
• Protection of supports for structures over rail
• Provide protection structures (barriers, deflection walls)
• Deflection walls 3.6m above rail level, face of pier less than 4m from track centre-line
• Deflection walls 2.0 m above rail level, face of pier greater than 4m from track centre-line
• Min thickness of deflection wall – 800mm, Min length of deflection wall – 4m, Extend
2.0m beyond column face, Extend 1.2m above ground level
• Collision loads examples – 4000 kN parallel to track, 1500 kN normal to track
Pedestrian and Cyclist Path Barrier, Protection Screen
Collision Protection - Waterway Traffic
Unless a more advanced method of analysis is adopted, or unless otherwise specified by

the relevant authority, the ultimate equivalent static vessel impact force shall be
determined in accordance with AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.
PS = 1.2x105 V√DWT
Where PS = Equivalent static vessel impact force N
Design Vessel Design Vessel Nominal Vessel

River
Mass Velocity Impact Load
River A 65 tonnes 5.2m/s 5030kN
River B 4 tonnes 7.8m/s 1900kN
Vertical Clearance – 8.0m, Horizontal Clearance – 35m

Vertical Clearance for Ships – 54m (IRR),
Weight of Cargo Ship – 40,000 MT, Speed – 20 knots ~ 10 m/s, Impact – 120,000 kN
Collision Protection - Waterway Traffic
Eurocode 1-Actions on structures (Part 1-7: General actions — Accidental actions)

Indicative equivalent static design forces due to vehicular impact on
members supporting structures over or adjacent to roadways
Collision force on supporting

substructures near traffic lanes for
bridges and supporting structures for
buildings
Load Combinations
SLS
Combinations
Permanent Effects
SLS
Loads Effects Transient Effects

ULS
Thermal Effects ULS
Combinations
Construction Loads
Independent analysis to
be carried out:
Construction staging, Time
dependent analysis
Load Combinations – SLS Load Effects
Load factors corresponding Construction

to SLS (1.0) Loads
Loads
** Dynamic load allowance
should be included
Permanent Effects Transient Effects Thermal Effects

1. Traffic** (1.0) 1. Variation in
1. Dead Load (1.0) 2. Min Restraint (*)
2. Superimposed Dead average bridge
3. Collision (*)
Load(1.3) temperature(1.0)
4. Impact (*)
3. Earth Pressure (1.0) 2. Differential
5. Surcharge(traffic) (1.0)
4. Creep/Shrinkage Temperature
6. Earthquake (*)
Prestressed (1.0) (Authority)
7. Waterflow (ARI 100)
5. Differential movement of 8. Wind (ARI 20) * Considered as
supports (1.0) 9. Pedestrian/cycle ULS events
6. Forces from Bearing (1.0) path(1.0)
7. Water/Buoyancy, (ARI 100) 10. maintenance traffic (1.0)
Load Combinations – ULS Load Effects
Load factors corresponding Construction

to ULS (1.8) Loads
Loads
** Dynamic load allowance
should be included
Transient Effects
Permanent Effects Thermal Effects
1. Traffic** (1.8)
1. Dead Load (1.2,0.85*) 2. Min Restraint (1.0) 1. Variation in
2. Superimposed Dead Load 3. Collision (1.0) average bridge
(2.0,0.7*) 4. Impact (1.0) temperature
3. Earth Pressure (1.5) 5. Surcharge(traffic) (1.5) (1.25)
4. Creep/Shrinkage 6. Earthquake (1.0) 2. Differential
Prestressed (1.25) 7. Waterflow (ARI 2000) Temperature
5. Differential movement of 8. Wind (ARI 2000) (Authority)
supports (1.5) 9. Pedestrian/cycle * When checking
6. Forces from Bearing (1.3) path(1.5) stability: uplift during
7. Water/Buoyancy, (ARI 2000) 10. maintenance traffic (1.5) flood, pile tension etc
ULS Load combinations
Load effects should be ULS Bridge Loads Types
A – Permanent B – Road/Rail C – Pedestrian/Cyclist D – Minimum

Effect Traffic path/Maintenance Traffic Restraint
F – Road G – Earth Pressure

E - Collision
Traffic Barrier H – Earthquake
from Traffic
I – Water flow J – Wind K – Thermal
LC1: A + B LC6: A + G 1. Traffic with wind (SLS*)

LC1a: A + B+K(SLS) LC7: A + H 2. Bridge should be
LC1b:A+B+J(35m/s)(1) serviceable after collision on
LC8: A+I substructure
LC2: A+C LC8a:A+I+B(SLS)(3) 3. Bridge should be
LC3:A+D LC9:A+J serviceable after major flood
LC4:A+E LC10:A+K with scour
LC4a:A+E+B(SLS)(2) LC10a:A+K+B(SLS)
LC5:A+F
ULS Load combinations – Flood & Collision
Traffic Allowed
Collision on Substructure
Ground Level after Scour Exposed piles with scour
Bridge should be serviceable after
Bridge should be serviceable collision on substructure
after major flood with scour
SLS Load combinations
Load effects should be SLS Bridge Loads Types
A – Permanent B – Road/Rail C – Pedestrian/Cyclist D – Minimum

Effect Traffic path/Maintenance Traffic Restraint
F – Road G – Earth Pressure

E - Collision
Traffic Barrier H – Earthquake
from Traffic
I – Water flow J – Wind K – Thermal
LC1: A + B+0.7K
LC2: A + B+0.5(J+K) × Considered as ULS events
LC3:A+B+0.7I
LC4: A+B+0.5(I+K)
LC5:A+K+0.7B
LC6:A+G+0.7K (1)
1. Abutment design
Load combinations Application to Eurocode
Characteristic Values Vs Frequent

• Characteristic – 1000-year return period
• Frequent – 1 week return period
𝐸𝑇 = 1.05 + 0.116 log10 𝑇 𝐸20𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘𝑠
𝐸1𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘 = 0.85 𝐸20𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘𝑠

𝐸1000𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 1.40 𝐸20𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘𝑠
𝐸1𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘 = 0.61 𝐸1000𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
ET is the effect corresponding to return period T, in years
Characteristic
SLS Combinations
Values
Load Groups
Load effects
Frequent ULS Combinations
Values
Load combinations Application to Eurocode
Load LM1 LM2 LM3 LM4 BF CF UDL

System TS & UDL Single Axel Special Crowd Braking Centrifugal Pedestrain
gr1a CH CH
gr1a FR
Load Groups
gr1b CH
gr2 FR CH CH
gr3 CH
Gr4 CH
Gr5 Annex A CH
Session 06 – Bridge Articulation

Date: 15 November 2021
Rohitha.Silva@beca.com
Rohitha.Indurawage@gmail.com

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Bridge Design Series Session 04:

Bridge Loading and Applications (Part 2)

Bridge Design Series – Short Biography

❑ Minimum Restraint Loading

Minimum Restraint Loading

• Why do we need them

Minimum Restraint Loading

• Loading – Australian Standards

Lateral Restraint Block Plan

Creep & Shrinkage

• Creep of concrete: Time dependent deformation of concrete under sustained load

How to evaluate them?

Construction Period How to use them?

Creep & Shrinkage – Hypothetical Thickness

Deck surfacing - Asphalt

𝑢𝑒 = 𝑢𝑒1 +0.5𝑢𝑒2 + 0.5𝑢𝑒3

Creep & Shrinkage

Autogenous Drying shrinkage

Design shrinkage strain of concrete (εcs)

Chemical (autogenous) shrinkage strain (ε )cse

Drying shrinkage strain (ε )

Creep & Shrinkage

Days Autogenous Drying Total Shrinkage

Creep & Shrinkage

Design creep coefficient φcc

k4 = 0.5 (for tropical and near-costal environment

Creep & Shrinkage

Days jcc Creep

Bridges Affected by Earthquake

Earthquake Critical Bridges

Total Height (24+14) 40m

Earthquake Occurrence Map

Performance requirement Feqv

𝒎𝒙ሷ + 𝒄𝒙ሶ + 𝒌𝒙 = 𝑭(𝒕ሻ

Seismic hazard maps Importance Level and

Factors effecting bridge Site Sub-Soil Class,

Earthquake Performance Requirements – Bridge Earthquake

BEDC-1: Minor single span bridges

Earthquake – Design Seismic Hazard Factor (Z), Probability Factor kp

Earthquake Load – Site Sub-Soil Class

Site subsoil class

Geotechnical Information: Geotechnical

Earthquake Load – Site Sub-Soil Class - Definitions

Earthquake Load – Site Sub-Soil Class - Definitions

Earthquake Load – Site Sub-Soil Class – Borehole Information

Strong Rock - Basalt

Weak Rock - Sandstone

Soil at a depth 43-52m

Earthquake Load – Design Ductility Factor ( ) m

Continuous Span Bridges Bridge on Pot Bearings

Bridge on Elastomeric Bearing

Earthquake Load – Acceleration Spectral Shape Factor

Earthquake Load – Acceleration Spectral Shape Factor

Earthquake Load – Acceleration Spectral Shape Factor

Earthquake Load – Earthquake Response

Seismic acceleration for elastic horizontal earthquake response

Seismic acceleration for ductile horizontal earthquake response