Religion Text Book

In Oxford Studies of Religion, the emphasis is on Included in this comprehensive text are features such as:
Oxford Studies of Religion

comprehensive information and review questions to • recent developments in Aboriginal issues as related to the
encourage deeper levels of understanding of the major syllabus
religious traditions. This book was written with both • the two new areas of Religion of Ancient Origin and
students and teachers in mind. It closely addresses the Religion and Peace, as well as suggestions about how to
NSW Board of Studies Stage 6 subject, Studies of Religion. study these topics
The text covers both the Preliminary and HSC courses and,
• a comprehensive glossary of terms for each chapter and
as with the syllabus, assumes no prior knowledge on the
timelines for each religious tradition
part of the reader.
The text covers the five major religious traditions of
Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam and Judaism,
as well as addressing Aboriginal spirituality and religions
• review and assessment questions to aid students’
understanding and prepare them for exams
• activities designed to provoke discussion and stimulate the
Oxford
Studies of Religion
present in Australia. It pays specific attention to the areas research and writing skills of individuals and groups.
of religion and non-religion, religion of ancient origins Online professional support at oup.com.au/sor includes
and religion and peace. This text has been written by both assessment and marking guidelines, worksheets and
academics and Studies of Religion teachers who have activities for each of the religious traditions and updates on
demonstrated excellence within their respective fields. current issues. PRELIMINARY & HSC COURSE
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ROSEMARY KING HELEN SMITH ANNE PATTEL-GRAY

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01_KIN_OSR_NatRe.indd 2 11/9/09 8:41:36 AM
The nature
of religion
and beliefs
The focus of this study is the nature of religion and beliefs, including
Australian Aboriginal beliefs and spiritualities, as a distinctive response to
the human search for meaning in life.
Outcomes Content
A student: Students learn about:
P1 describes the characteristics of religion and
belief systems The nature of religion
P2 identifies the influence of religion and belief • religion as a worldview that:

systems on individuals and society acknowledges the supernatural dimension
P6 selects and uses relevant information about has a belief in a divine being or powers
religion from a variety of sources beyond the human and/or dwelling within
P8 uses appropriate terminology related to the individual
religion and belief systems • the characteristics of religion:
beliefs and believers
sacred texts and writings
ethics
rituals and ceremonies
• the contribution of religion
Australian Aboriginal beliefs and spiritualities—

the Dreaming
• the nature of the Dreaming
• the inextricable connection of the Dreaming,
the land and identity
(Studies of Religion Stage 6 Syllabus © Board of Studies NSW for and on

behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2009.)
Prelim | Chapter 1 The nature of religion 3

BULLROARER a flat piece of wood or stone that is POLYTHEISM belief in many gods and goddesses:
swung around on a thong. Used in Hinduism is an example of a
Australian Aboriginal communities polytheistic religion.
to call people to ceremonies or to RITUALS these can be both religious and
imitate the voice of an Ancestral secular in nature, and can be
Being. described as a patterned series of
DREAMING a European term that refers to activities that are capable of being
the essence of truth in Aboriginal repeated. A clear example in the
religious beliefs. religious sphere is worship.
EGALITARIAN relating to the principle of equality. RRARK cross hatching—an Aboriginal
ETHICS a set of practices based on moral artistic style characteristic of
beliefs clarifying what is right and Arnhem Land.
wrong. SACRED SITES natural land formations where
IMMANENT RELIGION a religion that holds that gods, Aboriginal Ancestral Spirits
goddesses or divine spirits live interacted with creation.
within nature and that the universe SECRET-SACRED certain aspects of Aboriginal
was created by these spirits and is religion and spirituality that are
maintained by their power. reserved for initiated Aboriginal
KINSHIP highly sophisticated networks persons.
of relationships governing TOTEMISM the word ‘totem’ comes from
interactions between members of the Algonquin (native North
Aboriginal language groups. American) language. It refers to an
LAND RIGHTS the inherent rights of Aboriginals entity—plant, animal or natural
to their land, forming the basis of object—that has become the
a movement designed to ensure token or emblem of an individual
the preservation of Aboriginal or a language group. The entity
spirituality and culture. cannot be gathered, hunted or
even painted by those who have it
MIMIS Aboriginal spirits or spirit figures.
as their totem since it is believed
MONOTHEISM belief in a single God: Judaism, to link them to the spiritual force
Islam and Christianity are responsible for their existence.
monotheistic faiths.
TRANSCENDENT a religion that holds that there
PANTHEISM the belief that God and the RELIGION are beings that exist beyond the
universe are one—there is no known universe that are not
divine power outside of the subject to the laws of nature;
universe, but everything that polytheism and monotheism
makes up the universe is God. are the two principal types of
PARADIGM the core belief of a particular transcendent religion.
religious tradition that is the WORLDVIEW a general philosophy or view of
basis for all other beliefs held by life.
believers of that tradition.
4 Oxford Studies of Religion

The nature of religion
Religion has been an essential part of the way humans have ordered and
made sense of the world. Religion has been the means of answering some
of the most significant questions that confront humans: first, why does a
activity person exist at all; second, why is there a universe; third, what happens to a
Divide into groups. Discuss person after that person dies; and finally, why is there suffering in the world?
the following question: ‘What The way humans have developed answers to these questions has varied
would be lost if all religions and throughout time and place. A system of answers shared by a significant
spiritualities were to disappear number of people is called a worldview. Over time, as humans spread
from the world?’ throughout the earth, these systems of answers were adapted to new
experiences and challenges. Every culture that exists today is in fact a
different worldview, and it is necessary for humans to appreciate these
differing ways of understanding the world and humanity. It is important
that each culture is allowed to reveal itself rather than be judged from the
perspective of another culture’s ideas and understanding of the truth.
From prehistoric times humans have clearly shown a sense that
the answers to these questions and their survival depended on powers
and forces beyond their direct control. These powers needed to be
acknowledged, made happy and worshipped so that the harvest would be
plentiful, the hunt would be successful, human fertility would continue,
natural disasters would be avoided and the human person would be made
happy in the afterlife.
These powers or forces were understood to live beyond the realm of
nature and indeed they created and maintained the world. These gods and
goddesses lived in a supernatural dimension beyond the world, or, if in the
world, in the most inaccessible places such as mountains, oceans or clouds.
FIG. 1.1 The Lascaux cave paintings in France contain some of the earliest known artwork, dating from around 17 000 years ago.
Cave paintings such as these provide evidence of early religious thought.

The transcendent religious worldview In many polytheistic religions, there are gods
and goddesses who bring evil into the world in
Religions that believe there are beings that exist the form of natural disasters, disease, and loss
beyond the known universe and that are not subject of possessions and life itself. These gods require
to the laws of nature are called transcendent particular attention, for they will only stop
religions. For some believers, the very fact that the harming humans if they are made happy through
world is structured by the laws of nature is proof that worship and sacrifice.
there must be beings that created the universe and Humans have a special relationship with these
gave it order and purpose. For these believers, humans gods and goddesses. Often these gods and goddesses
are able to discover this purpose through both their desire that humans fulfil their wishes and offer
reasoning and their observation of nature, along with them worship through prayers and sacrifices. If
revelation from these transcendent beings. the human person is obedient to the wishes of the
Even though the gods and goddesses are beyond gods, that person will be rewarded with a happy
the universe, transcendent religions believe that they life here on earth and assured of a happy existence
are still necessary for the ongoing existence of the after death. Those who do not obey the divine
universe and play an essential part in its working. commands will be punished when they die or suffer
There are two principal types of transcendent disease and misfortune while here on earth.
religion. Some religions believe in many gods and Adherents of polytheistic religions may choose
goddesses. This belief is known as polytheism. to serve one god or goddess while not denying the
Other religions believe that there is only one God. importance of all the other gods. For example, in
This belief is known as monotheism. Hinduism people may devote their lives to the service
of Shiva or Vishnu. They will attend the temples of
Polytheistic religions their particular god, celebrate important festivals that
For polytheistic religions, the gods and goddesses honour the god and his dealings with humanity, and
may have control of particular happenings in observe special laws and customs.
nature. In some religions there are gods who rule In polytheistic religions there are many ways
the oceans and the skies, others who look after the that gods and goddesses are presented to believers.
fertility of all animals and humans, others who In some polytheistic religions the gods and
protect humans from natural disasters and others goddesses take on animal forms, as in the religion
who are concerned about the health and well-being of Ancient Egypt, or human form, as in Mayan
of humans. Examples of polytheistic religions are religion. Or they may remain without form, as, for
Hinduism and the religion of ancient Greece. example, Brahman in Hinduism.
FIG. 1.2 Sculptures of the Greek gods Poseidon, Apollo and the
goddess Athena from the Parthenon (Acropolis Museum, Athens)

Monotheism some portrayals of this do take the form of a man in
Some religions believe that there is only one God. This pictures and sculptures, the transcendent God can
belief is known as monotheism. Christianity, Islam only be known through attempting to describe him as
and Judaism are examples of monotheistic religions. having characteristics similar to humans, for example,
For these religions the universe came into being love, mercy and compassion. Humans are ultimately
through the power and design of one God. One of unable to understand fully the reality of God.
the principal reasons for creating the universe was
for humankind to exist and relate with this God. The No image of God
purpose of the universe is to provide for humans a For Muslims and Jews no image of God is
place in which they form a relationship with God. permitted. This is because God is absolutely
Nature has been established to provide humans with beyond representation, and to create any image
all that they need to survive on earth. In return, of God would be to create an idol to worship.
humans are expected to care for God’s creation.
The immanent religious worldview
Immanent religions hold that gods, goddesses or

divine spirits live within nature. These spirits dwell
in sacred places like mountains, streams or forests.
They can also be felt in the forces they control such
as wind, fire or water.
Adherents of an immanent religion believe
the universe was created by these spirits and is
maintained by their power. Human beings are to
acknowledge these spirits through worship and,
in particular, through respect for places in which
the spirits dwell. Often these places have shrines
FIG. 1.3 God’s creation of humans is represented by Michelangelo built to house the spirits or to be the sites where
(Sistine Chapel, Rome). devotees can pray for assistance or seek guidance
from the spirits.
Though the work of God can be seen in The spirits may take the form of human beings,
everything around humans, the most important but they are better understood as the energy or force
knowledge about God is revealed directly by him. For behind natural phenomena. Humans are obliged to
many monotheistic religions, the nature of God can live cooperatively with these forces of nature, for if
never be known since it is beyond human reason. they neglect them or destroy their habitats, humans
God, however, either directly or through messengers, will suffer misfortune.
has shown humans what relationship he has with In some immanent religions, since all life is
them and how they are to respond to him. explained by the existence of these spirits, human
For the major monotheistic religions of the beings are often understood to have within
world today (Christianity, Islam and Judaism), themselves a life-force similar to the spirits of nature.
God is a being who wishes humans to be happy. This explains their vitality, their power of reason and
He wants them to obey his commands, for this delight, and their purpose in life. This spiritual force
is the way happiness is achieved. The world was often requires careful observation. Health and well-
created initially as a happy state for all humans, but, being are maintained through a balance of forces
through evil and sin, humans destroyed this initial within the human. This balance is brought about by
state. God, however, is seen as never abandoning correct diet, exercise and meditation.
humans and continually offering them close Since the human has this spiritual dimension,
relationship so that they can be happy again. immanent religions may place an emphasis on
For most monotheistic religions, the ultimate communicating with the other spirits of nature and
divine reality, God, has neither form nor gender. on maintaining a harmonious relationship with them.
Although for Christians God became human, and Certain religions have developed complex forms of

movement (for example, t’ai chi) that bring about a unity
of the human and the natural spiritual world.
One expression of an immanent religion is
pantheism. This is the belief that the universe is God.
There is no divine power outside of the universe, but
everything that makes up the universe—both matter
and energy, including humanity—is God. God and the
universe are one.
activities
1. Define the concept ‘transcendent religious worldview’.
2. Explain the differences between polytheism and
monotheism.
3. Which religious traditions would be classified as
polytheistic and which as monotheistic?
4. Why do the Islamic and Jewish religious traditions
oppose images of God?
5. Define the immanent religious worldview.
6. Create five columns with these headings:

‘Transcendent religions’, ‘Immanent religions’,
‘Polytheism’, ‘Monotheism’ and ‘Examples’. List the
principal teachings of each group of religions and
give examples of the religions.
Transcendent Immanent Polytheism Monotheism Examples FIG. 1.4 T’ai chi is a complex form of movement designed to
religions religions bring about a unity of the human and the natural spiritual world.
The characteristics of religion

Religion is defined by its characteristics. For a phenomenon to be
‘
called a religion, it must have all of the characteristics that distinguish
… central to all a religion from other phenomena. Though it is often said that a
large gathering of people that is held regularly and that has the same
religions is a belief that
structure and operations each time it meets (for example, a football
there is a reality that is game or a Wimbledon tennis match) might be called a ‘religion’, if such
a gathering does not have all of the characteristics of a religion then it
greater than all the parts
’
cannot correctly be called a religion.
of the universe …
activity
Divide into groups and discuss what would be the key features of a
hypothetical religious tradition based on the following circumstances:
• a world inhabited only by women
• a world where children had all the power
• a world covered in water with intelligent marine life forms
• a world beneath a planet whose surface temperature was
200 degrees Celsius.

Beliefs and believers These differing sets of belief—other than a
The most important characteristic of religion is the religion’s paradigm—create the various significant
belief system it maintains. Central to all religions divisions within a religious tradition. These schools of
is a belief that there is a reality that is greater than thought or denominations have developed over time.
all the parts of the universe and, in many cases, Many have either come about through movements to
exists outside the universe. This belief can be in a reform the religious tradition by removing customs,
transcendent or immanent God or gods. laws and ideas that are seen as not essential for the
Each religion, however, is made different by what tradition (for example, the Protestant Reformation
is known as its paradigm. This is the core belief of the sixteenth century), or they have arisen after
that a person must have if that person can truly be further significant insights and understanding
said to belong to that religion. This core belief is the have developed (for example, the rise of Mahayana
basis for all other beliefs held by believers of that Buddhism). Others may form because the application
faith tradition. of strict observance based on ancient law and custom
In Buddhism the paradigm is a belief in the is not thought to be relevant to modern times (for
Three Refuges—the Lord Buddha, the Dharma example, the rise of Liberal Judaism).
and the Sangha. In Christianity it is the belief that There is also a range of believers within a religious
Jesus Christ died and rose from the dead in order tradition. It is important to acknowledge that, while
to save humankind from sin and death. In Islam it there are some believers who are dedicated to the
is submission to Allah—if a person acknowledges beliefs and practices—often referred to as devout
that submission to the will of Allah is essential for believers—there are also people who are largely
being a human and for understanding his or her indifferent to the beliefs and practices and use the
place in the universe, then that person is a Muslim. religion only on important occasions, for example,
For Judaism, the belief that God has entered history weddings, a boy’s entry into the Sangha or a
and formed a covenant relationship with his people teenager’s Bar Mitzvah.
is absolutely important. For Hinduism, the belief There are also differences in gender, age and
that ultimate union with Brahman is the only real authority structures. There are often clearly defined
purpose for humans is fundamental. roles for both genders, differing expectations of
Every religion, however, has other beliefs young believers and more mature believers, and
that flow out of its core paradigm. Some of these people possessing more authority to make decisions.
other beliefs are most important and must also be There are also historic differences in practice and
accepted. In Buddhism, a belief that there is no customs within a given religious tradition.
such thing as a permanent human person is central. As a religious tradition enters into new countries
For Judaism, the idea that God revealed himself to and experiences, cultural differences develop within
Moses and other people throughout history flows that tradition. For example, Buddhism as practised
from the belief in a God who works for humans
within historical reality.
There are other beliefs that are held by some
within a religious tradition but not by others. These
beliefs are not seen to be essential for a person
to belong to a particular religious tradition. For
example, in Christianity there are some who believe
that all God’s assistance (grace) comes through
Jesus’ mother Mary, while other Christians would
regard this belief as wrong. Both sides would still
consider themselves Christian.
In Buddhism, the belief of some that there
are powerful beings called Bodhisattvas that can
help a person attain nirvana is not universally
acknowledged by other Buddhists. Both sets of
believers, however, would consider themselves to FIG. 1.5 Buddhist ordination ceremony, Sri Lanka
be authentically Buddhist.

in Nepal and Tibet is different from that practised in
Japan. The same is true of other religious traditions.
Christianity takes different forms in South America
compared with the forms in the United Kingdom.
activities
1. What is the central belief of the five major
religious traditions?
2. Explain the different sets of beliefs of the major
religious traditions.
3. List the reasons why beliefs are different both
within a religious tradition and between religious
traditions. Give examples.
Sacred texts and writings

Another important characteristic of religions is that FIG. 1.7 Women throwing petals at a Christian religious parade, Peru
they possess sacred texts and writings. These sacred
texts may be in written form or may be made into Sacred texts perform a number of important
images that aid the less educated to understand the functions. For many religious traditions, the life
significant beliefs of their religion. and words of the Founder can be found in them,
Some sacred texts are regarded as particularly presenting believers with the most important role
important, for they have been given to humans in the model on which they can base their lives. Sacred
form of a revelation from God. The Qur’an in Islam, texts also contain rules and directions on how to
along with the Bible in Christianity and the Torah in live life, along with prayers and rituals that have
Judaism, are all believed to be revelations from God. become central to the religious tradition.
The central paradigm of a tradition is often These sacred texts and writings are used by
summarised within great epic stories found in the believers to find out what they must do in new ethical
sacred texts. The Exodus of the Jews from slavery in situations. They may also assist priests and ministers in
Egypt, the Mahabharata in Hinduism, with its story of carrying out their duties and obligations—for example,
the encounter between Arjuna and Krishna, and the the Penitentiaries of the Middle Ages helped the clergy
death and resurrection of Jesus in Christianity all help to advise penitents as to what they needed to do in
believers come to an understanding of the essential order to regain a sound relationship with God.
teaching of their respective religious traditions. Sacred texts are, therefore, given special
reverence and have significant authority for the
religious traditions. Such texts are often placed
in special places within mosques, synagogues,
churches and temples and are often elaborately
decorated. Great care is taken in handling them,
and some of the texts may even be worn by
believers during prayer (for example, the Jewish
phylactery) or fixed to the doorpost of the home.
activities
1. Why are sacred texts important to a religious
tradition?
2. What functions do sacred texts perform?
FIG. 1.6 Muslims believe that the Qur’an is the revelation 3. Describe some of the common features of
from God. sacred texts.

Ethics
Ethics is the practical application of belief. If believers hold the beliefs of
their religious tradition as the most important means of understanding
the universe and their place in it, their behaviour will reflect this fact. In
‘
other words, ethics puts into practice the beliefs of an adherent.
… religious Many of the ethical teachings of a religious tradition can be found
within its sacred texts and writings. Most significantly, the central
traditions teach that
ethical paradigm of the religious tradition is found within the most
humans have certain important and central sacred texts and writings. For example, the
Torah in Judaism sets out in detail what a Jew must do; the Tripitaka
obligations and
in Buddhism also presents the Five Precepts that all lay Buddhists must
expectations towards observe. The Teachings of Manu does likewise for Hindus, as does the
Qur’an for Muslims.
other humans as
Religious traditions teach that humans have certain obligations and
well as towards the expectations towards other humans as well as towards the environment.
’
For most religious traditions, how people live out their ethical lives
environment …
will determine for those individuals what happens to them after death.
Since most religious traditions believe that God or gods expect the
human person to be good, they also believe that humans will be judged
according to how they have lived in this life.
Religious ethical teaching gives directions to how humans should act
sexually, politically, economically, professionally and environmentally.
There are also teachings in regard to a person’s body and health, in
particular, laws that govern decisions in bioethics.
As with beliefs, there are some ethical directions that are more important
than others. Failing to fulfil these most significant ethical demands has
serious consequences for the believer, particularly in regard to what happens
after death. For example, the commandment of love in Christianity and the
teaching of ahimsa (the necessity of avoiding harm to any sentient life form)
in Buddhism are examples of essential ethical teachings.
activities For most religious traditions, the interpretation of what is ethical and
1. What is ethics? proper rests within a hierarchical structure, that is, a system with one or
more prominent authorities governing a series of lesser decision makers. An
2. Where do these religious
example of this is the structure of the Roman Catholic Church, which has
ethics come from?
the Pope governing the Church along with the bishops, who themselves
3. Give some examples of are responsible for their priests. At the lowest end of this structure is the
religious ethics that tell a majority of Roman Catholics, the laity, who have traditionally had very little
person how to live their life. say in determining the ethical teachings of their church.
4. How has technology For many religious traditions, the modern age has called into question
influenced religious ethics? parts of their ethical teaching and reasoning. There are new ethical
5. Prepare and deliver an oral challenges that the religious traditions have not had to address in the
presentation on how ethics past and that were not even thought possible. Such critical ethical issues
is the practical application of as global warming, biological cloning and nuclear weapon systems are a
beliefs. Use examples in your challenge to traditional ethical teachings.
presentation. Some also argue that these ethical teachings arose before modern
science and medicine, and therefore are no longer relevant for
people in the twenty-first century since they are based on errors and
misunderstandings about the body and nature. It is further argued by
some that these teachings demonstrate a bias towards manhood, for most
of these ethical decisions have been made by men and may have been
used to maintain structures that oppress women.

Rituals and ceremonies
As ethics is the practical application of belief within a religious tradition,
rituals and ceremonies are ways to celebrate and reinforce the central
belief system and structures for that tradition.
There are two types of ritual—public and private. A public ritual is
‘
a formal activity with clearly defined structures, timing and content.
Though believers are free to express their religious beliefs in a private … rituals and
ritual in whatever manner they find comfortable, public rituals are
ceremonies are ways
designed for public display and are a means by which the community of
believers expresses its common beliefs. to celebrate and
Public rituals are often based on rituals found within sacred texts (for
reinforce [a religious
example, the communion service in Christianity). They may reflect the
actions and words of an important tradition’s] central
’
event or person in history (for
belief system …
example, the rituals surrounding the
Jewish festival of Passover).
Public rituals and ceremonies have
set structures, which may include
readings from sacred texts, instructions
by presiding officials or ministers, set
formulae of prayers and petitions, or
rites of purification. The ritual may
be created for special occasions that
celebrate a person’s growth. There are
initiation rites for the newly born or
for adults who have shown a wish to
become a member of a faith tradition
(for example, Brit Milah [circumcision]
FIG. 1.8 A mother serving kneidel soup in Judaism and the Sacred Thread
at a family Passover Seder ceremony in Hinduism).
There are also rites of passage that assist a person
in moving from one state of life into another
(for example, the marriage ceremony, entry into
the Sangha in Buddhism, or ordination into the
priesthood in Christianity). Certain ceremonies
are created for the benefit of the community that
may be experiencing sadness or need (for example,
funeral ceremonies and harvest rituals).
Most religious traditions have a religious
calendar that celebrates the passing seasons, and
often the principal beliefs of the traditions have been
fixed to certain seasons or dates (for example, Wesak
in Buddhism and Divali in Hinduism). Festivals that
have their own special rituals help members of the
community remember their beliefs and reinforce
the link between present faith and the historical
tradition. Rituals may also determine the pattern
of the day (for example, meditation and chants by
Buddhist monks, the Divine Office in Christianity
(Roman Catholic and Anglo-Catholic), and the five
times for daily prayer in Islam). FIG. 1.9 Muslim daily prayers

FIG. 1.10 In Buddhism, puja (important daily rituals) are
expressions of honour, reverence and devotional attention.
Ritual may also have many different cultural music and readings (for example, a Service of Nine
art forms, such as music, dance, performance Lessons and Carols for Christians during Advent) or
and art. Ritual is a way the religious tradition can bestow blessings on particular groups (for example, a
demonstrate the richness of human endeavour Catholic priest blessing the safety of a fishing fleet).
and skill. There may also be ceremonies that are performed
Rituals also often clearly indicate the separate at home (for example, the Sabbath meal in Judaism
roles of the genders. In most religious traditions, or prayer in front of a home-shrine that includes
men have been the ones in charge of determining offerings to gods and goddesses in Hinduism). In
what is a suitable and appropriate ritual and have these cases, some of these ceremonies are based on
led the congregation in the ritual. Rituals are often laws and customs found within sacred texts and
celebrated in sacred places where there may be areas writings while others may vary from house to house.
where the ordinary person may not enter or sit (for
example, the raised platform within a Buddhist activities
temple for members of the Sangha or the sanctuary
1. Why are rituals and celebrations important to
in Christian churches). There may also be areas
religious traditions?
assigned for women if a religious tradition believes
they must be separated from men. 2. Give examples of private and public rituals in one
Ceremonies may take place outside of a formal religious tradition.
ritual. These may celebrate local festivals and may 3. What is an initiation rite?
include processions, re-enactments of important 4. Give examples of initiation rites within the five
religious events (for example, the Way of the Cross religious traditions.
for Christians) and local gatherings to honour
5. Create a mind map showing the interconnection
particular holy men and women. Other ceremonies
of beliefs to sacred text, ethics and rituals.
may be held to bless the harvest, listen to festive

FIG. 1.11 Religion gives the individual an identity as a believer
within a religious tradition and a keen sense of belonging.
The contribution of religion goal of their religious tradition. Religious traditions

present role models, guidance and direction for
Contribution to individuals individuals to develop their understanding of their
Religion offers an individual answers to life’s faith and how to become better people. Religion also
profound questions. It explains the creation of presents to individuals ways of achieving inner peace
the universe, human nature and life’s purpose. It through prayer, reflection and meditation.
also gives the individual an identity as a believer Religion also places individuals in a long tradition
within a religious tradition. This identity gives the of belief and practice. This heritage gives reassurance
individual a keen sense of belonging. This helps the to them of the validity of the tradition since it has
person understand what it is to be human and what been an appropriate means of living for thousands
are the rightful relationships expected of him or her of years. It also places individuals within a specific
with others and with nature. cultural context of that religious tradition, which
Religion also offers an individual a system defines the particular customs and practices that they
of ethics that will guide the person in behaving will observe throughout their lives.
appropriately. It advises individuals on how they are Religion may also help individuals define their
to treat themselves, others and the environment. It attitudes and ideas. It may reinforce stereotypes
helps individuals address current and challenging of race, gender and sexuality. It may determine
ethical issues that may be too complex and difficult a person’s response to other religious traditions
for them to decide. or different sects and churches within a religious
Religion also gives to individuals ways by which tradition. It may make individuals resistant towards
they can celebrate significant events and times in modern developments of science and technology.
their lives. These rituals proclaim to the community
of believers that a person has grown and developed activity
in his or her faith and can now accept greater duties
Create two columns headed ‘Contribution to individual’
and responsibilities within the community.
and ‘Examples’. In the first column list in dot point form
Most importantly, religion offers individuals a
the contribution made by religions to the individual, and
way of perfection, that is, it instructs them on what
in the second column give examples.
is required to become more true to themselves as
people of faith and to move closer to achieving the

Contribution to society and culture
Humans have survived and developed because of their capacity to
make sense of the world around them and to use various materials
to improve their life. They have used their reason to create meaning
and order. Religion has been one such system by which humans have
made sense of their place within the universe and what it is they need
to do in order to survive both here and after death. Though there are
aspects of religion that have not been an accurate understanding of
the workings of the material world, it is undeniable that religion has
contributed greatly to the survival and development of humankind.
Human society rests on the essential basis of maintaining order
and well-being for most members of that society. It also depends on
the safety and security of its members, the ability to feed and house
people, and the ability to hand on the knowledge and skills of one
generation to the next. In other words, society needs peace in order
to survive.
Religion has played a significant role in maintaining this peace.
Through its principal teachings that acknowledge the ultimate
responsibility of individuals towards a divine being and their
minimal obligations and duties towards their neighbour, religion
has instructed generations on the means of preserving peace and
harmony. Without doubt, religions have at times created hostilities
and wars, but the underlying motivation of authentic religions is to
recognise the fundamental goodness of a common humanity and a
common destiny.
In many cases a society’s laws are based on the ethical systems
of a religious tradition (for example, the Westminster system of law
and government, or the laws and government of Islamic nations).
Furthermore, social welfare (helping those less fortunate than others)
is a basic yet constant practice within religious traditions. Throughout
most of history it has been religious institutes that have developed
hospitals, orphanages and care for the stranger.
Religions have seen the importance of education for their young FIG. 1.12 The practice of taking an oath
and the need to develop higher forms of learning for the educated on the Bible in court reflects the Christian
traditions that inform many Western legal
(for example, the great universities throughout Europe, the Islamic systyems.
world, India and in Buddhist Asia). It is through these institutes that
the sciences and medical knowledge have been either preserved or
developed. They have encouraged the higher skills of philosophy,
cosmology and theology, and developed the precision of logical
argument and clarity of thought.
The roles and positions of people within a society have also been
largely the result of religious teaching. The place of women, the
definitions of childhood and the separation of officials and laity have
all been determined by religious traditions.
Humans, however, have not simply created sustainable societies.
They have created cultures that display the creative and artistic
dimensions of the human.
Religious traditions have been great patrons of the arts. They have
been responsible for most of the world’s wonders of architecture and FIG. 1.13 Angkor Wat, in Cambodia, is
grandeur such as Angkor Wat, the Taj Mahal, Chartres Cathedral a Hindu temple complex famous for its
beautiful architecture.
and Borobudur.

Religions have also dictated the appropriate diet Rather, religions have been an essential part of
and dress for people. They have defined the weekly society and culture. What cannot be dismissed is the
and yearly calendar. fact that religions have given comfort, hope and joy
Religious institutes have also sponsored artists to to humans throughout history. They have taught
decorate their sacred spaces, to compose music of that humans are more than what is understood
the highest quality, and to decorate the interiors of and explained by science. They have insisted that
churches, mosques, synagogues and temples with humans are beings capable of great acts of goodness
graceful design and ornament. These have been and creativity. They have consistently taught that
recognised as masterpieces by both religious and humans are created by the divine as beings with free
non-religious peoples. will and reason who are destined for happiness.
Since religious traditions wish to preserve
what they believe to be the truth, religions activities
have on occasion prevented the advancement
1. Give examples of how religion has played an
of knowledge and understanding, particularly
important role in:
in science and medicine (for example, the
• architecture
rejection of the Copernican revolution by some
• law
within the Christian tradition and more recently
• art
the rejection of the theory of evolution). The
• meaning and order in human life.
past misunderstandings and errors of religions
came about through a lack of access to modern 2. Divide the class into two groups. Create a debate
technology and science. They cannot be based on the following statement: ‘Human
condemned on this basis, for they were only society is possible only with the contribution
using what was available to them at that time. from religion.’
FIG. 1.14 Arabic calligraphy in a mosque. Mosques are decorated with

beautiful ceramic tiles. They also reinforce the messages of the Qur’an.

Australian Aboriginal
beliefs and spirituality—
the Dreaming
In Australia there are literally hundreds of distinct Aboriginal languages,
as well as many different dialects. It is impossible, therefore, to use one
common ‘Aboriginal’ language, for there is no such thing. However, this
chapter makes use of individual words (with translations into English),
both within the text and in the glossary entries at the start of the chapter.
Certain aspects of Aboriginal religion and spirituality—including
elements of belief and knowledge relating to Aboriginal Law, culture,
language and traditions—are secret-sacred, meaning that they are
reserved for initiated Aboriginal persons. Unfortunately, that which
is also retained is the most secret. For this reason most points in the
following text will not be illustrated with specific examples. This
chapter cannot provide for in-depth study; rather, it is intended as an
introduction to the topics and issues involved.
The Indigenous people of Australia are best described categorically and
distinctively as ‘Aboriginals’ (as opposed to the inappropriate and often
offensive ‘aborigines’). This chapter will use the word ‘Aboriginal’ as both
a proper noun and an adjective, and ‘Aboriginals’ as the plural noun.
In addition, many different names are commonly used to refer to the
Aboriginal peoples of Australia, each one specific to particular geographical
areas. In New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania, for example, the term
used is ‘Koori’; in Queensland it is ‘Murri’; in the Northern Territory,
‘Yolngu’; in South Australia, ‘Nunga’; in Western Australia, ‘Nyungah’. In
an effort to simplify this complicated linguistic scenario, this chapter will
use the word ‘Aboriginal’ to refer to all Aboriginal peoples.
Likewise, there are differences in views on origins of the universe,
stories of the Dreaming and how people lived and still live their lives.
There is no more one Aboriginal Australian than there is one Australian.
The nature of the Dreaming
The Dreaming (also referred to as ‘Dreamtime’ or ‘Dream Time’) holds

the essence of truth of Aboriginal religious beliefs. The Dreaming does
not refer to a dream that one would have during the night. Rather, the
Dreaming holds the Aboriginal view of creation: it is the beginning
of everything—the beginning of time, the creation of life, the birth of
humanity and the ordering of all things. It is the remote past of the Spirit
Ancestors or Spirit Beings or Ancestral Beings; it is the period, long ago,
when Spirit Beings interacted with Aboriginal people. This past lives on
in ceremonies and rituals that have been passed down by word of mouth
from generation to generation for over 140 000 years—the time that
Aboriginal people have lived on this land called ‘Australia’.

FIG. 1.15 The Dreaming is often a key aspect of Aboriginal art as, for
example, in this Dreaming painting of the Warlpiri tribe.
For Aboriginal people, the Dreaming explains the The importance of traditional
origin of the universe, the workings of nature, the beliefs and the Dreaming
nature of humanity, and the cycle of life and death.
It shapes and structures Aboriginal life by regulating Within the Dreaming, the Creator, through
kinship, ceremonial life and the relationship the Spirit Beings, shaped the land, making its
between male and female, with a network of mountains, valleys, hills, gullies, rivers, streams,
obligations involving people, land and spirits. It flora and fauna. These are formed as a result of the
even affects the rights of Aboriginal people to land action and interaction of Spirit Beings. As a result,
through sacred sites. the whole creation is of spiritual significance.
Sacred sites are places associated with Ancestral
activities Beings. Aboriginals see themselves as part of,
and inextricably bound to, the rest of creation.
1. Define ‘the Dreaming’.
Galarrwuy Yunupingu, traditional elder and leader
2. What role do ‘Spirit Beings’ play in the Dreaming? of the Gumatj people of north-eastern Arnhem
Land, puts it this way:
The whole story goes right back

to the time when the Ancestral
Heroes made Laws, Ceremonies
and languages, gave names to
things including land, rivers,
mountains, animals and so
on; when everything that we
find here now was still in the
process of creation.
(Galarrwuy Yunupingu, 1992)
FIG. 1.16 Aboriginal leader Galarrwuy Yunupingu in his traditional head dress on a beach in the Northern Territory

In order to understand the worldview of Aboriginal manipulation. Aboriginals are not compulsive
people and the importance of the Dreaming for builders; they do not erect huge cathedrals, churches
Aboriginal life, people need to immerse themselves or synagogues in order to draw attention to the
in this worldview. Such a task is not easy, for significance of a sacred area. Rather, their sacred sites
Aboriginal people’s perception of themselves and are natural land formations, places where Ancestral
their world—whether it be the physical, intellectual Spirits interacted with creation and in so doing based
or spiritual world—is not fragmented. For Aboriginals, Aboriginal ownership on their spiritual identification
all elements within the world coexist; they are and association with their land.
connected, linked together. The importance of Through the bestowal of land by their Ancestors,
this connection between the things of creation is Aboriginal people share in the preservation of their
expressed through totemism. The ritual performances interconnection with the natural environment.
associated with this are believed to influence and This is done through shared responsibilities and
ensure the reproduction of both the natural and the obligations, through totemic relationships, through
human sphere, as well as the natural cycle of seasons. custodial maintenance of particular sacred sites, and
During the course of many thousands of years through rituals and ceremonies that are performed
Aboriginal people have developed an intimate at particular times every year. These rituals and
relationship between themselves and their ceremonies cannot be done by just anyone; they
environment. They see themselves as spiritually are the responsibility of the custodians of particular
interconnected with the natural world. They do not sacred sites. However, representatives of more than
see themselves as separate from it but as inextricably one language group may be involved. Those who
bound to it. Their very survival is a direct result of this share in these obligations may be custodians of a
close relationship with their natural environment. particular section of a ritual on account of their
Moreover, their relationship with this totemic association with a site, and by virtue of
environment is not one of domination or their shared ownership of sacred knowledge.
FIG. 1.17 Karlu Karlu, also known as the Devil’s Marbles, is a sacred site for the traditional
owners—the Warumungu, Kaytetye, Warlpiri and Alyawarra peoples.

Cooperation or sharing—not only between genders The story of Nguthunanga Mai Ambatanha
but also between language groups—is an important (The Dreamtime Spirit cooking of the damper)
factor in any Aboriginal society. The division of labour Retold by Denise Champion, an Adnyamathanha
is shared among the members of the community. woman from the Flinders Rangers in South
Responsibilities and obligations concerning sacred Australia.
rituals and ceremonies are shared between language This story is located at a place called
groups, as more than one language group may have Nguthunanga Mai Ambatanha north of Copley
ownership of a certain section of a particular ritual. just near Nepabunna Mission, South Australia.
There was a woman who had two children. They went

activities searching for food. They kept walking and walking
1. Why is the Dreaming so important for Aboriginal and, at the end of the day, they knew they had to make
people? camp. The mother sent the two children off to find food
2. Describe the relationship between Aboriginals and while she stayed and made camp for them. The children
their environment. Why is this relationship very split up and went in different directions. After a while,
important to Aboriginals? the mother realised her children had been gone a long
time and the sun was starting to go down. She became
3. Discuss as a group how Aboriginal life has
worried. She knew her children would be hungry, so she
developed in order to keep this interrelationship
decided to make a giant damper in a ground oven. She
with the natural environment.
hoped that the smell of the damper cooking might bring
4. Discuss why you think that it was important for her children home. But the smell of the damper didn’t
different groups to know sections of a ritual and bring the children home. The mother thought that if she
not the whole ritual. was up higher she would be able to see a lot further. She
made some steps in the side of the hill so that she could
get a better vantage point. But when she got to the top
of the hill, she couldn’t see her children anywhere. After
Stories of the Dreaming she had exhausted her own human abilities, a bellbird
came. The bellbird sang to her:
For Aboriginal people, Aboriginal mythology is
Wayanha Uanarungha vaku vaku winmirandha
the embodiment of truth. Aboriginal mythological
Wayanha Uanarungha vaku vaku winmirandha
narrative details the beginning of creation and
Under the shadows of wayanha
of the life of all living things. It is the basis of
The bellbird is whistling.
Aboriginals’ association with land of the Ancestral
The song of the bellbird led her to her children. The
Spirits’ action in, and interaction with, creation—
girl was found up at Lake Lettie near Maree and the
rock formations, trees, rivers, mountains and
boy was found near Mount Wyana (Mount McKinlay).
so on. The knowledge of the birth of humanity
The mother was able to bring her two children home.
and the essence of Aboriginal religious beliefs,
When you go to the little hill north of Copely,
laws, ceremonies and rituals are all derived from
the mound is symbolic of the damper that the mother
Aboriginal mythology.
cooked. When you look at the landscape it looks like it
The narratives belonging to Aboriginals’
has had a fire there with ashes still around. The land
mythology have been passed on from time
looks like grey and white compared to the rest of the
immemorial and are the eternal link between
land.
the Ancestral Spirits and the past, present and
I always tell this story to people to teach them
future generations. Aboriginal mythology is
about a parent’s responsibility to their children. I also
truth; its authenticity is never questioned.
tell the story to teach the children about the dangers
Aboriginal mythology is not written in a book; the
of wandering away from home. There are many things
environment contains the markings and narratives
that draw our children away from home, even today.
of the Ancestral Beings found in the Dreaming.
This story is an opportunity to talk about what these
The Australian Museum has many examples of
things are.
stories of the Dreaming for you to listen to and read.

FIG. 1.18 Wilpena Pound, South Australia
The story of Ikara (Wilpena Pound)

Retold by Denise Champion, an Adnyamathanha woman from the Flinders Rangers in South Australia
This is the story of the journey of Yurla the kingfisher man. The journey begins somewhere near Leigh Creek.
Yuras had gathered together at Ikara (Wilpena Pound). It was ceremony time. They were waiting for Yurla
the kingfisher man to come down to begin the ceremonies. While they were waiting, they became impatient and
wondered if someone else should begin the ceremonies.
Yurla the kingfisher man knew that they were impatient. So he lit a big fire and the smoke from the fire sent
up a signal to let the yuras know that he was on his way. The place where he lit this fire was known as Yurlas—
fire burning underground. (The udnyus later discovered this place had brown coal and mined it.) He started his
journey down to Ikara.
At the same time, two giant Akurra (Dreamtime serpents), who knew that there were yuras at Ikara, made their
journey down to where the yuras were waiting. On their way down, their big bodies dragging along the ground
carved out the gorges and deep valleys. When the Akurra got to Ikara, they coiled their bodies into a circle around
where the yuras had camped.
The yuras, seeing the evening stars twinkling on the horizon, thought that it was time for the ceremonies to
begin. They didn’t know that the stars were the eyes of the Akurra watching them.
When Yurla the kingfisher man arrived at Ikara, all but two of the yuras had disappeared, devoured by the Akurra.
The yuras believed that the bodies of the giant Akurra form the raised sides of Ikara.
Ikara (Wilpena Pound) has a special sacred significance to the Adnyamathanha people. It was their meeting place,
a special place where boys stepped up to become men and a place where laws were made and passed and punishment
was carried out.
activity
1. Research the areas where the two Dreaming stories are set. Create a visual presentation of the area.
2. Use the web to find other Dreaming stories being told by Aboriginal people. Try to find one from your local region.

Aboriginal symbolism and art Aboriginal symbolism and art have many
different expressions, ranging from oral, musical
Sacred literature within Aboriginal society is identified and dance traditions to the visual arts.
as sacred objects, sacred paintings and sacred sites. Aboriginal people have a very strong oral tradition.
Songs and dances tell the stories of the significance From the beginning of time they have expressed
of the Spirit Beings’ interaction with people and their everything through words, music and dance. These
bestowal of land upon particular language groups. art forms not only recorded their Dreamings, rituals
Songs and dances function as both art and narrative; and ceremonies but also reminded them of the
they actually ‘paint’ or illustrate a language group’s activities and events of their Ancestral Spirits. These
relationship to its land or Spirit Being. Aboriginal art traditions were maintained and handed down
and ritual objects play an important role in the telling through every generation, each language group
of stories and in preserving the sacred laws handed having its own unique type of expression. Oral arts
down from the past. included narratives and song cycles, which performed
Aboriginal symbolism and art tell stories that have an important function in the telling of Aboriginal
many layers of meaning, some of which are secret- mythology. Musical arts incorporated voice, clap
sacred. The first layer is the surface layer, which is the sticks, drums and other instruments. Dance was done
most obvious—open and accessible to all. It consists by individuals or groups, and was performed both
of such elements as colour, texture, movement, within ceremonies and for social purposes.
sound and so on. It is the surface layer that is first The visual arts performed a religious function in
noticed. Second and further layers are not obvious that they, together with the other art forms, gave
and usually require some degree of experience of, visual expression to spiritual reality. Aboriginal visual
or relationship with, Aboriginal people or culture in artists are expert in a vast spectrum of styles, using
order to understand them. Sometimes this means a great variety of media. Examples of media include
visiting a particular area of land; other times it means the human body (painted for ceremonies such as
being in a relationship with a particular Aboriginal initiations); rocks (engravings and petroglyphs); rock
person or community. The deepest layers are secret- walls, caves and shelters (X-ray figures and Mimis,
sacred and are accessible only to initiated Aboriginal or spirit figures, found throughout Australia); wood
persons (elders). These are the layers that give the full and sheets of bark (the distinctive Arnhem Land
story, with all details, meanings and significance. rrark, cross hatching); poles and sticks (message sticks
FIG. 1.19 Aboriginal painting of fish and animals to be hunted gives visual expression to a spiritual reality.

with general or sacred designs); ground and sand (traditional central desert
ground art, which developed into the renowned ‘dot’ paintings); clay and
hardened beeswax; feathered string; shells and pearls; baskets.
Much traditional art was ‘temporary’, made out of ochres, charcoal or
feathers, and lasted only for the duration of particular ceremonies such as
funerals. In more recent times some artists have used ‘permanent’ media
such as wood, canvas and paper, as well as pencils, crayons, oils, acrylics
‘
and synthetic polymers. Other contemporary styles include photography,
… Aboriginal art cinema, television and video. Some Aboriginals have experimented with
state-of-the-art satellite and multimedia technologies.
and ritual objects
Many volumes have been written about Aboriginal symbolism and art—
play an important the particular types and styles, the media, the significance, the aesthetic or
financial value. Yet virtually all of this primarily Western interpretation of
role in the telling
Aboriginal art misses the most basic element: the religious functions.
of stories and in Aboriginal symbolism and art are inextricably linked to Aboriginal
religion and spirituality. Paintings and symbols give expression to religious
preserving the sacred
traditions, customs and practices. They communicate the Dreaming,
laws handed down the time of the Ancestral Spirits, the Law and all the values, traditions,
’
customs, ceremonies and obligations of Aboriginal people. They tell the
from the past …
stories that have been handed down from the past, and in so doing convey
them to future generations.
Aboriginal symbolism and art enable the passage of knowledge both
within Aboriginal society and, in limited ways, to the outside world.
Paintings and symbols express something of the Aboriginal worldview.
More recently they have also expressed something of the capacity of
Aboriginal artists to blend motifs derived from traditional religion with
imported Western Christian concepts.
Aboriginal symbolism and art express intimate religious and social
relationships with the Ancestral Beings and with creation. They assist in
the maintenance of custodial obligations pertaining to particular areas of
land, and they express totemic relationships and personal relationships,
such as those between elders and initiates or between men and women.
Aboriginal symbolism and art are unique forms of communication.
They can be religious, political, geographic, social and even humorous
in nature. They can relate something of the time of the Ancestors; make
very specific and explicit claims to areas of land; describe the features of a
river or mountain range or the flight of a bird; recall times of peace or acts
of slaughter and dispossession perpetrated by Westerners. At times they can
even be used to call people together—thus the bullroarer, a flat piece of
wood or stone that is swung around on a long piece of thin hide or card, is
used on some occasions to call people for ceremonies or to imitate the voice
of an Ancestral Being.
activities
1. What is meant by ‘oral tradition’?
2. Why is art so important to an oral tradition?
3. What is the link between art and Aboriginal spirituality? Give examples.
4. Prepare a visual presentation of different types of Aboriginal art and
describe what the artwork symbolises.

Women and the Dreaming
In some Aboriginal societies the creation of the world and life came from
a matriarchal beginning, and laws, sacred rituals and objects were owned
by women until they were stolen by men, who perceived these rituals
and objects as having ‘power’. This important factor cannot and should
not be overlooked or dismissed as irrelevant; it has an impact on today’s
society. Despite the men’s act of theft, the social and ceremonial roles of
women remain very important.
In most cases the sacred symbolism associated with certain rituals
relates equally to women and men. As most of the rituals and ceremonies
concern the rejuvenation and reproduction of the life cycle of flora, fauna
and humanity, the fertility of life is of great importance. In different parts
of Australia, the Dreaming often refers to the female Ancestors and their
power and authority with reverence and great respect.
Women’s Business holds a very important and respected place within
traditional Aboriginal society. The role of women is considered to be
critical to the maintenance, continuity and survival of the entire social
structure. Aboriginal society depends greatly on the equal participation of
women.
Today the status and position of Aboriginal women within
communities differs depending on the impact and absorption of white
patriarchal values. Such values have done much to undermine the status
and role of Aboriginal women in Aboriginal communities throughout
the land. There is no single, defined female role to be found in any of
these communities. The function of women varies from a submissive,
subservient role to one of egalitarian leadership and great ceremonial
and social authority.
One practice that is common to all Aboriginal tribes is the setting
aside of sacred areas relating to Women’s Business, ceremonies, rituals,
songs, dances and sacred sites. In some tribes, Aboriginal authority is
ranked according to birth. So if, for example, the eldest child is a female,
she will have ultimate power and responsibility in making decisions
affecting her group. FIG. 1.20 A Pitjantjatjara woman on
The independence of women is an important element in Aboriginal her homeland near the South Australia–
Northern Territory border
society. It is well documented that woman are the main food suppliers
for their communities—at least 85 per cent of the food consumed in
Aboriginal society is hunted and gathered by women. It could be said
that men are more dependent on women than on other men for their
food sources. In addition, women have their own sacred sites, rituals
and ceremonies, which men are not allowed to enter or participate in. It
is quite often stated by Aboriginal men that women are the ‘backbone’
of Aboriginal society. This is a fact not often recognised or taken into
consideration by Euro-Australians.
activities
1. What was the role of women in creating Aboriginal laws, sacred rituals
and objects?
2. Research the role of women in traditional Aboriginal societies today.

Connection of the Dreaming, the land force. Thus the balance and integrity of all creation
and identity is sustained and the stability of life preserved. While
totemism itself is not a religion, it contains religious
The Dreaming, the land and an individual or group elements because of the link that it makes between
of people are inexorably linked. creation and the Ancestral Beings.
The link between human beings and creation
is made through what Europeans have called activities
‘totemism’. A totem can be any object, such as a
1. What is totemism?
bird, a plant or even a particular landmark, through
which a person is linked to the creative spiritual 2. Why is totemism important to Aboriginal people?
force responsible for his or her existence. The person, 3. Aboriginal ceremonies allow communication
through the totem, becomes linked to the land and with Ancestral Beings. Why is this important to
to the Spirit governing that territory. Each totem the people?
has its own sacred sites and sites of significance 4. Do you see any similarities between these
associated with the mythology of that totem. This ceremonies and elements of other religions? Explain.
means that ultimately the land, through its totemic
links, owns the people.
Totemism is a system of belief that gives rise to The Dreaming is the eternal link between Ancestral
the existence of that special link, and also gives effect Spirits and Aboriginal humanity. It explains the
to people’s relationship with the Ancestral Beings creation of life and the sustaining of life; it reveals the
through participation in ceremonial events. Such totemic connection to land and the sacred sites given
events enable communication with the Ancestral by the Ancestral Beings; it brings out the relevance
Spirit(s) and participation in the rejuvenation of of the nexus between the there-and-then and the
that life force that ensures the stability of human here-and-now. Tribal land is not so much a defined
experience. Aboriginals may have a combination of area as a constellation of ancestral narratives
individual and group totems to make sure that the particular to special places that were sacred to a
whole range of human expression is covered. number of different groups—places such as Uluru.
Totemism is formalised through ceremonialism. Thus the Dreaming affects rights to land.
It is through dance, song and symbolism that The Dreaming is not only a memory of the past
aspects of creation are linked with the creative life but also the reality of the present and the creator
FIG. 1.21 Through Aboriginal ceremonial dance, aspects of

creation are linked with the creative life force.

of the future. The Dreaming is the Law that the The Aboriginal understanding of land covers the
Ancestral Spirits created and passed on through the whole of Australia. Through Ancestral Beings this
rituals and ceremonies that are carried out even to land was given to different Aboriginal tribes. The
this day. Aboriginal people view their Dreaming as Spirit Beings travelled from one tribal boundary
who and what they are. to another throughout the land, sea, rivers and
Western academics have written about the so-called along the coast, giving names as well as Spirits to
‘migration’ of Aboriginal people to the land now the Aboriginal Ancestors, thereby signifying their
called Australia. It is also important to note that this relationship to a particular land. The Spirit Beings
theory of migration is just that—a theory. No concrete forged links between certain Aboriginal groups,
evidence in support of it has ever been found. creating kinship bonds and relationships through
Aboriginal people are in profound disagreement with their association with and bestowal of land.
any such notion. Gularrwuy Yunupingu, the Gumatj
leader (see page 18), shares a story from another activities
tradition leader, Burrumarra, from Elcho Island, that
1. How is tribal land linked to the Dreaming?
challenges such theories. Burrumarra demanded to
know where, in what museums, were the rafts in 2. What is the importance of this link to Aboriginal
which Aboriginal people had arrived. people and how does it influence their behaviour?
As Yunupingu has said: ‘They knew that the 3. Explain the link between Spirit Beings and the land.
Spirit Beings had bestowed the land on Yolngu
people in the distant past, and that all Aboriginals
would affirm, “This country was always ours.” ’ Land boundaries and names
When Aboriginal people express the term Within the Dreaming, the use of particular names and
‘always’, they are signifying the importance of their terms in Aboriginal languages indicates the significant
relationship with the land. They are saying that the relationships that exist between social groups and
land is theirs because the Ancestral Beings bestowed the bestowal of their land. The boundaries are
it on them from the beginning of time, and that established by the Spirit Beings’ travels through one
there has been no change in this relationship. territory to another, and by the transformations of the
Aboriginal relationships to motherland are as Spirit Beings, which are marked by the distribution
critically important as those to fatherland. Both the of languages or dialects. The place where such a
mother’s and the father’s line are linked to people transformation takes place makes the boundary of
who themselves are bound to land. While there a related, yet separate, land-owning group, and the
are clearly distinct roles and areas of responsibility, Spirit Being continues to make and name sacred areas
these complex interrelationships between males and as it travels through the land.
females work towards harmony. Aboriginal people For various Aboriginal peoples, a Spirit Being
have saturated their family relationships with has given names in their own language or dialect to
symbolism, especially symbolism relating to land. land, animals, rituals and ceremonies. In most cases
FIG. 1.22 Uluru in the Northern Territory is sacred to the Pitjantjatjara

and Yankunytjatjara, the Aboriginal people of the area.

areas named by the Spirit Being have more than
one name, but some of these names are never used
for non-ceremonial purposes; they are only used
during ritual singing. Names are ranked according
to their sacredness—a division exists between
‘inside’ (sacred names) and ‘outside’ (public names).
An Aboriginal person attaches great importance to
his or her own name because of the person (in most
cases a relative) who gave them their name, and
because the name signifies their relationship to the
land as well as their ownership of land.
Aboriginal names
Names operate at several levels in Aboriginal society.
They are important in identifying a person’s:
• relationship to the land
• status or position within a community FIG. 1.23 Australian native flora supplies a wide range of plants
• social roles within a community for food.
• obligations concerning ceremony, land and

community. snakes), birds (emus, mutton birds, ducks, magpie
geese, brolgas), marine life (turtles, fish, crustaceans,
It is not unusual for an Aboriginal person to have sharks, stingrays, dugongs), insects (witchetty
more than one name, for it is by name that they grubs, honey bees, honey ants) and plants (yams,
identify their position within a language group. berries, native fruits). This short list identifies just
some of the wide range of natural resources used
activities and maintained even today by Aboriginal people.
It could even be said that Aboriginals are the true
1. How are Aboriginal land areas defined by
conservationists since they waste nothing and use
Aboriginal people and how were they developed?
the environment so as not to exhaust any species.
2. Why are names very important to Aboriginal people? For example, when women gather yams, they do so
in such a way that a portion of the plant is left to
regenerate itself. Conservation is a general practice
of Aboriginal hunting and gathering techniques.
Land and economics Knowledge of how to find natural resources comes
from the Aboriginal people’s caretaker relationship
On the whole, Aboriginals view their relationship to with the land. Aboriginal people have never
land not only as a religious one but also an economic manipulated the environment to suit themselves
one. The Ancestral bestowal of land on Aboriginal but rather have adapted to the land, of which they
people gave them ownership, which includes control themselves are a part. Land has never been seen as a
of all of the land’s resources as well as the maintenance commodity or as capital to be bought, sold or traded.
of its territorial integrity. Aboriginal economies are Rather, Aboriginals have always believed that the land
based on the land, which is rich in both spiritual and is an extension of life. They often refer to it as ‘the
material resources. Throughout Australia, Aboriginals Land, our Mother’.
have always had their needs met by the tremendous
variety of the land’s natural resources. activities
The Aboriginal diet varies from season to season.
1. Describe the connection between the Dreaming,
Whether one looks at coastal areas or wetlands,
the land and Aboriginal people’s identity.
at inland river systems or Central Australia’s arid
deserts, a food supply is present. Native flora 2. Discuss the implications that you think this might
and fauna provide foods that include mammals have on issues such as Aboriginal land rights.
(kangaroos and wallabies), reptiles (goannas, lizards,

Review and assess
Review
1. Explain the ways in which the characteristics of religion describe a

religious tradition as a whole.
2. Explain the difference between the terms transcendent and

immanent. Use examples to support your explanation.
3. What are the major characteristics of most religions?
4. Explain the contribution of religion both to individuals and to

societies and their cultures.
5. Aboriginal spirituality is a religion based on oral traditions. What

does this mean? Discuss whether this is different to the early years
of Christianity or another major religious tradition.
6. Explain the Aboriginal concept of the Dreaming.
7. Explain the connections between land, identity and the Dreaming to

Aboriginal people.
8. Discuss the diversity of Aboriginal Dreaming.
9. Use the Internet to research Aboriginal art associated with the

Dreaming. Look at meanings associated with particular elements,
then apply that knowledge to interpret the artwork in Figure
1.15 on page 18. Remember that your response will only be your
interpretation based on your research, not necessarily the precise
meaning intended by the artist.
10. In groups, debate the following statement: ‘Rites and religious rituals
are a means of controlling the behaviour of adherents.’

Exam style questions
Multiple choice 16. The separation of officials and laity has been
determined by:
11. The paradigm belief of Buddhism is:
a. the laity themselves
a. there is One God
b. the government
b. the Three Refuges
c. church officials
c. the Eightfold Path
d. religious traditions.
d. Bodhisattvas, which can help attain Nirvana.
12. Christianity is practised the same way in:

17. ‘Rrark’ is an example of:
a. Latin America and Europe
a. European artistic painting style
b. Africa and the United States
b. Aboriginal spiritual figures
c. Australia and the United Kingdom
c. natural rock formations
d. South America and the United Kingdom.
d. Aboriginal artistic style.
13 The Mahabharata is an example of an epic story
18. ‘Murri’ is the Aboriginal term for an Aboriginal
in the sacred writings of:
person who comes from:
a. Islam
a. South Australia
b. Mahayana Buddhism
b. Northern Territory
c. Judaism
c. Queensland
d. Hinduism.
d. New South Wales.
14. Global warming, cloning and nuclear weapon
19. A sacred site for Aboriginals is:
systems are all examples of:
a. a natural land formation
a. scientific humanism
b. a church
b. current ethical issues
c. a cathedral
c. issues found in traditional ethical teachings
d. land set aside as a national park.
d. rational humanism.
20. For Aboriginal women, authority is a result of:
15. An example of a rite of passage for Christians is:
a. being an outstanding hunter and gatherer
a. the Way of the Cross
b. being born eldest in a family
b. the Feast of the Passover
c. being the tallest woman in the community
c. ordination to the priesthood
d. having the best education.
d. Brit Milah.

02_KIN_OSR_Buddh.indd 30 11/9/09 8:49:30 AM
Buddhism
The focus of this study is Buddhism, one of the major
religious traditions, as a living religious system.
Outcomes Content
P3 investigates religious traditions and
belief systems Origins
P4 examines significant aspects of religious • the historical and cultural context in which
traditions Buddhism began
P5 describes the influence of religious traditions • the Buddha

in the life of adherents • the formation of the Sangha
P6 selects and uses relevant information about • the early councils, including the first council at
religion from a variety of sources Rajagaha and the second council at Vesali
P7 undertakes effective research about religion, • Buddhism
making appropriate use of time and resources Theravada Buddhism
P8 uses appropriate terminology related to Mahayana Buddhism
religion and belief systems
Vajrayana Buddhism
P9 effectively communicates information, ideas
and issues using appropriate written, oral and Principal beliefs
graphic forms
• the Three Jewels
the Four Noble Truths
the marks of existence
karma, samsara, nirvana

• Tripitaka
• Lotus of the Good Law
• Tibetan Book of the Dead
Core ethical teachings

• the Five Precepts
• the Vinaya
Personal devotion in the home

• puja

Prelim | Chapter 2 Buddhism 31

ANATMA the human condition of possessing no MOKSHA the final reconnection between the
permanent self. atman and Brahman.
ANICCA the teaching that everything changes. MUDRAS body postures.
ARAHATS holy men in Theravada Buddhism. NIRVANA the teaching of the ultimate destiny for
ASCETICISM the practice of disciplining the body to all sentient life forms.
achieve spiritual perfection. PANCASILAM refers to The Five Precepts.
ATMAN the belief that a human has a soul. PARANIRVANA the departure of the Lord Buddha from
BARDO the Tibetan word Bardo means literally this world into nirvana.
‘intermediate state’ — also translated as PRAJNA wisdom.
‘transitional state’ or ‘in-between state’ PUJA private or public ritual; worship
or ‘liminal state’. involving offerings to a deity.
BODHISATTVA a human who has promised to aid all SAKYAMUNI the historic Buddha.
sentient life in achieving nirvana.
SAMADHI the practice of meditation in
BRAHMAN the ultimate divine reality (god) in Buddhism.
Hinduism.
SAMSARA the cycle of rebirths.
BRAHMINS the priestly caste in Hinduism.
SANGHA the community of Buddhist believers
BUDDHA the Enlightened One who has realised and, more specifically, Buddhist monks
the fundamental truth of reality. and nuns.
DHARMA the teachings of the Lord Buddha and SENTIENT all creatures that possess senses and
the laws of the universe. respond to the enviorment in which
DUKKHA the teaching that every aspect of they live.
ordinary life has some aspect of SHRAMANAS holy men and women.
suffering or incompleteness.
SILA the ethical life in Buddhism.
ENLIGHTENMENT a blessed state in which the individual
SKANDRAS five combinations of energy which
transcends desire and suffering and
make up the ever-changing human
attains Nirvana.
being.
JHANAS levels of meditation practice in
STREAM-ENTERER a person who realises that everything
Buddhism.
is an illusion, and there is nothing but
KARMA the consequence of all acts that are nirvana.
done willingly.
THERAVADA the School of Elders in Buddhism
KUSALA a good act. found in South-East Asia.
MAHAYANA the School of the Great Wheel in TRIPITAKA the Buddhist sacred texts (the ‘three
Buddhism found in northern countries baskets’) made up of the Sutta Pitaka,
of Asia. the Vinaya Pitaka and the Abhidharma
MANDALAS spiritual maps of the various realms of Pitaka.
the Buddhas. VAJRAYANA the school of Buddhism found in Tibet
MANTRAS spiritual sounds or chants. and Nepal.
MEDITATION a mental concentration which allows VEDAS Hinduism’s most ancient sacred texts.
the person to reach a deeper mental VINAYA the first collection of the Tripitaka
state of relaxation or awareness. (sacred texts) in Buddhism indicating
MIDDLE WAY OR at some point Buddha came to a the laws for monks.
PATH conclusion that the right path of
extremism and non-extremism was
somewhere in the middle and he called
it the ‘middle path’.

Origins of Buddhism
The historical and cultural context samsara [the cycle of rebirths] and the return of the
atman to Brahman).
India in the sixth century BCE was a country India was also a nation rich in intellectual life.
comprising many tribes and a diversity of cultures. There were many schools of philosophy that
Its religious tradition was that of the Vedas attempted to discern the very nature of existence.
(ancient books containing the teachings and Some argued that the universe was made up only of
ritual expectations of the Brahmins) and the new matter while others thought that it was principally
Upanishads (philosophical works that taught the spiritual. Still others thought that any human
close relationship between the atman [soul] and the attempt to understand reality was impossible.
source of the universe, Brahman). It was a country There was also a highly developed spiritual
divided into three classes: the Brahmins (priests), culture. Men and women devoted their lives
the Kshatriyas (knights) and the Vaishyas (skilled to seeking moksha. Many became shramanas
workers). These castes were clearly segregated and (wanderers who gave up the comforts of life) and
a person was born into one of them and remained some chose asceticism (harshly disciplining their
within it. Outside these three castes were the bodies through starvation and pain), while others
outcastes, people who had no political or social found comfort in mysticism or magic.
power and depended on others for their livelihood.
The Hindu religion was based largely on animal activities
sacrifices performed by the Brahmins. The rituals
1. Describe what life was like in India at the time
were elaborate and formal. Adherents believed that
Buddhism was formed.
through puja (ritual/devotion) at home and in the
temple, along with discipline of the body and mind, 2. Describe the Hindu religious tradition that was
they could increase good karma (the development practised before Buddhism.
of their atman) to achieve moksha (release from
FIG. 2.1 Hindu gods and goddesses

The Buddha
Around 560 BCE Siddhartha Gautama, sometimes

known as Sakyamuni (the insightful one of the
Sakya tribe), was born. Legend has it that his
mother, Mahamaya, conceived him when a white
elephant passed through her side. At his birth, his
father, Suddhodana, called learned scholars and
priests to predict what future this child would have.
They responded that he would become either a
powerful ruler of men, like his father, or a great
religious leader. The father decided that Siddhartha
would become a ruler. In order for this to happen,
the father gave his son all the comforts that his
palaces could provide and removed all situations of
suffering that might cause the child to think about
the meaning of life beyond the here and now.
There are stories that the child was very
intelligent and insightful. One story narrates how
as a boy he developed the method of meditation
that would become crucial for his enlightenment
as the Buddha.
Other stories tell of his growing awareness of
human suffering and the need to find a solution
for it. On three journeys away from the comforts
of the palace, he encountered a sick person, an old
person and finally a dead person. All these sights
made him realise that he too would suffer and die.
On a final journey he met a holy man and saw the
peacefulness that he had attained.
Determined to find the solution to all human
suffering, Siddhartha left his wife and child. (This is
seen by Buddhists as a noble deed whose outcome
would benefit all humankind.) He first sought for
the solution in the various schools of philosophy.
But having mastered them, he still had not found
the solution. He next tried asceticism, disciplining
his body in order for his mind to find the answer
through meditation. It is said that his use of fasting
and sleep deprivation was thought by his fellow FIG. 2.2 Siddhartha (the Lord Buddha) leaves his family after
ascetics and companions to be very extreme. seeing the four signs (old age, death, sickness and a hermit) that
were to persuade him to become an ascetic.
Finding this disciplined life unsatisfactory,
he allowed a milkmaid to give him a drink. His
companions, disgusted by his renunciation of their suffering. His insights became known as the Four
discipline, abandoned him. Siddhartha, however, Noble Truths (see page 41). Deciding that his
resolved to enter into a state of meditation until he solution could be taught to others, he sought out
had either died or had found the solution. his companions in the deer park at Sanath (Benares)
Under the Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya, Siddhartha and preached his first sermon, known as ‘The
became enlightened. At that moment he became Turning of the Great Wheel of the Dharma’. On
the Lord Buddha (the Enlightened One). He had hearing it, one of his companions also became
discovered the cause and the solution to human enlightened. Others followed.

The Buddha’s central ideas
• Life is full of suffering and discontent
• Suffering is caused by desires and grasping
• The end of suffering is achieved by removing
all desires and graspings
• There is a noble eightfold path which will
bring about the end of suffering
From the moment of his enlightenment the Lord

Buddha became a supreme guide for those people
who were attracted by his teaching and compassion.
These became his early disciples (the Sangha, the
community of monks and nuns). His insights and
teachings (Dharma), his ability to explain the
ethical life (sila) and his guidance into the correct
ways of meditating (samadhi) clearly presented
him as the role model for all Buddhists. He
preached and lived the Middle Path, avoiding the
extremes of academic rigour and asceticism. His
simplicity in dress and manner, his welcome to all
who sought him out, and his acknowledgement
that all humans, regardless of what caste they
belonged to, could find enlightenment using the
methods and the teachings he had discovered made
him the living example of what would become
known as Buddhism.
activities
1. What legends exist about the birth of Siddhartha
Gautama?
2. Describe the life of Siddhartha Gautama as a child.
3. Outline the events surrounding the Bodhi
Tree that created a major change in the life of
Siddhartha Gautama.
4. How did Siddhartha Gautama’s life change after
this period of enlightenment?
5. Alongside the following list of the virtues of the
Lord Buddha, give examples from his life:
wisdom, compassion, generosity, simplicity,
perseverance and reflection.
FIG. 2.3 The Lord Buddha

preaching to his disciples

Formation of the Sangha The early councils
The Sangha initially consisted of the close companions The first two councils
of the Lord Buddha, who received his instructions as After the paranirvana (apparent death) of the Lord
to how to live and develop in the spiritual life. From Buddha, there was a meeting of the Arahats (holy
these teachings arose the Vinaya (the code or set of men) at Rajagaha. The purpose of this meeting was to
rules for Bhikkus, monks). For many years the Lord agree on the Dharma and the Vinaya. It also gave the
Buddha refused to allow women to enter into this Arahats an opportunity to recite the Dharma so that all
spiritual community by becoming Bhikkunis, nuns. could agree that what had been committed to memory
After persistent requests, however, his foster mother, were in fact the correct teachings of the Lord Buddha.
Mahapajapati, finally was given permission to establish Seventy years after the first recitation, the
the Sangha for women. This was of great significance Arahats assembled for a second council at Vasali.
in that it indicated that higher levels of the spiritual This meeting was necessary for a disagreement
life were accessible to both men and women. about the Dharma had arisen. Some monks were
Like the Lord Buddha, his early companions behaving in a way thought to be not in keeping
were wandering beggars. During the dry season with the Vinaya, such as accepting gold and silver,
they would travel through villages and cities giving and these monks were expelled.
instruction and receiving donations of food from The importance of these councils is that, in
the people. In the rainy season they would retire its earliest development, the Sangha collectively
to the forest to live simply and use the time for decided what the truth of the Dharma was and how
meditation and study of the Dharma. they should live it out. Ananda, a close companion
The Buddha urged his followers to meet regularly of the Lord Buddha, had asked him who would
so that all could agree on the correct understanding of succeed him as leader of the Sangha. He stated that
his teachings and on the correct way of life for a monk. no one was to lead the Sangha—only the Dharma
If there were disagreements the monks could vote and could hold such a position of authority. These
the majority vote would decide the disagreement. community meetings ensured that no hierarchical
system of government developed for all members
activities of the Sangha outside of each community. Each
Sangha could make decisions without seeking
1. Who were the Sangha?
advice from an external leader. Only when the
2. How did they live their lives? decisions made within a Sangha were recognised
3. Why do you think the people supported them as wrong or heretical would other members from
with food? different Sanghas assemble to decide what was right.
This gave the oldest institution in the world (see
page 40) the means to survive and adapt to varying
circumstances and cultures. It eventually permitted
the evolution of the three Schools of Buddhism—
Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana.
activities
1. Why were the councils necessary?
2. What did each achieve?
3. Why were the councils important to Buddhism?
FIG. 2.4 Buddhist monks with begging bowls

receiving donations of food

FIG. 2.5 The life of the Lord Buddha is depicted on the walls of the Borobudur Temple, Java, Indonesia.
The three schools of Buddhism Mahayana Buddhism

The Mahayana school of Buddhism is found
Theravadan Buddhism in Northern Asia. It is the Buddhism of China,
The Theravada school of Buddhism exists throughout Korea and Japan. Though accepting the principal
the countries of South-East Asia—from Sri Lanka to teachings of the Lord Buddha found within the
Vietnam and throughout the islands of Malaysia and Tripitaka, it differs from Theravada on five points.
Indonesia. It is known as the ‘School of the Elders’ and First, the school accepts that the Lord Buddha
is regarded as the oldest of the three schools. was a historical human person who found
It has a strong emphasis on monastic life as the enlightenment. It also, however, recognises that he
means of attaining enlightenment. It teaches that is one of many Buddhas who existed either in the
only men can become enlightened and that this past or within different universes. To distinguish
is only possible for members of the Sangha. Those the historic Buddha, he is often referred to as
who attain enlightenment are called ‘Arahats’. Sakyamuni. This school teaches that there is a
It stresses that enlightenment is brought about Buddha nature that has three aspects: one that lies
through meditation (samadhi) and the doing of at the essence of all things, one that shows itself to
good works (sila). These bring about an increase in Buddhas and other holy man and women, and a
prajna (wisdom). third that is seen in the human form of Sakyamuni.
Along with all other Buddhists, followers of this Second, these holy men and women
school take refuge in the Three Jewels (Buddha, (Bodhisattvas) begin the spiritual journey by
the Dharma and the Sangha). They believe in the undertaking the Bodhisattva vow. This vow is to
teachings of karma, samsara and nirvana. They hold seek nirvana but to assist all sentient beings in also
that intentional acts bring about either good karma attaining it before they themselves will achieve this
or bad karma, which determines a person’s next life. state. Bodhisattvas are thought to be holier than the
They accept the Tripitaka (sacred texts) as possessing Arahats of Theravada Buddhism and to be able to
the authentic teachings of the Lord Buddha. Theravada respond to the petitions and needs of humans.
Buddhism is seen as a means by which a person can Third, nirvana is understood differently.
overcome the three human conditions of anatma Mahayana Buddhism understands nirvana as
(possessing no permanent self), anicca (everything in underlying all phenomena and that it is nothing
life changes) and dukkha (all aspects of human life and formless (sunyata). Because all phenomenal
have some form of suffering or unsatisfactoriness). things experienced by humans are really indications

FIG. 2.6 Tibetan monks tracing a mandala with coloured sand
of nirvana, individuals strive to prepare themselves, According to this school, enlightenment is

through meditation and a good life, to be awakened achieved under the guidance of gurus (persons
to enlightenment at any moment or through any who have achieved high levels of meditation and
experience. The human sees that he or she is nothing understanding). The path towards enlightenment
other than nirvana. Therefore, people do not is rigorous and uses three means: mudras (bodily
require the Sangha in order to achieve nirvana, and postures), mantras (spiritual sounds or mystical
enlightenment is possible for both men and women. phrases) and mandalas (spiritual maps of the
Fourth, Mahayana Buddhism agrees that a various realms of the Buddhas).
good life (sila) and meditation (samadhi) increases There are two principal paths in Vajrayana.
prajna (wisdom), but it further stresses that a life The first is known as the Right-hand Path and
of commitment and devotion is also necessary. stresses the use of the mantras, mudras and
For example, devotion to the Buddha Amitaba will mandalas. The Left-hand Path incorporates the
ensure that the person will enter into Amitaba’s worship of shaktis (goddesses) who mate with
heavenly realm after the person’s death. Indeed, the gods in loving compassion, and also recognises
very utterance of his name with complete devotion the powers and temptation of demons. When a
will bring about this heavenly reincarnation. person achieves the highest spiritual levels, he may
Lastly, Mahayana Buddhism accepts other texts as use practices that other schools would recognise as
sacred. Important texts like the Diamond and Lotus immoral, such as the eating of meat and drinking of
Suttas contain information about the existence of the alcohol.
Bodhisattvas and the true nature of the Lord Buddha.
activity
Vajrayana Buddhism
Create a table with a column allocated to each school
The Vajrayana school of Buddhism is practised
of Buddhism. In the columns list the following details
in Tibet and Nepal. It came about through the
for each school: where it was formed; what it believes;
adoption of local religious beliefs and customs,
its relationship to Buddha’s original teaching; and who
particularly incorporating local gods and goddesses
promoted the vision of the school.
into its belief system.

Principal beliefs
The Three Jewels
Buddha
Buddhists see the Lord Buddha as an enlightened human being. This
is very important, for it indicates that all humans are able, through
Buddhism, to achieve the same enlightenment. For Mahayana Buddhism,
the Lord Buddha undertook, many epochs ago, the Bodhisattva vow to aid
‘
all sentient life forms in gaining nirvana.
… all humans
A Buddha is a person who is ‘deep, immeasurable, and hard to follow
as is the great ocean’ (Majjhima Nikaya 1.487). As a Buddha he is capable are able, through
of seeing the past lives of all whom he meets and can see all of his own
Buddhism, to
past lives. He is called the Lord Buddha because he was the one who re-
awakened the Dharma for this present age. achieve the same
’
He is the best role model for Buddhists and is the one who has given
enlightenment …
humans the means to achieve enlightenment, the Dharma. His central
teachings are known as the Four Noble Truths (see page 41) containing
the Eightfold Path of Perfection. He is also the founder of the Sangha,
understood as both the monastic communities and the universal
community of all Buddhists.
His own enlightenment taught that every person is responsible for his
own success on the spiritual path. There is no divine help in the form of
rewards and no divine judgment of failure. The path is to avoid all extreme FIG. 2.7 Lord Buddha
forms of behaviour and to integrate the moral life (sila) with meditation
(samadhi) in order to grow in an understanding of the Dharma (prajna).
Dharma
The Dharma is, first, the teachings of the Lord Buddha. It is the means by
which he instructed his followers on the correct spiritual journey towards
enlightenment and nirvana. It contains the description of the human
condition (anatma, anicca and dukkha) and the way of overcoming this
condition (the Four Noble Truths). The Lord Buddha is the Dharma in that
his life and message indicate that the truth is attainable.
Second, the Dharma is found within the sacred texts, primarily in the
Tripitaka but also in the Suttas of Mahayana and texts accepted by Vajrayana
Buddhism. The Dharma, however, cannot be contained only within the
texts, for it is, third, the very laws of the universe. It is that which orders all
things in the phenomenal world and has for its basis nirvana.
Finally, the Dharma is the lived experience of Buddhism throughout
the ages. The lives of holy men and women, the progress of the ordinary
Buddhist, and the Sangha all indicate the Dharma.
Sangha
The Sangha is, first, the universal community of
Buddhists. Specifically, it is the term applied to the
monastic communities of monks and nuns. It was

FIG. 2.8 Buddhist monk at prayer in a temple
founded by the Lord Buddha after his companions and temples. The head of the community is the
accepted the truth of his first sermon at Sanath abbot, who receives this position because he is
(Benares). It is the oldest institute in history. acknowledged as having achieved the highest level
Members of the Sangha observed the rules of spiritual development within the community.
laid down in the Vinaya, the code for monastic The Lord Buddha also established the female
behaviour (see page 46). The monks and nuns Sangha. Nuns have more rules to observe than
observe five precepts more than the lay person is monks and must show respect to all male members
expected to observe. These are that no food is to be of the Sangha regardless of age or spiritual
consumed after midday, that monks and nuns must development.
avoid the distraction of entertainments or military For monks and nuns, the daily routine is to rise
parades, that they are not to sleep on high beds, before dawn and perform both meditation and puja.
that they are not to handle gold or silver (money), They then leave the monastery to beg for food.
and that they are to dress according to the code of This is eaten in two meals, one on returning to the
the monastery, which does not allow the use of any monastery and the other just before noon. The day
items of vanity such as jewellery or cosmetics. A is spent in study, domestic duties and assisting the
further rule states that monks and nuns may not eat laity with puja and advice.
meat that has been killed for that purpose.
Young men or boys enter the Sangha as novices. activities
They undergo training in monastic life, particularly
1. Who is the Lord Buddha?
training in meditation and puja. They also receive
instruction in the teachings of the Lord Buddha and 2. What do Buddhists see as the ‘spiritual path’ or
the monastic code (Vinaya). All monks must show ‘journey’?
respect to those monks who have been members 3. What is the Dharma?
of the Sangha for a longer time than they have. 4. As a group, discuss if the Dharma can be found in
For ordination there must be a specific number of the sacred texts, explaining why or why not.
monks, usually ten in number. In Thailand, all men
5. Describe the Sangha.
are expected to join the Sangha at least once in
their lifetime. It is also the custom for Thai boys to 6. How do members of the Sangha behave and what
transfer the karma that they merit on entering the rules do they follow?
Sangha to their mothers. 7. Research the role and daily rituals of the male and
The Sangha is administered by senior monks female monks in the Sangha.
who are in charge of maintaining the monastery

The Four Noble Truths The Eightfold Path to Perfection
The Four Noble Truths are among the most insightful understandings about The fourth Noble Truth is the
the human condition. The Lord Buddha, at his enlightenment, discovered truth about how to cease cravings
the cause of human suffering and the means by which suffering would cease. and is known as the Eightfold
The first Noble Truth is about suffering (dukkha). All aspects of a Path of Perfection. The first two
human’s life contain elements of suffering. Dukkha is the experience paths deal with the gaining of
of the loss of happiness, of pain and illness, of death, and of a sense of wisdom (prajna). The next four
never being satisfied. paths teach how to live a good
The second Noble Truth is about the cause of suffering. What brings ethical life (sila) and the final two
about dukkha is craving after things that a person does not have. It is the give instruction in the practice of
grasping for pleasures and the attachment to wrong ideas. It is not being meditation (samadhi).
content with the present moment as it really is. 1. Right understanding is the
To end this suffering the third Noble Truth teaches that a person acceptance of the truth of
merely needs to cease craving. Once all cravings and attachments have the Buddha and the Dharma.
ceased, then the person will achieve nirvana. Even the craving to achieve
2. Right thought is the correct
nirvana must, in the final stage of spiritual development, be destroyed.
use of the mind to be open
to wisdom.
activities 3. Right speech forbids lying,
1. Explain the Four Noble Truths. slander, gossip or any speech
2. How are they important in the everyday life of a Buddhist? that will harm a person.
3. What is the major distinction between the first two and the second 4. Right action is to accept
two truths? and live out the five ethical
precepts (see page 45).
4. The fourth Noble Truth is a way of living. Debate in groups how you
think this would work in your society or cultural group. Why/why not? 5. Right livelihood indicates
What features are similar to those of your faith? In what way? which careers and ways
of living are suitable for a
Buddhist.
The marks of existence 6. Right effort provides the
channelling of energy and
According to Buddhism, all human beings have three conditions that time into the practice of
they need to acknowledge. Buddhism.
Anicca is the knowledge that there is no thing that does not undergo
7. Right mindfulness prepares
change. Every aspect of life and the universe is impermanent. As every
the person through
cell in a person’s body comes into existence and then dies, so too do all
meditation to keep on the
phenomena. This universal law of change leads to one of Buddhism’s
path to enlightenment.
most unique teachings: anatma.
Anatma is the teaching that there is no permanent self. Humans do 8. Right concentration is the
not possess a soul that gives them a permanent identity. The human correct focus for the mind
consists of various parts (skandras) that themselves are ever changing. during meditation and the
The only thing that survives the death of a person is karma, the constant awareness of the
consequence of all intentional acts. Because there is no permanent present moment.
self that does not change, Buddhists argue that Buddhism is the only Each aspect of the Eightfold
religious tradition that needs an ethical system. For if there were a Path is to be practised with
permanent, unchanging soul then no act could affect it. all the others. Because of the
Failure to recognise that there is no permanent self and that all things interconnectedness of sila,
change brings about the third condition. Dukkha is the suffering that samadhi and prajna, all elements
humans feel because they cling to the deceit of the unchanging self of the Path must become the
and the idea that certain things will bring them unchanging happiness. practice of every Buddhist in
But since all things change there is nothing that can guarantee such a living out his or her commitment
permanent state of happiness. to the religious tradition.

Karma, Samsara, Nirvana
Karma is the consequence of any act that a person

willingly and knowingly does. Those acts that are
good (kusala) bring about good karma, while those
that harm any sentient life form (akusula) bring
about bad karma. The Buddhist attempts to increase
the good karma during his lifetime and to reduce
any bad karma brought about either during this life
or previous lives. Karma is related closely to prajna
(wisdom), for to understand what it is to achieve
nirvana requires an increase in karma. Thus karma
is connected with right ethical behaviour (sila) and
right practice of meditation (samadhi).
Karma results in samsara, the cycle of rebirths.
After the person dies, karma seeks a suitable rebirth.
The rebirth is determined on the amount of karma.
The most desirable rebirth is that of becoming a
human, for only as a human can the Buddhist
achieve enlightenment. If a human has decreased
his or her karma through unethical behaviour
so that rebirth is not possible as a human, that
karma will find rebirth in lesser animal or sentient
life forms. Those who have reached high levels of
perfection yet not enlightenment may find rebirth
in one or other of the heavenly realms.
The goal for all Buddhists is to reach nirvana.
This is not a place of eternal happiness like heaven
or paradise, nor is it a reward for a good life. It is the
realisation that all known objects and what appear
to be individual experiences are illusions. There is
nothing but nirvana. The person who glimpses this
truth is known as a stream-enterer. Having grasped
this reality, the Buddhist enters into an extraordinary
path towards attaining nirvana. That person will live
a purer ethical life (sila) and practise higher levels of FIG. 2.9 A Chinese fresco depicting the cycle of rebirths
meditation (jhanas), gaining clearer understanding
that all things are no thing (prajna). When all
objectification has ceased (and this includes the
‘
dismissal of nirvana as a desirable object) then that
person is what he has always been—nirvana. Nirvana … is the
realisation that all known
activities objects and what appear to
1. Why is it possible to have good karma and
bad karma? be individual experiences
2. Explain the concept of ‘samsara’.
3. If nirvana is not heaven, what is it?
4. Create a mind map showing the connection
are illusions …
’
between karma, samsara and nirvana.

Sacred texts and
writings
Tripitaka
Sacred texts are those written collections that a

religious tradition accepts as defining the essential
teachings of the tradition. The Tripitaka (the ‘three
baskets’, for they were originally three collections
of scrolls kept in three baskets) contains three
divisions, the second of which is the Sutta Pitaka,
which is the collections of sayings of the Lord
Buddha and stories about his life. It is therefore of
great importance to the Buddhist, for it contains FIG. 2.10 The Pali canon written on bamboo, Cambodia
the essential teachings (Dharma) and the life of the
founder, presented as the most significant model of shows the differing path for attaining nirvana that
the way of attaining nirvana. Mahayana Buddhism offers. It is a clear denial of
The first part of the Tripitaka is the Vinaya Pitaka, the path offered by Theravada Buddhism.
which sets out the rules and expectations for the The Lotus of the Good Law has become an
Sangha. It also contains the decisions made in the important text for Japanese Buddhism. Many
past about what is to happen if a monk is found to schools of Buddhism within Japan would see this as
have broken one or more of the rules. The judgment an essential elaboration of the means of achieving
can range from a mild rebuke to expulsion from enlightenment.
the Sangha. The importance of this work is that it
connects the lifestyle of present-day monks to those Tibetan Book of the Dead
of the past and ensures that the Sangha remains a
witness to the truth of Buddhism. This significant text for Vajrayana Buddhism spells
The third division is the Abhidharma Pitaka, a set out the means by which a Buddhist can help
of philosophical works that discuss the intellectual determine his next rebirth. The Dalai Lama states:
consequences of the teachings of the Lord Buddha.
It also explores the psychological make-up of the From the Buddhist point of view, the actual
human person and the fundamental laws of karma. experience of death is very important. Although how
It is the most difficult part of the Tripitaka, but or where we will be reborn is generally dependent on
it is important for those desiring higher levels of karmic forces, our state of mind at the time of death
understanding through scholarship. It integrates can influence the quality of our next rebirth. So at
the teachings of the Lord Buddha into a logical and the moment of death, in spite of the great variety of
coherent system of thinking. karmas we have accumulated, if we make a special
effort to generate a virtuous state of mind, we may
The Lotus of the Good Law strengthen and activate a virtuous karma, and so
bring about a happy rebirth.
The Lotus of the Good Law is a Mahayana text (Sogyal Rinpoche, Preface,
regarded by many as a classic of literature. It tells The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying, 1998)
about the wonderful powers of the Divine Buddha.
It invites everyone to become one with the divine The text is therefore of great importance in
Buddha through the help of the Bodhisattvas. achieving this new ‘virtuous’ karmic state. It is a
It is made up of twenty-eight chapters and speaks book which guides people through dying and
about the powers of the Bodhisattvas, especially instructs them about what can be done in the
about Avalokitesvara. It is important in that it immediate state after dying (bardo).

activities
1. The Tripitaka (the ‘three baskets’) is the written collection of this tradition.
Outline what is in each of the three baskets and their implications for
Buddhists.
2. Mahayana Buddhism offers a clear denial of the path offered by Theravada
Buddhism. How are these paths different?
3. Why is death so significant to Vajrayana Buddhists that they consider the
Tibetan Book of the Dead so important?
4. Working in groups, select and read one of the extracts below. Present to the
class how your text presents the principal ideas of Buddhism.
40
Knowing that this body is fragile like a jar, and making this thought
firm like a fortress, one should attack Mara (the tempter) with the weapon
of knowledge, one should watch him when conquered, and should never
rest. 41 Before long, alas! this body will lie on the earth, despised, without
understanding, like a useless log.
131
He who seeking his own happiness punishes or kills beings who also long
for happiness, will not find happiness after death.
142
He who, though dressed in fine apparel, exercises tranquillity, is quiet,
subdued, restrained, chaste, and has ceased to find fault with others, he is
indeed a Brahmin, an ascetic (sramana), a friar (bhikshu).
(The Dhammapada)
The Buddha said to Shariputra, ‘The Buddhas, the Thus Come Ones, simply
teach and convert the Bodhisattvas. All the things they do are at all times
done for this one purpose. They simply wish to show the Buddha wisdom to
living beings and enlighten them to it.’
(The Lotus Sutra, translated by Burton Watson, 1993)
When I wander in samsara, And may his mate, Samaya-Tara,

Due to my intense envy, Protect me from behind.
In the path of the shining light May they help to cross
Of the wisdom of performance, The bardo’s dangerous path,
May the Blessed Amoghasiddhi And bring me to the perfect
Lead me Buddha state.
(The Tibetan Book of the Dead)
5. The photo of the library on this page is from a suburban Buddhist temple. It
shows lots of other books. Research other important Buddhist texts and their
importance to Buddhists.

Core ethical
teachings
The Five Precepts
The most commonly held set of ethical rules are

known as the Five Precepts (pancasilam):
1. To abstain from killing sentient life forms.
2. Never to take what is not given.
‘
3. Never to harm anyone through sensual pleasures.
Each of the Five
4. To avoid harming anyone through speech.
5. To avoid all mind-changing substances. Precepts produces its
Each of the Five Precepts produces its own

virtues. The first brings about compassion, the
second generosity, the third contentment and
genuine companionship, the fourth honesty, and
own virtues.
’
FIG. 2.11 In order to develop the spiritual path, clarity of mind is
of great significance.
the fifth clarity and awareness.

The first precept makes unjustified the killing must be avoided. Therefore, any use of language
of any sentient life form. Sentient life forms are all that abuses, demeans or insults another person
creatures that possess senses and respond to the or any use of language that deceives another is to
environment in which they live. Sentience indicates be avoided.
that there is the presence of karmic forces and a Finally, in order to develop the spiritual
creature should be allowed to develop these forces path, clarity of mind is of great significance.
during its life so that the karmic forces may be Any substance that clouds the mind or changes
reborn into a better life form. Buddhists see killing it from its function of gaining wisdom is to be
as an act that will bring about bad karma. Lesser bad avoided. Alcohol and mind-changing drugs that
karma, however, is created if the killing is of small are used outside of medical advice will produce less
sentient life forms, and most serious is the killing of opportunity for improving a person’s ethical life
a human being. (sila)—and in fact may ruin that person’s life—and
The second precept not only rejects stealing will also affect the development of the practice of
but advises that people may not take possession meditation (samadhi).
of anything that does not belong to them or that
has not been freely given to them by another. This activities
precept deals not only with material possessions but
1. Outline the importance of the ethical life to the
also with intellectual ideas. It also has an influence
everyday living of a Buddhist.
on dealings in business and the economy.
The third precept simply states that a person 2. Demonstrate how an ethical life is based on the
cannot do harm to himself or to others through principal teachings of Buddhism.
sensual pleasure or sex. In Buddhism any sexual act 3. Prepare a PowerPoint display of the key points of
that is harmful directly to another (for example, the Five Precepts using your own words.
rape) can never be permitted. But any act that may 4. Did you discover any similarities between
scandalise another is also to be avoided. Buddhist ethical rules and those of your own
Because a Buddhist wishes to attain faith or others that you have studied? Explain the
enlightenment that is a pure understanding of the similarities and where differences occur.
truth, any act that deliberately entails falsehood

FIG. 2.12 Tibetan monks at Sera Monastery in Lhasa, Tibet
The Vinaya
The Vinaya Pitaka is the first collection found in the The Parivara, the third book of the Vinaya Pitaka,
Tripitaka. It outlines the rules for monks within the offers analysis and commentary on the rules
monastery. It covers their dress, behaviour and diet identified in the other two books of the Vinaya
and provides further rules about the punishments Pitaka.
a monk will receive if he is found to have broken
any of the rules. It also addresses the right under- Discipline is for the sake of restraint,
standing of the teachings of the Lord Buddha. restraint for the sake of freedom from remorse,
Among its many rules are five further instructions freedom from remorse for the sake of joy,
of importance for the monks: joy for the sake of rapture,
1. They are not to eat after midday. rapture for the sake of tranquillity,
tranquillity for the sake of pleasure,
2. They may not attend any distracting
pleasure for the sake of concentration,
entertainments or military parades.
concentration for the sake of knowledge
3. They may not sleep on high beds. and vision of things as they are,
4. They may not handle silver or gold (money). knowledge and vision of things as they are
5. They may not use cosmetics or jewellery. for the sake of disenchantment,
disenchantment for the sake of release,
release for the sake of knowledge and vision of
activities release, knowledge and vision of release
1 Carefully consider the implications of becoming a for the sake of total unbinding without clinging.
Buddhist monk. List some advantages you see and (Vinaya Pitaka: Parivara.XII.2)
some disadvantages you see. Discuss these with
other students.
2 Do you think that a specific kind of person is
attracted to becoming a Buddhist monk? What
reasons do you have for this? Discuss with others
whether this is correct or incorrect, and why.

Personal devotion
in the home
Puja
Devotion (puja) in the home may be a time for an

individual or a family to show reverence and to offer
prayers. There is usually a specific place in the home
for a shrine that is cared for by members of the family.
This shrine may contain a statue or picture of the
Buddha or a Bodhisattva. It may simply consist of a
wall-hanging of calligraphy that presents a small piece
of sacred text.
There is no formal time for puja. It may be
undertaken at any time during the day or night. Most
often it will be one of the first things a person or
family does in the day. The person or family ensures
that they are properly dressed and clean. They will
sit or stand before the shrine and bow towards it.
Three bows shows reverence to the Three Jewels—the
Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha.
Offerings may be made. These may take the form of
flowers, in particular the lotus as a sign of the flowering
of Buddhism above the muddy waters of ordinary life.
Fruit may also be offered. For some, incense is offered,
which represents the belief that there is a spiritual
reality and path that the Buddha preached. Incense may
also represent the prayers and petitions of the person
‘going-up’ to the Lord Buddha or Bodhisattva. The
family may chant prayers or parts of sacred texts. Some
may use beads (malas) to concentrate on the repetition
of the prayers.
The shrine is also used as a place for samadhi
(meditation). It is an important place in the home
and is never used for any other purpose than puja
and meditation. FIG. 2.13 Family shrine, Australia
activities
1. What is puja and when does it occur?
2. If you walked into the home of a family you have never met before, what might
you see to indicate to you that they are Buddhists?
3. Why do you think it is important to Buddhists to have a shrine in their home?
4. Draw up a table that shows the key practices and the significant symbols of home
puja. Connect these to the principal teachings in Buddhism.

Review and assess
Review
1. Describe the diversity of culture in sixth-century BCE in India.
2. Describe each of the three classes of Indian society at the time of

the Buddha.
3. Discuss the means by which a person’s karma could be improved.
4. Explain the process of attaining nirvana.
5. Write a biography of Siddhartha Gautama.
6. What is the significance of ‘suffering’ to the Buddha’s story?
7. What is enlightenment?
8. Explain the importance of the Sangha to Therevada Buddhism.
9. Devise a table that demonstrates the similarities and differences

between the three major schools of Buddhism.
10. Outline the important facts that underlie Buddhist ethics.
11. Your friend is interested in converting to Buddhism. Outline the

principal beliefs that he or she would have to accept.
12. Explain how a Buddhist attempts to overcome suffering.
13. Select one Buddhist sacred text. Explain its significance to its branch
of Buddhism by using examples.
14. Give an example of personal devotion and describe what is

involved.

Exam style questions Longer response (500–650 words)
32. Explain the principal beliefs of Buddhism. Give

Short response (100–150 words) examples to support your answer.
15. Outline the Four Noble Truths. 33. Using the three major branches of Buddhism
(Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana),
16. Outline the historical context in which Buddhism demonstrate the development of Buddhist
first began. thought.
17. Outline the principal events in the life of the 34. Explain the significance of key Buddhist texts to
Buddha. the key Buddhist beliefs.
18. Describe the life of the Buddha.
19. Describe the early formation of the Sangha.
20. Outline the major points of the first two councils.
21. Outline the unique features of Theravada

Buddhism.
22. Outline the unique features of Mahayana

Buddhism.
23. Outline the unique features of Vajrayana

Buddhism.
24. Name and explain the Three Jewels.
25. Name and explain the three marks of existence.
26. Explain the importance to Buddhism of sacred

writings.
27. Explain the connection between karma, samsara

and nirvana.
28. Demonstrate the importance of the Lotus of the

Good Law.
29. Outline what happens in home puja.
30. Demonstrate how the Five Precepts form the basis

of Buddhist ethics.
31. Describe the Vinaya.

03_KIN_OSR_Christ.indd 50 11/9/09 8:56:24 AM
The focus of this study is Christianity, one of the major
• the development of early Christian communities

Outcomes
• Christianity
A student:
Anglicanism
P3 investigates religious traditions and belief
Catholicism
systems
Orthodoxy
P4 examines significant aspects of religious
traditions Pentecostalism
P5 describes the influence of religious traditions in Protestantism

the life of adherents
Principal beliefs
P6 selects and uses relevant information about
religion from a variety of sources • the divinity and humanity of Jesus Christ
P7 undertakes effective research about religion, • the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ
making appropriate use of time and resources • the nature of God and the Trinity
P8 uses appropriate terminology related to • revelation
religion and belief systems • salvation
and issues using appropriate written, oral and Sacred texts and writings
graphic forms • Bible

• the Ten Commandments
Content • New Testament ethics
Students learn about: the Beatitudes
Jesus’ commandment of love
Origins
• the historical and cultural context in which Personal devotion
Christianity began • prayer
• Jesus Christ
Prelim | Chapter 3 Christianity 51

CHARISM a gift of the Holy Spirit; an MESSIAH the anointed one who would save the
understanding of Christianity taken Jews and usher in the reign of God.
on by a particular community (for MONASTICISM a style of Christian life that emphasises
example, Franciscan charism focuses community, often of priests, brothers,
on the teachings of St Francis). nuns or lay believers.
CHRIST the Messiah, the ‘anointed one’; from MONOTHEISM belief in a single God, Judaism; Islam
the Greek Christos. and Christianity are monotheistic
COVENANT an agreement or contract—in the Old faiths.
Testament, between God and Israel. PHARISEES a first-century Jewish group who valued
DECALOGUE the Ten Commandments given to the oral law of Moses and the Torah as
Moses on Mount Sinai outlining a code guidance for how to live life as a Jew.
of behaviour for the Israelites during PRAYER forms of address to achieve a moment
the Exodus. of interaction with God.
DIASPORA the spread of Jewish communities PROCURATOR Roman official appointed to govern
around the known world. Roman provinces.
DISCIPLE a follower, particularly a follower of REFORMATION a 16th-century movement for renewal
Jesus of Nazareth. of the church, led by Luther, Zwingli,
ETHICS a set of practices based on moral beliefs Knox and Calvin.
clarifying what is right and wrong. REVELATION the message of God to all humanity,
GNOSTIC writings containing secret wisdom fully expressed in the person of Christ.
WRITINGS about Jesus’ ministry and teachings SACRAMENTS sacred rites or ceremonies involving
that were not included in the New change for the individual.
Testament.
SADDUCEES a priestly class of the Jewish people at
GOSPELS the Gospels were the good news of the the time of Jesus.
story of Jesus Christ. They refer to the
SALVATION the redemption of humanity achieved
first four books of the New Testament,
through Jesus Christ’s death and
attributed to Matthew, Mark, Luke
resurrection.
and John, thought to be written down
during the period 65–100 CE. SANHEDRIN the assembly of judges in Jerusalem,
the High Court of the Jews.
HELLENIC emanating from the Greek world.
TEMPLE OF central place of worship for Jewish
JESUS MOVEMENT the group of early Christians who set out
JERUSALEM adherents.
to spread the good news about Jesus.
TORAH the first five books of the Bible.
LITURGY official public worship, the set order for
communal worship. ZEALOTS a first-century Jewish group looking
for a Messiah who would lead a revolt
MEDITATION exercises that serve as a support for
against the Roman authorities.
prayer and contemplation of God.

Origins of Now there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, for
he was a doer of wonderful works, a teacher of such
Christianity men as receive the truth with pleasure. He drew over to

him both many of the Jews, and many of the Gentiles.
(Josephus, Antiquities 18.3.3)
Christianity is a monotheistic religion that has its roots

in Judaism. The central figure of Jesus of Nazareth, an Hence to suppress the rumour [that he had set Rome
itinerant Jewish preacher, was first recognised by John on fire], he [the Emperor Nero] falsely charged with the
the Baptist as the Messiah, the one for whom Jews guilt, and punished with the most fearful tortures, the
had been waiting. Jesus’ life and ministry of teaching persons commonly called Christians, who were hated
and healing in Galilee created a strong following for their enormities. Christus, the founder of that
among Jews and Gentiles in Galilee, Judea and name, was put to death by Pontius Pilate, procurator
elsewhere, but it was not until the story of his death of Judaea in the reign of Tiberius: but the pernicious
and reported resurrection emerged that his followers superstition, repressed for a time, broke out again, not
began to spread the gospel (the good news) of Jesus only through Judaea, where the mischief originated,
Christ, Messiah and Saviour. but through the city of Rome also, where all things
To Christians, Jesus is the Son of God, who came hideous and shameful from every part of the world
to speak about the kingdom of God and to teach find their centre and become popular. Accordingly, an
humanity how to live. Jesus’ death and resurrection arrest was first made of all who pleaded guilty; then,
were to bring about salvation from sin, and his upon their information, an immense multitude was
return would bring everlasting life to those who convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city,
chose to follow him. Christians are called upon to as of hatred against mankind.
spread the gospel message (the good news of Jesus (Tacitus, Annals 15.44)
Christ) to others and to keep his command to love
God and their neighbour.
As the Jews were making constant disturbances at
the instigation of Chrestus [Christ], he [the Emperor
activity
Claudius] expelled them from Rome.
Is there any historical evidence for Jesus’ existence?
(Suetonius, Life of Claudius, 25.4)
Examine the sources in the right column and discuss
some of the attitudes evident or implied about the figure
of Jesus the Christ at the time the sources were written. What advantage did the Athenians gain from
putting Socrates to death? Famine and plague came
upon them as a judgment for their crime. What
advantage did the men of Samos gain from burning
Pythagoras? In a moment their land was covered
with sand. What advantage did the Jews gain from
their executing their wise king? It was just after
that that their kingdom was abolished. God justly
avenged these three wise men: the Athenians died of
hunger; the Samians were overwhelmed by the sea;
the Jews, ruined and driven from their land, live
in complete dispersion. But Socrates did not die for
good; he lived on in the statue of Plato. Pythagoras
did not die for good; he lived on in the statue of
Hera. Nor did the wise king die for good; he lived on
in the teaching which he had given.
(Mara Bar-Serapion, who wrote this in a letter
to his son from prison, c.73 CE).
FIG. 3.1 Early Christian Bible

The historical and cultural context The name of God
YHWH, the ancient Hebrew name for God written
for Christianity
with four consonants, was held to be unutterable
The story of the Jewish people was one handed down by the Jews and was replaced by them during the
in sacred story and song as part of the oral tradition reading of scripture by the word Adonai, meaning
of the time. They were called to be the people of God ‘Lord’. In 2008 the Vatican asked Catholics to
under the leadership of Abraham. During the time of avoid using the word YHWH in worship services
the Exodus they were freed from slavery under the out of respect for Jewish adherents.
Egyptians and brought by Moses to the Promised Land.
The story (eventually written down in the Torah, the
first five books of the Bible) was one of covenant, an Jesus as the Messiah
agreement between the Jewish people and their God.
Always mindful of this covenant, the Jewish The prophets of the Jewish people gave them
community lived in the place that their God had hope. They wrote of the Messiah who would free
given them. However, the Jewish people were not them from slavery and usher in a new time for
always free to control their homeland. First the Israel. The Jews were looking towards the coming
Babylonians, then the Assyrians, the Greeks and of this Messianic Age: a time when Israel would
finally the Romans took over their land and controlled be renewed. The Messiah would return the Jews to
the lives of the Jewish people. The Jews began to look power in their homeland and rebuild their temple.
for a Messiah, an ‘anointed one’, to lead them out of Throughout Jewish scriptures there are references
slavery and into freedom. Many around the time of to great leaders: prophets such as Isaiah, priests like
Jesus believed that this Messiah would lead a revolt Melchizedek and the great Jewish king David. But
against the rule of the Romans and bring about a new in the Messiah to be born in Bethlehem these roles
golden age for Judaism. This would be an age when a would become one: Jesus was Prophet, Priest and
new kingdom, the kingdom of God, would be realised. King for his people.
Prophecies of the Messiah

For to us a child is born, to us a son is given, and the bring justice to the nations. He will not shout or cry out,
government will be on his shoulders. And he will be called or raise his voice in the streets. A bruised reed he will not
Wonderful Counsellor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, break, and a smouldering wick he will not snuff out. In
Prince of Peace. Of the increase of his government and faithfulness he will bring forth justice; he will not falter or
peace there will be no end. He will reign on David’s throne be discouraged till he establishes justice on earth. In his
and over his kingdom, establishing and upholding it with law the islands will put their hope. (Isaiah 42:1–4)
justice and righteousness from that time on and forever. ‘The days are coming,’ declares the Lord, ‘when I will
(Isaiah 9:6–7) fulfil the gracious promise I made to the house of Israel
A shoot will come up from the stump of Jesse; from his and to the house of Judah. In those days and at that time
roots a Branch will bear fruit. The Spirit of the Lord will I will make a righteous Branch sprout from David’s line;
rest on him—the Spirit of wisdom and of understanding, he will do what is just and right in the land. In those days
the Spirit of counsel and of power, the Spirit of knowledge Judah will be saved and Jerusalem will live in safety. This
and of the fear of the LORD and he will delight in the fear is the name by which it will be called: The LORD Our
of the LORD. He will not judge by what he sees with his Righteousness. (Jeremiah 33:14–16)
eyes, or decide by what he hears with his ears; but with Rejoice greatly, O Daughter of Zion! Shout, Daughter of
righteousness he will judge the needy, with justice he will Jerusalem! See, your king comes to you, righteous and
give decisions for the poor of the earth. He will strike the having salvation, gentle and riding on a donkey, on a colt,
earth with the rod of his mouth; with the breath of his lips the foal of a donkey. I will take away the chariots from
he will slay the wicked. Righteousness will be his belt and Ephraim and the war-horses from Jerusalem, and the
faithfulness the sash around his waist. (Isaiah 11:1–5) battle bow will be broken. He will proclaim peace to the
Here is my servant, whom I uphold, my chosen one in nations. His rule will extend from sea to sea and from the
whom I delight; I will put my Spirit on him and he will River to the ends of the earth. (Zechariah 9:9–10)

gathered wealth through the money that observant
activities Jews would offer as well as taxes on the people. It
For Christians, how was Jesus seen to fulfil the also held the personal wealth of many rich Jews.
Jewish scriptures regarding the Messiah? Look up There were several significant groups within the
the following prophecies and discuss whether it Jewish community whose attitudes to Jesus were
was important to his followers that the life of Jesus important to recognise. The Sadducees were the
fulfilled the scriptural call for the Messiah. priestly class in Jewish society. They were members
• Born of a virgin (Matthew 1:22–23; of the aristocracy and were the majority of members
fulfils Isaiah 7:14) of the Sanhedrin. The Pharisees were the followers
of Mosaic Law and focused on the importance of
• Born in Bethlehem (Matthew 2:4–6;
obeying strict rules in an effort to live a devout
fulfils Micah 5:2)
life. Some observers believe that Jesus may have
• Pierced on the cross (John 19:33–37; been born into the Pharisaic community. Another
fulfils Zechariah 12:10) significant group within the Jewish community at
the time were the Zealots. They looked to bring
Palestine under the Romans about the release of the Jewish people from the
tyranny of the Romans. Each of these groups had a
In the time in which Jesus lived, the region of particular attitude to the coming of the Messiah and
Palestine was under Roman authority and Judea responded to Jesus of Nazareth differently.
was controlled by a Prefect (when Jesus was brought
to trial this position was held by Pontius Pilate). activities
The Jewish community were led by the priests of
1. Use group research to create a table that collates
the Sanhedrin (the Jewish judicial authority). The
information about each of the key Jewish groups.
priests had much of the wealth and most of the
Use the following headings to sort information:
power over Jewish society through their control
‘Beliefs’, ‘Sources of teaching’, ‘Leadership’,
of the temple and temple worship. The temple
‘Attitude to Messiah’, ‘Gospels evidence of their
response to Jesus’.
2. Read the following quotation about the
Sadducees and Pharisees in the first century CE.
How would differences between the Sadducees
and Pharisees have made Jerusalem a place of
tension for the preaching of Jesus of Nazareth?
The Sadducees formed a religious movement that

was devoted to a strict, conservative, and literal
interpretation of the Torah. In opposition, the
Pharisees, perhaps emerging from the scribal class
that was attached to the Jerusalem temple, developed
standards of piety, purity, and religious observance
that made them widely regarded as interpreters of
the personal and social implications of the Torah.
Although they respected the claims of the Jerusalem
priesthood, the Pharisees placed greater emphasis on
the covenant that they understood to be binding upon
the lives of all the people of Israel.
(David Chidester, Christianity: A Global History,
2000)
FIG. 3.2 Jesus defending a woman caught in adultery against

the Pharisees

Damascus
The principal events of Jesus’ life
Jesus Christ—his birth and early life Tyre Caesarea
Philippi
The Evangelists (Matthew, Mark, Luke and John)
recorded stories of Jesus’ life. Jesus’ birth is recorded
in Matthew’s and Luke’s Gospels (Matthew 1:18–25, GALILEE
Copernaum Bethsaida
Luke 2:1–7). Luke records Jesus’ birth as at the time
of the census of Caesar Augustus when Quirinius Mediterranean Cana
Tiberias
was governor of Syria (6–7 CE). Sea Nazareth
According to the Gospel writers, Jesus grew up Scythopolis

Caesarea DECAPOLIS
in Nazareth, a small village in Galilee. He remained
there throughout his childhood, travelling at least SAMARIA
once to Jerusalem to observe the Passover. It would Sebaste Jordan
River
appear that Jesus’ education in the Torah was a
significant part of his early life. This is likely given Joppa
the understanding of the scriptures evident in his Jericho

Philadephia
teaching once his work as a preacher began.

Jerusalem Bethany
The Gospel writer Luke tells us that John the
Baptist’s work as a prophet began during the 15th JUDEA Bethlehem
year of Tiberius’ reign. John refers to Jesus upon Hebron Dead Machaerus
Gaza Sea
meeting him as the Messiah and indicates that he
is unfit to untie his sandal (Mark 1:7). The meeting Masada
with John was a significant event for Jesus. After IDUMEA

this he retreated into the desert to contemplate his
future. Then the public ministry of Jesus began as
he travelled the countryside for three years teaching
any who would listen and healing those who
believed in him. FIG. 3.3 Palestine in the time of Jesus
Mediterranean
Sea
FIG. 3.4 John baptising Jesus in the

Jordan River. The Holy Spirit hovers over
Jesus as he comes up from the water.

s
FIG. 3.5 Sermon on the Mount, from the Sistine Chapel
Jesus the teacher

Mark (the earliest of the Gospels) casts the person of Teachings about the reign or kingdom of God
Jesus as a preacher. Jesus came to proclaim the reign were an essential element of Jesus’ message. He
of God. His message was one that was welcomed saw God’s vision for humankind as a place where
by the Jewish community, eager for freedom love and justice were evident and peace pervaded
from Roman rule. This idea of the coming of the the world. He encouraged his followers to bring
kingdom or reign of God is a clear message given by about the kingdom through the faithful living of
Jesus that comes through in all the Gospels. these values. Jesus used parables to explain many
Gospel records tell us that Jesus had many of his teachings. A parable is a story that had a
disciples. From this group he selected twelve men to deeper meaning or message for the listener. Jesus
whom he gave the role of authority and leadership. used many well-known parables that have ethical
They continued this leadership role even after Jesus’ messages such as the Parable of the Good Samaritan
death through healing and preaching in the name and the Parable of the Mustard Seed.
of Jesus. Though living within a patriarchal society,
Jesus did give an important role to Mary Magdalene activities
among his followers. She is mentioned by name
1. Using just one of the Gospels, create a profile
several times in the Gospels and referred to in early
of Jesus highlighting some key teachings and
Christian writings as one of his significant followers.
recording the important sayings of Jesus in
Each of the Gospels presents a different aspect of
the Gospel chosen. Record the names used to
Jesus and each was written for a different audience.
describe Jesus in that particular Gospel.
Matthew wanted to emphasise the importance of
faith for a mostly Jewish audience. Luke was more Compare your portrait of Jesus based on the
concerned with the humanity of Jesus. He included Gospel you selected with portraits prepared by
Jesus’ ministry to the Gentiles as an important other students using different Gospels. How do
aspect of his work. Mark’s Gospel was written for they differ? What are the similarities?
a Jewish audience in the Diaspora. John’s Gospel 2. Why would the Gospel writers want to present
was written last but for a wider audience, Jews and different interpretations of Jesus?
Gentiles who were looking towards Christianity.

Jesus the miracle worker
Jesus demonstrated his power over nature in several incidents during Identical stories in
his ministry. He changed water into wine at Cana. He calmed storms the Gospels
when at sea, walked on water and multiplied loaves and fish. As healer The Gospels of Matthew,
he cured people of leprosy, restored crippled people and brought the Mark and Luke are said to
dead back to life. The miracle events were an essential element of Jesus’ have a similar point of view
teaching. They served to authenticate his authority as Son of God. and are often referred to as
Significant miracles of Jesus include: the Synoptic Gospels. The
The curing of ten lepers (Luke 17:11–19) following miracle stories are
The raising of Lazarus (John 11:1–44) found in all three Gospels:
Jesus walking on water (Mark 6:45–52) • the healing of a leper
Feeding the five thousand (Luke 9:10–17). • the healing of a paralytic
• the healing of a man with a
activity withered hand
• the feeding of the multitude
Read through one of Jesus’ miracles and discuss what the message of
• the healing of the boy with
the event was for those who heard and saw it. How was Jesus providing
a spirit
a new interpretation of Jewish teachings?
• the healing of Bartimaeus.
Jesus as a challenge to Jewish and Roman authority

Jesus as an itinerant preacher and rabbi was not initially a threat to activities
Jewish leadership. The size of his following grew as he neared the city
1. Study the key events and
of Jerusalem in the days leading up to the Passover. He healed the
teachings of Jesus’ last week
crippled in the spas around the temple precinct in Jerusalem and in so
of life. What do they highlight
doing appeared to undermine the power of the temple authorities.
in terms of his message to the
people of Jerusalem? Which
The road to Jerusalem
events would have worried
The most significant events in Jesus’ life occurred in his final week
the leadership among the
in Jerusalem. These are remembered in Christian liturgy in the
Jews in Jerusalem?
celebrations of Easter. These ceremonies link Christians back to the
story of Jesus, tried and crucified under Roman and Jewish law, who 2. The Last Supper is a
defeated death and redeemed humankind. significant event in the last
week of Jesus’ story. It is the
foundation of the celebration
of communion today in
Christian communities. Read
the passages about the Last
Supper (Luke 22:7–20; Mark
14:17–27; Matthew 26:26–29;
John 6) and identify the links
to current Christian worship
services.
3. Examine the artworks by
Dominic Ferrante (Fig. 3.7–
3.12). What contemporary
elements do they include
that help us empathise with
the events in the last week of
Jesus’ life?
FIG. 3.6 Jesus brings Lazarus back to life.

FIG. 3.10
FIG. 3.7 Palm Sunday
FIG. 3.8 Last Supper
FIG. 3.9 The Arrest of Jesus
FIG. 3.10 Jesus carries his cross
FIG. 3.11 Jesus before Pilate
FIG. 3.12 Death of Jesus
FIG. 3.7
FIG. 3.11
FIG. 3.8
FIG. 3.12
FIG. 3.9

Why Jesus is the model for Christian life
The presentation of Jesus seen through the eyes of the Gospel writers provides
guidance for Christians on how to live a good life. The ethical teachings
that Jesus proclaimed called on his followers to live life based on two key
relationships. One relationship was with their God, whom they were to love,
honour and worship. The other relationship was with their neighbour, whom
they were to care for and treat with justice.
TABLE 3.1 Gospel guide to living a Christian life
GOSPEL REPRESENTATION KEY CHRISTIAN TEACHINGS

OF JESUS
MARK Written for a mainly • The kingdom of God is at hand (1:15) so we must be ready.
Gentile audience, it tells • Jesus is the Suffering Messiah who died for our sins.
the story of the first • Christians are called to be community for each other.
disciples. • Jesus’ parables tell us how we can be part of the kingdom.
MATTHEW Written for Jewish • Jesus is the teacher and law-giver, his teachings being expressed
Christians, it gives mainly through parables and the Beatitudes sermon.
guidance about living in • The Kingdom of God is coming and we must be prepared.
community. • Christians are called to go into the world and preach the
Good News.
LUKE Written for Gentile • Care for the poor and marginalised in society are key aspects
Christians in the Greek of Christian activity.
world, it tells the story • Forgiveness is a common theme in the parables.
of the compassionate • Christians must be honest and wealth is to be shared.
Saviour. • Jesus is the Prophet and Messiah sent to save us.
JOHN Written for Jews and • Jesus was the Word, the Son of Man, the Light of the World.
Gentiles. • The importance of the Christian community is emphasised.
• Eternal life is open to all believers.
How is Jesus viewed by other

religious traditions? activities
• In Islam, Jesus is seen as one of God’s prophets 1. Examine the teachings in the Beatitudes (Matthew
and a miracle worker. Jesus is viewed as 5:1–12) and outline what message Jesus had for
Messiah who ascended into heaven. his followers.
• In Judaism, Jesus is seen as teacher but not 2. At-home task: read extracts from the Letter of
the Messiah as he did not fulfil all the Saint Paul to the Romans and locate key teachings
Jewish prophecies. for the early Christians.
• In Hinduism, Jesus is a guru to his followers. 3. What kind of portrait did the Gospel writers give
us of Jesus as a guide for Christians today?
• In Buddhism, Jesus is viewed as a healer
and teacher.

The early development of Christian communities
after the death of Jesus
The followers of Jesus were thrown into confusion by Jesus’ arrest,
trial and crucifixion. The story of the women who returned from
the tomb claiming that he had come back to life was not originally
believed by his disciples, but the events of Pentecost provided them And Jesus came and said to them
with a way forward. Their mission was to spread the good news of ‘All authority in heaven and on
the life, death and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth, preaching and earth has been given to me. Go
healing in his name. therefore and make disciples of
Peter and James, two of Jesus’ disciples, along with Paul of all nations, baptising them in the
Tarsus, led the Jesus movement. Peter and James continued to name of the Father and of the
spread the message of Jesus in Palestine while Paul encouraged Son and of the Holy Spirit, and
the spread of the movement in the Hellenic world. Differences teaching them to obey everything
in interpreting what it meant to be a Christian by Hellenic and that I have commanded you. And
Palestinian Christianity led to the Council of Jerusalem in 49 CE, remember, I am with you always,
which set out to settle these differences. to the end of the age.’
The letters Paul wrote to communities of believers in the (Matthew 28:18–20)
Hellenic world were the first Christian writings. The Gospels were
later written for the early communities to help share the story of
Jesus and record the oral stories told by those who had met and activities
been disciples of Jesus. 1. Read the events of Pentecost in
Acts 1–2 and outline the task
given to the disciples.
2. Carefully examine the photograph
in Fig 3.13. Discuss with other
students and then as a class what
is being represented and how.
Pose questions for further
discussion, e.g. Why are two
people looking at the artist and
not above?
FIG. 3.13 Stained glass window (15th Century) showing the Descent of the Holy Spirit

FIG. 3.14 Procession of Crusaders around Jerusalem, 11th century. (Oil painting by Jean Schentz, 1841)
Paul: the first writings about Jesus

Paul was the first to write down the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. His
letters to early Christian communities assisted in their understanding
of the beliefs and practices of Christianity. He is listed as the author
of thirteen of the ‘epistles’ (letters) written to the communities of
Christians living in and around the Mediterranean Sea.
The Romans had a tolerant approach to religions in general; however,
early Christians gained negative attention by refusing to honour the
Roman gods during festivities. The Roman persecution of the Christian
religion was formalised during the reign of Nero, when they were
blamed for a great fire in Rome. This persecution of Christians continued
intermittently until Emperor Constantine legalised Christianity in 313 CE.
The era of the Early Fathers (up to 325 CE) was a time when church
leaders such as Ignatius of Antioch and Tertullian documented and
explained key Christian beliefs. The Councils of Nicaea and Ephesus then
further clarified teachings on issues such as the humanity and divinity
of Christ. This era ended with the East–West Schism in 1054 CE when the
Orthodox Church in the East disagreed with the Roman Catholic Church
in the West over the authority of the pope in Rome and the relationship
between the persons of the Trinity.

The development of the monastic communities other key beliefs, such as the clarification of seven
and particular charisms saw a blooming of sacraments, and reaffirmed the structural hierarchy
Christianity during the Middle Ages. This age was of the Church.
notable for the significant work of saints such as The era of Revivalism was a period in the
Saint Francis, Saint Benedict and Saint Dominic, who Protestant churches, particularly in America,
founded their communities during this time. The between 1750 and 1950 CE when churches looked
crusades during this period were an attempt to protect to reawaken the faith within their community. The
the Holy Land from the control of Islam, a growing legacy of this era was the enthusiastic approach to
religion in the Middle East. These raids led to increased faith meetings in those churches, sometimes seen in
tension between the churches of the East and West and testimonies and enthusiastic spiritual music.
were waged at great cost in terms of life and money for During the latter part of the 20th century
the Christian communities that sent crusaders there. the Roman Catholic Church entered a period of
The time of the Renaissance saw the rise of science renewal. This began with Vatican II (1962–1965 CE),
and developments in the arts and architecture. It a most significant council that looked at preparing
became an era when popes and bishops built huge the Catholic Church for the modern era.
cathedrals and churches were resplendent with
artwork. This was at a time when the majority of The unique features of Anglicanism,
people remained poor but continued to pay heavy
Catholicism, Orthodoxy,
taxes to church and state authorities. The Reformation
emerged during 16th century when theologians such Pentecostalism and Protestantism
as Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli began to question
church practices such as the granting of indulgences. Anglicanism
This led to the formation of the Protestant churches The Anglican Church had its beginnings during
when they declared independence from the church the Reformation. King Henry VIII formalised the
hierarchy in Rome. separation of the Church in England from any
The Council of Trent (1545–1563 CE) was the association with papal authority. The Anglican
Catholic Church’s response to calls for renewal Communion is a fellowship of all the dioceses
and addressed some of the corrupt practices it had or regions, with leadership of this group usually
earlier tolerated. At this time too it established some coordinated by the Archbishop of Canterbury.
FIG. 3.15 Vatican II Council sat at St Peter’s Basilica, Vatican City.

Core beliefs include the centrality of the Bible
and the key sacraments of baptism and the Lord’s
Supper. Within the Anglican Church there are two
divisions: High Church (Anglo-Catholic) and Low
Church (evangelical). The Anglo-Catholic church
retains many of the features of Roman Catholicism
including the title of priest, seven sacraments and
the use of vestments. Ministers lead evangelical
Anglicans and services are generally simple, without
incense or vestments.
Catholicism
The Catholic Church historically began with
the disciples of Jesus. It established itself on the
leadership of Saint Peter. This became formalised
in the role of the pope in Rome, whose leadership
of the Catholic community has been maintained
since the time of the apostles. The Catholic
Church remains hierarchical with the community
looking to leadership from its priests, bishops, FIG. 3.16 The crowd at a Planetshakers event in Brisbane.
cardinals and pope. Planetshakers City Church is a Pentecostal church affiliated with
Australian Christian churches, the Assemblies of God in Australia.
Core beliefs include the importance of the
guidance of the Holy Spirit, the magisterium
(teaching authority of the Church), sacraments in America during the early 1900s. Some have
as a channel of God’s grace and the guidance of formed into communities such as the Assemblies
scripture. Within the Catholic Church there are of God or Christian City Church whilst others
several types of Catholics, Roman Catholic (the remain independent. Pastors have authority over
largest group) as well as Eastern Rite Catholics their communities, and often services are a mix of
(including Maronite and Melkite Catholics). testimony, preaching and music.
Core beliefs focus on the gifts of the Holy Spirit
Orthodoxy such as prophecy, healing and speaking in tongues.
For over one thousand years the Orthodox Baptism in the Spirit (the individual’s experience of
Churches remained part of the Catholic Church. the power of the Holy Spirit) is an adherent’s first
But divisions over papal authority and debate over awareness of the power of Pentecostal worship.
the expression of the relationship of the Trinity led
to the Great Schism in 1054 CE. Eastern Orthodox Protestantism
Churches were established under the leadership Baptists, Methodists, Lutherans, Calvinists, the
of the Patriarch of Constantinople and other Salvation Army and Quakers were movements of
patriarchal authorities around the world. reform within Christianity. The first efforts at reform
Core beliefs establish the equal role of scripture had been led by Luther, Calvin, Knox and Zwingli.
and tradition as sources of authority. There are Protestantism emphasises the authority of the Bible
seven sacraments in the Orthodox Church and the as a source of teaching, the universal priesthood of
divine liturgy is an important worship service. Icons believers and justification by faith. Each of these
are a distinctive feature of Orthodox churches and churches developed teachings and practices under
liturgies are often filled with music and chanting. the leadership of their particular founder.
Pentecostalism activity
Pentecostal churches are identified as having an
Choose one of the denominations of Christianity and
emphasis on the gifts of the Holy Spirit and what
research its key teachings and core beliefs. Share this
that brings to the worship service in response. These
with the group.
churches emerged from Protestant congregations

Principal beliefs
The divinity and humanity of

Jesus Christ
The humanity of Jesus of Nazareth is clearly proven in
the historical evidence that Jesus of Nazareth was born
during the time of Emperor Augustus and died during
the reign of Emperor Tiberius, crucified at the decree
of Pontius Pilate. The Gospels tell us he lived the life
of a carpenter in Nazareth for much of the time before
travelling to Galilee teaching and telling parables
about the Kingdom of God and the love of God for all
who follow his commands. It is important that this
humanity is acknowledged and understood, as Jesus’
suffering and death were real and experienced by him.
The divinity of the Christ, the Son of God, is
evident and understood from the Gospel testimonies
of the miracles and healings performed by Jesus,
and from the witness to his death, resurrection and
ascension into heaven by his followers and other
eyewitnesses. This divinity recognises his relationship
to God the Creator as Son. Jesus’ divinity then made
sense of his role on earth, both to be the salvation
of humanity and to defeat death through his
resurrection and ascension.
Early Christian thinkers argued over Jesus’ dual
nature, fully human and fully divine, and what it
meant for Christians. The debate over this paradox
was clarified during the Council of Nicaea (325 CE),
which stated that there is only one God but there
are three distinct persons of the Godhead. This
concept was known as the Holy Trinity. FIG. 3.17 Jesus the Christ, a Byzantine mosaic in the
Hagia Sophia in Istanbul
The importance of the death and

they die, will live’. Christians believe that the
resurrection of Jesus Christ
resurrection of the body will occur for all at the
The Easter celebrations in Christian communities Final Judgment.
recognise the importance of the death and The Jewish concept of resurrection was that it
resurrection of Jesus Christ. The belief of Christians was only to happen at the end of days (Isaiah 26:19)
is that Jesus’ death was important to destroy sin and was not possible for an individual, such as
and give humanity the opportunity for eternal life Jesus, before that time. So the dramatic revelation
(Romans 8:3–4). of Jesus’ resurrection would have been an
Jesus’ death was then followed by his unforeseen event for the apostles. Jesus’ ascension
resurrection and ascension into heaven. John 11:25 into heaven (recorded in the Gospels of Mark and
tells Christians that Jesus said ‘I am the resurrection Luke) marks Jesus’ transformation to sit at the right
and the life. Those who believe in me, even though hand of God the Father.

Beliefs about the nature of God The idea of the personhood of God was first
explored in the Gospels and New Testament letters
and of the Trinity
and expanded upon and named by Tertullian in his
God has interacted with the world in three different writings. It was clarified further in the Nicene Creed
ways. in 325 CE. The role of Creator is recognised mainly
in the Old Testament, in God’s interaction with his
God the chosen people. In the Gospels it is God the Son,
Father, Jesus Christ, who is the central figure. In the other
the Creator books of the New Testament and today, the Holy
of the Universe
Spirit is the principal means by which God interacts
with the world.
God the In New Testament writings the concept of the
Son, Jesus God the Trinity is suggested in the commissioning of the
Christ, Redeemer Holy Spirit, apostles to ‘Go therefore and make disciples of all
and Sustainer of Life the Sanctifier
nations, baptising them in the name of the Father
and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit’ (Matthew
activity 28:19). Saint Paul echoes this in his blessing on the
Corinthian Christians: ‘The grace of the Lord Jesus
Research the meaning of the Trinity as expressed by
Christ, the love of God, and the communion of the
the artist in Fig. 3.18.
Holy Spirit be with all of you’ (2 Corinthians 13:14).
Christians consider the nature of the Trinity, three
persons but one God, a mystery.
activities
1. Creator, Redeemer and Sanctifier: use a Bible
concordance to search for references to each of
these persons of the Trinity.
2. Locate the key stories for Christians and examine
what role each person of the Trinity took in
interacting with the world.
The Christian understanding

of revelation
The revelation or message of God has occurred
throughout history. For Christians, it was most fully
given through the person of Jesus Christ. But God’s
revelation is also evident in creation and through the
person of the Holy Spirit, interacting with the world.
The Old Testament has examples of revelation in
events such as God’s spoken promise to Abraham
and the destruction of Sodom (Genesis 18:1–33).
God is also revealed through the glory of nature in
the Psalms (Psalm 8 and 104 particularly).
In the New Testament revelation is expressed
through the person of Jesus Christ. But even at the
start of Jesus’ ministry, at his baptism in the Jordan
FIG. 3.18 ‘The Trinity of Roublev’, painted by Andrei Roublev in the River, God the Father’s voice is heard: ‘This is my
14th century, is a famous Russian icon depicting the Holy Trinity. Son, the Beloved, with whom I am well pleased’
03_KIN_OSR_Christ.indd Sec1:66 11/9/09 8:56:56 AM

(Matthew 3:17). Christians know that revelation
activities
involves God communicating with the world, but
1. Read the following statement by Roman Catholic
revelation also relies on us to respond to it with a
theologian Edward Schillebeeckx. What examples
commitment to relationship with God. Revelation is
of Christian action do you feel are a means of
not complete without acknowledgement of God.
moving the adherent towards salvation?
The Christian understanding

What, then, is salvation in Jesus from God? I would
of salvation
want to say: being at the disposal of others, losing
Salvation (from the Latin salus, meaning ‘health’) oneself to others … and within this ‘conversion’…
means the deliverance from sin that we can only working through anonymous structures for the
attain through our relationship with God. As Jesus’ happiness, the goodness and the truth of mankind.
death was meant to bring us salvation, this is a key This way of life, born of grace, provides a real
event in renewing that relationship. For Christians possibility for a very personal encounter with
salvation will only come to fruition in the final days God, who is then experienced as the source of all
of the world when they are reunited with God and happiness and salvation, the source of joy.’
is only attainable through the grace of God. The (Edward Schillebeeckx, Christ: The Experience of
idea of final judgment is not the most important Jesus as Lord, 1980 )
element of salvation, but the opportunity to know
and be united with God. 2. Describe the Christian understanding of
salvation and the roles of grace, Jesus Christ
What happens to those who do not believe and the adherent.
in Christ? Will people who do not believe in 3. ‘The free gift of God is eternal life’ (Romans 6:23).
Christ be saved? How is salvation realised for Christians?
Expressions of Christianity differ as to the possibility
of salvation for those who are not Christians.
Conservative adherents believe that outside Salvation
Christianity there is no salvation. Some liberal Salvation is:
Christians believe that anyone who lives a good life • freedom from sin
will be saved, irrespective of their religious affiliation. • being reconciled with God through
Saint Paul writes in 1 Timothy 2:3–4 that ‘God … Jesus Christ
desires everyone to be saved and to come to the • being united with God in heaven.
knowledge of the truth’. Some believe this supports
the argument that even if one does not know
Christianity, salvation will be possible on the last day.

Sacred texts The Nicene Creed
We believe in one God,
and writings the Father, the Almighty,

maker of heaven and earth,
of all that is, seen and unseen.
We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ,
The importance of the Bible the only son of God,
eternally begotten of the Father,
The Christian Bible is made up of:
God from God, Light from Light,
• the Hebrew scriptures—known as the First or
true God from true God,
Old Testament
begotten, not made,
• the Christian scriptures—known as the Second
of one being with the Father.
or New Testament
Through him all things were made.
• the Apocrypha or Deuterocanonical books—
For us and for our salvation
additional material contained in Orthodox and
he came down from heaven:
Catholic Bibles.
by the power of the Holy Spirit
The Bible is the sacred text for Christians
he became incarnate from the Virgin Mary,
believed to have been inspired by God and a record
and was made man.
of key events in the story of humanity’s interaction
For our sake he was crucified under Pontius Pilate;
with God. It is essential to Christian ceremony
he suffered death and was buried.
and is a foundation for private reading and study.
On the third day he rose again
It contains key ethical teachings as well as history,
in accordance with the Scriptures;
poetry, songs, the story of the Messiah, and
he ascended into heaven
teachings about how to live a Christian life in the
and is seated at the right hand of the Father.
letters to the Christian communities. For Protestant
He will come again in glory
communities it is the primary source of teaching.
to judge the living and the dead,
For other expressions of Christianity it is one source
and his kingdom will have no end.
of teaching. For example, Catholics draw teachings
We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life,
from the Bible but also recognise the teaching
who proceeds from the Father [and the Son].
authority of the Church.
With the Father and the Son
TABLE 3.2 Extracts from the Bible that he is worshipped and glorified.
demonstrate the principal beliefs of Christianity He has spoken through the Prophets.
We believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church.
BELIEF SCRIPTURE
We acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins.
Belief in one God Exodus 20:2–4 We look for the resurrection of the dead,
and the life of the world to come. AMEN.
Salvation through 1 Corinthians 1:18,
Jesus Christ 21–25; Romans 1:16
Power of the Acts 2
activities
Holy Spirit
1. Use the Nicene Creed to identify the key
Commemoration of 1 Corinthians 11:23–26 Christian beliefs in the box above. Discuss what
the Last Supper other beliefs would be considered core Christian
Ethical teachings Exodus 20:2–14; beliefs. Locate scripture references that support
Matthew 5:1–12; your choice.
Matthew 22:37–40 2. List the names of Deuterocanonical or Apocryphal
books and explore their relevance to Catholic and
Orthodox communities.

Christian ethics are based on Gospel teachings but Then God spoke all these words: I am the LORD your
focus on two key relationships: God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out
• right relationship with God of the house of slavery; you shall have no other gods
• right relationship with humanity. before me.
These two key relationships are guided by You shall not make for yourself an idol, whether
appropriate actions to maintain and support in the form of anything that is in heaven above, or
positive and healthy interaction. that is on the earth beneath, or that is in the water
under the earth. You shall not bow down to them
The Ten Commandments or worship them; for I the LORD your God am a
jealous God, punishing children for the iniquity of
The Ten Commandments (the Decalogue) were a parents, to the third and the fourth generation of
covenant between God and his people. They were those who reject me, but showing steadfast love to
given to Moses and the Israelites when they were in the thousandth generation of those who love me and
the desert searching for the Promised Land (Exodus keep my commandments.
20:2–14; Deuteronomy 5:6–21). The first four
You shall not make wrongful use of the name of
commandments describe one’s relationship with
the LORD your God, for the LORD will not acquit
God and the other six are about maintaining good
anyone who misuses his name.
relationships with one’s neighbour.
Christians recognise the Ten Commandments Remember the sabbath day, and keep it holy. For
as a set of principles for ethical behaviour. Many of six days you shall labour and do all your work. But
the commandments are phrased in terms of what is the seventh day is a sabbath to the LORD your God;
not permissible. They outline the behaviours that you shall not do any work—you, your son or your
are not allowed personally or not to be tolerated in daughter, your male or female slave, your livestock, or
others. The Old Testament had many other rules the alien resident in your towns. For in six days the
about right living for the people of Israel. Some of LORD made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that
these additional laws are outlined in the Books of is in them, but rested the seventh day; therefore the
Leviticus and Deuteronomy. LORD blessed the sabbath day and consecrated it.
Honour your father and your mother, so that your
days may be long in the land that the Lord your God
is giving you.
You shall not murder.
You shall not commit adultery.
You shall not steal.
You shall not bear false witness against your
neighbour.
You shall not covet your neighbour’s house; you shall
not covet your neighbour’s wife, or male or female
slave, or ox, or donkey, or anything that belongs to
your neighbour.
(Exodus 20:1–14)
FIG. 3.19 The Torah and the Ten Commandments

The Beatitudes Jesus’ commandment of love
New Testament ethical teachings are expressed The commandment of love is a summative
differently from those of the Old Testament. The statement that draws together all the ethical
language speaks of what is valued or blessed in our teaching that went before. Jesus’ teaching is about
interaction with others. New Testament ethical God’s love for human beings and their opportunity
teachings are those outlined by Jesus in his ministry for salvation through love of God and neighbour.
to the people who heard him preach and believed These three central scripture passages underpin
in him. our relationships with God and with each other. A
The Beatitudes were a revolutionary mind map central action that Christians have to channel their
for Jesus’ followers detailing how to live a good love of neighbour is through social justice activities.
life. They remain guidelines for today’s Christians
as to how they should relate to others. They teach [Jesus] said to him, ‘ “You shall love the Lord your
that we all have a responsibility to care for others God with all your heart, and with all your soul,
in society. Much of the social justice agenda of and with all your mind.” This is the greatest and
Christian groups such as Anglicare and the Edmund first commandment. And a second is like it: “You
Rice Centre emerges from the challenge of this text. shall love your neighbour as yourself.” On these two
commandments hang all the law and the prophets.’
When Jesus saw the crowds, he went up the (Matthew 22:37–40)
mountain; and after he sat down, his disciples came
to him. Then he began to speak, and taught them,
saying: activities
‘Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the 1. Christian ethical thinking has its sources in the
kingdom of heaven. writings of many great Christian thinkers. Research
‘Blessed are those who mourn, for they will be the life and teaching of one of the following and
comforted. describe how their ideas express unique approaches
to life as a Christian. Why would adherents of
‘Blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the earth.
Christianity be drawn to their teachings?
‘Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for
• Thomas Aquinas
righteousness, for they will be filled.
• Augustine of Hippo
‘Blessed are the merciful, for they will receive mercy.
• Martin Luther
‘Blessed are the pure in heart, for they will see God.
• Gustavo Gutierrez
‘Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called
children of God. • Rosemary Radford Ruther
‘Blessed are those who are persecuted for righteousness’ 2. Describe the importance of ethical teachings to
sake, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Christian adherents.
‘Blessed are you when people revile you and persecute
you and utter all kinds of evil against you falsely on
my account. Rejoice and be glad, for your reward is
great in heaven, for in the same way they persecuted
the prophets who were before you.’
(Matthew 5:1–12)
FIG. 3.20 Jesus’ commandment of love underpins people’s

relationship with God and with each other.

Personal devotion
Different types of personal prayer

Followers of the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity and
Islam have been described as People of the Book, but Christians
might be also described as People of the Word, the word being
a reference to Jesus. Christians have a great reverence for the
scriptures, and sacred readings always form part of worship
services. Some expressions of Christianity demonstrate a particular
devotion to saints (such as Mary, Mother of God, in the case
of Catholicism) and these devotions form a significant part of
personal prayer for adherents.
Personal prayer refers to a religious practice that occurs privately
and is, by definition, non-liturgical. But private prayer may also
occur during public worship services. Personal prayer can involve
regular activities such as attendance at church services where time
is given to individual silent prayer, or it can reflect the prayer that
is conducted in the home, alone. Prayers of intercession during a
worship service may include an opportunity to contribute personal
silent prayer.
Some types of personal prayer may involve a repeated phrase
or statement such as the Lord’s Prayer or Hail Mary. Meditative
practices involving prayers such as the Rosary are part of personal
prayer practice for Catholic, monastic Orthodox and some Anglican
Christians. The prayer of the Rosary uses a tool, a circular string of
beads, to aid concentration on the prayer. The rosary consists of five
sets of 10 beads to count recitation of the Hail Mary prayer.
Other personal prayer practices have emerged from the monastic FIG. 3.21 Some people use tools, like Rosary
tradition. Meditation involves extended reflection on the being of beads, to help them concentrate on prayer.
God. Lectio Divina, also known as sacred reading, has been used by
the Benedictine tradition as a reflective tool for focusing personal
activities
prayer. The technique involves reading and rereading a scripture
1. Fig 3.21 is from World Youth Day
passage, focusing on words or phrases within the reading and
2008. Research how this event
looking for insight into the meaning through this practice.
made use of devotional practice
Prayer books may also be a support for the pursuit of personal
for its participants.
prayer. These may contain traditional or modern prayers and focus
the adherent’s attention on one aspect of prayer. Some expressions 2. Explain the importance of
of Christianity have set prayer books, such as the Anglican Book of personal prayer for the adherent
Common Prayer, that collect prayers together for use by adherents. of one expression of Christianity.
Study groups may also assist personal prayer. These are common Share this research in a class
in many of the Protestant expressions of Christianity. Personal discussion.
prayer is usually a key element of these practices.

Review and assess
Review
1. Expressions of Christianity differ in their understanding of grace
(the favour of God given to humanity). Calvinists believe that grace
is only offered to a certain few who will enjoy eternal life with God.
To Roman Catholics and Orthodox Christians, sacraments are a
means by which grace is gained.
Create a formal oral presentation explaining how different

expressions of Christianity view the role of grace in the lives
of adherents.
2. Making reference to Biblical sources, evaluate the ways in which

Jesus is the model for Christian life.
3. Marcion of Sinope (150 CE) was the first to collect the writings of
Christians together to form the Bible. He included the Gospel of
Luke and some of Paul’s letters but excluded the Old Testament.
Other Christian authors of the time wanted their writings included
in the canon (the definitive list of books of the Bible). Many of these
books were Gnostic (containing special knowledge). Research
some of the Gnostic writings of the time and discuss the impact
their inclusion might have had on Christianity.
4. Examine the Lord’s Prayer. What key Christian teachings are

contained in this prayer? What challenges does it offer the Christian
adherent?

Short response (100–150 words) Longer response (500–650 words)
5. Outline the historical context in which 22. Discuss the early development of Christianity.
Christianity began.
23. Explain the significance of the Christian scriptures
6. Outline the principal events in Jesus’ life. to the underpinning of Christian beliefs.
7. Describe the early development of Christian 24. Describe the importance of ethical teachings in
communities. the life of Christians.
8. Outline the unique features of Anglicanism.
9. Outline the unique features of Catholicism.
10. Outline the unique features of Orthodoxy.
11. Outline the unique features of Pentecostalism.
12. Outline the unique features of Protestantism.
13. Outline the principal beliefs about the humanity

and divinity of Jesus Christ.
14. Discuss the significance of the death and

resurrection of Jesus for Christians.
15. Explain the importance of the Bible for Christians.
16. Outline the principal ethical teachings of the

New Testament.
17. Describe three different types of personal prayer.
18. Outline the Christian understanding of the terms

‘revelation’ and ‘salvation’.
19. Explain the beliefs concerning the Trinity.
20. Discuss the core ethical teachings of Christianity.
21. Explain how the Ten Commandments form the

starting point for Christian ethics.

04_KIN_OSR_Hindu.indd 74 11/9/09 9:12:51 AM
Hinduism
The focus of this study is Hinduism, one of the major
• the main features of devotion to:

Outcomes
• Vaishnava
A student:
• Shaiva
systems Principal beliefs
P4 examines significant aspects of religious • Atman and Brahman
traditions
• gods and goddesses
P5 describes the influence of religious traditions in
• dharma, karma and moksha
• union with God through:
P6 selects and uses relevant information about
religion from a variety of sources • karma yoga
P7 undertakes effective research about religion, • bhakti yoga

making appropriate use of time and resources • raja yoga
P8 uses appropriate terminology related to • jñana yoga
P9 effectively communicates information, ideas Sacred texts and writings
and issues using appropriate written, oral and • the Vedas, including the Upanishads
graphic forms • the Epics
• Ramayana and Mahabharata, including the
Content Bhagavad Gita
Students learn about:
Ethical systems
Origins • the four Varnas
• the early inhabitants of the Indus Valley: • ashramas or stages of life
• the Harappan civilisation
• the Aryans
• puja
• the Vedic period
• Hinduism as Sanatana Dharma (Studies of Religion Stage 6 Syllabus © Board of Studies NSW for and on
Prelim | Chapter 4 Hinduism 75

ABSOLUTE BEING the transcendent divine reality PUJA worship involving offerings to a deity.
(Ultimate Reality), also known as PURANAS a collection of sacred Hindu texts.
Brahman or the Supreme Being.
RAMA one of the ten incarnations of Vishnu.
ARANYAKAS Vedic texts.
RENUNCIATES sannyasi.
ARYANS nomadic pastoralists from central
RISHIS ancient sages.
Europe who entered into the north-
west of India about 1600 BCE. SAMHITA a collection of hymns addressed to a
variety of deities. The most ancient of
ASCETICS people who practise rigorous self-
the four Vedas.
discipline and self-denial in the quest
to draw closer to their god. SAMSARA the cycle of rebirths; the teaching that a
person’s karma will find a new life form.
ASHRAMA DHARMA duty appropriate to a person’s life stage.
SANATANA the ‘immemorial way of right living’—
ASHRAMAS traditional stages of Hindu life.
DHARMA an expression used to refer to the way
ATMAN the innermost self, that which is divine. of life of a Hindu. Also known as the
AVATAR an incarnation of a god, e.g. Vishnu. eternal law or dharma. The term comes
BHAGAVAD GITA the ‘Song of the Lord’, a part of the from Sanskrit.
Mahabharata and the best known of SANNYASI wandering holy man.
Hindu scriptures. SANSKRIT language of the Vedas.
BRAHMA the Creator. SHAIVAS devotees of Shiva.
BRAHMAN Absolute Being or Supreme Being, the SHAKTI the name given to the wife of Shiva
transcendent divine reality. when she is regarded in her own right
BRAHMANAS a text from the Vedas, outlining how the rather that as the wife of Shiva.
Brahmin priests must perform rituals. SHIVA one of two principal gods.
BRAHMINS people of the highest class of Indian SHRUTI ‘that which was heard’, for example,
society, the priestly class. the Vedas. Revealed wisdom.
DARSHAN the viewing of the image of the deity SMRITI literature remembered by humans and
in the inner sanctuary. handed down by word of mouth. It is
DHARMA a set of values that supports and preserved by tradition. Everything after
sustains normal life in the world. the Vedas.
A person’s religious duty. SUPREME BEING another term for the Ultimate Reality
DHARMASHASTRA books containing specific ethics or Brahman.
addressing specific religious duties. TRIMURTI the three divine manifestations of
EPICS the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Brahman—Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu.
GURU a spiritual guide. ULTIMATE REALITY another term for the Supreme Being or
JATI castes or sub-groups of Hindu society. Brahman.
KARMA law of cause and effect, the UNTOUCHABLES outcastes, people who lived on the
consequences of one’s actions. fringes of settlements.
KRISHNA one of Vishnu’s ten incarnations UPANISHADS the last section of Vedic literature; the
(avatars). word means ‘to sit down beside’.
LAWS OF MANU contains guidelines on dharma. VAISHNAVAS followers or devotees of the god
(MANUSMRITI) Vishnu. Also known as Vaishnavites.
LINGA a symbol or sign indicating the VARNAS the four major classes of society.
Absolute Being. VEDA means sacred knowledge. The Vedas are
MOKSHA liberation from samsara, the cycle of regarded as sacred scripture.
rebirths. VISHESHA DHARMA the religious duties of the four classes
MURTI an image, often a sculpture, that of Indian society.
represents a deity. VISHNU one of two principal Hindu gods. Said
PRASADA gifts offered to the deity. to have ten incarnations or avatars.

Origins of Hinduism
The early inhabitants of the

Indus Valley
Hindu is a Persian word; the Indians themselves
did not originally refer to their religious culture
as ‘Hinduism’. The word ‘Hindu’ comes from the
word ‘Sindhu’ or ‘Sindoo’, the name given to the
‘ … the word ‘eternal’ is significant
because Hindus believe that
Hinduism had no founder—it has
’
Indus River of northern India. In time the term
‘always been there’ …
‘Hindu’ came to refer to a range of religious beliefs
and practices that developed on the Indian sub-
continent over the past 4000 years. practices has existed from time immemorial. If the
It is only since the late 18th century that Hindu does speak about an origin for Hinduism, he
Indians have used the word to refer collectively to or she says that God initiated the tradition through
their beliefs and traditions. Prior to that, Indians the revelation of the Veda to the ancient sages.
sometimes referred to their way of life as Sanatana
Dharma, the ‘eternal way of right living’. Even The Aryans and the Indus Valley civilisation
now many Hindus use this expression to refer When the Aryans arrived in India they found
to their religion. The word ‘eternal’ is significant evidence of a civilisation more sophisticated than
because Hindus believe that Hinduism had no their own. This ancient civilisation is known as
founder—it has ‘always been there’. Hindus believe the ‘Indus Valley civilisation’ or the ‘Harappan
that their traditions have been passed down from civilisation’. It flourished over a wide area of the
one generation to the next—from a teacher to a north and west of India approximately between
student—and that this transmission of beliefs and 3000 BCE and 1700 BCE. This civilisation developed
FIG 4.1 The city ruins of Mohenjo-Daro, in the Indus River Valley of northern India.

a high standard of living and cultivated trade links the sacred wisdom as God revealed it. Hindus look
with west Asia. Archaeological excavations have upon the Vedas as revelation. For many centuries the
uncovered the remains of several towns, all built Vedas were not written down; priestly families were
following a similar pattern. The ruins indicate the custodians of different portions of the Vedas, and
extensive town planning with straight roads, brick transmitted them by memory from one generation
houses built around courtyards, and a system of to the next. Only after many hundreds of years were
covered drains for removal of sewage. they written down. Even today some Hindus learn
There is still a lot to be learnt about the long sections of the Vedas by heart.
Harappan civilisation, and the ruins of these
ancient towns are still being discovered in the Hinduism as Sanatana Dharma
western part of India. The writing of these people
has not yet been deciphered, hence not much is Sanatana Dharma (the Eternal Law or Dharma)
known about their beliefs or the causes of the is the name by which most Hindus refer to their
decline of their civilisation. Some scholars believe religion. It comes from the Sanskrit language and
that their cities were destroyed by the invading implies that the religion comes directly from God,
Aryans. Whatever is the case, it is not unreasonable not from a human founder. It applies to everyone
to think that the beliefs of the Harappan people regardless of caste. It includes the qualities of purity,
must have made a considerable contribution to the goodwill, mercy and patience.
development of Hinduism. ‘Later texts such as the Vamana Purana list the
ten limbs of the eternal dharma as non-injury,
activities truth, purity, not stealing, charity, forbearance, self-
restraint, tranquillity, generosity, and asceticism …
1. What is the origin of the word ‘Hinduism’?
In modern Indian usage, sanatana dharma is often
2. How has the meaning of the word ‘Hinduism’ equated with “Hinduism” as a name, stressing the
changed over time? eternal foundation of it.’ (Oxford Dictionary of World
3. Who do Hindu followers believe founded their Religions [1997].)
religious tradition?
4. Research the Harappan civilisation and outline activities
how different they were from the Aryans. 1. What are the Vedas?
2. Why were the Vedas also called Shruti?
The Vedic period 3. Why do Hindus call their religious tradition

Sanatana Dharma?
Hinduism cannot be defined as easily as other
religious traditions as there is no central organisation
to determine correct belief and to enforce it, nor is
there a single authority. It can be compared to a great
tree with luxuriant foliage of beliefs and customs that
have developed over the centuries.
Despite this there is a consensus of opinion that
the Vedas are sacred scripture. The word ‘Veda’
means sacred knowledge. Traditional Hindus
believe that the Vedas are not the composition of
any being, human or divine. Rather, the Vedas are
a part of the wisdom that God naturally possesses.
God, moreover, revealed this wisdom to the ancient
sages (rishis) who in turn taught it to their disciples.
Tradition holds that the Vedic teachings have been
passed down in this way to the present day.
The Vedas are known as Shruti texts, which
means ‘what was heard’, because the sages ‘heard’

Devotion to Vishnu and Shiva
Vishnu the Preserver
Vishnu is known in the Vedic literature. While most
of the other Vedic gods declined in importance, the
popularity of Vishnu increased to such an extent
that he became one of two principal gods.
The name ‘Vishnu’ means he who pervades all’,
and this refers to a story told in the Vedas. The story
is that the earth was ruled at one time by a demon
named Bali, and that the gods, in their anxiety to
have him removed, approached Vishnu for help.
Vishnu agreed and assumed the form of a dwarf.
He went to Bali, asking
that the latter give him
… the popularity of as much space as he
could cover in three
Vishnu increased to
steps. Bali laughingly
such an extent that agreed. The dwarf then
he became one of two grew to a mighty size
’
and covered the whole
principal gods … earth with his first step.
With his second step
he covered the heavens
and then, not knowing where to place his third
step, set his foot upon the head of Bali, sending the
demon to the lower regions under the earth.
Vishnu is also known by the names of Narayana
and Hari. He is usually depicted as reclining in
heaven on his couch, which consists of the coils of
a huge thousand-headed snake. Vishnu is of a dark FIG 4.2 Statue of Vishnu in a Hindu temple
colour and, like all Hindu gods, has four arms. The
arms symbolise omnipotence. His vehicle is Garuda, temple at Helensburgh, near Sydney, was built with
the king of birds. assistance from the Venkateshwara temple in India,
Vishnu responds to the prayers of people, just as he and the principal deity of the Sydney temple is
did to the request from the gods, and on occasion he Vishnu in the form of Lord Venkateshwara.
incarnates himself on earth to rid the world of some The other popular incarnation of Vishnu is
evil menace. Vishnu is generally said to have had ten Krishna, who taught the Bhagavad Gita. Certain
incarnations, or avatars, the two most important aspects of the life of Krishna are very popular, such
being Rama and Krishna. In the northern part of as his childhood, when he performed a number of
India, Rama and Krishna receive more worship than miracles, and his bewitching youth, when he attracted
Vishnu, while in the south there are many temples the wives and daughters of the local cowherds. His
dedicated solely to the worship of Vishnu. relation with these women was later interpreted as an
Venkateshwara has long been a popular god in allegory of how the soul, represented by the women,
the southern part of India, and by the 12th century yearns for union with God.
it was decided that he was actually a manifestation
of Vishnu. Nowadays the temple of Venkateshwara, activities
at the town of Tirupati, north of Madras, is the most
1. Outline the story of Vishnu as told in the Vedas.
popular in the whole of India. It receives thousands
of pilgrims daily and, after the Vatican, is the most 2. Why did Vishnu become more popular with time?
wealthy religious centre in the world. The Vishnu

activities
3 Name and describe each avatar (incarnation) of Vishnu in Fig 4.3. Briefly outline the significance of each.
.....
FIG 4.3 ‘The Ten Avatars or Incarnations of Vishnu’, an engraving by Andrew Thom, ca. 1850

Shiva the Destroyer
Shiva is a god known in the Vedas as Rudra, and is
a different type of god to Vishnu. Whereas Vishnu is
associated with the order of the world and represents
for his followers a life of virtue that can be pursued in
the affairs of the world, Shiva is a god of passion and
also of terrible asceticism. He is mostly represented
as meditating on a snow peak in the Himalayan
mountains where he is believed to dwell. He is wearing
a loincloth and his pale body is smeared with the ashes
of the god representing desire whom he destroyed
with a single angry glance for daring to disturb his
meditation. Unlike Vishnu, Shiva represents turning
away from the world and, accordingly, he is the FIG 4.4 Wall painting of Shiva the Destroyer, Udaipur,
favourite god of ascetics and yogis. He is generally Rajasthan, India
represented in his temples by a cylinder-shaped stone

called a linga.
The linga is a sign indicating the Absolute Being.
Some European scholars believe the linga to have
originally been a phallic symbol, but it is certain that
the worshippers of Shiva do not look upon it that way.
There are temples dedicated to Shiva all over India. In
the south there are many magnificent stone temples
dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu that date from the
seventh century CE. Most of the temples in the north
were destroyed by the waves of invaders who, from the
tenth century, entered India from the north-west.
One of the most famous
images of Shiva is that of
… Shiva Nataraja, the ‘Lord of the
Dance’. Here Shiva is depicted as FIG 4.5 1001 Lingas on one Shiv Linga at Shiva
is a god Temple, Kota, Rajasthan, India
performing the cosmic dance of
of passion creation and destruction of the
universe. As Shiva dances he is
and also
surrounded by a ring of fire that
of terrible represents the universe. His hair
’
flows out on either side, showing
asceticism.
that the dance is taking place. In
one hand he holds a small drum.
The sound emitting from the drum stands for the
sound that brings forth creation. In the other hand
he holds a lamp. Fire represents the destruction of the
cosmos. The right hand is held upright with the palm
facing outward. This position indicates that there is
no need to have fear. The other hand points to his
raised foot to show that there is liberation from the
world of birth and death. The other foot tramples
upon the demon of the ego. One of his earrings is of
the type worn by a male, the other of the type worn
by a female. This symbolises that God combines
both genders, male and female. Though Shiva is FIG 4.6 Shiva Nataraja, Lord of the Dance

performing the vigorous dance of creation and
destruction, his face remains serene and his eyes are
often shown as closed in meditation upon his own
timeless Being. There is complete stillness at the
centre of the dance.
Parvati, the wife of Shiva, is sometimes
worshipped in her own right as Shakti, the creative
and destructive power behind the universe. In this
aspect she is also known as the goddess Kali or
Durga, who destroys evil and protects the universe.
Most Hindus worship one or more of these gods.
Some Hindus worship Vishnu, or his incarnations,
and believe that he is the only true God and that
the other gods such as Shiva are mere demigods.
These followers of Vishnu are called Vaishnavas or
Vaishnavites. Some believe that Shiva is the only
true god. They are called Shaivas or Shaivites and
hold all gods other than Shiva to be demigods.
Yet others honour all gods but consider them to
be different representations of the “One formless,
underlying reality.”
activities
1. In what ways is Shiva different from Vishnu?
2. Look at the representations of Shiva in Figures 4.4
and 4.6 on page 81. What are the similarities and
differences?
Local gods
It is a characteristic of Hinduism
that when a god who is
worshipped in one part of
India becomes increasingly
popular, he is thought of
as a local manifestation of
either Vishnu or Shiva. If
the local deity is female,
then she is thought of
as a manifestation of
either Laksmi, the wife
of Vishnu, or Parvati,
the wife of Shiva. The
god Venkateshwara
is an example of this
identification of a local
divinity with the pan-
Hindu Vishnu or Shiva.
FIG 4.7 Kali, the Mother Goddess, in the form of Shiva FIG 4.8 Venkateshwara

Principal beliefs
Atman and Brahman

Finite they say are these our bodies indwelt by an
Hindus believe that every person has an indwelling eternal embodied self,
spirit. This spirit is their divine nature, or the spirit of for this self is indestructible incommensurable …
God dwelling within. They refer to this spirit as Atman Who thinks this self can be a slayer
or the true self; it is their body that is imperfect. As this Who thinks that it can be slain
spirit is an indestructible essence of the living being, Both of these have no right knowledge: it does not slay
when the body dies the Atman does not. It leaves its nor is it slain
temporary home and is reincarnated in another body. As a man casts off his worn out clothes and takes on
Brahman is the power that is present everywhere other new ones
and in everything. It is the Supreme Being, the So does the embodied self cast off its worn out bodies
Ultimate Reality. It is transcendent and imminent; and enters other new ones.
it is a part of everyone but is identified with no Weapons do not cut it nor does fire burn it
one; it is within and without. The Atman and The waters do not wet it nor does the wind dry it
Brahman unite to become one—just as salt dissolves Uncuttable, unburnable, unwettable, undryable it is—
in water, they can no longer be separated. When Eternal, roving everywhere, firm set, unmoved, primeval.
this happens the Atman has combined with the (Bhagavad Gita, chapter 2, verses 19–24)
Absolute. ‘You are that’ (Tat tvam asi).
Gods and goddesses

The study of the Upanishads has always been only for the few, though the
teaching of the One Reality behind all diversity has exercised a powerful
influence on all of Hinduism. Popular Hinduism has to do with the variety of
gods and goddesses and their worship.
As we have seen, there are two principal deities, Vishnu and Shiva. The
god Brahma (not to be confused with Brahman) makes up the third god of
‘
the triad, often referred to as the Trimurti and depicted as one god with three
… Ganesha heads. Brahma was the Creator of the world. Each of these three gods has a wife.
The wife of Brahma is Saraswati, the goddess of learning. The wife of Vishnu is
is popular with
Lakshmi, who represents wealth and prosperity. The wife of Shiva is Parvati. This
all Hindus. He couple has two children, the elephant-headed god Ganesha and Skanda, also
known as Subramanya.
is known as
Ganesha is popular with all Hindus. He is known as ‘the remover of
‘the remover of obstacles’. Hindus commence a new undertaking with a prayer to Ganesha to
’
remove the obstructions that might stand in the way of success.
obstacles’ …
The Vedas refer to the creative energy as Shakti, the energy that inspires the male
gods to exert their power, so the universe will be alive and dynamic. Shakti may be
seen in her own right, as the goddess Durga or Kali or as the consort of Vishnu.
The very formidable goddess Durga is said to have done battle with the
demons of the cosmos. She is depicted as having many arms, each with a
weapon and a battle shield. She rides a fierce lion into battle. Her most famous
battle is the slaying of the buffalo demon, Mahisa. Mahisa represents selfishness
and ignorance. At some point Durga becomes a wife of Shiva and takes on a
domestic role. In this stage she is closely associated with Shiva’s wife Parvati.

How did Ganesha come to have an elephant’s head? Durga challenges the stereotypical view of
According to a legend in the Puranas (a religious women, representing the extraordinary power
text), Parvati, the wife of Shiva, was once that is repressed in women who, in Hindu society,
interrupted while bathing. Wanting privacy, she are forced into submissive and often demeaning
used her powers to create a handsome young man roles. The festival of Navaratra falls over nine
and told him: ‘You are Ganesha, you are my son. Be days in the month of Asvin in northern India
my doorkeeper. Let no one into my house without and Nepal. The focal point of the festival is Durga
my permission!’ Soon after, Lord Shiva arrived, slaying a water buffalo, which represents Mahisa.
but the youth refused to let him pass. Insulted, This puja reasserts her role as queen of the battle
Shiva beheaded the youth with his trident. When and regulator of the cosmos.
Parvati found out she was furious and threatened Sometimes Durga is manifested in the form of
to destroy the world. In order to pacify her, Shiva Kali, the embodiment of destruction. In this case
commanded his followers to bring the first head the image is often black with a red face and she
they could find. They returned with the head of an wears a necklace of skulls while holding a severed
elephant and attached it to the body. Shiva then head to frighten her enemies.
restored Ganesha to life. Ganesha is represented In images of both Durga and Kali she holds
with a broken tusk. This happened when the one hand raised. This is telling people not to be
sage Vyasa wished to dictate the epic poem the afraid because she will protect them and goodness
Mahabharata. Ganesha agreed to be the scribe and will replace evil.
broke off a tusk to use as a writing instrument.
activities
1. Research the significance of each of the following
attributes of Ganesha and prepare a visual display
identifying the attribute and its meaning:
• his large ears and head
• the elephant’s trunk
• the large stomach
• one leg folded and the other on the ground
• the food at his feet
• the rat
• the axe
• the rope
• the rice bowl.
2. Find a picture of the God Krishna. Explain the
following symbolism:
• blue skin
• yellow garments
• the peacock feather
• the jewelled crown
• the white calf.
3. Who is Hanuman? Find a picture of him and
describe his appearance. Why do you think he is
so popular?
FIG 4.9 Ganesha

Dharma Karma
The word dharma stands for everything that involves Hindus believe that just as there are physical laws of
leading a life of proper conduct. It refers to that which nature, so too there are moral principles inherent in
sustains, upholds and supports. Hindus believe that the world: to live a life of dharma or religious duty is
the world is sustained by dharma. Dharma refers to to live in accord with moral principles inherent in the
a set of values that supports and sustains normal life universe. The most famous of these moral laws of the
in the world. Dharma can be translated as ‘religious universe is the teaching concerning karma, which in
duty’ and the idea of duty is very important in this context means the results of one’s actions.
understanding the concept of dharma. From very early times Hindus have believed in the
According to Hindu teaching, dharma is of two doctrine of karma, which says that a person cannot
types—a universal dharma (Samanya Dharma) and a avoid experiencing the results of his or her actions.
personal dharma. The universal dharma is incumbent If a person performs good actions—in thought, word
on all people without distinction. The Vedas contain and deed—then that person will necessarily reap
several general statements about ethics. For example, the reward of those actions at some future time. The
in one of the Upanishads the parting instructions by a consequences of whatever bad actions a person may
teacher to his student are as follows: do will also have to be experienced at some time.
Everyone is presently experiencing the results of their
Speak the truth, practise right conduct, don’t neglect past deeds and will experience the results of their
what you have studied. Let your mother be like a present deeds at some time in the future.
god to you, let your father be like a god to you, let The teaching of karma, or the principle of
the teacher be like a god to you, treat the unexpected cause and effect, became linked to the teaching
guest who comes to your house like a god. Don’t do of reincarnation. A person does not necessarily
actions that are blameworthy, do those actions that experience all the consequences of the various actions
are not blameworthy. done in a single life; therefore, that person must be
(Taittiriya Upanishad 1:11:1–2) reborn in some other form—as a human being, an
animal or an inhabitant of some other world—in
These obligations to speak the truth, respect order to experience the results of those actions. But
one’s parents and teachers, and cultivate proper in their new life a person (animals do not make new
behaviour constitute a general system of values karma; they simply experience the results of some past
applicable to all people in society. deeds) performs still more actions, and so another life
is required in order that the consequences of those
actions may be experienced. Thus the cycle of birth
and rebirth, called samsara, may be experienced. It
goes on indefinitely.
FIG. 4.10 Hindu woman praying at beach in Bali, Indonesia

FIG. 4.11 Yoga on the beach at sunset helps a person empty their mind of all distractions.
Moksha The best known is hatha yoga, or the physical

exercises that are practised for the sake of health.
All Hindus believe that moksha, liberation from These are actually meant to serve as a preparation
samsara, is possible. However, there are different for meditation, and the meaning of yoga is
views on what liberation is and how it is achieved. especially associated with meditation. When
According to those who follow the Upanishads, meditating, the practitioner tries to suspend the
liberation is possible through knowing that the flow of thoughts in the mind in order to experience
innermost Self, Atman, is actually Brahman, the an absorption into the being of the ‘innermost
One Reality underlying everything. They say that Self’—Atman—which is concealed by the constant
liberation is only possible through the knowledge stream of the mind’s thoughts. The goal of yoga
of identity, called jñana. The followers of the meditation is to be absorbed into the innermost Self
theistic bhakti traditions, who worship Shiva or for some time, to the exclusion of the consciousness
Vishnu or his incarnations as Rama or Krishna, of any other thing. The practitioner of yoga,
say that liberation means going to heaven, which whether a householder or a sannyasi, will generally
results only from the grace of a god who becomes learn it from a guru, who is often a sannyasi.
pleased with the devotion of the worshipper. Thus, In the practice of yoga a person is trying to
some Hindus consider that liberation means the empty the mind of all distractions. This may be
knowledge of identity of the innermost Self with achieved by concentrating on words, an image or
the Absolute Spirit, while many others believe beads until the Self is merged with Brahman. It is
that liberation is the result of devotion to a not a personal conversation or relationship.
personal deity. The first aim is to remove moral distractions such
as violence or theft and then physical distractions
Union with God through the four yogas through correct posture and controlled breathing.
The practices of yoga date back to before the activities

time of the Upanishads. In 100 CE a person called
1. What do Hindus understand by the term ‘dharma’?
Patanjali organised yogic practices into the classical
system by identifying four types of yoga. They 2. Explain the term karma.
are hatha yoga (based on physical exercise and 3. What is understood by the term ‘moksha’? Why is
breathing), jñana yoga, bhakti yoga and karma yoga. it important for a Hindu person to achieve this?
Yoga is a spiritual practice common to renunciates 4. Prepare a poster of the four yogas using dot
and householders alike (see section ‘The four points to describe the key features.
varnas’, p. 93).

The four Vedas The Vedic gods were originally conceived as

personifications of the powers in nature. This
When the Aryans entered India they spoke a highly conception later changed, and the gods began to be
developed language that came to be known as seen as manifestations of an all-pervading, ultimate
Sanskrit. Sanskrit was the language in which they power from which they derived their individual
composed the Vedas, which continue, to this day, to powers. Behind the multiplicity of gods there was the
be chanted in Sanskrit. Most of the important Hindu One Being, the source of all. ‘Truth is one. The sages
scriptures were composed in Sanskrit, which remains speak of it in various ways’ (Rig Veda Samhitha).
the pre-eminent sacred language of Hindu culture. A famous hymn of the Rig Veda Samhita is
The Vedas are four in number: the Rig Veda, the ‘Purusha Sukta’, a hymn about the cosmic
Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Arthava Veda. Each Being who created the universe. This hymn is
of the four Vedas is composed of four sections: one of the few Vedic hymns that are regularly
Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishad. recited nowadays. The hymn describes in symbolic
terms how the Cosmic Being—while remaining
The Samhita transcendent—allowed a portion of himself to be
The Samhita are collections of hymns addressed to sacrificed by the gods, and how all things arose
various deities. The principal Vedic deities are Indra, from the dismemberment of his body: from his
Varuna and Agni. Indra is the chief among the gods, navel came the atmosphere, from his head arose the
and he won victories for the gods over the demons. sky and from his feet came the earth.
Varuna is the god of morality, representing law and This hymn is significant for three reasons. First,
order. Agni is the god embodied in fire, functioning it shows that the Cosmic Being is the material cause
as a mediator between the gods and men in the of the universe. The ‘material cause’ means the
Vedic fire sacrifices. basic material that makes up something—wood, for
The Rig Veda Samhita is the most important example, is the ‘material cause’ of a wooden table.
collection of hymns, and most of its hymns are This hymn addresses the question: What is the origin
found in the Samhita portions of the other three of the matter that comprises the universe? This hymn
Vedas. The Arthava Veda Samhita is different from indicates that the Cosmic Being, or God, is somehow
the others, for in addition to hymns it contains the very material that comprises the universe itself.
incantations and spells. Second, the hymn is significant because it
indicates that the act of creation was a kind
of sacrifice on the part of the Cosmic Being,
who allowed himself to be sacrificed in the
act of creation. Last, the hymn provides the
first known reference to the system of four
great classes of Hindu society: it says that the
Brahmins, the priestly class, symbolise the
mouth of the cosmic person; the Kshatriyas,
the class of rulers and warriors, symbolise
his arms; the Vaishyas, the merchants and
businessmen, represent his thighs; and the
Shudras, the labourers, represent his feet.
FIG 4.12 Indra, a principal Vedic god, mounted on

his elephant, an engraving from a 19th-century Rig
Veda, artist unknown

The Brahmanas The Aranyakas
Vedic religion originally consisted of delivering These are the ‘forest treaties’. This literature was written
offerings of food into the sacred fire with the chanting for people who had withdrawn from everyday life and
of hymns to the gods. The offering of valuable items, who lived as hermits in forests. They increasingly saw
such as food and butter, symbolised the sacrifice made the Vedic rituals as symbols to be meditated upon.
by the cosmic Being in the act of creating the cosmos.
Rituals became more elaborate and could only be The Upanishads
performed by the Brahmin priests. The Brahmanas These comprise the last division of the Vedic
are written in prose explaining how to perform literature. Only the Upanishads, among the Vedic
the elaborate rituals. The belief arose that if a texts, continue to be important in present-day
ritual was performed correctly, in all its detail, and Hinduism. The word ‘Upanishad’ means ‘to sit down
if the hymns were chanted without any mistake close’, and it indicates a secret teaching position
in pronunciation, then the ritual itself possessed between a guru or spiritual teacher and his student.
the power to make the gods grant a person’s wish. The subject matter of the Upanishads teaches
The ritual had become more important than the that there is one spiritual reality, referred to mostly
gods. The literature of the Brahmanas is a world by the word Brahman, meaning ‘the vast’. Brahman
of complicated ritual, akin to magic, in which the is thought of as the ‘Absolute Reality’ underlying
power to obtain one’s desires, and even the power the entire universe. The Upanishads teach that the
to maintain the order of the cosmos, resides in universe has become manifest from Brahman, the
the correct performance of the rituals. Only a few one Ground of Being, and that all living things are,
of these rituals remain today. Some of them may in their deepest essence, not different from Brahman.
be performed during a wedding ceremony or at Brahman is not a ‘Supreme Being’ in the sense of a
a funeral. personal god, but rather is ‘Being Itself’, the ‘One
Being’ that is the essential essence of all things.
‘… Brahman is not a
‘Supreme Being’ in the sense
of a personal god, but rather
is ‘Being Itself’, the ‘One
Being’ that is the essential
essence of all things …
’
FIG. 4.13 Hindu devotees

The common word for ‘self’ is Atman. But in the Upanishads the word
Atman does not mean an individual person, or even an individual soul;
rather, it means the deepest essence of a living thing. The Atman is not the
body, nor the ego personality; it is neither male nor female, neither black nor
white, neither young nor old. The ‘innermost Self’, or Atman, is the same
as Brahman. The Upanishads therefore make up the equation that Atman
equals Brahman. This means that the innermost essence of the individual is
in fact identical to the spiritual reality underlying the entire cosmos.
In the Chandogya Upanishad (below) there is a section where a sage is
involved in teaching his son, whose name is Shvetaketu.
‘Fetch a fruit from this banyan tree.’

‘Here it is, sir.’
‘Break it.’
‘It is broken.’
‘What do you see in it?’
‘Some tiny grains.’
‘Break one of them.’
‘I have broken it.’
‘What do you see in it?’
‘Nothing at all, sir.’
‘Son, you don’t see the subtle essence but this mighty tree stands having this
subtle essence. Everything has this subtle essence as its Self. That is the Truth.
That is the Self. You are That, Shvetaketu!’
(Chandogya Upanishad, 6.12.1–3)
activities
The Upanishads say that they themselves are concerned with the
1. a. Name the four vedas.
ultimate reality while the other parts of the Vedas deal with mundane
matters. In the following passage there is a teaching in which the guru is b. Outline the subject matter
beginning to instruct a student about Brahman. of each.
c. Explain the significance of
He said to him: ‘Those who know Brahman say that two knowledges are to the Upanishads.
be acquired, the higher and the lower. Of these, the lower comprises the Rig 2. What are the Samhitas?
Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, Arthava Veda, the science of pronunciation,
3. Name the two great Hindu
the code of rituals, grammar, etymology, metre and astrology. Then there
epics. When were they written
is the higher knowledge, and it is through the higher knowledge that the
and what are they about?
Imperishable [i.e. Brahman] is attained. The discriminating people discern
that which cannot be perceived, cannot be comprehended, which is without
origin, which has no features, which has no eyes and ears, hands or feet;
which is permanent, powerful, all pervasive, exceedingly subtle, unchanging,
the source of all.’
(Mundaka Upanishad 1.1.4–6)
Within the Vedas the Samhita, Brahmana and Aranyaka portions are
regarded as lower knowledge.
Even nowadays, in spite of increased Westernisation, many Brahmins
still cultivate their Vedic learning and continue to observe many Vedic
traditions, as they have done for centuries. And the large number of
Hindus living in villages still gather to listen to the classical Hindu
stories, the great Hindu epics of the Ramayana and Mahabharata and the
narratives of the Puranas, as their ancestors did before them.

The epics
The period 600–300 BCE is often called the • numerous Puranas, which are a type of popular
‘Epic Period’ because during that time the two literature narrating stories about the Hindu gods
great epics of Hinduism, the Ramayana and the and ancient sages and kings
Mahabharata, were in the process of composition. • Dharmashastra, which are legalistic treatises
The Mahabharata, especially, contains much having to do with correct conduct and the
information about how Hinduism was developing proper order of society.
during these times. The division of society into the
four classes was becoming more rigid, and marriage While the Vedic literature is generally seen to
was gradually restricted to members of the same be the preserve of priests and scholars, the Smriti
social class. By this time the interaction between literature is available to all people.
the Aryans and the older inhabitants of India Most Hindus are familiar with some part of the
had produced many of the characteristic forms of epics and the Puranas, through the stories told to
Hinduism that can be recognised today. Devotion children by their parents or grandparents, as well as
to the old gods lapsed, and worship of two deities, through public dramas, and nowadays even through
Shiva and Vishnu, became predominant. television. It is the epics and the Puranas that
All Hindu religious literature, other than the Vedas, provide the colourful fabric of popular Hinduism.
is called Smriti or ‘remembered tradition’. The Smriti Another class of literature, which is not very well
literature is not divinely revealed like the Vedas but is known, is called Agama, or Tantra, and consists of
of human origin. It is very extensive and consists of: esoteric theological treatises and manuals about how
• two great epic tales, the Mahabharata and the to perform the worship of different deities.
Ramayana
The Ramayana
The Ramayana was composed in the sixth or fifth
century BCE and is the most popular of the epics. Its
popularity derives essentially from its highlighting
important moral values, such as the placing of
truth above all else. The hero of the story is willing
to renounce power and comfort, even an entire
kingdom, in order to uphold the value of truth.
The Ramayana tells the story of Rama, the
eldest son of a king. On the day before Rama is to
be made the official heir to the throne, one of the
king’s wives, out of fear for her own son Bharata,
reminds the king that he had once promised her
two wishes. She says that she wants Rama banished
to the wilderness for 14 years and her own son
installed on the throne. The king is distraught but
he had given his word, so he has to banish his son.
Rama’s friends suggest that he disobey his father
and usurp the throne. Rama, though disappointed,
chooses to honour his father’s promise and so
leaves the city for exile in the forest, accompanied
by his wife Sita and his younger brother
Lakshmana.
While in the forest, Rama kills many demons
who are harassing the forest-dwelling sages and
FIG 4.14 Rama and Lakshmana do battle with Ravana, the king
of the demons — from the Ramayana.

interfering with their Vedic rituals. Ravana, the
king of the demons, seeks revenge and kidnaps Sita.
A special tribe of monkeys who have the ability to
speak help Rama in his search for
Sita, and eventually they locate
‘
her on the island of Lanka, off
… it is the coast of India. After a huge
battle, Rama kills Ravana and
the epics and
returns with Sita in triumph to
the Puranas the kingdom, as the time of exile
is over.
that provide
However, the story ends sadly,
the colourful for the people would not believe
that Sita had remained faithful to
fabric of
Rama during her captivity, and
popular even though Rama knows the
rumour to be false, he feels it his
Hinduism
’
duty to banish his beloved queen
… to satisfy his subjects. Scholars
consider this last part of the story
to be a later addition.
The Mahabharata
The Mahabharata is the great epic tale of India. Begun
in the fifth century BCE and completed around 400 CE,
it tells the story of events that were believed to have
occurred in the far distant past. Consisting of 100 000
verse couplets, the Mahabharata is the longest poem in
the world. It is a presentation of Hindu life, religion,
thought and culture. It says of itself, ‘Whatever is
found here may be found somewhere else, but what is
not found here is found nowhere!’
The central story of the Mahabharata concerns
five brothers who lose their kingdom to their
stepbrothers at a gambling match. The condition of
the match was that if the five brothers could live in
the jungle for 12 years and spend another year living
somewhere incognito they could have their kingdom
back. When the time is up, the stepbrothers refuse
to return to the kingdom. Both sides rally their allies
and prepare for a battle in which the whole country
takes part. The battle rages for 18 days and at its end
the five brothers are victorious, but both sides have
been devastated and shattered by war.
Around this basic plot are woven other stories, FIG. 4.15 A scene from the great epic tale of the Mahabharata—a
many highlighting some point of proper conduct, battle between Babhruvahana, son of Arjuna, and the snakes
which sometimes lead, in turn, into still other tales.

The work thus became a vast and intricate tapestry of
Hindu life and lore in ancient times.

Bhagavad Gita whether a Vedic ritual or an everyday deed, should
The Bhagavad Gita or ‘Song of the Lord’ is the best be performed not for personal gain but with the
known of the Hindu scriptures. It occurs at a crucial attitude that the action is done as an offering
point in the Mahabharata. Just as the battle is about to God. The third strand has to do with bhakti,
to begin, when the forces stand facing each other, the spirit of devotional worship to God, which
Arjuna, one of the five brothers, asks Krishna to take increasingly was becoming the most important
his chariot close to the enemy so that he can see the form of religion among ordinary people. Krishna
people with whom he is to fight. Arjuna is shocked teaches Arjuna about devotional surrender to God.
when he sees the faces of his friends, relatives and The Bhagavad Gita tries to unite these three strands
teachers on the opposing side. At this moment he that had developed within Hinduism.
thinks that it is better to retreat from the battle.
Sinking down in despair, Arjuna asks Krishna activities
what he should do. Krishna, Arjuna’s friend, is
1. Why was the time of the epics important to the
actually the incarnation of the god Vishnu, and the
evolution of Hinduism?
Bhagavad Gita consists of the teachings that Krishna
gives to Arjuna. 2. What is referred to as the Smriti literature?
The Bhagavad Gita attempts to bring together the 3. Why do you think the Ramayana is the most
various strands that were developing in Hinduism popular epic?
during this period. First there is the teaching of 4. What is the great epic tale the Mahabharata about?
the Upanishads, the teaching of the knowledge
5. The Bhagavad Gita or ‘Song of the Lord’ is the best
of the true inner self. The second strand is linked
known of the Hindu scriptures. Discuss why is it
to the Vedic rituals. In the Bhagavad Gita Krishna
so important to Hindu people.
revalues the idea of ritual, teaching that all actions,
FIG 4.16 Arjuna in the carriage behind Krishna — from the Ramayana

Ethical systems
The four varnas

By the time of the epics, the recognisable structure of Hinduism had
developed. Society was stratified into four major divisions or classes
known as varnas: Brahmins, the priests and scholars; Kshatriyas, the
rulers and warriors; Vaishyas, the traders and farmers; and Shudras,
the labourers. Other ancient peoples also visualised society as divided
into layers—for example, the Greek philosopher Plato considered that
an ideal society would have a threefold division: the thinkers, the
warriors and the common people. The Aryans in India added a fourth
group: the tribal people who were treated as the servants of the other
classes and who were supposed to be supported by the other classes in
exchange for their labour.
In this hierarchical system, only the first three classes had the
right to study the Vedas and function as respectable members of
society. The Shudras were excluded. They were thought to be less pure
than the higher classes because of the type of work that they had
to perform. Within each of these four classes there were numerous
sub-groups called castes or jatis, which formed their own groups
for purposes of marriage and social interaction. Later, people who FIG 4.17 A sadhu, or holy man
had been excommunicated from a class became treated as outcastes
(untouchables) and their descendants had no rights in society.
Ashrama dharma or stages of life

Ashramas or stages of life apply to the three upper classes. The
concept was especially applicable to the life of a Brahmin. There had
been tension within Hinduism, from a very early period, between life
‘in the world’ and renunciation of the world. Some Hindus thought
that the duty of every person was to marry and produce children;
others thought that a man need not marry but, if he wished, could
instead renounce the world and become a wandering holy man or
sannyasi after his studentship was over.
A famous treatise on dharma called The Laws of Manu tried to
provide a compromise between these two views. It said that after the
period of studentship (brahmacarya) was completed and a male was
in his twenties, he should then enter into the stage of a householder
(grihastha) and raise a family. Then, after his children were settled, he
should, either alone or with his wife, become a hermit (vanaprastha).
Finally, when past the age of 70, he should take to the final stage
of life, that of a solitary wandering sannyasi in search of spiritual
liberation. Thus Manu made a graduation of four stages of life.
However, this was a somewhat artificial solution, and the fact
remains that in Hinduism most people remain householders, though
it has always been the case that a few people choose the life of a

renouncer (vanaprastha or sannyasi) from a young
age and never marry.
Personal devotion
In addition to general ethical principles that
should be observed by everyone, Hindu society in the home
developed a system of specific ethics, vishesha
dharma, which lays down the particular religious
duties incumbent upon each of the four great Hindu worship is performed individually. Hindus do
classes of Hindu society. The rules of specific ethics not congregate for common worship though some
are found in books called Dharmashastra, which gather to sing devotional songs called bhajans or
address the various specific religious duties. These kirtans.
books were composed around the beginning of Hindus generally worship one or more gods.
the Common Era, though they were based on Remember that some Hindus think that Vishnu is
texts written as early as 500 BCE. The most famous the one true god while others believe that Shiva
Dharmashastra work is The Laws of Manu. Manu is the one true god. Others honour all gods but
was a mythical sage said to be the father of the consider them to be different representations
human race. The Laws of Manu contains guidelines of the single all-pervading, underlying reality.
on dharma rather than actual laws. They were Family heritage often determines whether a person
composed by Brahmins in an attempt to orient worships Vishnu, or one of his incarnations, or
society towards what the Brahmins thought to be avatars or Shiva. Some Hindus, however, choose to
the ancient Vedic way of dharma. They provide worship the god that most appeals to them. Most
a model for how the Brahmins envisaged society Hindus keep a picture of the god or gods whom
ought to be. they honour in their home. They will burn incense
before that image. Some Hindus have a special room
activities in their home that is used for conducting worship.
Seeing or being in the presence of the deity is
1. What are the four social classes or ‘varnas’, and
referred to as darshan.
which had access to the Vedas?
The word for worship is ‘puja’, which means
2. Why were some people excluded? to honour. Hindu worship consists of honouring
3. Why were the laws of Manu a compromise? the god as one would honour the most esteemed
4. Were the same ethics applied to all classes? If this guest, or a king. Puja is generally performed in the
was not the case, explain how they differed. morning or evening. Before worship the Hindu will
bathe and put on clean clothes. The image (murti)
5. Why did the Brahmins write The Laws of Manu?
of the deity is placed, facing east, on a decorated
platform. A lamp is lit on the left side of the deity
and a small lamp is kept in front of the deity. The
devotee sits at the side of the deity, facing north.
Near the devotee is a bell and some articles used for
‘
worship such as flowers and incense.
Hindus … honour all At the beginning of worship in the home,
Hindus will chant prayers and invite the god to
gods but consider them to
come and dwell within the image for the duration
be different representations of the worship. Flowers will then be offered before
the image and a seat, water and fresh clothes will
of the single all-pervading,
’
be symbolically offered to the deity. Incense and
underlying reality. sandalwood paste will also be offered. Thus the
deity is treated as the most revered guest.
The deity will then be worshipped with
flowers and sacred chanting: fresh flowers, such
as marigolds, are offered at the feet of the image
while the holy names of the deity are recited. If

there is time, the 108 or 1000 names of the deity may
be recited with a flower offered at the feet of the image activities
after the recitation of each name. Fragrant incense is 1. How does family heritage influence the family's
briefly brought near the face of the deity while the devotional practices?
bell is rung with the left hand. Food, mostly fruits or 2. What is puja and when is it performed in the
a kind of milk pudding, is offered to the deity while home?
the bell is rung again. The family will later receive this
3. Describe the physical act of puja.
food as a sacred gift (‘prasada’) from the god. Finally a
piece of camphor on a tray is lit, the worshipper stands, 4. Debate the following; Every Hindu should follow
and the flame is slowly waved clockwise in front of the same puja at home.
the deity to the accompaniment of the bell and sacred 5. Looking at the photograph below, identify all the
chanting or singing. This is the highlight of the puja. elements present. Explain their purpose in
The worshipper then prostrates themselves in front of the puja.
the image and again sits. After some silent meditation
or prayer, the worshipper takes some flowers dipped in
sandalwood paste and puts them over the image with
both hands while uttering a Sanskrit chant, which
requests the deity to depart. The bell is rung
with the right hand indicating the end of
the puja.
Some Hindus will conduct an
elaborate daily worship, others will
make it briefer and still others will
only perform puja on special occasions.
While some Hindus perform the
worship themselves, others employ
a priest to come to the house for
this purpose.
FIG 4.18 A home

shrine to the god
Ganesha

Review and assess
Review
1. Research the early inhabitants of the Indus Valley and write a report
on why this area was so important in the history and, in particular, in
the growth of the Hindu religion.
2. Prepare a visual presentation to accompany an oral report to the

class on the main features of devotion to Vishnu and to Shiva.
3. Prepare an analytical diagram of one or more gods detailing the

importance of the component parts, including body features, dress,
associated objects, body position etc., of that deity.
4. Rama, Sita, Lakshmana and Hanuman are the main characters of the
Ramayana. What role does each play in this epic?
5. What is ISKCON and what can you find out about this movement in
your local area?
6. Research one form of yoga. Prepare an oral presentation that

includes a physical dimension and display this to the class.
7. Outline the principal ethical teachings of Hinduism and describe

how this influences how Hindu people live their lives.
8. Look at the photo of a Hindu home shrine. What can you tell about
the location of this place of worship? Why do you think it is placed
where it is?

9. Describe the early civilisation of the Indus valley. 25. Explain how union with God can come about
through practising yoga.
10. Describe the Vedic period.
26. Assess the importance of sacred texts to the
11. Outline the early development of Hinduism. understanding and living out of Hinduism by its
adherents.
12. Explain Hinduism as Sanatana Dharma.
27. Explain the significance of Hinduism’s principal
13. Describe the main features of Vishnu.
beliefs to the fulfilment of the Hindu ideal.
14. Describe the main features of Shiva.
28. Describe what a Hindu home shrine would look
15. Define the terms ‘Atman’ and ‘Brahman’. like. What elements would be present and when
would Hindu adherents use the shrine? What
16. Describe two Hindu goddesses. would be involved in home puja?
17. Explain the connections between dharma, karma

and moksha.
18. Name the four yogas and describe one.
19. Explain the importance of sacred writings for the

Hindu religious tradition.
20. Describe the Hindu epics.
21. Explain the importance of the Bhagavad Gita for

Hindu adherents.
22. Outline the principal ethical teachings of

Hinduism.
23. Demonstrate how the ashramas form the

framework of the Hindu life cycle.
24. Outline Hindu puja as celebrated in the home.

05_KIN_OSR_Islam.indd 98 11/9/09 10:10:42 AM
Islam
The focus of this study is Islam, one of the major religious traditions,
as a living religious system.
Outcomes Principal beliefs

• The articles of faith explained in the Aqida as:
A student:
Tawhid
P3 investigates religious traditions and belief systems
angels
P4 examines significant aspects of religious traditions
Books of Allah
P5 describes the influence of religious traditions in
the life of adherents Rusul
P6 selects and uses relevant information about Akhira

religion from a variety of sources fate/predestination
P7 undertakes effective research about religion,
making appropriate use of time and resources Sacred texts and writings
P8 uses appropriate terminology related to • the Qur’an and Hadith

and issues using appropriate written, oral and • Islamic jurisprudence
graphic forms the Qur’an
the Sunna and Hadith
ijma’—consensus among religious leaders
Content qiyas—comparison with teachings of the
Qur’an or Hadith
Expressions of faith
Origins
• the Five Pillars as the expression of the faith of
• pre-Islamic Arabia as the cultural and historical
Islam
context for the development of Islam
• the Prophet Muhammad (Studies of Religion Stage 6 Syllabus © Board of Studies NSW for and on
• the development of Islam under the leadership of
the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs
Prelim | Chapter 5 Islam 99

AL-AMIN the trustworthy (term used to refer to MUHAJIR(UN) migrant(s)—those who accompanied or
Muhammad even before his prophetic call). followed Muhammad from Mecca to Madina.
AL-FATIHA the opening chapter of the Qur’an. MUSLIM one who professes faith in Islam.
ANSAR helpers—those in Madina who threw in NABI prophet.
their lot with Muhammad and his fellow OCCULATION ‘hidden’ state of the twelfth Imam, who is
migrants when they arrived from Mecca. to return to inaugurate the millennium at a
AQIDA the Creed, the six articles of faith. time of God’s choosing.
BANU HASHIM the poorer branch of the Quraysh tribe. QUR’AN the book revealed to Muhammad, the prime
DHU’L-HIJJA 12th month of the Muslim year, so called foundation text of Islam.
because it is the month in which the rituals QURAYSH the custodian tribe of the Mecca shrine; the
of the Hajj are performed. tribe into which Muhammad was born.
FAJR first light, dawn. RAMADAN ninth month of the Muslim year—the month
FAST abstention from food, drink, smoking of fasting from the first sign of dawn to sunset.
and sex. RUSUL messengers (of God). Singular rasul.
FIQH Islamic jurisprudence. SAHABA companions of Muhammad during his life.
HADITH used for individual sayings of the Prophet, SAHIFA the covenant made between Muhammad
and as a collective term to refer to the entire and his community with the communities
corpus of such sayings. As a collective term of Madina after the migration from Mecca.
it is a name for the second foundation text SALAT ritual prayer (used of the five obligatory daily
of Islam, the first being the Qur’an. prayers, collectively or individually).
HAJJ the annual pilgrimage to Mecca and the SHAMANISTIC having the character of a shaman—one who
attendant ceremonies held between the can fall into a trance-like state and have
seventh and tenth day of dhu’l-hijja, the knowledge of the spirit world.
twelfth month of the Muslim year.
SHI’A the party of ‘Ali. The wing of Islam that
HIJRA ‘migration’. The Hijra was Muhammad’s believes that guidance of the community
migration from Mecca to Madina in 622 CE. resided in ‘Ali and the Imams descended
‘Hijra year’ is the Muslim calendrical year, from him. The twelfth Imam was taken into
based on a lunar month calendar, and dates occultation in 873–4 CE, and will return to
from the migration. introduce the millennium.
INJIL the revealed book given to Jesus (not to SUNNI the wing of Islam that believes that the
be confused with the Christian narrative authority and guidance of the community is
Gospels about Jesus). decided by the community itself.
ISLAM act of accepting belief in the unity of God SURA a chapter of the Qur’an.
and the prophetic mission of Muhammad.
TANAKH acronym used to refer to the Hebrew Bible.
The name of the religion revealed to and
preached by Muhammad to which the TAWHID declaration that God is One.
Qur’an gives testimony. TAWRAH the revealed book given to Moses (not to be
ISNAD line of transmitters of a saying of the confused with the Torah).
Prophet (hadith); hadith. UMAYYA the wealthier branch of the Quraysh tribe.
JIHAD effort, struggle (moral or physical). YATHRIB the former name of the city to which
JUZ’ a 30th part of the Qur’an. Muhammad migrated from Mecca in 622 CE,
now known as Madina.
KA’BA cube-shaped structure in the Sacred Mosque
in Mecca, the ‘house of God’. ZABUR the revealed book (of psalms) given to
David (not to be confused with the book of
KAHIN a shaman or soothsayer in pre-Islamic
Psalms in the Tanakh).
Arabia.
ZAKAT the poor tax.
MASJID mosque.
ZAMZAM miraculous spring of plentiful pure water
MUEZZIN a male Muslim who utters the call to each of
next to the Sacred Mosque.
the five daily prayers from the minaret.

Origins of Islam
Pre-Islamic Arabia
Arabia is the name given to the peninsular extension of the Eurasian landmass
to the Indian Ocean. It lies between the Red Sea and Egypt to the west
and the Persian Gulf to the east, and extends almost to the Horn of Africa.
The northern region is known as the Hijaz and the south as the Yemen.
Its southern coast faces the Indian Ocean and is exposed to the winds and
rains of the monsoons that sweep across the ocean from South-east Asia and
southern India. The Arabian Peninsula is, in fact, an extension of the lands
of the Bible. Its peoples are ethnically related to those of the Fertile Crescent,
broadly referred to as Semitic. The languages they speak are closely related.
Arabic and Hebrew, for example, are as closely related as German and Dutch.
Before modern times, the nation states we now know as Syria, Jordan, Iraq,
Israel, Palestine and Saudi Arabia did not exist as political entities. Although
some of the names have been known for over a millennium, these names did
not have the same connotations or cover the same areas as the modern nation
states. The borders between them were not clearly marked or guarded. Peoples
moved from region to region following caravan routes, whether in search of
wealth, learning or, like the desert monks, driven by religious yearnings.
Apart from the south coast, the
Constantinople
Arabian Peninsula is largely arid.
The occasional rains, strategically
situated wells, springs and oases
are adequate to support nomadic
Tigris River
life. For centuries they supplied
SYRIA water and provisions for caravan
Mediterranean Baghdad
Sea Damascus routes across Arabia from south
to north and south-east to north-
Jerusalem PERSIA
Euphrates River west—to Alexandria, Damascus,
EGYPT Byzantium and Ctesiphon,
taking in Mecca, Madina and
Nile River Persian other centres in the Hijaz. Dotted
Madina Gulf along the east, south and west
Badr coasts were port settlements
that served inland areas. In the
Mecca
ABYSSINIA Yemen were flourishing centres
of trade and culture, ruled in
turn by Christian and Jewish
Red ARABIA rulers, who were in close contact
Sea with kingdoms (commercial and
political rivals) in East Africa, in
particular Abyssinia. These were
only a stone’s throw from Aden
FIG 5.1 Pre-Islamic Arabia lies between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. for mariners who knew the winds

and ocean currents. The Yemen was famous for its wealth and was
known to the Romans.
The Yemenis were accomplished sailors who understood the
monsoons and regularly crossed the Indian Ocean to the Coromandel
Coast of eastern India, and possibly as far as South-East Asia. They
contributed to a trade in gold, textiles, spices, incense, gums and
perfumes that was carried along these caravan routes, which in effect
linked the world of the Indian Ocean with that of the Mediterranean.
Traditionally, the Arabs of the Hijaz were nomadic pastoralists.
They had a strong sense of tribal identity and loyalty, and occupied
territories that they identified with their tribal, largely shamanistic
religious tradition. They shared a belief that their world was haunted by
jinn—spirits that could be helpful or malevolent—along with a belief in
the magical properties of wells, springs and grottos, curiously formed
trees and outcrops of land. These gained the status of sacred sites, and
the areas around them were regarded as ‘consecrated’. It was forbidden
to harm any form of life there, human or animal. Ritual practices centred
on kahins—shamans who by going into a trance could enter the spirit
world, cure diseases, gain favours and find what was lost.
The regions to the north of the Hijaz—today’s Syria, Israel, Palestine
and Jordan—were subject to attacks by the Byzantines and Persians.
FIG 5.2 Circumambulation of the

Ka’ba. One of the rituals of the Hajj, the
pilgrimage to Mecca, a duty incumbent
on every legally responsible Muslim
physically and financially able, at least
once in their lifetime

Each made strategic alliances with Arab tribes in The Prophet Muhammad
a continuing struggle that created a ripple effect
along the caravan routes to the south. This spread Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 CE into a
religious beliefs and values among the Arabs tribe called Quraysh. This tribe had two wings, a
from the wider world. Many Arab tribes were richer and more powerful one, the Umayya, and a
influenced by the peoples of various cultures who poorer one, that of Banu Hashim. Muhammad was
moved through or into the region. Among them born into the latter. His father was referred to by the
were Persians, Africans, Jews, Syrians, Greeks and name Abdullah, and his mother Aminah. His father
people from present-day Jordan representing died before he was born, his mother when he was
various Christian traditions (Orthodox, Nestorian, six. As an orphan, he was brought up by the oldest
Monophysite). Some of these Arab tribes followed of his father’s five brothers, Abu Talib, who held a
Christianity, some followed Judaism. senior position in the sub-clan. Abu Talib was later
Among the sacred sites was one that had a wide to have a son born around 590 CE named ‘Ali, who
appeal: the Ka’ba at Mecca, about 50 kilometres was to become especially close to Muhammad and
from the port town of Jidda on the coast of the later to play a crucial role in Islamic history.
Red Sea. The Qur’an speaks of it as set in a ‘barren Muhammad grew up in poverty. By the time he
valley’ (sura 14:37). Not far from the Ka’ba was the was seven, he was working as a shepherd in the hills
spring of Zamzam, an inexhaustible source of fresh outside Mecca. This period saw the first sign of his
water. The shrine, the water and the location made future destiny—an event in the Prophet’s life that is
Mecca a virtual resort town, and perhaps even an related in the religious instruction of every Muslim
emporium for merchants, travellers and pilgrims child. Two passing shepherds caught sight of him
of many faiths. The Ka’ba had the trappings of a attended by two angels, who gently took hold of
traditional Arab sacred site—it was the home of him, removed his heart and cleansed it of a single
idols and the scene of fertility rituals. These rituals black spot. This spot was a trace of evil, and their
included naked processions around the Ka’ba at set action was to prepare him for his future vocation
times of the year, men by day and women by night. as a nabi (prophet), a man specially chosen by God
But the Ka’ba was also associated with stories of to receive his commission. (Sura 6:124: ‘God knows
Abraham, and the Qur’an says that next to it was where he places His message.’)
the place where Abraham prayed. From earning a livelihood as a shepherd,
This sacred character gave Mecca a wide Muhammad became apprenticed to the caravan
reputation and made it an established centre from trade. There are narratives that he took part in
which caravans went northwards to Damascus and a north-bound caravan and travelled as far as
southwards to Sana’ and Aden. Such caravans are Damascus. In Damascus a Christian monk saw
referred to in the Qur’an when it speaks of ‘the him secluded beneath a tree and asked one of
caravan of winter and summer’ (sura 106:1–2). In the caravan party who he was. On being told, he
short, the Arabian Peninsula consisted of vast areas solemnly declared, ‘That boy bears the mark of
of desert, but at particular focal points, and along prophecy.’ The traditional accounts continue that as
the routes linking them, there was intense activity. he grew older and assumed more responsibility, he
This activity shared in the cultural, religious and became known for his integrity and honesty. He was
economic life of the so-called ‘lands of the Bible’, given the name al-Amin (‘the trustworthy one’).
the eastern Mediterranean generally and beyond. These years are a hidden part of Muhammad’s
life but they were rich in experience. The caravan
activities trade was a hard, demanding one and required
extraordinary qualities of leadership. Muhammad
1. Using a map of the Arabian Peninsula, identify the
was successful, and he gained the confidence and
places named in this geographical and historical
respect of one of the entrepreneurs of this trade, a
background.
woman named Khadijah, for whom he executed a
2. Prepare a written report, or oral report, describing number of commissions. She was some years older
the geography of the region. than he and a widow. Arrangements were made for
3. Outline the human endeavours undertaken in the them to marry. The traditional account puts him
region around 500–600 CE. at 25 years of age and her at 40 when they were

wed. This would mean the marriage took place
in 595 CE. But the figures for their ages need not
be taken literally. Both are conveniently round
numbers, and they probably signify only that she
was some years older.
The marriage was long and happy, lasting until
Khadijah died in 619 CE. They prospered and had
six children, two boys and four girls. Both boys died
in infancy. The older one was called al-Qasim and,
according to the custom of the time, Muhammad
was addressed as Abu’l-Qasim, the father of al-
Qasim. His daughters were Umm Kulthum,
Ruqayya, Fatima and Zaynab. Fatima was to be
of special importance. She was the only child to
survive him, and that by only six months. She alone
bore him grandchildren—two boys named Hasan
and Husayn, and two daughters who have no place
in history.
The Qur’an refers to this period of Muhammad’s
life, with God’s words reminding him: ‘Did He
not find you poor, and enrich you; and find you
wandering, and guide you; find you in need, and
enrich you’ (Sura 93: 6–8).
FIG 5.3 A scene from an illustrated manuscript of Muhammad’s
Appointment as God’s Messenger night journey (Isra’) from Mecca to Jerusalem and Ascension (Mi
‘raj) from the site of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem to Heaven
Muhammad was not a wandering Bedouin but a city
dweller, a man of affairs. For a number of years after
his marriage he lived in comfort, enjoying respect as This event, the traditional date for which is
a successful and honest merchant. 610 CE, is generally held to mark the beginning
However, there was a stirring in his heart that of the revelation of the Qur’an. It transformed
led him to seek God, inspired perhaps by religious Muhammad’s perception of himself and his life.
hermits, perhaps by the example of desert monks, At first it terrified him. He feared he had been
perhaps by the millenarian atmosphere of the deceived by an evil spirit. He returned home. His
early years of a new century. He had dreams of wife Khadijah reassured him. She believed that the
extraordinary radiance, and in response to them message he had received had truly come from God.
began to leave Mecca for days at a time to meditate She took him to a very old uncle, Waraqa, who, it
in one of the caves outside the city. On one of is said, used to translate the Hebrew scriptures into
these occasions he found himself challenged Arabic. He too reassured Muhammad, telling him
by an awesome presence that seemed to crush that the bearer of the divine message to him was the
him, and heard a voice that said to him, ‘You are same as the bearer of the divine message to Moses.
the Messenger of God’. The voice, identified as the Muhammad then saw himself, not as the messenger
angel Gabriel, ordered him to utter the words: of a new religion, but a new bearer of the religion of
Moses. Waraqa warned him that his people would
Recite in the name of your Lord who created reject him, and that he would be forced to leave his
[all things], home city of Mecca.
created humankind from congealed blood. If Khadijah was the first person to believe that
Recite, your Lord is most gracious, Muhammad was indeed the Messenger of God, the
He taught by the pen, second was his cousin ‘Ali, son of Abu Talib. ‘Ali
Taught humankind what it did not know. assured Khadijah and Muhammad, that the mighty
(Sura 96:1–5) presence that had confronted him in the cave was
the same angel of revelation that had brought

God’s word to Moses and all the prophets; that like a father to him. Without his uncle to protect
Muhammad was in fact a new Moses, the prophet him, Muhammad found persecution redoubled.
referred to in Deuteronomy 18:18 where God says He began to look for another base where he could
to Moses: ‘I will raise up for them a prophet like you preach the messages he received unhindered. He
from among their own people: I will put my words tried, unsuccessfully, to find a home in Taif, a fertile
in the mouth of the prophet, who shall speak to upland enclave to the south-east of Mecca. But he
them everything that I command.’ and his followers were stoned there and forced to
From then on, at moments determined by return to the city.
divine wisdom, God spoke to him Arabic words, There were important events at this time in his
put on Muhammad’s lips by the angel Gabriel. personal life. He was betrothed to ‘A’isha, the seven-
These statements, sometimes long, sometimes year-old daughter of Abu Bakr, one of his followers.
short, were brought to him for the rest of his life. ‘A’isha was to have a special place in his heart for
Together they constitute the Qur’an. By them God the rest of his life—indeed, she was to cradle his
told Muhammad of himself, his uniqueness and head as he died. She played a prominent role in the
unicity. He told of the laws human beings were to civil war that broke out 24 years after his death,
live by, the service they were to give to God and and was one of the major sources of knowledge of
the values they were to aspire to. God told of the sayings (hadith) attributed to him.
certain coming of a day of physical resurrection and By 622 CE, opposition to Muhammad from
judgment. He told Muhammad of the creation of the Umayya had become more intense and better
Adam and Eve, of their disobedience and expulsion organised. The traditional accounts tell of a plot to
from Paradise, and of the prophets God had sent to kill him. He had been negotiating with tribal leaders
teach and guide their descendants. These included in Yathrib (now known as Madina—madina being
Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph and Moses, the Arabic word for city). This was an oasis town
and many others told of in the Tanakh and the New about 300 kilometres north of Mecca where his late
Testament, among whom Jesus, son of Mary, had a wife, Khadijah, had family members. His reputation
special place. Further, God guided him, encouraged as a person of integrity and his standing as a
him, comforted him and reminded him of how God prophet were well known there. He seemed to be a
cared for him. He told Muhammad what he was to person who could settle disputes between Arab and
say to his people when they challenged him, how to Jewish tribes in the region, and restore the social
answer questions that were put to him, and how to and economic stability of the city.
resolve his personal problems and dilemmas. The story goes that Muhammad left Mecca for
Yathrib secretly, by night, while ‘Ali slept in his
Preaching and opposition bed so that it would not be noticed he had gone.
These revelations were the basis of Muhammad’s Muhammad left with his father-in-law, Abu Bakr.
preaching. At first this was to members of his family After a period of journeying they rested in a cave.
and then to the community at large. Some thought The Umayya Meccans sent out a party in pursuit,
Muhammad was mad; others regarded him as a hoping to capture him. They passed the cave where
menace. One response was a boycott. A few believed he was resting, but approaching it they saw a
he was what he said he was and formed a small spider-web covering the entrance. That it was intact
community around him. seemed proof that the escapees could not have
But resentment and hostility grew as he attracted entered it, so they passed by. This event is referred
followers, even if most of them were poor and to in the Qur’an when God reminds Muhammad of
uneducated. He and his followers were isolated and his continuing care for him, and chapter (sura) 29
persecuted by the Umayya, the dominant wing of of the Qur’an is called ‘The Spider’ (‘al-‘Ankabut’).
Quraysh. Tensions between those who accepted him When Muhammad arrived in Yathrib, about
and those who regarded him as a disruptive element 70 of his followers had preceded him. He arrived
in Meccan society continued. at Quba’ on or about 4 September 622 CE. His
Muhammad was personally secure due to the first act was to build a place of prayer—a masjid
standing and authority of his uncle, Abu Talib. But (mosque). The Arabic word masjid means a place of
619 CE was to be a year of sorrows for him. His wife prostration. The year of the Hijra (migration) was
Khadijah died, and so did Abu Talib, who had been established as year 1 of the Muslim era.

FIG 5.4 The pursuers of Muhammad walking past the cave where he hid.
Seeing a spider-web over the entrance, they believed no one was inside.
Life in Madina, fighting Mecca The continuation of the verse explains that
Muhammad made the sahifa, a treaty or covenant, physical resistance has its justification:
with the various Arab and Jewish tribes in Madina
for a place for his followers. In the sahifa he Had not God used some men to repel others,
was designated as the Prophet of God, and the many cloisters and churches,
rights and integrity of the other Arab and Jewish places of prayer and worship,
communities were recognised. Uniting them as the would have been destroyed.
Messenger of God, he became their leader, the ‘first
among equals’ to whom disputes could be referred. Fighting the Meccan tribes was a matter of
The arrival at Madina and the implementation asserting a claim for what had been taken from
of the sahifa look at first sight like the turning of a them in their former home, and of compensation
new page of history. There followed for Muhammad for the persecution they had at that time passively
eight years of community leadership. Many of the endured. It was also a matter of economic survival.
Muslim migrants were poor. There was considerable This was part of the motivation for forays against
settling in to be done. caravans travelling between Mecca and the north.
Now, faced by new challenges to survive, they At the same time, relations between Muhammad
were at last given permission to fight. In sura 22 of and the Jewish communities, though not all Jews
the Qur’an (al-Hajj), a sura that seems to overlap the individually, began to break down. The rabbis
period immediately before the migration and the regarded discrepancies between the Torah and the
first year after it, they were told: Qur’an as evidence that Muhammad was ignorant.
To them his claim that he was a new prophet sent
Permission is given to those who fight after Moses was untenable.
who do so because they have been wronged. The resulting tensions offered new opportunities
God indeed has the power to give them victory; for Muhammad to exercise leadership. Under the
those who have been unjustly driven from their homes guidance of the revelation that he was receiving,
only because they said ‘our Lord is God’. he took on greater responsibilities as a leader in an
(Sura 22:39–40) economic struggle against Mecca, and in ensuring

spoils of war and economic support for both migrants and the helpers
who had made common cause with him.
Throughout this period the number of Muhammad’s followers grew
rapidly. In 630 CE, with an army of 10 000, he finally took control of
Mecca and declared it a permanent sanctuary. In 632 CE Muhammad led a
pilgrimage to Mecca during which he destroyed the idols surrounding the
Ka’ba and preached a famous sermon. It was to be his final visit to Mecca,
for within six months he would be dead. Thus it has gone down in
‘
history as the Farewell Pilgrimage, and the sermon he gave on the plain
If anyone worships of Arafat as his Farewell Sermon.
Early in June 632 he fell ill. He seemed to rally, then unexpectedly
Muhammad,
died on Monday 8 June, his head cradled in ‘A’isha’s lap.
Muhammad is dead. His death caused alarm. At first, Umar, one of Muhammad’s Sahaba
(‘Companions’), refused to believe that he was dead. He had gone, just
If anyone worships
as had Moses, to spend 40 days on Mount Sinai and would return. Abu
God, God is alive, Bakr approached Muhammad, and, disregarding Umar, uncovered the
’
Prophet’s face and kissed him. He said to the body: ‘You are dearer to
immortal.
me than my mother and father. You have tasted the death that God
has decreed: a second death will never overtake you.’ He recovered the
Prophet’s face. Umar was still protesting. Abu Bakr calmed him and said:
‘If anyone worships Muhammad, Muhammad is dead. If anyone worships
God, God is alive, immortal.’ He recited Qur’an 3:144: ‘Muhammad is but
a messenger. Messengers have died before him. Can it be that if he were to
die or to be killed, you would turn back on your heels? He who turns back
does no harm to God, and God will reward the grateful.’
activities
1. Outline Muhammad’s early life.
2. What event is reported to have happened to him at seven years of age
that told of the unusual life he would have? Explain what happened.
3. Describe the apprenticeship Muhammad started and what sort of work
he would have undertaken.
4. How do the words, ‘Did He not find you poor, and enrich you; and
find you wandering, and guide you; find you in need, and enrich you’
(Qur’an 93: 6–8) explain Muhammad’s life?
5. Why is the year 610 CE so important? What happened and how did this
moment transform Muhammad’s life?
6. Where did Muhammad get the words for the Qur’an? How and when
did these words reveal themselves to Muhammad?
7. Who did Muhammad initially preach to and who did he upset doing this?
8. Fearing for his life, Muhammad left. Why did he leave and where was
he going?
9. What was his role at Madina?
10. How did this role help build his leadership?
11. How did his relationship with the Jewish communities change during
this time?
12. In what circumstances and when did Muhammad die?

Development of Islam under the Four became a son-in-law of the Prophet, marrying
first his daughter Ruqayya and then, after her
Rightly Guided Caliphs
death in 624 CE, her sister Umm Kulthum.
The first four successors to Muhammad’s political • ‘Ali (656–661 CE), Muhammad’s paternal
(though not his prophetic) authority have a special cousin, also became his son-in-law, marrying his
resonance in Muslim history. Their time in power daughter Fatima—the only one of Muhammad’s
extended over a period when personal memories of children to outlive him. ‘Ali and Fatima gave
the Prophet were still vivid. Each of them had been the Prophet his only grandchildren, the most
closely associated with him throughout the greater important of whom were Hasan and Husayn.
part of his career. They were prominent among the
Sahaba. Contributions of the Caliphs
The names of the Caliphs and the dates of their Abu Bakr was the first of the four Caliphs, who
rules are as follows: ruled from 632 to 661 CE. This period was one of
• Abu Bakr (632–634 CE) was a very early follower extraordinary expansion of Islam and gave the
of the Prophet, and became his father-in-law Muslims great self-confidence. Islam brought order
when his daughter ‘A’isha married him. At the to the social and economic life of the great cities of
time of the Hijra he left Mecca with Muhammad, Syria and Palestine, devastated for many years by
and together they hid in a cave when the wars between the Byzantines and Persians and the
Meccans pursued them. rivalries of the Arab tribes. Jerusalem, Damascus and
other great cities of the region were captured; the
• Umar (634–644 CE) was likewise a father-in law
Byzantines were driven out of Palestine and Syria,
of the Prophet, who married his daughter Hafsa.
the Persians were driven back, and the great city of
At first he was a bitter enemy of Muhammad; on
Ctesiphon was occupied. The result was an Islamic
learning that his sister had joined Muhammad’s
commonwealth that extended to the east through
circle, he struck her. Then, hearing a recitation of
Persia to central Asia and the frontiers of India,
the Qur’anic story of Moses, he was overwhelmed
and to the West through Egypt and north Africa.
by its beauty and became a Muslim. Like Abu
Eventually it reached Spain, which was invaded
Bakr, he was one of Muhammad’s close circle.
in 711 CE.
• ‘Uthman (644–656 CE) was an unlikely convert, Each of the four Caliphs made an indelible and
belonging to the Umayya wing of Quraysh. He distinctive contribution to the development of
Azerbaijan
Armenia
Turkey
Syria
Afghanistan
Lebanon
Iraq Iran
Israel
Jordan
Libya
Egypt Pakistan
Bahrain
Qatar
Arabia
Oman
Expansion under the Prophet Muhammad, 622-632
Yemen
Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphs, 632-661
FIG 5.5 The Caliphate, 622–661 CE

Islam. There were revolts against the authority of This civil war marked a reappearance of
Madina after the Prophet’s death, but Abu Bakr dealt tensions that had immediately surfaced on the
with them firmly, restoring the authority of Madina death of Muhammad a quarter of a century earlier
and, in effect, the internal discipline necessary for and delayed his burial by 24 hours. There had
Islamic expansion to the north. He prevented the been rivalries between the muhajirun (migrants)
unity of tribes and alliances created by Muhammad from Mecca, who had a special status, and the
from falling apart. ansar (helpers), those who supported them at
Abu Bakr also set about expeditions to the north Madina. There were further tensions between
against the Byzantines. Umar in turn led full-scale the muhajirun and the aristocratic wing of the
invasions to the north and personally accepted the Quraysh tribe at Mecca, led by Abu Sufyan, who
surrender of Jerusalem. had been Muhammad’s greatest enemy until
Under ‘Uthman, Muslim forces moved into he accepted Islam after the city was conquered.
Egypt and on into North Africa. Unlike his two Muhammad had generously accepted his
predecessors, however, he belonged to the Umayya conversion and appointed his son Mu’awiya as his
wing of Quraysh, and in his appointments he secretary. This wing of the tribe had wealth, status,
favoured his kinsmen. One of these appointments infrastructure and administrative skills, as well
was that of his cousin Mu’awiya, the son of Abu as networks of tribal alliances, personal contacts,
Sufyan, as governor of Syria. ‘Uthman’s unique marriage relationships and the like.
contribution to Islam was the committee he But over against these was a significant group
formed to establish the correct recitation of the who believed there was divine election in the
Qur’an. In various regional centres, discrepancies line of Muhammad that could ultimately be
in recitation had occurred. ‘Uthman’s committee, traced back through Ismail to Abraham. For this
consisting of professional reciters who knew the reason and many others—‘Ali’s closeness to the
text by heart, combined this knowledge with scraps Prophet, the fact he had grown up with him, the
and fragments of the revealed words that had fact that he had been the second person to accept
been written down. The result is the ‘received text’ Islam after Khadijah and that he had served the
of the Qur’an as we have it today, known as the Prophet in discharging many responsibilities—they
‘Uthmanic text. believed that the individual who had the right
to succeed Muhammad was ‘Ali (Muhammad’s
Civil war paternal cousin, husband of his daughter Fatima
On ‘Uthman’s death, ‘Ali was appointed as Caliph. and father of his two grandsons, Hasan and
It was an appointment that was to lead to civil war. Husayn). Those who supported this position
Mu’awiya, the cousin that ‘Uthman appointed as could be called ‘legitimists’.
governor in Damascus, opportunistically accused This was the issue that resurfaced as soon as ‘Ali
‘Ali of passive or active complicity in ‘Uthman’s was appointed Caliph in 656 CE. Having won the
murder and launched the rallying cry ‘Justice for Battle of the Camel, he dismissed a number of the
‘Uthman’. In the face of gathering opposition, ‘Ali governors appointed by ‘Uthman and demanded
moved his seat of government from Madina to an oath of loyalty from others. Mu’awiya in
Kufa in present-day Iraq. Two of his rivals for the Damascus refused to swear allegiance. In a speech
caliphate from the Umayya wing of Quraysh led he displayed the blood-stained cloak of ‘Uthman
a revolt against him on 9 December 656 CE, near and the severed fingers of the hand of his wife,
Basrah. They were supported by ‘A’isha, who came Na’ilah, and challenged ‘Ali: ‘Either bring to justice
onto the battlefield in a howdah mounted on a the murderers of my kinsman ‘Uthman, or admit
camel (hence the battle is referred to as the Battle that you are one of their accomplices.’ It was a
of the Camel). However, the rebels were defeated declaration of war.
and the tendons of the camel’s leg cut so that it The climactic battle was fought at Siffin, a
collapsed, and ‘A’isha was captured. She said to ‘Ali, town north-east of Damascus, in 657 CE. ‘Ali was
‘You have been victorious; be magnanimous.’ He on the point of victory when he was outwitted.
sent her back to Madina with an escort, who treated He agreed that the issue of responsibility for the
her with the honour and respect due to the widow murder of ‘Uthman and ‘Ali’s own right to rule be
of the Prophet and Mother of the Faithful. put to arbitration.

FIG 5.6 A caravan of Mecca pilgrams crosses the desert (19th or early 20th century).
The murder of ‘Ali or descent. They banded together to fight against

This decision was the catalyst for the emergence ‘Ali. In 659 CE, ‘Ali launched an attack against them
of a third faction. A large number of ‘Ali’s own and almost wiped them out. But they regrouped
followers turned against him, denying his right to and gained new adherents. One of them finally
submit to arbitration. Their slogan was la hukma illa murdered ‘Ali as he was entering the mosque at
li’llah (‘No decision but that of God’). In rejecting Kufa in January 661 CE.
‘Ali, they also rejected Mu’awiya and any of the With the death of ‘Ali, the era of the Four
descendants of either of them. Any Arab of virtuous Rightly Guided Caliphs came to an end. Mu’awiya
life could be ruler, they said, but any ruler who then declared himself Caliph and inaugurated
sinned could be overthrown. the Umayyad dynasty that was to rule the Islamic
These Kharijites (Seceders), as they called commonwealth until 756 CE. His capital was
themselves, were the enemies of any established Damascus, a city plural in its culture, religious
authority. They held that a person guilty of serious traditions and intellectual life. The culture, learning
sin lost his status as a Muslim and his execution and wealth of Syria were now at the heart of an
was lawful. They declared that neither ‘Ali nor Islamic empire.
Mu’awiya had a valid claim to the caliphate, and
condemned ‘Uthman for the way in which he activities
had exercised his authority. They killed anyone
1. Who were the four Caliphs, and how well did they
who, when challenged, did not accept their views.
know Muhammad?
They organised themselves into cells, striking now
here, now there. They implemented the principle 2. Discuss the contribution of each to the
of isti’rad (religious murder), demanding that development of Islam.
individuals accept their views at the point of the 3. Why did the appointment of Ali as Caliph lead
sword. While always remaining a fringe group, they to civil war? How was this linked to events
represented a mindset that resurfaces from time to immediately after Muhammad’s death?
time—a simplistic, fundamentalist understanding 4. Ali had lots of enemies. Who were they and why
of the imperatives of being a Muslim. The Kharijites were they opposed to him?
may be seen as the forerunners of the radical groups
5. How did Ali die? Discuss as a class the changes
that trouble the modern world.
created by his death.
Essentially the Kharijites took the view that the
right to rule was founded on moral virtue, not race

The emergence of Sunni and the Shi‘a
The Arabic word shi’a means ‘party’. In this context, it serves to
identify the party of ‘Ali (shi ‘a ‘Ali)—those who on Muhammad’s death
believed that ‘Ali should have been leader of the community. They were
outmanoeuvred at the time in the political jostling for leadership by
two groups: the Umayyad wing of Quraysh, which had now accepted
Islam, and those Companions of the Prophet who did not accord
Muhammad’s family the honour they gave the Prophet himself. In their
view, leadership was not limited to the family of the Prophet, but was to
be found in the sunna (tradition) of the Companions and achieved by
recognition and consensus. (Sunni, the word used to refer to the majority
branch of Islam that believes the first four Caliphs were the rightful
successors to Muhammad, comes from the word sunna.)
The claim of the Shi’a is multi-layered. At one level it is purely
political. At another it resides in the nature of ‘Ali’s claim. It is justified
by the notion of the Five of the Cloak, a sacred family unit consisting
of Muhammad, his daughter Fatima, her husband
‘Ali, and their children Hasan and Husayn.
The Shi’a believe that this family, as a result of
illumination by the light of God, and guaranteed
by a bloodline of continuity with the Prophet, was
entrusted with leadership of the community. With
this innate right went a privileged understanding
of the Qur’an and special insights into the issues
faced by the Muslim community.
Politically ‘Ali was a failure, but the Shi’a see
him as the lost, cheated leader. He had earned
the position, giving proof of his fitness for it by
his courage and chivalry in battle, his spiritual
insights and his closeness to the Prophet. He also
had the Prophet’s own nomination. He was with
Muhammad on the Farewell Pilgrimage in January
632 CE and at his Farewell Sermon. On the return
journey to Madina, Muhammad called a halt at
a place known as Ghadir Khumm (the Pool of
Khumm), where the road from Mecca to Madina
intersects with the routes to Egypt, Syria and Iraq.
There he declared that he entrusted two sources of
authority to his community: the Qur’an and his
household. He then took ‘Ali’s hand and raised it so
that everyone could recognise ‘Ali, and proclaimed,
‘Those of whom I am the master, ‘Ali too is the
master.’ He repeated this three or four times.
For the Shi’a, ‘Ali is not regarded as the fourth
Caliph but the first Imam. Among the Sunni,
the word imam has the general sense of ‘leader’.
It is sometimes used to designate the leader in
FIG 5.7 El Azhar Mosque and University, founded by Shi’ite congregational prayer, sometimes a mosque
Fatimids in 926 AD, are a landmark and a guide for Muslim official, sometimes even a head of state. For the
sunnis worldwide.
Shi’a, however, ‘Imam’ refers to certain members

FIG 5.8 Shi’a men flagellating themselves on 10 Muharram,
sharing in the suffering of Husayn, the martyred Iman
of the Prophet’s household who lead the Muslim heads of 72 of his followers. These were taken in
community. The true Imam is designated by his procession of the tips of lances to Kufa, where they
predecessor. Each inherits a secret knowledge and were put on display, and then taken to Damascus.
exclusive authority to interpret the Qur’an and The image of the martyred Imam, the
hadith, and so elaborate the legal system of Islam. grandson of the Prophet, slain by the grandson of
The Shi’a account of the succession is as follows. Muhammad’s once bitter enemy, Abu Sufyan, is
The first Imam, ‘Ali, killed by a Kharijite, has the built into the Shi’a sense of identity. The Shi’a mark
charisma of a martyr. Before he died, he designated the anniversary of the event, on the tenth day of
his older son, Hasan (d. 669 CE), as the second Muharram, the first month of the Muslim year, by
Imam. Hasan ceded the right of Caliph (authority ritual self-flagellation to share in the redemptive
over the state) to Mu’awiya, but he is still honoured suffering of the Imam, along with cries of mourning
as the second Imam. and passion plays re-enacting the murder.
The third Imam was his younger brother, Husayn’s infant son, also named ‘Ali and
Husayn. On the death of Mu’awiya in 680 CE, the given the title Zayn al-’Abidin, was saved from
new caliph, Mu’awiya’s son Yazid, whom history the slaughter and named the fourth Imam. He
describes as a womaniser and a drunkard, demanded was followed by the fifth Imam, the scholarly
Husayn’s submission. Husayn refused and led Muhammad al-Baqir. After this the Shi’a tradition
an army against him, feeling it was his duty to divided into two wings. The sixth Imam, Ja’far al-
attempt to regain the Caliphate. He led an army Sadiq (d. 765 CE), had two sons, Ismail and Musa.
from Madina towards Kufa, but at Kerbala, about 40 Some believed that Ismail was the seventh Imam
kilometres north-west of Kufa, he was abandoned while others believed the position belonged to
by many who had promised to support him. Defeat Musa. Those who chose Ismail formed their own
was inevitable but he refused to surrender. Over community. After his death in 760 CE, they believed
the days of battle his few supporters were cut down that the line of Imams had come to an end—that
one by one. When all had been killed, he then he was an apocalyptic figure who would return.
left his tent to face the enemy. For a moment they They are known as ‘Ismailis’ or ‘Seveners’. Those
hesitated, reluctant to kill the grandson of the who accepted Musa believed that the line of Imams
Prophet. Then his head was cut off, along with the would continue, and it did so until the 11th Imam,

Hasan al-’Askari (d. 874 CE). He left an infant son
who was to succeed him, but all trace of the child
vanished. It is the belief of this community that he
has gone into occultation and is to return at an
unknown date, with the name Muhammad al-Mahdi
(Muhammad the Guide) or al-Muntazar (the
Awaited) to establish the rule of universal justice.
These Shi’a are known as the ‘Imami’ or
‘Twelvers’, for they await the return of the 12th
Imam. This branch of Shi’a Islam is the most
important. It is represented by the overwhelming
majority of the population of Iran, a significant
majority in Iraq, and communities in the Gulf
States, North Africa and the Indian sub-continent.
Although the Imam is absent from the world, his
presence is felt, and there is a sense that some of the
most holy and learned may be able to be in touch
with him. Tradition has it that all the Imams were
unlawfully killed. The majority of their graves and
shrines are in Iran or Iraq. Mosques are built beside
them, and they are constantly thronged by thousands
of pilgrims, honouring them and praying for their
intercession. These devotions, and the beliefs that
inspire them, serve to create the emotional mood activities
through which the Shi’a see worldly reality, and 1. What are the origins of the division between
the ways in which they identify themselves as a Sunni and Shi’a Muslims and how do they differ in
community. They embrace suffering. their beliefs?
This collective mentality, some minor points
2. ‘For the Shi’a, ‘Ali is not regarded as the fourth
of ritual observance in which they differ from the
Caliph but the first Imam.’ Why is this statement
Sunni, the exuberance of their exultation of ‘Ali
so significant?
and Fatima, their lack of respect for ‘A’isha, their
reverence for the Imams and their expectation 3. What happened to Husayn in his battle to regain
of the return of the Mahdi to introduce the the caliphate?
millennium all combine to generate hostility 4. Why is this battle so important to the Shi’a
between the two traditions. In particular historical identity?
circumstances, as in present day Iraq, this may 5. How is Husayn linked to the fourth Caliph?
lead to the outbreak of social mayhem and mutual
6. Research the Imami, or Twelvers, and explain
persecution, even after many years of peaceful,
what they are waiting for.
neighbourly association.
The Shi’a tradition has often been neglected in 7. This wing of the Shi’a (question 6) are located in
Western scholarship on Islam. With the Iranian which regions?
Islamic revolution in 1979 and the heightened profile 8. What are the fundamental differences between
of Shi‘a Islam, the tradition has been widely seen as these two traditions of Islam? Do these differences
simply a fanatical form of Islam. Nothing could be necessarily lead to armed conflict or even mob
further from the truth. It has spiritual richness, and violence?
over the past few centuries has nourished a richer
intellectual tradition than has Sunni Islam. It has
generated wonders of architecture, literature (poetry
and prose), calligraphy and painting. The apparent
puritanical cultural aridity of Iran may only be a brief
phase in a brilliant history.

Principal beliefs
The Aqida
The Islamic Aqida (creed) consists of six articles of
faith. A Muslim believes in the divine unity, angels,
the books of God, the messengers of God, the
hereafter and the final decree. This definition of the
content of belief is derived both from the Qur’an
and the hadith. From the Qur’an, it is found in
sura 2:285:
The Messenger believes in what has been revealed FIG 5.9 Muhammad’s name in calligraphy
‘
to him from his Lord, and so do those who believe.
All believe in Allah, His angels, His Books and His ‘Belief in Allah’ means a
Messengers.
declaration and commitment to
’
(Sura 2:285)
the belief that he is One.
From the hadith, it is based on the narration of
Umar, who tells how on one occasion he and others multiple senses. It may be used of the Supreme
of the Companions were with the Prophet when Being but is not exclusive to him. By definition, for
a man (later to be identified as Gabriel in human Muslims Tawhid excludes the concept of a Trinity,
form) approached them. His garment was radiantly or triune God. Allah is transcendent, beholden to
white, his hair jet black and he had no trace of none and in need of no partner or associate. The
journeying upon him. He put to the Prophet three Qur’an says of him: ‘He does not beget, He has not
questions: what is Islam? what is faith? what is been begotten.’
righteousness? The Prophet answered each of them. Aspects of God’s nature are revealed through
In answer to the question ‘what is faith?’ he replied: his attributes and names as they are presented in
the Qur’an.
It is that you should believe in God, and His angels,
and His books, and His messengers, and the last Angels
day, and that you should believe in the decree In Islamic thought, angels are spiritual beings, created
(qadar), whether it is for good or ill. from light. They are sinless. In their myriad ranks
(a hadith attributed to Umar) they constantly praise and celebrate God and bear his
throne. Although invisible to human eyes, they may
It is on these two texts that Islamic theologians take on human form. They have diverse tasks.
elaborate the six components of what is referred Several angels are mentioned in the Qur’an by
to as Aqida, or Dogmatics. Each of these six name, including Gabriel, messenger of God. It was
components is explained at length. Gabriel who brought the Qur’an to Muhammad; it
was Gabriel who announced to Mary that she, though
Tawhid a virgin, would give birth to a pure son. Other angels
‘Belief in Allah’ means a declaration and are named in the hadith, including Israfil, who is to
commitment to the belief that he is One. This is the sound the trumpet that will announce the end of the
meaning of the Arabic verbal noun tawhid. world and resurrect the dead; Izrail, who is the angel
The word Allah has no plural or feminine form, of death; and Munkar and Nakir, who interrogate
so many Muslims prefer to use this name in English the dead in their tombs. Angels accompany human
discussions since the word ‘God’ can be used in beings in their lives, guarding them, helping them

in their difficulties, protecting them against the wiles chosen as a vehicle of salvation. A particular people
of Satan, and recording their good and evil deeds. (for example, the Jews) might have more than one
Angels were ready to help the Prophet in his battles, prophet sent to them. Jesus, like Moses, was sent to
and there are popular stories of the thousands that the Jews. Similarly Muhammad was an Arab sent to
were present at his first battle against the Meccans, the Arabs. However, the Arabic revelation made to
the Battle of Badr, ensuring his victory. him was addressed not only to Arabs, but to every
people. And every people had equal rights in the
The books of God economy of salvation on accepting his message.
The books of God are the revelations that God made
to his messengers, who came with his authority The hereafter
to preach his single unchanging message: that he The world was created and, with it, time as it is
is One, and that he sends messengers, each with a experienced by creation. However, there will be a
book that presents knowledge of himself and the last day on which time will come to an end. No one
law that he wishes individuals to live by. Along with knows when this last day will be. Muhammad, who
this is the warning of a day on which the world warned of the certainty of its coming, said that this
will come to an end, and all the dead from the was something known by God alone.
beginning of time will be resurrected and judged. The Qur’an gives vivid accounts of what will
Those who have done evil will be sent to hell, those happen on this last day. It will be announced by the
who have done good to Paradise. blast of a trumpet, sounded by an angel. The sky
The Qur’an mentions three revealed books will be split, the stars scattered, the oceans boil over
by name: The Tawrah (Torah) given to Moses, and graves split open (Qur’an 82:4). Humankind
the Zabur (Psalms) given to David, and the Injil will be judged, their good and evil deeds weighed
(Gospel) given to Jesus, son of Mary. It also refers in a scale before the individual prophets sent to
to Suhuf Ibrahim, the pages or scrolls given to them. This will determine the nature of their akhira
Abraham. The Qur’an tells of other prophetic (afterlife). Those who have done good will enter
figures given books or being told orally the principal heaven while those who have done evil will be sent
doctrines of the book they are to deliver, but these to a place of terrible eternal torment.
are not identified by name.
According to Islam, the only one of these The decree (qadar)
books that now exists in the form in which it was The final article of belief, the decree (qadar), ‘its
revealed, and that claims universal authority, is the good, its ill’, is understood in various ways. For
Qur’an, the book given to the last of the prophets some it means ‘predestination’, in the sense that
and the seal of prophecy, Muhammad. on Judgment Day everything is as God foresaw and
decreed it would be. For others it is whatever God
The messengers of God decrees on that Day.
Rusul (messengers; singular rasul) are men chosen In non-philosophical terms it is broadly
by God to take his revelation to different peoples. understood as meaning that humankind recognises
There are 25 prophets named in the Qur’an, many that ultimately everything is in God’s hands, but
of them known also in the Tanakh and celebrated that humans nevertheless are responsible for their
as figures in history. Many other prophets are not acts. Both these realities must be accepted even
mentioned in the Qur’an but known only to God. though how they are reconciled may not be fully
Of those whose stories are told or whose names understood.
are mentioned, the best known are Adam, father
of humankind and the first teacher of his progeny; activities
Noah, who saved those who believed in his message
1. Outline the six components of what is referred to
from the universal flood; Abraham; Isaac; Jacob;
as ‘Tawhid’.
Ismail; Moses; Joseph; David; Solomon; Zachary;
Jesus son of Mary; and finally Muhammad. 2. What are the implications of the Tawhid for Muslims?
It is a principle of Qur’anic teaching that every 3. How are prophets and prophecies incorporated
prophet (with the exception of Jonah) was sent into the Tawhid?
to his own people. No one people was uniquely

The Qur’an
Muslims believe the Qur’an to be the sum of divine revelations received
by Muhammad from the time of his first encounter with the angel
Gabriel in the cave outside Mecca around 610 CE until his death in
Madina in 632 CE. These revelations, of varying length, are understood to
be God’s words addressed to him on significant occasions over a period
of about 23 years. The resulting book is about the length of the New
Testament.
The ‘received text’, however—the form in which Muslims encounter
it and in which it has been known to the world virtually from the time
of Muhammad’s death—is not arranged according to the chronology of
these revelations. In fact, the first revelation is sura 96:1–5 and the last is
sura 5:5.
The Qur’an consists of 114 suras (chapters), each one divided into
verses. They are classified as being revealed at either Mecca or Madina.
The longer chapters are composites and may contain passages revealed
days, months or even years apart. They range in length from three to 286
verses. After the first sura, al-Fatiha, which consists of seven verses, the
sequence is roughly in order of decreasing length and in inverse order of
revelation. For purposes of study and devotional exercises, it is divided
into thirty equal parts, called juz’, which are further subdivided into
halves and quarters. FIG 5.10 An open Qur’an is often set on
a small table in the home. It is never put
on the floor.
The character of the Qur’an
In mainstream Muslim theology, this arrangement of the revelations is
considered to be of divine origin and makes the Qur’an a re-presentation
of an archetypal Book kept at the throne of God above the seventh
heaven. From there it was brought down to the heaven of this world, and
then brought, revelation by revelation, to the Prophet to be preserved
with total accuracy in human memory and writing. It therefore has
a unique status, for no other revealed book has been preserved in so
authentic a form. In its spiritual essence it is uncreated, and in it time
meets eternity, as God, through the angel Gabriel, gives his Book through
Muhammad to humankind. Being the very words of God, it must be
handled with reverence and always kept in a place of honour. Everything
necessary for the common good in human life, for knowledge of God’s
ultimate covenant with humankind and salvation, lies between its
covers.
Muslims see the Qur’an as a miracle and the proof that Muhammad
was a prophet. They argue that a book of such stylistic beauty, such a
range of content, such spiritual riches, could not be the work of a human
being, let alone an unlettered man living in the time and circumstances
of Muhammad. The Qur’an itself declares he was unlettered. He did
not write down the revelations himself but recited them aloud and

memorised them as they were placed on his lips. and the Injil (Gospel), are mentioned in the
They were then memorised in turn or written down Qur’an as its predecessors. The Qur’an confirms
by a few of the Companions who were literate what is authentic in earlier revelations, but it also
and acted as his scribes. God himself ensured replaces what was lost in their transmission by
that Muhammad held in his memory every word human hands, corrects what was distorted and
revealed to him. fine-tunes the legal provisions of those earlier
revelations to give them a universal dimension. The
Reading and reciting the Qur’an Qur’an condemns the Jews for refusing to accept
The meaning and literary dimension of the Muhammad as a prophet, and asserts (sura 4:96)
Qur’an are not easily accessible to anyone outside that Mecca was the first place of worship on earth
of the Muslim tradition, or to those who cannot founded by Adam and Eve after their expulsion
study it in Arabic. In part this is due to its internal from the Garden of Eden.
organisation and the fact that it does not follow a Among the revelations that comprise the Qur’an
narrative chronological line. It is also because it is are stories of the prophets preceding Muhammad,
the spoken word and marked by the characteristics and the hostility and rejection most of them
of speech. What is said may often suggest what is endured. Moses alone is mentioned almost 600
unsaid. It may appear repetitive, and link together times, and Joseph has a whole chapter dedicated
topics not obviously related. But it is God speaking to him. These prophets, along with David, Jonah,
in a variety of voices: all its words are believed to Jesus the son of Mary and others, are an elite
be God’s words, and any citation from the Qur’an community of religious leaders, transmitters of one
by Muslims is prefaced by the phrase, ‘God says …’ and the same message: that God is One, that he
For Muslims it is faith in the book and living with sends messengers, and that there will be a day of
it that reveal the powerful internal dynamics of its resurrection on which all will be judged.
unity. It is not possible adequately to understand it The revelation of the Qur’an is generally held
simply by picking it up and reading it through from to begin with the words revealed to Muhammad in
cover to cover. the cave: Iqra’ bi’smi rabbika’l-ladhi khalaq (‘Recite/
It is not so much to be read silently as recited. declare in the name of your Lord’). The sura is
To Muslims a great reciter puts into his—or called ‘Alaq, ‘Congealed blood’, and begins:
her—recitation the whole of his heart and feeling.
Those who hear him share in his experience of the
sacred words. The recitation of its phrases awakes in
the soul of reciter and listener alike a sense of the
presence of God himself. For a Muslim, to hear the
Qur’an is to hear God speaking.
Given that its Arabic words are believed to be
God’s very words, Muslims consider any attempt to
express its sense in any other language to be only
a human encounter with the Qur’an. Renderings
in other languages are permissible provided they
are accompanied by the Arabic text. They may
communicate something of the Qur’an’s sense and
even its literary quality, but may not be used as an
authority for legal judgments or a foundation for
theological statements.
The Qur’an speaks of itself, and of Muhammad
as its recipient. It tells him that the call he has
received is the same as the call given to the great
figures of Judaism and Christianity, Abraham,
Moses and Jesus. His role is to present the final
revelation of God to humankind. Earlier revelations,
in particular the Tawrah (Torah), the Zabur (Psalms) FIG 5.11 An Imam, his back to the mihrab (the niche in a mosque
indicating the direction of Mecca), reciting the Qur’an

Recite in the name of your Lord who created [all things], activities
created humankind from congealed blood.
1. What is the Qur’an?
(Qur’an 96:1–2)
2. Where did it come from?
The image ‘created humankind from congealed 3. Discuss why the Qur’an is important for Muslims.
blood’ has dramatic power. But the image cannot Why is it central to their lives? What do they find
be seen as appropriate without an understanding in it?
of the medical knowledge of the time that saw
conception as a result of the congealing of
menstrual blood by semen. The hadith
The Qur’an includes elements of family, religious
and criminal law. It covers religious obligations Islam holds that the Qur’an records God’s words,
such as the Fast, the Pilgrimage and the giving of not Muhammad’s. Linguistically, their style was
alms. It includes lessons drawn from the campaigns immediately distinguishable from that of his
Muhammad fought, his relations with his wives and everyday speech. However, once Muhammad’s
their jealousies with each other. The chapters of the status as a prophet was recognised, the Companions
Qur’an are often mosaics of themes, of lessons to be paid careful attention to his own sayings as a man.
emphasised, of promises of heaven for those who He was a revered and wise leader, so his followers
obey the divine laws and threats of punishment for tried to memorise all his significant statements.
those who disobey. The words the first generation of Muslims heard
It was during one of the last nights of the month were passed on to the next generation, and so on
of Ramadan that the Qur’an was brought from the for a number of generations. The explanations
divine throne down through the seven heavens he gave of verses of the Qur’an, what he said that
to the heaven of this world. From there it was complemented the Qur’an, the answers he gave
revealed to Muhammad. Islam believes that the first to questions put to him, his responses to everyday
revelation made to Muhammad in the cave was in situations—in the widest sense, how he lived his
this month. The night when it occurred is known as daily life and interacted with those around him—
the Night of Destiny. were all remembered. Such was the reverence in
For Muslims celebrating this anniversary the which he was held as the Prophet that these sayings
night has a nativity-like character, a night when also had authority. They are called hadith.
all is at peace. In popular piety, at a moment on The hadith are the second foundation text of
this night that no one knows, the event will be re- Islam. Along with the Qur’an, they are the basis
enacted. The heavens will open, angels will pass of Islamic jurisprudence. They show the life of
from heaven to earth and the very trees will bow in the Prophet as one worthy of being taken as a role
adoration. Anyone who is awake and sees this will model. They are a source for prayers, meditation
have whatever he or she wishes for the following and spiritual insight, as well as an elaboration of the
year. Children struggle to stay awake and climb trees ethical values taught by the Qur’an.
to keep a lookout in the hope of catching sight of There are differences of opinion as to when the
the wonderful scene. But alas, invariably they fall hadith were first recorded in writing. Some take
asleep at the crucial moment, and the opportunity the view that this was done from very early on.
is lost until the next year. On this night in Muslim Others believe they circulated as oral traditions for
countries, streets, mosques and shrines are packed some time because early Muslims were reluctant
with worshippers. A chapter of the Qur’an tells of it: to write Muhammad’s words down in case they
were given the same status as the Qur’an. By the
And who will tell you what the night of destiny is? early 700s, however, devoted individuals began to
The night of destiny is better than a thousand months. collect the hadith and put them in written form
On it the angels and the spirit descend by leave of to preserve them.
their Lord with every decree. A hadith consisted of two parts: the text itself,
There is peace till the rising of the dawn. which needed to be consistent with what was
(The Qur’an, sura 97:2-5) known of the Prophet and in accord with good
sense, and its isnad, the chain of transmission of

individuals through whom the text had reached
‘
the collector. The transmitters had to be of good
character and it had to be established that they had The hadith are the second
actually met. For a line of transmission to have full
foundation text of Islam. Along
authority, it had to extend to a Companion, male or
female, who had seen or heard the Prophet say or with the Qur’an, they are the basis
’
do what the hadith reported.
of Islamic jurisprudence.
There are a number of collections of hadith.
The two collections carrying the most authority
are those compiled by the ninth-century scholars
Bukhari (810–870 CE) and Muslim (817–874 CE).
Bukhari applied exacting standards to the hadith
that he included. His collection contains over 7000 Examples of hadith
traditions that he selected out of 200 000 purported Pay heed to the cry of the oppressed, for there is no
sayings (Muslim picked 4000 out of 300 000). barrier between it and God.
Bukhari took the integrity of his informants Salomon was offered wealth, authority and
seriously. There is an anecdote that as he travelled knowledge. He chose knowledge, and wealth and
through central Asia, looking for individuals authority were added to him.
who might have heard some hadith, he was told
For Muslims, the best house is one in which the
that a certain man in a certain paddock had such
orphan is well treated; the worst is one in which the
knowledge and was taken to him. The man was
orphan is oppressed.
standing in a field trying to attract his horse. Since
the horse refused to come, he lifted up and tossed Every good deed is an act of charity. It is an act of
his galabiya (outer robe) as though he had oats in it. charity if you greet your brother with a smile; it is an
Bukhari had no further interest in him, saying, ‘If act of charity if you put water from your bucket into
he can’t be honest with a horse, he can’t be trusted his bucket.
with a saying of the Prophet.’ The Prophet sent Mu’adh [one of his Companions]
In the collections, the hadith are organised into to the Yemen, and said to him: Call on them to
various categories so that they are accessible for testify that there is no god but God. If they accept
use in complementing the Qur’an and resolving this, inform them that God requires that they pray
issues of jurisprudence. Examples are many. The five times a day. If they accept this, then inform
Qur’an makes clear the obligation to perform them that God requires that a tax be taken from the
ritual prayer. It does not, however, explain how wealthy among them and given to the poor.
the prayer is structured, or give details of what is A prostitute was forgiven … She passed a dog lying
to be recited or what physical postures—standing, next to a well, its tongue hanging out … It was
bowing, prostration with the forehead touching dying of thirst. She took off a shoe, lowered it into
the ground—should accompany the recitation. Nor the well with her head shawl, and drew with it out
does it give the details of the call to prayer. These of the well water for the dog to drink. Her sins were
things are explained in the hadith. forgiven for doing this.
Someone asked: ‘Is there a reward for doing good to
activities animals?’ The Prophet replied: ‘For doing good to
1. What are hadith? any living creature there is a reward.’
2. Who put them into writing and when? One of the Companions asked the Prophet: ‘How
3. Why are they so important to Muslims? does the angel of revelation come to you?’ The
Prophet replied: ‘Sometimes he comes to me in the
4. Undertake research to identify more examples
sound of clanging bells, and this way is the most
of the content of the hadith.
painful for me. Then he leaves me, and I retain
5. Read the following examples of hadith and in my memory what he has said. And sometimes
discuss their meaning and implications for the he takes a human form. He speaks to me, and I
life of Muslims. remember what he says’.

Ethical foundations: Islamic

whether of your kin or not of your kin,
jurisprudence
the traveller, the wayfarer and your slaves.
The Qur’an, (the word of God) and the hadith (the (sura 4 [al-Nisa’]:36)
words and example of the Prophet), present the values Have you reflected on the one who rejects the teaching
and principles that are the foundation of Islamic of religion?
ethics. The divine revelation is supported, interpreted He is the one who rebuffs the orphan
and developed by the practice of the Prophet and and does not urge the feeding of the poor.
his companions. These values have a moral basis (sura 107:1–3)
and a ritual meaning. The behaviour they present as
pleasing to God relates to the human relationship These ethical principles cover many other areas of
with the divine (a vertical aspect) and the relations of life. Among them are faithfulness to one’s word, even
humankind with each other (a horizontal aspect). at the cost of loss to one’s self; honesty in trading;
Obedience to these laws and a realisation of never to murder; never to fail in trust of God’s
these values constitutes virtue, which is rewarded; providence; and to guard against impurity in body
disobedience or rejection of them is sinful and and mind.
will be punished. Sin, in a properly formed Islamic Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) is a systematic
conscience, results in a sense of guilt at the wrong organisation of and guide to Islam’s legal provisions
done, wrong which can only be expiated by (whether ritual observances, family, commercial or
repentance and (where appropriate) restitution, and criminal) and its ethical values. It is comprehensive
then forgiven: for God is merciful and ready to forgive. and covers every area of life. It is a guide to the
The Qur’an and hadith give both general and shari‘a, the over-arching divinely laid out highway
specific injunctions. The Qur’an (sura 2 [al-Baqara] of life and conduct set out in the two foundation
177) defines ‘godliness’. texts of the religion. To be legally obliged to follow
the rules of fiqh, an individual must be mentally
Godliness is not that you turn your faces to the east or competent and physically mature (physical maturity
the west: godly rather is one who believes in God, the being defined by the onset of menstruation for
last day, the angels, the Book and the prophets; one females and nocturnal emissions for males).
who gives of his property, despite his love of it, to his For jurisprudential purposes, broadly
kin, to the orphan, to the poor, to the traveller, to the speaking, human acts are classified as obligatory,
beggar: [godly is] one who frees slaves, who performs recommended, neutral, undesirable or forbidden.
the ritual prayer and pays the poor tax. Godly are They are sub-divided into two categories: those that
those who are faithful to a pledge they have made; have to do with duties to God, (‘ibadat), and those
who are patient in bearing difficulty, hardship and that concern human relationships (mu‘amala). Food
trials. It is such as these who [when they say they and drink are classified as either permitted (halal) or
believe] are speaking the truth. It is such as these who forbidden (haram).
are devout. (sura 2:177) The intellectual edifice of fiqh is of extraordinary
richness and complexity, as well it might be, for
Other examples of ethical injunctions in the its field is so vast. And reflecting its importance,
Qur’an include: along with tafsir (Qur’an exegesis), is one of the core
Islamic disciplines which demand years of study.
Worship God, set nothing alongside Him. Fiqh developed out of the need to make
Be gracious to your parents, your kin, jurisprudential judgments in the face of rapidly
the orphan, the poor, the neighbour, developing situations which went beyond what was
explicitly provided for in the Qur’an and tradition.

Professional legal scholars elaborated the use of four
sources on which to base legal decisions. In the first activities
place, there was the Qur’an. To complement it, there 1. What is Islamic jurisprudence and what
was hadith—the record of the sunna (practice of the community needs is it designed to meet?
Prophet). If these did not yield an answer, recourse 2. What are the principles on which Islamic
was then had to the use of qiyas, analogy, which jurisprudence is based?
entailed a search for situations in the foundation
3. Outline the basic rules of the Islamic moral code
texts or already established rulings that had common
and explain their ethical implications.
elements with the issue to be decided. A fourth
source was ijma’ (consensus) of scholars and the 4. Explain what is meant by the terms halal and haram.
wider community. There is considerable discussion
about the definition and authority of this source.
Sura 6:151–3 gives an overview of the core Ethics and modest clothing
ethical rules incumbent on Muslims. In addition Hijab is an Arabic word meaning ‘barrier’ or
to those set out in suras 2:177 and 4:36 above, it ‘partition’. In Islam it is a principle of modesty, an
includes (in summary form) these injunctions: have ethical behaviour imposed by the religious tradition.
nothing to do with whatever defiles body or mind; But it goes beyond the headscarf (Khimaar) many
give full weight and measure as justice demands; Muslim women wear. Muslim women are required
lay no hand on the property of an orphan, except to wear the hijab in front of any man they may
to give it increase; slay no one whom God has possibly marry. While it does not have to be worn
protected without just cause; never kill your when with other women, it often is.
children out of fear of poverty, for you and they will Modesty rules are ethical behaviours, but they
be provided for. vary between Muslims just as they do in other
The range of ethical precepts in the Qur’an and religious traditions. Some women wear full body
hadith is much wider than this. They establish garments with only their eyes showing while others
a basic code of honesty, a work ethic, and the wear no special clothing at all. The Qur’an makes
necessary principles for family and community a few references to Muslim clothing, but prefers to
loyalty and solidarity. One group should not deride, point out more general principles of modest dress.
defame or insult another (sura 49:11) and back-
biting is specifically condemned (sura 49:12). It is Say to the believing men that they should
necessary to respect one’s self, and to respect the lower their gaze and guard their modesty: that
other, and one way of showing this respect is by a will make for greater purity for them: And Allah
proper modesty in dress. There must be courtesy is well acquainted with all that they do.
in all human relations and transactions. One has (Sura 24:30)
responsibilities to one’s neighbours and a duty of
care, even to animals.
And say to the believing women that they
should lower their gaze and guard their modesty;
that they should not display their beauty and
ornaments except what (must ordinarily) appear
thereof; that they should draw their veils over their
bosoms and not display their beauty except to their
husbands, [a list of relatives], [household servants],
or small children who have no sense of the shame
of sex; and that they should not strike their feet in
order to draw attention to their hidden ornaments.
And O ye Believers! turn ye all together towards
Allah, that ye may attain Bliss.
(Sura 24:31)
FIG 5.12 The hijab is an outward sign of an ethical behaviour.

The Five Pillars of Islam
Muslims speak of Islam as built on five pillars that should be constantly and consciously present in the
summarise the essence of Islamic practice. These heart of every Muslim.
pillars give Muslims both a definition of that In the Islamic community one lives with these
essence and a sense of identity—of belonging to a two sentences, hears them, utters them time and
community that declares its submission to One God, again during the day. They are part of the ritual
and to the laws he has revealed to his Prophet. prayer, the second of the five pillars. Five times a day
The five pillars are: they are part of the call of the muezzin.
• to testify that ‘There is no god but God’ and that
‘Muhammad is the Messenger of God’
• to perform a ritual prayer five times daily
• to pay a poor tax
• to fast during the daylight hours of the month of
Ramadan
• to make the pilgrimage to Mecca once in a
lifetime, if one has the means and physical health
to do so.
Each of these pillars is a way of behaving, and

together they form the visible framework of the
house of Islam. Each complements the other. To
a Muslim, brought up with these practices since
childhood, the words setting out the pillars are
self-explanatory. To an outsider, they raise many
questions. The words are simple, but what do they
mean?
The first pillar: the profession of faith

The two sentences of the profession of faith, ‘There is
no god but God’ and ‘Muhammad is the Messenger FIG 5.13 Men standing (one of the postures of the ritual prayer).
of God’, summarise Muslim belief. To declare them They are performing the noon prayer—when the sun has just passed
its zenith. Prayer is forbidden when the sun is at its zenith.
of one’s own volition, provided one is of age, is the
essential act of Islam. Becoming a Muslim, then, is
simple (though the observance of the religious law to The second pillar: prayer
which one is then subject is demanding, physically
and morally, in its material and ritual requirements). The second pillar is performance of salat, the five
The declaration ‘There is no god but God’ is daily ritual prayers. For validity, the performance
celebrated in the Qur’an and hadith as the most of these prayers is set about by ritual requirements
wonderful of all expressions. It is not simply a regarding the time they are performed, ritual purity,
proposition to which one gives intellectual assent, the dress to be worn, the direction to be faced
but an existential reality of which one is part. It, and (towards Mecca) and the appropriateness of the place
the words ‘Muhammad is the Messenger of God’, where prayer is conducted. The words to be uttered
are the first words a newborn child should hear, and and the movements to accompany them are set out
should be the last words heard by the dying. Both in meticulous detail.

The call of the muezzin consists of the Arabic of in whose hand is the day of Judgment.
the following words: You it is we worship, You we ask for aid.
Guide us along the right path,
God is most great the path of those on whom rests Your blessing,
God is most great Not that of those against whom is your anger,
God is most great nor that of those who go astray. (sura 1:1–7)
God is most great
I testify there is no god but God The third pillar: the poor tax
I testify there is no god but God
I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God The third pillar is zakat, the payment of a poor
I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God tax. Despite its ranking as one of the pillars of
Come to prayer Islam, it is complex to explain at several levels:
Come to prayer as regards the categories of those who are obliged
Come to security to pay it, the different rates on different kinds of
Come to security property, and the different methods of collection in
[At dawn is added: different Muslim countries. There are rates for crops
Prayer is better than sleep of the field, for livestock, and for gold, silver and
Prayer is better than sleep] merchandise. On the latter the rate is 2.5%.
God is most great More important than the details of
God is most great administrating the tax, however, is the principle it
There is no god but God. establishes: that the poor have a claim against the
wealth of the rich and that this is to be channelled
through an administrative structure.
The melodic line of this call may be simple or
ornate, and often is of inspiring beauty. The fourth pillar: the fast of Ramadan
The five prayer times are determined not by the
clock but by the position of the sun in the sky. The The fourth pillar is the fast of Ramadan, the ninth
first, fajr (the dawn prayer), is called when there is month of the Muslim year. It is decreed in the
merely the slightest glimmer of light on the eastern Qur’an, Sura 2:185. This fast requires abstention
horizon and homes are still in total darkness. It must from food, drink, smoking and sex from first light
be performed before the sun appears over the horizon. until sunset. The Muslim year being lunar, it is the
It includes the words ‘Prayer is better than sleep’. appearance of the new moon in the evening sky
Each of the prayer times is announced in the same that signals that fasting is to begin the following
way. The time of the second prayer, zuhr (the noon day. In fasting, Muslims resolve to turn away from
prayer), is just after the sun has reached its zenith; that sin, and to seek reconciliation and forgiveness
of the third, ‘asr, is just after the sun has reached the for wrongs done within the family and the
mid-point between its zenith and the western horizon. wider community. In the hunger of fasting, they
Maghrib, the fourth prayer, is performed when the sun experience and share in the suffering of the poor.
has touched the western horizon, and ’isha, the fifth The fast is physically and spiritually demanding.
and final prayer, when the last glimmer of red has The sick and elderly are excused it on the payment
faded from the western sky. of a ‘compensation’ to contribute to the feeding of
The recitation that is essential for every unit the poor. Observance of it is lightened in Muslim
of every prayer is al-Fatiha, the first chapter of the countries by community support and the fact that
Qur’an, which in Muslim devotional and public the ordinary responsibilities of daily life are geared
life fulfils the role that the Lord’s Prayer does in to it. An early morning meal, the sahur, finished
Christian countries. well before first light, has to sustain those fasting
until sunset. It is very difficult in a country such
In the name of God the Merciful, the Compassionate. as Australia where Muslims are a minority—there
Praise be to God, Lord of the Universe, is little scope for adjustment of working hours
the Merciful, the Compassionate, and, when the lunar fasting month falls between
December and February, the period of fasting may

extend to almost 18 hours. It is accompanied by when a body is placed in the grave, it is laid on its
special prayers and devotions at the mosque. The side, facing towards Mecca.
central event of each day is the iftar—the breaking of Why Mecca? It is not because it is the birthplace
the day’s fast at sunset. Friends, neighbours and family of Muhammad. Muhammad, though the greatest of
members, even those from far away, take it in turns to the prophets, is a messenger only. Madina, which
gather at each other’s houses to share the event. became his centre of political authority, is his city.
The end of the fast is signalled by the appearance Mecca, on the other hand, is the city of God. At the
of the next new moon in the evening sky. This centre of Mecca is the Sacred Mosque, built around
heralds on the following day the festival of the the cube-shaped structure known as the Ka’ba.
ending of the fast, the ‘id al-fitr, a day which begins In Muslim belief, Mecca has a unique status that
with a mass public prayer service, followed by an goes back to the dawn of time. The Qur’an tells the
exchange of greetings paid by children to parents story of the disobedience of Adam and Eve, and
and juniors to seniors over all generations—all their expulsion from the Garden of Eden for eating
wearing new clothes for the occasion. Open-house the forbidden fruit, in much the same way as does
feasting is the general rule, and with it the resolve the book of Genesis. There are a number of popular
to put aside all quarrels and disagreements of the stories about where they fell. One is that Adam fell
past year and to make a fresh start. on Sri Lanka, on the top of what is now known as
Adam’s Peak, and that Eve fell in Arabia. They spent
The fifth pillar: the Hajj many years looking for and at last met each other
on the site of one of the great rituals of the Hajj,
The fifth pillar is performance of the rites of the not far from Mecca: the plain of Arafat. Millions
pilgrimage to Mecca, the Hajj, from the seventh to of pilgrims congregate here each year. The word
the tenth day of dhu’l-hijja (the 12th month of the Arafat in popular etymology means ‘recognition’,
Muslim calendar). This is an obligation for every and the plain has this name as the place where
Muslim who is of age and stable health, and who Adam and Eve at last met, recognised each other
has the financial means. and were reunited. Adam built the original Ka’ba,
Mecca has a central role in Muslim religious life. to be known as the House of God—the first place of
The ritual prayer must be performed facing towards worship on earth. It thus preceded any other sacred
Mecca—in Australia this is to the north-east—and site on earth.
FIG 5.14 In Australia, Muslim groups invite the local community to

join in their end-of-Ramadan festivities.

The original Ka’ba was destroyed in Noah’s flood
and the site abandoned for millennia until the time activities
of Abraham. Abraham rebuilt it and re-established 1. Outline each of the Five Pillars.
it as a holy place. However, the ceremonies
2. Can one be a believing Muslim without fulfilling
performed at it became contaminated with fertility
faithfully the requirements of all the pillars? Why
rites and idol worship. The rituals performed there
or why not?
included naked processions around the Ka’ba, with
3. Research the site of Mecca. Why do Muslims
participants whistling and clapping their hands.
believe it has been so important in world religious
Part of Muhammad’s task, then, was to restore this
history? What does Mecca have to do with Adam
Meccan shrine to its authentic and original purpose,
and Eve? Would Jews and Christians visit Mecca
dedicated to the one God.
in throngs if it played the same role in their
The Qur’an gives vivid accounts of the
religious history as it did in that of Muslims? What
importance of the Meccan shrine.
conflicts are still occurring because of events that
happened at Mecca 1400 years ago?
The first House [of worship] established on earth
is indeed that at Bakka [Mecca],
[set there] as a blessing and guidance for all peoples.
In it are signs that give testimony.
[In it is] the place where Abraham stood.
Whoever enters it is secure from harm.
The Pilgrimage to the House
is a duty humankind owes to God. (Sura 3:96–97)
Another sura, similar in tone, gives a remarkable

vision of the role of the shrine in days to come:
Proclaim to humankind the Pilgrimage!

They will come to you on foot,
they will come on every scrawny camel,
they will come from every distant valley
to behold the blessings prepared for them
and recite the name of God on the appointed days,
[as they sacrifice] the beasts and cattle
He has provided for them.
Then eat of these cattle,
and feed the poor and destitute. (Sura 22:27–28)
These Five Pillars define the external observances by

which an individual may be recognised as a Muslim.

Review and assess
Review
1. Find a map that displays Arabia. On this map, identify the locations
where Muhammad first experienced Allah, and the areas he lived
and worked. Present this as a PowerPoint and include photographs
that illustrate the type of landscape and environment Muhammad
may have lived in.
2. Construct a graph that clearly illustrates the number of Muslims

found in 10 of the most populated countries. Are these countries
Islamic and, if they are, how can this be determined?
3. Draw up a children’s book that clearly illustrates the five essential

Islamic practices or the Pillars of Islam. The book needs to have clear
diagrams and simple explanations.
4. Write a journal about a young woman who is sponsored by her

community to take part in the fifth pillar of Islam—Hajj. Include
information about the following:
• the benefits for her
• the benefits for her community
• how she prepares
• what she experiences there
• what steps are involved in Hajj.
5. Why is it necessary to read the Qur’an and hadith to gain an

adequate understanding of how to be a Muslim? Is it possible to be a
Muslim through reading the Qur’an alone?
6. Create a chart that identifies the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs. State
who they were, the years they were active and what they attempted
to do for their community. Compare this chart with one that
identifies the Imams. What did the Imams do and in what way are
they different from the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs?
7. Construct a glossary of the Arabic terms in this chapter. Clearly state

and define each term.
8. Define what it is to be Sunni or Shiite. Use the Internet to locate

two cultural groups that state themselves as Sunni and Shiite. What
differences are there? What are the similarities? Which group would
you have an affinity for and why?

9. Give an account of twenty-four hours of the fast 22. Name and explain the importance of the Qur’an
of Ramadan, from the sunset and breaking of the and the hadith.
fast one day until the sunset of the following day.
23. Describe the importance of sacred writings to
10. Construct a media file on Islamic issues that Islam.
contain a minimum of 10 articles and answer the
following questions: 24. Explain the terms ‘halal’ and ‘haram’.
• What Islamic issue is being presented? 25. Name and describe one of the Five Pillars.
• In what way do the presented issues relate to 26. Outline the Five Pillars.
information found in this chapter?
27. Explain the significance of Ramadan to the
• How objective is the information that is Muslim believer.
presented? What audience is it aimed at?
11. ‘It is easy to become a Muslim but very hard to Longer response (500–650 words)
practise what it is to live as a Muslim.’ Write a
28. Explain the process of decision making in Islamic
response to this statement, using the knowledge
jurisprudence.
you have gained from this chapter and other
sources you may have read. 29. Explain why the Prophet Muhammad as the final
messenger is the model for Muslim life.
Exam style questions 30. Explain the significance of the Five Pillars as the
key to the Islamic lifestyle.
Short response (100–150 words)
12. Outline the principal events in Muhammad’s life.
13. Outline the historical context in which Islam began.
14. Explain why the Prophet Muhammad is regarded

as the last prophet.
15. Name the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs and briefly

describe each.
16. Account for the emergence of the Sunni and Shi’a.
17. Describe Tawhid.
18. Explain the importance of Tawhid.
19. Outline the principal Muslim beliefs concerning

life after death.
20. Outline the principal ethical teachings of Islam.
21. Name three principal beliefs and describe each.

06_KIN_OSR_Judai.indd 128 11/9/09 11:03:51 AM
Judaism
The focus of this study is Judaism, one of the major
Outcomes Content
systems Origins
P4 examines significant aspects of religious • Abraham and the Covenant

traditions • Moses, the Exodus and the giving of the Torah
P5 describes the influence of religious traditions in • modern Judaism
the life of adherents • Conservative Judaism
P6 selects and uses relevant information about • Orthodox Judaism
religion from a variety of sources
• Progressive Judaism
making appropriate use of time and resources
Principal beliefs
P8 uses appropriate terminology related to
• belief in a single God who is the creator and ruler
of the universe
• the concept of a moral law prescribed by God
and issues using appropriate written, oral and
graphic forms • the idea of the Covenant

• the Hebrew scriptures
• the Hebrew Bible
• the Talmud
Core Ethical teachings

• the commandments of the Torah
• the Prophetic Vision
• the book of Proverbs—wisdom, righteousness,
purity and generosity of spirit

• Shabbat

Prelim | Chapter 6 Judaism 129

BAT MITZVAH rite of passage for a girl’s coming of age. PROGRESSIVE a stream of Judaism that believes that while
CHASSIDISM a revival movement that began in eastern JUDAISM the Torah came from God, it is up to people
Europe in the 18th century. A mystical to apply it to modern-day situations. It sees
and ecstatic movement, it questioned Jewish law as dynamic rather that a static
many of the traditional views of set of rules from the past.
established Judaism. RABBI teacher—someone noted for their know-
CONSERVATIVE a stream that believes that Judaism ledge and their ability to teach others.
JUDAISM should be constantly evolving according RABBINICAL Judaism as it developed after the
to the times and people’s needs. It values JUDAISM destruction of the Second Temple in
modern culture and scholarship alongside Jerusalem c. 70 CE. The rabbi replaced the
traditional sacred texts and ritual priest; the synagogue replaced the temple;
observances. study of the Torah replaced sacrifice.
COVENANT the relationship between God and his RECONSTRUCT- founded in the United States in the
people that came through Abraham and IONIST JUDAISM 1920s by Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan, this
Moses, carrying with it special rights and form of Judaism rejects the concept
responsibilities. of a supernatural God and asserts that
GENTILE a non-Jewish person. Judaism is a people, a culture and a faith
community.
HALACHA the way of Jewish law given to Moses on
Mount Sinai and transmitted throughout SHABBAT the Sabbath or seventh day of the week
the generations by rabbis and sages. when Jews abstain from work. The Sabbath
begins on Friday evening and concludes one
HEBREW BIBLE a modern term, also known as the
hour after sunset on Saturday.
Tanakh.
SHACHARIT morning prayer service.
JEW a member of the Israelite people.
SHEMA the prayer that states the oneness of God:
JUDAISM a term first used about 2000 years ago to
‘Hear, O Israel: the Lord is our God, the
explain the Jewish religion to non-Jewish
Lord is One’ (Deuteronomy 6:4).
people.
TALMUD the collective name for rabbinical writings
KABBALAH a mystical strand of Judaism.
composed from the first century BCE to
LIBERAL a form of Judaism that takes a more around 500 CE.
JUDAISM liberal approach to the interpretation of
TANAKH an acronym taken from the three sections
the Law than other streams.
of the Hebrew Bible: Torah (also known as
MESSIAH from the Hebrew mashaih or masheach the Pentateuch), Nevi’im (the prophets)
meaning ‘the one who is anointed’. and Ketubim (‘scriptures’, ‘writings’ or
When the Messiah comes he will free ‘wisdom books’).
the Jewish people from oppression and
TEFILLIN phylacteries—small boxes containing
restore peace and wholeness.
a small piece of parchment on which
MEZUZAH a box attached to a doorpost. God’s name is is written the Shema. These boxes are
engraved inside. The Shema is written on a strapped on the arm and forehead at
scroll and placed inside this box. morning prayers.
MISHNAH part of the Talmudic literature, compiled TESHUVA the accountability of each person for their
over a period of 400 years. It is legal own deeds and personal introspection.
material written down since the time of
TIKKUN OLAM the rebuilding or repair of the world.
Torah. It aims to clarify matters through
repetition and discussion. TORAH the first five books of the Hebrew Bible.
MOSAIC LAW law given to the community of believers. YHWH the ‘unutterable name’ of God, revealed to
It is covenantal, a contract with God. Moses at the burning bush (Exodus 3:14). It
is often translated ‘I am who I am’.
ORTHODOX the traditional form of Judaism,
JUDAISM characterised by the belief that the YIDDISH the language used by Ashkenazi Jews. It
Written and Oral Law given to Moses on is written in the Hebrew script and has
Mount Sinai cannot be changed. many Hebrew and German words.

Origins of Judaism
Abraham and the Covenant
The sacred history of Judaism begins with Abraham, Without questioning the obviously cruel
the first father or ‘patriarch’ of the Jewish people. command, Abraham put his trust in God and began
Responding to God’s command, Abraham left his to make the necessary preparations for the sacrifice.
homeland in Mesopotamia and embarked on a Genesis recounts that he bound the boy and was
journey to an unknown place, later revealed to be about to slash his throat when an angel appeared
the land of Canaan (Genesis 12–15). Abraham’s and prevented the sacrifice from proceeding.
trust in God, and his obedience to God’s command
to undertake the journey and to implement the rite Do not lay your hand on the boy or do anything to
of circumcision, are fundamental to Judaism. him; for now I know that you fear God, since you
Essentially, Abraham’s religion was a simple have not withheld your son, your only son, from me.
one. It did not need priests or elaborate temple (Genesis 22:12–13)
structures, and it did not depend on formal political
and social organisations. The Abrahamic belief
reflected a semi-nomadic lifestyle and promoted a
personal relationship between one man and one
God. This relationship was ‘covenantal’—that is, it
was based on a covenant, an agreement between the
divine and the human. God said to Abraham:
… this is my covenant with you: You shall be the

ancestor of a multitude of nations … I will make you
exceedingly fruitful; and I will make nations of you,
and kings shall come from you. I will establish my
covenant between me and you, and your offspring
after you …
(Genesis 17:4–7)
Genesis 22 tells of Abraham’s greatest act of faith.
Take your son, your only son Isaac, whom you love,
and go to the land of Moriah, and offer him there
as a burnt offering on one of the mountains that I
shall show you.
(Genesis 22:2)
‘ The sacred history

of Judaism begins
with Abraham ...
’ FIG 6.1 Abraham offering his son Isaac as a sacrifice

At that moment Abraham looked up and saw a ram,
Terms in Judaism which he sacrificed to God, whereupon the angel
The term ‘Judaism’ was coined about 2000 years ago reappeared, this time with a blessing for Abraham
in order to explain the peculiarities of the Jewish and his descendants.
religion to non-Jews. It is not found in any of the In Judaism, Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice
Jewish sacred writings. Even the noun ‘Jew’ makes Isaac serves as an example of supreme piety and
only a rare appearance in the Jewish scriptures, devotion. Throughout Jewish history, particularly
and until the fourth century CE it meant ‘someone at times of harsh persecution, the Abrahamic model
or something belonging to the region of Judaea comforted the Jewish people by assuring them that
in Palestine’. The rarity of these concepts is not divine blessing would follow true acts of faith.
surprising since throughout its history Judaism has
had to develop a vocabulary capable of providing activities
two kinds of explanations concerning history,
1. Research the word ‘Judaism’ and where it comes
identity and religion: one for the Jewish people
from.
themselves and another for non-Jews interested
in the principles of the Jewish religion. The two 2. What is the name of the Hebrew Bible? Explain the
explanations are complementary, telling the same three sections within it.
historical and religious story but from different 3. Why is Abraham so important to the Jewish
perspectives. religion?
The Hebrew Bible recounts the sacred beginnings 4. Describe the nature of Abraham’s religion of
and history of the Jewish people. It is intended his time.
to offer a religious meaning for the situations
5. Empathy task 1: Imagine that you are Abraham
described in its pages, highlighting the instructive
and God has told you that you must sacrifice
and educational role of the Hebrew Bible. The name
your son Isaac. Write a journal entry for how you
Torah is given to the first five books of the Hebrew
are feeling and how you are reacting to Isaac for
Bible, meaning ‘to teach and guide’.
each day on your journey until you find the ram
The term ‘Hebrew Bible’ is modern. In the Jewish
in the thicket.
religion the Hebrew Bible is called Tanakh, which is
an acronym derived from the three sections of the 6. Empathy task 2: Imagine you are Sarah (Abraham’s
work: Torah, also referred to as the ‘Pentateuch’: wife) and your husband has insisted on taking
Nevi’im, meaning ‘prophets’; and Ketubim, your son Isaac on a long journey. Abraham has
meaning ‘Scriptures’, ‘writings’ or ‘wisdom books’. been acting very strangely lately. Write a journal
In Christian tradition the Hebrew Bible is referred entry on your misgivings about this journey and
to as the Old Testament; however, the sacred books your relief when they return home safely.
are arranged in a different order. Christians read
the books in the light of the New Testament while Abraham’s descendants in Egypt
Jewish people read the Tanakh with the aid of Jewish The children of Abraham maintained their personal
commentators and interpreters. relationship with God through prayer and the
Although modern biblical scholarship calls the ritual sacrifice of animals. When famine forced
people depicted in the Tanakh ‘Israelites’, and their Jacob’s family to move to Egypt, they lived there for
religious practices and beliefs ‘Israelite’, for the several years in peace and continued their ancestral
Jewish believer the Tanakh marks the starting point traditions without persecution. Changing political
for Judaism, and the people who adhere to its beliefs circumstances, however, meant that within a
and practices are referred to as ‘Jewish’. generation or so Jacob’s descendants became slaves.
Responding to the people’s prayers for physical and
spiritual salvation, God sent Moses to organise their
escape from Egypt. This event and its miraculous
consequences are referred to in the Hebrew
Scriptures as the Exodus.

Moses, the Exodus and the giving of the Torah
Moses is regarded as the founder of the Jewish religion. He

transformed Judaism from a cult of ancestral worship into a
tradition based on divine revelation.
He was born into a family of Hebrew slaves in Egypt in
approximately the thirteenth century BCE. His parents, Amram
and Jochebed, were from the tribe of Levi. As an infant, Moses was
adopted by Egypt’s royal family and grew up in a social, religious
and political environment very different from that of his kin and
ethnic group. After killing an Egyptian guard, Moses, fearing for his
life, fled to the desert.
It was here in the desert that he experienced his first encounter
with God. Moses was minding the flock of his father-in-law, Jethro.
When approaching Horeb, the mountain of God, he saw a bush in
flames, but the fire was not consuming the bush. Moses approached
it and heard a voice calling out his name:
Moses, Moses! … Come no closer! Remove the sandals from your feet,
for the place on which you are standing is holy ground. (Exodus 3:4–5)
As Moses followed the command, the voice was revealed to be
that of the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, Moses’ forefathers.
Moses’ immediate reaction was to cover his face as he did not want
to gaze at God. Expressing his concerns for the fate of his people,
God revealed his plan to rescue the children of Israel from slavery
and lead them back to their ancestral homeland in Canaan. Moses FIG 6.2 Michelangelo’s statue of Moses
would have a special role to play as God’s messenger and prophet.
‘
From this time on he would be the only person in a position to Moses ... [is]
converse with God directly. This unique position would set Moses
apart as an example for all future prophets and religious teachers an example for all
within the Jewish tradition. future prophets and
At first Moses was reluctant. He asked for God’s name so that he
could convince the children of Israel that the message was authentic. religious teachers
within the Jewish
’
‘If I come to the Israelites and say to them, “The God of your ancestors
has sent me to you,” and they ask me, “What is his name?” what shall tradtion.
I say to them?’ God said to Moses, “I AM WHO I AM”. He said further,
“Thus you shall say to the Israelites. “I AM has sent me to you.” ’
(Exodus 3:13–15) activities
1. Write a paragraph supporting the
After much persuasion, Moses agreed to accept God’s command. He
claim that Moses is the founder of
returned to Egypt with a request to the pharaoh to release the children
the Jewish religion.
of Israel from slavery and to let them go to their promised land.
On a personal level, the revelation at the sight of the burning 2. Why is Moses’ religious
bush represented the end of Moses’ search for his origins. Socially, experience so different from that
it was the starting point for the Israelite’s deliverance from slavery of Abraham?
and return to their ancestral homeland. Theologically, it was the 3. Research the meaning of the
site of the disclosure of God’s name. After God spoke from the word ‘theophany’. Explain how the
burning bush, Moses asked God for his name, and God replied, ‘I story of the burning bush is
am who I am’. This self-revelation, disclosed in a miraculous event, a theophany.
is the unutterable name of God in Judaism, YHWH.

The Exodus and the giving of the Law
The Hebrews’ flight from Egypt was finally achieved

through God’s direct intervention. God sent ten
plagues in order to punish the Egyptian pharaoh. In
the first of these, the waters of the Nile were turned
to blood. The land of Egypt was then infested
with frogs and maggots. The plagues continued to
escalate in intensity, and the tenth was the most
horrific of all. God directed that the firstborn child
of every Egyptian family would die. The Hebrew
slaves, however, were told to place a special mark
on the doorposts of their houses so that God would
know which houses to avoid. In the Hebrew Bible
this is described as the ‘passing over’, a miraculous
event that would form the basis of the Passover
celebration. As prescribed by the Hebrew Bible,
Jewish people observe the Passover in order to
remember and give thanks to God, who, keeping
the promise of the Covenant, delivered them from
bondage to freedom.
This day shall be a day of remembrance for you.

You shall celebrate it as a festival to the LORD;
throughout your generations you shall observe it
as a perpetual ordinance … You shall observe the
festival of unleavened bread, for on this very day I
brought your companies out of the land of Egypt.
(Exodus 12:14–17)
FIG 6.3 The plagues sent by God to punish the Egyptian pharaoh
when he refused to release the children of Israel (14th-century
Hebrew manuscript)
The last plague convinced the pharaoh to release the Hebrews.

Seizing the moment, Moses escaped with the children of Israel. Their
flight from Egypt marked the beginning of the most crucial transition
in the history of Judaism. After the Exodus the simple tradition of
Abraham would be transformed by Moses into a religion based on
shared memory and expressed in the form of binding laws and ethical
values, the most important of which were the Ten Commandments.
Exodus chapter 20 recounts how Moses received the Ten
Commandments. Again Moses spoke directly with God and received
the commandments alone. Even priests, who were elected so that
rituals such as the Passover would be properly conducted, were barred
from approaching Mount Sinai. The Ten Commandments covered all
aspects of life, from one’s personal relationship with God to family and
neighbourly obligations. Most importantly, the first commandment,
‘I am the LORD your God, who brought you out of the land of
Egypt’ (Exodus 20:2), re-established the supremacy of Israel’s living FIG 6.4 Mount Sinai: note the wild,
relationship with the one God who was also known to Abraham, Isaac rugged landscape that the people of the
Exodus had to travel through.
and Jacob. This affirms the continuous history of the Jewish people.

Dothan
Mediterranean Sea
Shechem Succoth
Luz
Rosetta Ai
(Bethel)
Damietta LAND OF Ephrath
Sais Pelusium CANAAN Mamre
Hebron
Gerar Dead
LAND OF
Beersheba Sea
GOSHEN Wilderness Wilderness LAND OF
of Shur of Zin MOAB
Etham Kadesh LAND OF
Barnea EDOM
Sukkol Mount
Heliopolis
Hor
Wilderness
Memphis of Etham Tigris River
Wilderness Mediterranean
EGYPT
Sea
of Paran
LAND OF EGYPT
Euphrates
River
MIDIAN
Nile Persian
Makah Ezion-geber Nile Gulf
River
Elim
Wilderness Wilderness Red
of Sin of Sinai Sea
Rephidim
Mount
Sinai
FIG 6.5 Moses and the people of Israel’s path through the wilderness to their promised land
The Exodus and the revelation of the Ten

Commandments occupy central positions in the
foundation of the Jewish religion as an independent
tradition. Throughout Jewish history these two activities
events have served as affirmations of God’s care 1. Outline the major events starting with Abraham
and support for his people in times of crisis. Moses’ leaving his homeland in Mesopotamia until the
role in both events was crucial. Just as Abraham is end of Moses’ leadership of God’s people.
considered to be the father of the Jewish people, 2. If you have access to a program such as ‘Comic
Moses is universally acknowledged as the founder of Life’, make up a cartoon strip to tell the story of
the Jewish religion. the Exodus.
For the next 40 years Moses led the people of Israel
3. Empathy task: How must Moses have been feeling
through the desert to the promised land. (See map
when Pharaoh kept going back on his word? Use
above.) Moses was a sensitive but uncompromising
some examples from the plagues. How do you
leader. The model for future prophets, Moses is
think he would have felt when they had finally
depicted as communicating directly with God. Moses
crossed the Sea of Reeds and left the Egyptians
the political leader forged a unified national identity
behind them?
for the people of Israel, thus bringing unity out of
diverse and disparate beginnings. 4. The Ten Commandments are divided into two
Moses established Judaism as a monotheistic key sections. Prepare a visual presentation of the
religion at a time when all other religions in the region Commandments in each section.
still worshipped a multitude of gods. His teachings 5. Debate the topic: the Ten Commandments helped
were significantly focused on ethical concerns and form a nation out of a wandering people.
were aimed at building a just society. Moses’ leadership 6. In your own words, explain the story of the
can be seen as an unsurpassed example of humility Passover.
and integrity based on strong religious convictions
in the one God who provided Moses’ moral strength,
and these virtues proved to be a constant source of
inspiration for future Jewish teachers.

Modern Judaism
Orthodox Judaism
Modern Orthodox Judaism found its most eloquent

proponent in Samson Raphael Hirsch (1808–88).
His first task was to isolate certain aspects of modern
European life that were considered to be acceptable
to Judaism. Hirsch did not raise an objection if, for
example, a person chose to dress like a Gentile or
speak in English rather than Yiddish. Such practices
were not thought to affect the person’s Jewish
identity. He did object, however, to any modification
of the patterns of life established by rabbinical
Judaism. Although a Jewish person could speak in
English or any other language when conducting
personal or secular affairs, rituals must be conducted
in Hebrew and the segregation between the sexes
must be maintained during worship.
The Jewish believer, according to Hirsch, is a
person for whom Judaism ‘encompasses all of life,
in the synagogue and in the kitchen’. Hirsch’s FIG 6.7 Jewish man praying at the ‘Wailing Wall’ in Jerusalem
orthodoxy merges the basic aspects of Judaism with
high moral and ethical concerns for the world’s There are many Jewish communities that have
well-being. The orthodox believer is perceived as not been exposed to the pressures of modernity
modern in outlook, yet strict in the way he or she (such as those from Eastern Europe) whose
keeps the commandments, which, according to traditions and practices have changed very little
Orthodox belief, were given to the Jewish people at over time. Although referred to as Orthodox, their
Mount Sinai. Orthodoxy is quite different from that prescribed
by Hirsch, relying mainly on religious writings
of medieval writers such as Maimonides. Each of
the Hassidic groups follows the teachings of their
rabbi, which can vary from group to group.
activities
1. Name four visual features of Orthodox Jews that
distinguish them from others.
2. In what ways are Hassidic Jews different from
other Orthodox Jews?
3. Create an oral presentation to your class from
the perspective of an Orthodox Jewish man.
Assuming the class knows little about Judaism,
explain the importance of your prayer shawl and
your phylacteries. Use photos and aids to help
your presentation.
FIG 6.6 The Great Synagogue, Sydney

Reform Judaism
The main task of Reform Judaism has been to negotiate a way Reform Judaism
between ancient religious tradition and contemporary lifestyle. This • Reform Jews call their
movement originated in the early 19th century. Unlike Orthodox synagogues ‘temples’.
Judaism, the Reform movements concentrate on the ethical teachings • Women are ordained as rabbis
of the biblical prophets rather than on Moses’ religious prescriptions and cantors.
or on the rabbinical commentaries in the Talmud. In the Reform • Children of mixed marriages
movements the prophets are shown to have pointed to a golden age are often regarded as Jewish
in which moral values will be cherished more strongly than religious even if their mother is not
ritual, and in which divisions between religious, ethnic and national Jewish.
groups will be overcome by the force of a universal ethic.
Conservative Judaism
Often referred to as the ‘middle ground’, Conservative Judaism is
distinguished by its strong rejection of any kind of dogmatism or inflexible
‘
thinking. Conservative Judaism represents a mixture of Orthodox and
The basic tenet Reform beliefs and practices. The three principles of Conservative Judaism
commit their adherents to the unity of all Jewish people, the continuation
of Conservative
of Jewish tradition and the maintenance of Jewish scholarship.
Judaism is that any The basic tenet of Conservative Judaism is that any religious tradition
exists for the sake of the people who follow it and not vice versa. Judaism,
religious tradition
according to Conservatism, is always secondary in its importance to
exists for the sake the Jewish people. Since the people come first, Judaism should not be
understood as a monolithic tradition. Rather, it can be thought of as taking
of the people who
many forms and shapes, all of which are valid if practised from a strong
follow it and not moral and ethical base.
’
Conservative Judaism accepts the rabbinical belief framework, though
vice versa.
with certain modifications. Thus, in Conservative Judaism, as against
Orthodoxy, men and women sit together in synagogue, women are allowed
to read from the Torah and girls may undergo a bat mitvah. Worship is
conducted in both Hebrew and English, and many synagogues have choirs
accompanied by music.
FIG 6.8 In Conservative Judaism men and women sit together in the Synagogue.

FIG 6.9 In Progressive Judaism women can become a rabbi.
Progressive Judaism As are all branches of Judaism, Progressive

Judaism is built on the Law of Moses as set out in
Progressive Judaism is a collective term the five books of the Torah. They emphasise ethical
encompassing Reform, Liberal, Reconstructionist behaviour as guiding their way of life, working to
and Progressive Jews. At the beginning of the 21st make them meaningful parts of contemporary life.
century there are more than 1.7 million people Particular emphasis is put on rebuilding the world
belonging to the movement known as Progressive or tikkun olam, which is the belief that people are
Judaism. in partnership with God in creating the world as it
This movement began in the 1800s with men should be, through both social and environmental
like Abraham Geiger and Sigmund Stern, but action. While the Torah comes from God, it is the
it was not until the 20th century that reform responsibility of people to apply its teachings to
movements started to take hold with the formation their time in history. The important point here is
of the World Union for Progressive Judaism. This that Jewish law, rather than being the province
umbrella movement was to play an active role in of past rabbis, is dynamic, a process requiring
the rebuilding of the small congregations that were continuing engagement with the core beliefs of
decimated during the Second World War. Judaism in the context of the current world.
Today different Progressive Jewish groups All individuals are responsible for developing
subscribe to a common set of beliefs, goals and their own understanding of what God wants
organisational structures but disagree over the of them. In order to find this, Progressive Jews
role of tradition. This means that there can be place emphasis on education, especially in Jewish
many differences between groups. Progressive Jews texts and traditions. Men and women are seen as
embrace tradition but try to make their religion equal partners with no division of seating within
meaningful in today’s world. They accept the core synagogues, and both sexes enjoy the opportunity
values of pluralism, modernity, equality and social to participate equally in services. It is not unusual to
justice and place an emphasis on tikkun olam, the see women in the role of rabbi.
rebuilding or repair of the world.

In Progressive Judaism, prayers and rituals are essentially the
same as in other branches of Judaism, but with minor alterations to
maintain their relevance to the community. It is not uncommon to
use the vernacular as well as Hebrew in the service. Music may be
included in the service, which is often shorter than an Orthodox
service.
It is often thought that Progressive Jews reject Jewish law,
Progressive Judaism Shabbat observance and dietary laws, but this is not the case.
The Australia Progressive Jewish They set aside a sacred time for Shabbat and other festivals, but
Congregation of the city of Progressive Jews reinterpret the Torah in ways meaningful to
Brisbane sets out the values of modern-day lives.
Progressive Judaism as follows:
• Respect. All views are listened activities
to, and everyone is accepted
1. Historical research:
without judgment.
• Learning. We treasure learning a. What was the Trefa Banquet and why was it significant?
as the core of Jewish life and b. Outline the main elements in the debate between Kaufmann
our hopes for the future. Kohler and Alexander Kohut. Discuss the significance of the
• Inclusiveness. There is a place Pittsburgh Platform and the resulting outcomes.
here for all Progressive Jews, 2. Explain why some Jewish people choose to belong to one of the
and all those who are studying Progressive congregations.
to become Progressive Jews.
3. Draw up a table with the column headings ‘Orthodox Judaism’,
• Openness. Our decision-
‘Conservative Judaism’ and ‘Progressive Judaism’. On the vertical
making processes are clear,
axis list the following: ‘Language of worship’, ‘Women’, ‘Dress of
transparent and fair.
worship’, ‘Organisation’. Complete the table.
• Family. We value every
member as part of our 4. Discuss which features of each of the three groups of Judaism
Progressive Jewish family, appeal to you and explain why that is the case.
whatever their own family
circumstances.
‘ Progressive Jews
embrace tradition
but try to make their
religion meaningful
in today’s world.
They accept the core
values of pluralism,
modernity, equality
and social justice and
place an emphasis on
tikkun olam …
’

Principal beliefs
Belief in a single God, the moral law

and the importance of covenant
(See also ‘Origins of Judaism: Abraham and the
Covenant’ pages 131–132.)
The most fundamental aspect of Jewish belief
concerning God is the affirmation of God’s oneness.
According to Judaism, spiritual entities cannot be
divided. The belief in God’s oneness is found in
the Hebrew Bible and forms the basis of the central
Jewish prayer, the Shema:
Hear, O Israel, God is our God, God the One and Only.
(Deuteronomy 6:4)
The Shema calls upon all Jewish people to
affirm their belief in the one, only and unique God
of Israel who saved them from slavery in Egypt
more than 3000 years ago. In commemoration
of the Exodus from Egypt, the Shema prescribes
the binding of phylacteries or tefillin: small box-
like objects containing passages from the book of
Exodus that are usually worn by Jewish men on the
arm and forehead during morning prayers.
Another example of the belief in God’s oneness
and uniqueness is found in the morning prayer,
the Shacharit:
Exalted be the Living God and praised,
He exists—unbounded by time is His existence. FIG 6.10 A Jewish man wearing phylacteries or tefflin
He is One—and there is no unity like His Oneness
Inscrutable and infinite His Oneness.
He has no semblance of a body nor is He corporeal …
The Shacharit also conveys another principle
‘
of Jewish belief concerning God, namely God’s The most fundamental
incorporeality. God is above matter and form and
therefore is intangible. God is free of the limitations aspect of Jewish belief
of bodily life. Although religious and liturgical concerning God is the
language may employ human metaphors when
speaking of God, these figures of speech are never affirmation of
God’s oneness.
’
understood literally.
In the book of Genesis, God is depicted as having
completed the act of creation. However, God’s
involvement in creation continues in a loving and
06_KIN_OSR_Judai.indd Sec1:140 11/9/09 11:04:22 AM

caring way. Evil in the world derives mainly from
disobedience. So now, O Israel, what does the Lord your God
God’s continuous involvement in human require of you? Only to fear the Lord your God, to
affairs does not contradict the Jewish belief in walk in all his ways, to love him, to serve the Lord
free will. ‘Everything is foreseen’, says a rabbinical your God with all your heart and with all your soul,
phrase, ‘yet free will is given.’ Free will also entails and to keep the commandments and the statutes
personal responsibility. In Judaism, each person of the Lord your God and his decrees that I am
is accountable for their own deeds, and personal commanding you today, for your own well-being.
introspection (teshuva) is an essential aspect of (Deuteronomy 10:12–13)
religious behaviour.
Repentance is a biblical precept. According to
the prophets in the Hebrew Bible, repentance is The law of the Lord is perfect,
that which heals the relationship between God reviving the soul;
and humanity. It is in direct opposition to sin, the decrees of the Lord are sure,
which aims to break the covenantal bond between making wise the simple;
God and God’s people. the precepts of the Lord are right,
One implicit biblical doctrine is the belief in the rejoicing the heart;
afterlife. Early rabbinical Judaism affirms this belief the commandment of the Lord is clear,
and regards the afterlife as the time when the enlightening the eyes;
righteous are rewarded in the days of the Messiah. the fear of the Lord is pure,
According to Judaism, the messianic fulfilment enduring forever;
will end all evil and suffering and the wicked will the ordinances of the Lord are true
be punished. The final triumph of good over evil, and righteous altogether.
however, is reserved for, and will disclose, the true More to be desired are they than gold,
goodness of the Creator and of all creation. even much fine gold;
In most religious traditions there is a tension sweeter also than honey,
between religious law and ethical thinking. In and drippings of the honeycomb.
the case of Judaism the Mosaic Law was given to (Psalm 19:7–10)
the community of believers. It is covenantal—a
contract with God. The rabbinic law is the basis
of the halacha. Jewish people are encouraged to Moses to the prophets of the Hebrew Bible, and from
follow the divine law and holy teachings because them to the early rabbis of the Jewish religion.
such laws transcend both religion and society.
According to Judaism the divine law is liberating activities
because it gives a person the means to sanctify
1. Learn the Shema.
their life. It is the way to salvation.
Jewish theology is based on a close affinity 2. Explain the term ‘covenant’ and in one paragraph
between tradition and moral precepts. Reverence explain its importance to the Jewish people.
for Jewish traditions involves the upholding of 3. How would a Jewish person explain the path to
the divinely inspired moral law. Honouring one’s salvation?
parents, for example, is prescribed in the Ten
Commandments as an ethical and moral duty and
is rewarded by one’s own longevity.
The halacha also exemplifies the bond between
tradition, ethics and morality. It is the legal
tradition that provides a framework for the Jewish
way of life. Tradition holds that the moral and
ethical principles of the halacha were given by

Sacred texts
and writings
The Hebrew scriptures
In Judaism, sacred writings seek to clarify the meaning of the

covenantal relationship between God and the Jewish people. One
‘
of the most evocative images in the Talmud depicts God sitting and
studying the Torah, the heart of the Covenant. The Hebrew
The Hebrew Bible is of foremost importance to Judaism. It recounts Bible ... recounts
the sacred history and literature of the Jewish people for a period of
over 2000 years. The main language of the Bible is Hebrew; however, the sacred history
small sections of some books are written in Aramaic, the spoken and literature of
language of the Jewish people during their exile in Babylonia in the
sixth century BCE. The Hebrew Bible is divided into three sections: the Jewish people
1. Torah: the Pentateuch or first five books for a period of our
2. Nevi’im: the Prophets
3. Ketubim: the Writings or Wisdom books.
These three sections are often given the acronym ‘Tanakh’.
2000 years.
’
FIG 6.11 The Hebrew Bible is written on scrolls and is not touched by human hands. Note the use of the yad, or pointer.

Extracts from the Torah
According to Jewish tradition, the Torah was In the beginning when God created the heavens and
revealed to Moses. Its five books are the most sacred the earth, the earth was a formless void …
in all Jewish literature. They are: (Genesis 1:1–2)
Genesis
Genesis tells of the creation of the world and the … but God will surely come to you, and bring you
unfolding of the Covenant between God and Abraham up out of this land to the land that he swore to
and his descendants. As a result of famine, Abraham’s Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob. (Genesis 50:24)
descendants leave Canaan and settle in Egypt. Then Moses stretched out his hand over the sea.
Exodus The LORD drove the sea back by a strong east wind
Exodus tells of the miraculous way in which Moses all night, and turned the sea into dry land; and the
led the Israelites out of captivity in Egypt and waters were divided. The Israelites went into the sea
received the Ten Commandments from God at on dry ground …
Mount Sinai. These commandments formed the (Exodus 14:21–22)
basis of the Jewish religion.
Leviticus If you follow my statutes and keep my
Leviticus prescribes the rules of conduct for an commandments and observe them faithfully …
ethical and religious life. I will walk among you, and will be your God,
Numbers and you shall be my people.
Numbers relates the difficult journey of the Israelites (Leviticus 26:3, 12)
in the desert and the people’s complaints.
Deuteronomy Then all the congregation raised a loud cry, and
Deuteronomy repeats the Ten Commandments, tells the people wept that night. And all the Israelites
the story of the death of Moses and describes the complained against Moses and Aaron; the whole
final preparation for entering the promised land. congregation said to them, ‘Would that we had died
in the land of Egypt! … would it not be better for us
to go back to Egypt?’
(Numbers 14:1–3)
Moses was one hundred twenty years old when he

died; his sight was unimpaired and his vigour had not
abated … Never since has there arisen a prophet in
Israel like Moses, whom the LORD knew face to face.
(Deuteronomy 34:7, 10)
activities
1. Learn the books of the Torah in correct order.
2. Why are these books considered so important?
3. Discuss as a class why the scrolls are kept in the
ark, why they are still used as scrolls and why you
should not touch them with your hands.
FIG 6.12 The scrolls are kept in the ark at the eastern wall of the
Synagogue. This ark has a curtain, but can also have doors.

Extracts from the Nevi’im
The second section of the Hebrew Bible contains the books of the
Nevi’im, or the Prophets, and combines historical events with religious
teachings. Most of the events described in these books have been
confirmed by archaeological evidence. The longest section in the Hebrew
Bible, the Nevi’im is subdivided into the First and Last Prophets.
The First Prophets

Joshua
Joshua describes the entry and conquest of the promised land … the LORD spoke to
of Canaan. Joshua … ‘Now proceed to
Judges cross the Jordan, you and all
Judges deals with the wars between the Israelites and their neighbours. this people, into the land that I
The Israelites were saved by judges who were appointed to act as am giving to … the Israelites.’
military leaders. Although the people were grateful at first, and thanked (Joshua 1:1–2)
God for their success, within a few generations they began to worship
the gods of the neighbouring tribes. Then the LORD raised up
1 and 2 Samuel judges, who delivered them
First and Second Samuel describe the foundation of the Israelite out of the power of those who
monarchy and the origins of the line of David. plundered them.
1 and 2 Kings (Judges 2:16)
First and Second Kings outline the history of the Judaean and Israelite
kings from the establishment of the First Temple in Jerusalem to But the people refused to
its destruction and the beginning of the Babylonian Captivity. The listen to the voice of Samuel;
following books describe the religious teachings of the prophets, who they said, ‘No! but we are
warned and consoled the people of Israel and Judah throughout their determined to have a king over
troubled history. us, so that we also may be like
other nations, and that our
king may govern us and go out
before us and fight our battles.’
(1 Samuel 8:19–20)
When David’s time to die

drew near, he charged his son
Solomon, saying: ‘I am about to
go the way of all the earth. Be
strong, be courageous, and keep
the charge of the LORD your
God, walking in his ways and
keeping his statutes … so that
you may prosper in all that you
do and wherever you turn’.
(1 Kings 2:1–3)
FIG 6.13 Joshua leading the Jews across

the Jordan River into Canaan, completing
their flight from Egypt

The Last Prophets
Isaiah [God] shall judge between the nations,
The prophetic visions of Isaiah, the Judaean court and shall arbitrate for many peoples;
prophet, focus on the corruption of the ruling they shall beat their swords into plowshares,
classes of Judah and its dangerous consequences. and their spears into pruning hooks;
However, Isaiah promises great rewards for those nation shall not lift up sword against nation,
who follow in God’s path. neither shall they learn war any more.
Jeremiah O house of Jacob,
Jeremiah, a prophet of priestly descent, consoled come, let us walk
the people of Judah after the destruction of the in the light of the LORD!
Temple in Jerusalem. (Isaiah 2:4–5)
Ezekiel
Ezekiel is the prophetic voice of the Babylonian Thus says the Lord:
Captivity. His prophecies are a mixture of laments The people were survived the sword
and visions of future events such as the resurrection found grace in the wilderness;
of the dead and the rebuilding of the Temple. when Israel sought for rest,
The twelve minor prophets the Lord appeared to him from far away.
This section presents twelve books, comprising the I have loved you with an everlasting love;
prophetic visions of Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, therefore I have continued my faithfulness to you.
Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Again I will build you, and you shall be built,
Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi. O virgin Israel!
(Jeremiah 31:2–4)
Then [the LORD] brought me to the gate, the gate

facing east. And there, the glory of the God of Israel
was coming from the east … As the glory of the
LORD entered the temple by the gate facing east, the
spirit lifted me up, and brought me into the inner
court; and the glory of the LORD filled the temple.
(Ezekiel 43:1–2, 4–5)
Those who worship vain idols

forsake their true loyalty.
But I with the voice of thanksgiving
will sacrifice to you;
what I have vowed I will pay.
Deliverance belongs to the Lord!
(Jonah 2:8–9)
FIG 6.14 Ezekiel’s vision of a chariot in the sky and a hand in

the clouds holding out a book to him, 1804. Ezekiel was one of
the four great Hebrew prophets. One modern explanation for the
vision seen by him is that he observed parhelia (mock suns), a
phenomenon caused by reflection from water droplets or minute
particles in the earth’s atmosphere. From the Bible (Ezekiel II:9).

Extracts from the Ketubim
The third set of works is the Ketubim, the Writings or 1 and 2 Chronicles
Wisdom literature. The Wisdom books are as follows: First and Second Chronicles recount the history
Psalms of the Jewish people from Adam to the end of the
Psalms is a liturgical compilation ascribed to King Babylonian Captivity.
David. Its main subjects include songs of praise and
piety. I will extol you, my God and King,
Proverbs and bless your name forever and ever.
Proverbs is a book of wise phrases, short parables Every day I will bless you,
and fables, many ascribed to King Solomon. and praise your name forever and ever.
Job Great is the Lord, and greatly to be praised;
This book is a dialogue between Job and three his greatness is unsearchable.
friends concerning the question of evil and the (Psalm 145:1–3)
relations between human actions and divine reward
and punishment. How happy is the one whom God reproves;
The Song of Songs therefore do not despise the discipline of
A love story attributed to King Solomon, the Song the Almighty.
is an allegory for the love between God and the For he wounds, but he binds up;
people of Israel. he strikes, but his hands heal.
Ruth (Job 5:17–18)
Ruth tells the story of a woman’s conversion to
Judaism and the origins of David’s family. I slept, but my heart was awake.
Lamentations Listen! My beloved is knocking.
Attributed to Jeremiah, Lamentations is a poem ‘Open to me, my sister, my love,
lamenting the sorrows of Zion following the exile my dove, my perfect one;
and the Judaeans. for my head is wet with dew,
Ecclesiastes my locks with the drops of the night.’
This book is a compilation of theological reflections (Song of Songs 5:2)
ascribed to King Solomon, revered for his wisdom.
The main subjects include the question of faith and How lonely sits the city
its relation to human endeavour. that once was full of people!
Esther How like a widow she has become,
The story of Esther, the Jewish wife of the king of she that was great among the nations!
Persia, concerns the miraculous salvation of the She that was a princess among the provinces
Jewish people in Persia. Although the historical has become vassal.
elements of the story might be disputed, the book She weeps bitterly in the night,
forms the basis of the Jewish celebration of Purim, with tears on her cheeks;
during which parties are held and gifts exchanged. among all her lovers
Daniel she has no one to comfort her …
Daniel is a book partly of dramatic visions Judah has gone into exile with suffering
concerning the end of time. One of its main subjects and hard servitude.
is the destiny of the faithful and their salvation by (Lamentations 1:1–3)
God’s powerful intervention in their lives.
Ezra For everything there is a season,
Ezra deals with the Jews’ return to Jerusalem after and a time for every matter under heaven:
the Babylonian Captivity a time to be born, and a time to die;
Nehemiah a time to plant, and a time to pluck up what is planted;
Nehemiah tells the history of the rebuilding of the a time to kill, and a time to heal …
Temple after the return of the Babylonian captives a time for war, and a time for peace.
to Jerusalem. (Ecclesiastes 3:1–3, 8)

The Talmud—rabbinical writings
The Talmud is the collective name for certain 4. Nezikin (damages) covers matters of civil and
rabbinical writings composed from the first century criminal law, and also addresses issues of ethical
BCE to around 500 CE. Its name is derived from and moral concern.
the Hebrew verb ‘to teach’. Talmudic literature is 5. Kodashim (holy things) deals with sacrificial
organised in the form of conversations between rites of the Temple. Although the Mishnah was
two or more rabbis. At the end of each scholarly written after the destruction of the Temple, the
conversation a binding conclusion is given. inclusion of this order points to the rabbis’ belief
Talmudic literature is subdivided in the following in its imminent rebuilding.
manner: 6. Toharot (purity) addresses issues of purity and
1 Mishnah: edited by Rabbi Yehuda ha’Nassi, who cleanliness, such as burial practices and duties
promulgated the text in 200 CE. relating to the prevention of plagues.
2. Gemara:
• The Jerusalem Gemara, edited by Galilean The Gemara
rabbis and completed in the early 400s CE. Although the Mishnah addressed most traditional
• The Babylonian Gemara, edited by Babylonian Jewish practices, there was still a great deal of
rabbis and completed around 500 CE. additional material that needed to be covered by
the rabbis. For 300 years after the completion of the
3. The Midrash: a collection of biblical
Mishnah, schools of rabbinical commentators in
interpretations completed at various times.
Galilee and Babylonia worked on the Mishnaic texts
The Mishnah in order to provide further clarification of the oral
According to the Jewish tradition, Moses was given law. ‘Gemara’ means ‘to summarise and complete
two types of Torah: written (the Pentateuch) and issues raised by the Mishnah’.
oral. The oral Torah is a compilation of traditions There are two Gemaras: the Palestinian Gemara
that were handed down in verbal form over the or Talmud, often called the Jerusalem Talmud,
generations. After the destruction of the Second even though it was written in Galilee; and the
Temple and the subsequent exile of the Jewish Babylonian Gemara or Talmud. Both Talmuds
people from their homeland c. 70 CE, the rabbis were written in Aramaic, the spoken language of
feared that some traditional practices might be the Jewish people during the first centuries of the
forgotten. As a result, they decided to commit the Common Era. Although the two Talmuds differ
oral law to writing. The textbook of Jewish oral law in some aspects, they overlap in many areas. The
is the Mishnah. Babylonian Talmud covers more subjects than the
The word ‘Mishnah’ means ‘to explain through Jerusalem Talmud, and as a result is given more
repetition and discussion’. There are six s’darim weight in matters of dispute.
(orders) in the Mishnah:
1. Zera’im (seeds) deals with agricultural matters activity
and the working of the land. For example, it Select one biblical extract from the previous pages for
repeats the law from Leviticus that requires a each of the following and expand on its meaning and
Jewish farmer to leave the corners of the field importance for life today.
unharvested so that the poor can have food
• Torah: the Pentateuch (the first five books)
throughout the year.
• Nevi’im: the Prophets
2. Mo’ed (feasts) provides details concerning
religious festivals such as Passover, Jewish New • Ketubim: the Writings or Wisdom books.
Year and the Day of Atonement.
3. Nashim (women) deals with issues that affect
women such as engagement, marriage and
divorce.

Two basic precepts inform the Jewish ethical system. The remaining commandments deal with
The first is proper conduct between an individual relationships within the Jewish community. These
and God, and the second is proper conduct between commandments are formulated in a negative way:
two or more people. The first precept caters for the
religious aspects of one’s life; the second allows You shall not murder.
for an ethical and just society. Both of these basic You shall not commit adultery.
rules derive from the halacha, which literally means You shall not steal.
‘the way’, or more correctly, ‘the way of life’. For You shall not bear false witness against your neighbour.
the Jewish person, Judaism provides an ethical and You shall not covet your neighbour’s house; you
moral framework for life. shall not covet your neighbour’s wife, or male or
In Judaism action always takes precedence female slave, or ox, or donkey, or anything that
over intent. If a person means to help another belongs to your neighbour.
human being but does not do so, the intentions are (Exodus 20:13–17)
essentially worthless. Similarly, if the intention was
to inflict harm on another but no harm was done, The Ten Commandments have never lost
there is no fault. The Jewish emphasis on action their value as spiritual and moral guidelines
necessitates the assumption of responsibility for one’s for the Jewish people. However, modern times
behaviour and provides the Jewish person with the present an ever-increasing number of new ethical
means to distinguish between good and evil. problems. Abortion and other biomedical issues
need contemporary answers. These answers are
The commandments of the Torah supplied by rabbis and other learned persons in
The Jewish ethical system is based on the Ten the community. Since the rabbis cannot transgress
Commandments, also known as the Decalogue or biblical and Talmudic regulations, they must
Devarim. These ten statements form the fundamental reformulate the old precepts in a way that is
code of behaviour given by God to Moses on Mount meaningful today.
Sinai. They are the basis of the Covenant between
the Jewish people and God. The code is divisible
into two parts. The first five commandments deal
with the proper conduct that takes place between
the believer and God. They are concerned with
the method of worship. These commandments are
formulated in a positive and affirmative way:
I am the LORD your God … you shall have no other

gods before me …
You shall not make for yourself an idol …
You shall not make wrongful use of the name of the
LORD your God …
Remember the sabbath day, and keep it holy …
Honour your father and your mother, so that your
days may be long in the land that the LORD your
God is giving you.
(Exodus 20:2–4, 7–8, 12)
FIG 6.15 Children studying the Torah with a rabbi

There are 613 mitzvot (commandments) that than power. The rabbis emphasise the concept of
provide the framework for living, according to tzedakah, or ‘hidden charity’. Those who practise
the Torah. These mitzvot were established from tzedakah hide their identity so that the recipients
the Torah in the Talmudic age. This was from 2 need not feel ashamed when they meet their
to 7 CE when the rabbis isolated these teachings. benefactors at social or communal functions. There
The mitzvot, accompanied by extensive rabbinical is one aspect of charity in Judaism that is more
commentaries, cover all aspects of life, from dietary important than tzedakah. This is known as gemilut
laws to the proper prayers for religious festivals. They chasidim, ‘acts of loving kindness’ performed for no
seek to explain the reasons for the unique features return. Examples are:
of the Jewish tradition. There is no special set of • giving hospitality to strangers
rules for any particular group in the community: the
• visiting the sick
halacha applies equally to all Jewish people. These
are the building blocks of Jewish life and custom. • assisting a poor or orphaned bride
Thus ethical behaviour is divinely ordained. • accompanying the dead to the grave.
In recent times the phrase tikkun olam, meaning
The Prophetic Vision and tikkun olam ‘repair’ or ‘betterment’ of the world, has come
into common usage alongside the concept of
The vision of the prophets of the Hebrew Bible social justice. It has been used as a platform for the
has inspired Jews from all ages to fulfil the ethics fulfilment of mitzvot and tzedakah.
inspired by the Covenant, a world governed by Historically the phrase tikkun olam is first found
righteousness and justice, a Messianic vision to in the Mishnah in discussions of social policy.
inspire each generation to work towards such a Later it is found in 16th-century Jewish mysticism,
reality. In today’s society Judaism regards prophets specifically in Kabbalah, as an abstract concept
as people who can distinguish between justice and when the Rabbi Isaac Luria taught that the world
injustice and who have the courage to speak out, was made up of good and evil. He was referring
even if it means challenging those in power. They to his belief that it was humans who caused the
are people who remember the Covenant with God separation between that which was holy and that
and who serve as the conscience of a generation. which was material.
Such people offer a vision for a better future. They In the 1950s Shlomo Bardin taught that Jews
speak on behalf of the weak, the powerless and the were obligated to work towards achieving a perfect
oppressed. They shape prophetic Judaism. They world. This placed importance on the sentence
serve as messengers from God. from the concluding synagogue prayer, the Aleinu:
Amos set out the template for the Prophetic ‘L’taken olam b’malchut Shaddai’ (‘when the world
Vision when he said ‘Seek good and not evil, that shall be perfected under the reign of the Almighty’).
you may live … Hate evil and love good, and Tikkun olam is the underlying motivation
establish justice in the gate’ (Amos 5:14–15). In behind social action and volunteer projects that
order to achieve this, the Jewish people must align work towards the repair of the world through
their behaviour with the ethical precepts of the human action. It is a means of aiding people to take
Covenant. Isaiah says, ‘Observe what is right and do responsibility for their world. Jewish teaching is
what is just. For soon My salvation will come and quite clear that these acts must not be limited to the
My justice will be revealed’ (Isaiah 56:1). Jewish community but spread throughout the wider
Although this prophecy has not yet been society according to need.
fulfilled, it is a powerful vision of a world where
justice and peace are paramount. activities
In the contemporary sense this means the relief
1. Prepare an oral presentation outlining the Prophetic
of human suffering, the achievement of peace,
Vision. Use examples to support your presentation.
mutual respect among peoples and the protection of
the earth from destruction. 2. Research the importance of tikkun olam for
The basis of Jewish ethics represents the inherent Jews of the 21st century. Give examples of what
fellowship of all Jewish people and embodies the projects could be undertaken to achieve this.
principle of a community based on care rather

Jewish observances
and the importance
of Shabbat
The destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE brought about the loss

of a central place of worship. As a result, two different places were The mezuzah
allocated in Judaism for the purpose of worship. The first was the
communal gathering-house known as the ‘synagogue’ and the second The sacred nature of the
was the family home. Together these two places ensure that the Jewish home is marked by the
religion functions as an integral part of the life of each member of the mezuzah. Often attached to
tradition. the doorpost, the mezuzah is
The family home is an important place of worship. In addition to an ornate box made of wood
being a safe haven for the family’s physical and mental well-being, the or metal upon which God’s
family home plays a part in forming Jewish identity. It is here that the name is etched or engraved.
Shabbat is celebrated and the various Jewish holidays are marked, either Inside, the Shema is written
by a festive meal or simply by the family gathering together. The family on a scroll, acting as a sign of
home is often referred to as a ‘small temple’, and each family member God’s protection.
participates in maintaining its sacredness and moral purity for the
benefit of others.
According to the rabbis, it is the Sabbath that keeps the Jewish people,
not the Jewish people who keep the Sabbath. The importance of the
Sabbath to Judaism cannot be overestimated. The Sabbath, the seventh
day of the week, is the time when, according to the Hebrew Bible, God
ceased (‘shavat’) creating the world.
The Sabbath is the weekly reminder of God’s grace towards the
world. It is a holy day and, according to the halacha, a day on which
all ordinary activity is forbidden—a regulation that can be breached
only in regard to matters pertaining to life and death. It is a day that is
dedicated to God and marked by a special set of rituals.
The Sabbath begins on Friday evening and includes several rites
called Kabbalat Shabbat, the Sabbath welcoming. First, the women of
the family light the Sabbath candles and say a blessing for the health
and well-being of the family members. Only when the candles are lit
does the service begin. The main part of the service is the kiddush, or
sanctification of the sacramental wine.
By your leave, rabbis and teachers, Blessed are You, God, our God,
King of the universe, Who creates the fruit of the vine. Blessed are You,
God, our God, King of the Universe, Who has sanctified us with His
commandments, took pleasure in us, and with love and favour gave us
His holy Sabbath as a heritage, a remembrance of creation. For that day
is the prologue to the holy convocations, a memorial of the exodus from
Egypt. For us did You choose and did You sanctify from all the nations.

It is customary for everyone present to drink some
wine from the kiddush cup. Afterwards, the head activities
of the household recites the blessing of the bread 1. What is the Hebrew word for ‘Sabbath’?
over the challah, the sweet Sabbath bread, which 2. What would an Orthodox Jew consider as ‘work’
is broken and distributed among family members. to be avoided on the Sabbath? Give ten examples
The family then sits down for a special meal that show differing aspects of life. How would an
accompanied by the Sabbath liturgy, which focuses Orthodox Jew overcome these restrictions?
on the feminine aspect of the Sabbath:
3. Why does a Jewish person place such importance
on the keeping of Shabbat?
How beautiful and pleasant you are with the lights,
O Sabbath, joy of the grieving, from evening to 4. Empathy task: You are a Jewish teenager. How do
evening, heart’s delight, when your time arrives, a you explain to your friends that you cannot come
time of love … people bother, never resting, all six out with them on Friday nights so that they will
days, then you set them free—clothes of linen, satin understand and respect your decision?
too, in your honour they put on and say, ‘Come, 5. What does the Sabbath meal reveal about the
O bride, why delay? Behold a table and your lamp Jewish conception of God?
prepared. Because your light has come, arise and be 6. Ahad Ha-Am (1856–1927) said, ‘More than Israel
my light.’ has kept the Sabbath, the Sabbath has kept Israel.’
Discuss what you think he meant.
During the Sabbath day, readings from the Torah
and other special prayers are held in the synagogue
or temple. A midday meal, conducted with religious
teachings, marks the spiritual apex of the day.
The Sabbath ends on Saturday evening with the
Havdalah service, which separates the Sabbath from
other days and marks the beginning of the Jewish
working week:
Blessed are You, God, our God, King of the universe,

Who creates the illuminations of the fire. Blessed
are You, God, our God, king of the universe, Who
separates between holy and secular, between light
and darkness, between Israel and the nations,
between the seventh day and the six days of labour.
Blessed are You, God, Who separates between holy
and secular.
FIG 6.16 Family enjoying Sabbath meal together FIG 6.17 Family blessing is said before the Sabbath meal.

Review and assess
Review
1. Who was Abraham and why was he significant to the Jewish people?
2. What was the Covenant and how did it form the basis of God’s
promises to his people?
3. Why was the Covenant so important?
4. Retell the story of the Exodus and the role of Moses.
5. Discuss the importance of the Exodus to the Hebrew people.
6. What is meant when Jewish people talk about the giving of the Law
at Sinai?
7. In table form, list the unique features of Orthodox, Progressive and

Conservative Judaism.
8. Outline the principal beliefs of Judaism.
9. Based on what you have read, explain what you think is meant by
‘the divinely inspired moral law’.
10. Explain the importance of sacred writing to Judaism.
11. Describe the content of the Hebrew Bible.
12. What is the Talmud? Why is it important?
13. List the principal ethical teachings of Judaism and describe the main
features of each.
14. Explain each of the Commandments, and give an example of each.
15. Explain what is meant by the Prophetic Vision.
16. Discuss the significance of the Book of Proverbs to the study of ethics.
17. Describe tikkun olam.
18. Research and prepare a written report on what takes place and why
during the Friday night meal in a Jewish household.
19. Research and prepare a written report on the Shabbat, outlining what
part each member of the family takes in the celebration.

20. Explain how the story of the Exodus underpins 35. Explain how the principal beliefs of Judaism
the beliefs and practices of Judaism. underpin the life of Jewish adherents. Give
examples to support your answer.
21. Outline the differences between Orthodox and
Conservative Judaism. 36. Using the three major branches of Judaism—
Orthodox, Conservative and Progressive—explain
22. Describe Shabbat and its importance to the the development of Jewish thought.
Hebrew people.
37. Describe the Shabbat and explain its significance
23. Who were the patriarchs and what was their role to the Jewish family.
in the origins of Judaism?
24. Explain how the qualities of wisdom,

righteousness, purity and generosity of spirit
underpin the Prophetic Vision.
25. What is the Law and what is its significance to

the Jewish people?
26. Name and describe the sacred texts of Judaism.
27. Outline the commandments of the Torah.
28. Explain the importance of ethical teachings in the

life of adherents.
29. What is tikkun olam and what is its importance in

Jewish ethical thinking?
30. What are the unique features of Orthodox

Judaism?
31. What is Shabbat and why is it important?
32. Explain the importance of the Shema.
33. Analyse the importance of the Book of Proverbs

to the ethical teachings of Judaism.
34. Explain why Abraham is important to the origins

of Judaism.

07_KIN_OSR_ReAnc.indd 154 11/9/09 10:32:35 AM
Religions of
ancient origin
The focus of this study is the response of religions of ancient origin to
the human search for ultimate meaning and purpose.
The five religious traditions of Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam

and Judaism are NOT to be studied.
Outcomes Content
A student: Students are to select two religions of ancient origin
P1 describes the characteristics of religion and belief to study from the following:
systems • Aztec or Inca or Mayan
P2 identifies the influence of religion and belief • Celtic
systems on individuals and society • Nordic
P6 selects and uses relevant information about • Shinto
religion from a variety of sources
• Taoism
• an indigenous religion from outside Australia
making appropriate use of time and resources
P8 uses appropriate terminology related to religion Students learn about the nature of two religions of
and belief systems ancient origin in relation to:
P9 effectively communicates information, ideas • origins of the universe
and issues using appropriate written, oral and • principal beliefs
graphic forms
• supernatural powers and deities
• rituals
• influence in the society
• the human search for meaning

Prelim | Chapter 7 Religions of ancient origin 155

ANTHROPOMORPHIC human-like. OMEN a sign that foretells of good or evil.
CHINAMPA a manufactured floating platform PANTHEON a collection of gods.
of woven reed mats on which silt, PARADISE another term for heaven or the
dredged from the surrounding lake, afterlife.
was piled and vegetable matter was
RITUAL an ordered means of communicating
added to decompose into a rich soil
with the god(s), often including the
in which crops were planted. Willow
giving of gifts.
trees were planted around the edges
to keep the soil in place. SAGAS stories of the Vikings.
DIVINATION the use of the magical or the SAKAKI TREE a Japanese tree, branches of which
supernatural to foretell the future. are used to sprinkle holy water on
worshippers.
DUALITY holding two things together.
SHAMAN a medicine man.
EDDAS collections of folk tales of the
Vikings. SHAPE SHIFTER a person or animal that takes on
the features of another animal or
EMA BOARDS a five-sided wooden board on which
person by physically changing their
prayers have been written (Shinto).
appearance.
HAIDEN a Shinto prayer hall.
SHIN TAO the way of the spirits (Shinto).
HODEN the kami’s prayer hall, situated behind
SHOTEN the name given to Shinto’s male
the haiden. This is a sacred space
clergy.
which only the priests can enter.
SHRINE a place where people come to
HUACA the Incan nature spirits.
worship.
JINGA a small, house-like shrine constructed
TALISMAN an object which is believed to hold
for Shinto’s kami.
special powers.
KAMI the Shinto spirits that are associated
TOLTEC the empire preceding the Aztecs.
with a particular place.
TORII gateways, made of timber or stone,
MANTRA a sacred text that is said repeatedly.
which define the sacred space of
MATSURI any ritual occasion where the Shinto shrines.
offering of thanks and praise is made
XIALBA a Mayan term for the underworld.
to the kami at a shrine.
ZAPOTEC a Mesoamerican tribal group thought
NAI-SHOTEN the name given to Shinto’s female
to have been present c. 500 BCE–
clergy.
1000 CE.
OLMEC an early race of people, thought to
have inhabited the same region as
the Aztecs, c. 1400–400 BCE.

The Aztecs of
Central America TARASCANS
Tenochtitlan
TLAXCALA
Gulf of
Mexico
TEOTITLAN
The people known as the Aztecs were part of the the Road to
MIXTEC Xoconochco
Mesoamerican civilisation inhabiting the region
Core States ZAPOTEC
now known as Central America. Geographically this
is a very diverse region, ranging from mountains Tributary States PACIFIC
and tropical rainforests to deserts. Allied States OCEAN
The Aztec Empire arose in the 14th and 15th
centuries CE, after the disintegration of the Toltec FIG. 7.1 Aztec Empire, c.1519
civilisation. The Aztecs brought their gods with
them and absorbed many of the existing gods into
their pantheon. The capital of the Aztec Empire
was the city of Tenochtitlan, later to become the
modern day Mexico City. By all accounts it was
an amazingly beautiful city. It was at the site of
Tenochtitlan that the Aztecs had seen the sign of
their god Huitzilopochtli in the form of an eagle
perched on and eating a cactus. This was to become
the emblem of modern Mexico.
Many people once incorrectly regarded the
Aztecs as a purely warring society displaying little
intelligence. This concept was due in part to the
low priority the Aztecs placed on writing, preferring
to use pictorial images. But their development and
use of calendars was far in advance of many other
indigenous civilisations of their time. Their stone
masonry was exacting, as can be seen in many of
their archaeological remains. FIG. 7.2 The façade of the National Palace in Mexico City depicts
the Aztec god Huitzilopochtli in the form of an eagle with the
Spanish conquerors on either side.
They were a farming people, but their

capital, Tenochtitlan, was built on an
island in the middle of Lake Texcoco. Here
they created their own areas of farmland,
or chinampas, by weaving reed mats and
placing them on top of the water. They
fenced them and covered them with silt
from the lake. Adding vegetable matter
to rot down provided a rich compost.
Quick-growing willow trees were planted
on all sides of these chinampas, their
roots holding the soil in place. It was here
that the Aztecs grew their crops, thereby
adapting to their growing population.
FIG. 7.3 An example of an Aztec calendar

The origins of the universe
Now strong winds ripped across the earth,
There are, in fact, at least three different Aztec razing all in their path. Those that survived
myths of creation. Two of these are retold below. were turned into monkeys. Not to be outdone,
Tlaloc turned himself into the sun so he
First there were two gods, Quetzalcoatl and could repopulate the world. But Quetzalcoatl
Tezcatlipoca. Quetzalcoatl was known as the wouldn’t give in. In a fit of temper he set fire to
light one and Tezcatlipoca was known as the the world. Many people died and the few that
dark one. They both lived in the sky and there survived were changed into birds. This process
was only water below them. But when they continued with the goddess Chalchiuhtlicue
looked down they saw a goddess floating on turning herself into the sun.
the water. She took the form of a huge monster This time was known as the war between
with many mouths, devouring everything the the gods. It was a time of chaos when floods
two gods created. covered the land and many people drowned.
In order to stop her, Quetzalcoatl and Any who survived were turned into fish.
Tezcatlipoca changed themselves into snakes. Now the entire earth was covered with water.
They then went down into the waters, where It was not until Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl
one of them grasped the monster’s arms while stopped fighting that the waters dried up.
the other grabbed her legs. Then they pulled Tricking Mictlantecuhtli, the god of the
and pulled until they pulled her limb from underworld, Quetzalcoatl retrieved the bones of
limb. The earth was made from her head and the dead, returning them to the world. There he
shoulders. The sky was formed from the lower dripped his own blood onto the bones, bringing
part of her body. them back to life as the Aztecs. Ever grateful to
This angered the other gods, so they created Quetzalcoatl, the Aztecs regularly made human
the trees and grass and flowers from the sacrifices to please him.
goddess’s hair. Her eyes became the wells, and
the rivers came from her mouth. Her shoulders
became the mountains and her nose the hills and
activities
valleys. But at night she could be heard crying
because she could not give nourishment to the 1. On a map of South America locate the region that
earth. Human hearts were required to nourish is believed to be the Aztec Empire.
her so that she could give food to the earth. 2. Describe Aztec society.
3. Research on the Internet to find a third creation
Another creation story tells of the wars between myth. Write a concise account of the story.
the gods.
In the beginning there was nothing but FIG. 7.4 Mictlantecuhtli, Aztec god of the dead
darkness. All alone Ometeotl, the great god,
watched over the darkness. Then four gods
were born to Ometeotl. These four gods were
responsible for the creation of the world. They
put giants in the world. Then Tezcatlipoca,
the jaguar god, made himself into the sun and
proceeded to rule the world. So Quetzalcoatl
took a club to Tezcatlipoca, knocking him
into the ocean. Then Quetzalcoatl became the
sun and put himself in charge of the world.
He made humans to live in the world. But
Tezcatlipoca knocked Quetzalcoatl out of
the sky.

Principal beliefs
Based on their creation stories the Aztecs
believed that the universe was made up of
many different layers. The bottom layer
was the underworld and the top two
layers belonged to the gods of creation. In
between these realms was earth, where it
was believed the forces of heaven and the
underworld came together at the Great
Temple in Tenochtitlan.
The Aztecs held that the underworld
was made up of four paradises. The Eastern
Paradise was reserved for souls of warriors
killed in battle and for sacrificial victims.
Souls resided here for four years before
they returned to earth as hummingbirds
or some other exotic bird. A variation on
this belief was that when Aztec warriors
died they would join the sun for four
years before returning to the earth as
hummingbirds. The Western Paradise was
for women who died in childbirth and the FIG. 7.5 Azlec wall decoration. What symbols can you identify
Southern Paradise for those who died from and what do you think they might represent?
lightning strike or sickness.

The Northern Paradise was for everyone else and interpretation of archaeological evidence. While
it took four years to reach. In order to help people symbols were used extensively by the Aztecs,
reach this paradise, the deceased were buried in a writing was not a skill they valued highly. It is also
squatting position with the essentials of life such as possible that both beliefs were variations of an
water provided for them to sustain them when they earlier belief.
faced trials along the way. What is known is that the Aztecs believed there
In yet another version of creation, the earth and were five stages in creation, each of which was
the surrounding atmosphere was viewed in vertical called a sun. They believed they were living in the
and horizontal planes. The four directions of north, last and final sun. Each sun was 2028 years long,
south, east and west fanned out from the centre. and each one began and ended with a natural
There were 23 horizontal planes, 13 above the earth disaster. Different humans were destroyed or
and nine below. Life was believed to have been transformed in each period.
created by the Lord and Lady of Duality. They bore The fifth and final sun was the time of
four sons, each of whom represented a different recreation, when Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl
cardinal direction. Then two of the four sons, reformed the heavens and the earth and all its
Quetzalcoatl and Huitzilopochtli, created the gods, people. But the god Tonatiuh needed to be fed
the heavens, the waters and their respective deities, human blood, as did Huitzilopochtli. Wars had to
not to mention the earth. be fought in order to secure people to sacrifice by
It is difficult to determine many of the removing their hearts and so appeasing the gods.
Aztecs’ beliefs with any degree of certainty. As
we have already seen, there were two different activities
views about what happened when a warrior
1. Explain what is meant by saying that the universe
died. Since both views have a similar core belief,
was built in layers.
perhaps different variations were held at different
times, or in different geographical regions. Or 2. Describe the five stages in creation.
perhaps archaeologists have still to agree on the

Supernatural powers and deities
The Aztecs believed there were many different deities, most of which
were anthropomorphic in form. Some of the major gods are listed on
page 161. There were often different representations of the same god.
The Aztec gods accounted for nearly all of nature and human culture. For
every deity there were prescribed rituals designed to give a desired outcome
such as a plentiful harvest or nourishment for the sun on its travels.
The influence of religion on Aztec society

All aspects of Aztec society, whether cultural or political, were ordered
according to the religious rituals that punctuated people’s daily lives.
Their economy was well regulated, and they had a ruling class based on
both ability and birth, a legal system and a strong moral code that gave
great importance to family and community life.
There were two major aspects to the Aztec life cycle. When at home
most lived a settled farming existence, planting crops and grazing
animals, performing rituals to make
their crops grow and ensure their Aqueduct ritual
animals thrived. The gods, it was If the water in a particular
believed, could ensure them a plentiful aqueduct got too high, the
FIG. 7.6 The jaguar warrior wore a harvest. They developed sophisticated level could be dropped if
helmet representing the jaguar. methods of agriculture, including an important official was
the building of chinampas (artificial sacrificed and his heart
islands) over shallow lake beds and thrown into the water.
then cultivating these islands to grow
activities maize, beans and chillies.
1. Explain how the Aztecs’ But the Aztecs were also a warring people, seeking victims to sacrifice
religious beliefs influenced to their blood-hungry gods. The warriors were among the elite of Aztec
their daily lives. society, especially the Eagle and Jaguar warriors, who represented the sun
and the moon respectively. A man qualified to become a member of one
2. How did warriors reach ‘Eagle’
of these groups by taking four or five prisoners in a single battle. These
status?
men were usually from the nobility and were full-time warriors. The Eagle
warriors were adorned with feathers while the Jaguar warriors wore the
skins of ocelots, each warrior having a helmet in the shape of his animal.
Rituals
It was through religious rituals that the Aztecs attempted
to communicate with their gods. Over time they
developed a complex and elaborate set of rituals to
honour their various powerful deities. They gave at least
half of each month to religious ritual.
The best known of these rituals was human sacrifice.
Typically people would fast before ceremonies, which
usually commenced at sunset with singing and dancing that
lasted well into the night. This often continued for several
nights, the dancing coming to a climax with the offering of
incense, gifts of food and animals (often quail) to the gods, FIG. 7.7 Depiction of Aztec temple sacrifice, from the Codex
followed by the ceremonial sacrifice of humans. Magliabicciano, Museo de America

TABLE 7.1 Major Aztec deities
DEITY FEATURES
CHALCHIUHTLICUE Known as ‘jade skirt’, Chalchiuhtlicue was the goddess associated with lakes,
rivers and seas. The goddess of youth and beauty, she was the wife of Tlaloc, the
rain god. It was she who released the flood that destroyed the fourth world. She
was depicted as a river from which a prickly pear tree grew.
COATLICUE Coatlicue was the ‘serpent skirt’, the earth goddess and one of Quetzalcoatl’s
wives.
HUITZILOPOCHTLI Huitzilopochtli was the Hummingbird of the South, the great sun deity and
warrior god, founder of the Aztecs and son of Ometecutli. He was associated
with war and power and was the patron deity of the city of Tenochtitlan.
He was usually depicted as a man, painted blue and fully armed, with
hummingbird feathers on his head. His name refers to the Aztec belief that
warriors who died in battle would return from the Southern Paradise as a
hummingbird, another exotic bird or a butterfly. He was constantly in battle
with the forces of darkness. The Aztecs believed they had to feed him with
human blood every day because blood was the life force. If they did not do
this, then they and the world would die.
HUEHUETEOTL Sometimes known as Xiuhtecutli, Huehueteotl was the god of fire and life-
giving warmth. He was particularly important to the householder.
MICTLANTECUHTLI This was the Lord of the Realm of Death, the god of the underworld.
OMETECUTLI The supreme deity who was both male and female. The name meant ‘Two Lord’.
QUETZALCOATL Portrayed as a feathered serpent, Quetzalcoatl was god of the sky and son of
Ometecutli. He was the symbol of death and resurrection.
TEZCATLIPOCA Tezcatlipoca was god of the night and son of Ometecutli. He carried a smoking
mirror that could magically kill his enemies and enable him to see into the
hearts of men. Many regarded him as the supreme god. He was a magician and
a shape-shifter, the patron of royalty. He was usually represented with a black
band across his face and a withered foot that ended in an obsidian mirror.
TLALOC The rain god. He was the son of Ometecutli and was particularly important to
the Aztecs. He brought both nourishing and destructive rain. He had four huge
jars from which he poured rain, disease, frost and drought. Each year young
children were sacrificed to him, their tears being seen as particularly auspicious.
People whose death was the result of drowning or lightning strikes were
believed to be taken to his home on one of the 13 celestial planes in the sky.
XIPE TOTEC Xipe Totec, the ‘flayed god’, was god of spring and new vegetation, symbolising
the cycle of death and rebirth. He was depicted as a young man whose skin had
been removed by flaying and who wore that skin as a garment. Each spring
the Aztecs sacrificed people to him. The sacrificial victims were skinned alive.
During the rituals of renewal and rebirth the priests wore the victims’ skins. For
a young warrior, it was a rite of passage to capture a victim to be sacrificed at
the spring festival.
XOCHIPILLI AND These two were brother and sister. Xochipilli was known as the Flower Prince
XOCHIQUETZAL and was the god of maize, flowers, love and feasting. He was the guardian of the
souls of slain warriors. His twin sister, Xochiquetzal, was a goddess of flowers,
fertility, games, dancing and agriculture.

But everyday actions were also ritualised.
Although bathing usually took place in the local lake The stone of Tizoc
or river, most houses had a steam room outside that Tizoc, the Aztec emperor from 1481 to 1486 CE,
would be used on ceremonial occasions such as the is depicted on this carved stone. One metre high
purifying of newlyweds or mothers before and after and two metres in diameter, its edge is carved
giving birth. with fifteen pairs of figures, each an Aztec warrior
Even games had religious connotations. ‘Climbing holding a captive by the hair. Tizoc is wearing a
the pole’, for example, was an important activity hummingbird headdress of the god Huitzilopochtli.
at religious festivals. The board game ‘Patolli’ was A large solar disc with eight ears engraved on the
played on 52 squares representing the 52 years in top of the stone had a dual purpose: to celebrate
each Aztec cycle. It was sometimes used to foretell Tizoc’s victories and to carry out sacrifices.
future events but more often for gambling.
Temple life
The remains of the sacred buildings of the Aztecs also
help us to understand their religious beliefs. The temple
was at the centre of each community. The bigger the
community, the bigger the temple. As a community
grew and needed a larger temple, it just built over the
top of the existing building. Each new temple was more
extravagant than the previous one. One temple was FIG. 7.9 The stone of Tizoc
found to have been built over six times.
The temple was the centre of sacrifice, a common youth house were given military training whereas
practice throughout much of Mesoamerica. The girls were taught about the various religious rituals.
building of temples for this purpose is thought to
have begun around 7000 BCE with the Olmec in The decline of the Aztec Empire
association with the harvest, samples of which were
offered to the gods. Other shrines were built to the As in other societies of this region, the Aztec ruling
Eagle and Jaguar warriors and still others to the sun. classes took their authority from their religion. Their
Attached to the temple was the community religious beliefs justified war and provided unity to
school. Children were given religious training as their society. Religion dominated politics and thus
well as lessons in history, ritual dancing, singing and in turn dominated the economy. These became the
rhetoric. Public speaking was considered an essential determining factors in the success or failure of the
skill for both men and women. Boys entering the empire.
The need to obtain captives for human sacrifice
meant that the empire had to expand. This
created many enemies and strong opposition
that contributed to its eventual downfall. Then
the Spanish conquistadors arrived in 1519. Some
three years before, the appearance of a comet in
the sky had been interpreted as a fateful sign of
impending downfall, much to the distress of the
Aztec emperor, Motecuhzoma II (Montezuma).
When the Spanish ships appeared off the coast of
Mexico, Aztec religious leaders concluded that the
white-skinned Spaniards were the descendants of
the god Quetzalcoatl. Motecuhzoma II welcomed
the Spanish commander, Hernán Cortés, into
Tenochtitlan, only to be imprisoned. The final days
FIG. 7.8 The Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan near Mexico City of the Aztec Empire had begun.

activities
1. Referring to the manuscript in Fig 7.10, what can you discern about the Aztec way of life?
FIG. 7.10 An Aztec manuscript of Zapotec origin
2. What can you find out about the role of the god Teotleco?
3. What is the significance of Xipe Totec in Aztec ritual?
4. Aztec warriors were regarded very highly in their society. The most impressive were the Eagle warriors
and the Jaguar warriors. Explain their role in Aztec society.
5. What was the significance of the temple in Aztec society? Refer to Fig 7.11 in your response.
FIG. 7.11 The Lunar Pyramid at Teotihuacan

The Maya people of South America
The classic period of the Maya, another the Underworld in a ballgame, and this became
Mesoamerican civilisation, existed between 250 a metaphor of the life force of the sun, which
and 900 CE. The following are some interesting facts emerged from the underworld every morning. The
about the ancient religion of the Mayan people. only way that this rebirth could occur was after
a human sacrifice. This would keep the world in
The origins of the universe balance. They also believed there was an eternal
struggle between good and evil.
As with most ancient societies, the Maya had It was believed that if a person died as a sacrifice, a
their own ideas about how the world came into warrior in battle, a woman in childbirth, a priest or a
being. However, they did not have just one ruler, then that person would go directly to Paradise.
creation myth but several, with various degrees of
interrelationship. The basic myth was called Popol Sacred spaces
Vuh. The creator god was Itzamna, Kinich Ahau was
the sun god, and the god of death and destruction Any opening in the earth’s surface was considered
was the Old Woman Goddess. She held the bowl to be an entrance to Xibalba, the underworld. These
from which the floods occurred. The Mayans places were considered to be both sacred and very
believed in several cycles of birth then a destruction dangerous.
that would take the form of a flood. The places where the Maya lived were seen as
symbolic representations of their universe. Power
Principal beliefs and prestige was in direct relationship to the size of
the pyramid temple and its surrounding structures.
The Mayans believed that the Hero Twins, It was the focal point of the area, with the business
Hunahpu and Xbalanque, defeated the Lords of district and homes built around it.
FIG. 7.12 The Mayan temple of Kukulkan at Chichen Itza in Mexico

each night. The aim of the game was to see which
team could cause the sun to leave the underworld by
hitting the ball through one of two rings, positioned
on each side of the court. The Maya honoured those
who were decapitated.
Eventually the Mayans gave up this practice
in favour of sacrificing captives from other tribes.
These sacrifices might occur on mountain tops,
temple steps or the top of a temple, according to the
requirements of the ritual. Prisoners of war became
the desired sacrifices. This practice also meant that
the Maya Empire expanded as its soldiers conquered
neighbouring people, exacting tribute from those
they subjugated.
Search for meaning

FIG. 7.13 The locals of the small highland town of Chichicastenango
in Guatemala in traditional Mayan dress In all societies, when something not understood
requires explanation, stories grow up that offer
Rituals and ceremonies that explanation or a means of understanding. This
is often done as a way of putting order into the
It is a well-known fact that the Maya played a deadly unknown. Thus the Mayans fostered unity among
ball game in which the captain of the winning team their people through shared beliefs. Those beliefs also
was decapitated. The court on which this game was provided the rulers with a means of justifying their
played symbolised the sun’s return to the underworld warring raids on surrounding peoples.
activities
1. What does the complexity of the Mayan calendar indicate about Mayan society in general?
2. Describe the image these masks portray. What does this tell us about Mayan search for meaning?
FIG. 7.14 Mayan calendar FIG. 7.15 Mexican masks

The Incas of South America
The Inca Empire flourished in South America from Principal beliefs

the 13th to the 16th century CE, and covered an
area from Ecuador to northern Chile. The following The Incas worshipped the sun, Inti, whose rays
are some interesting facts concerning the ancient were believed to nourish both human beings and
religion of the Incan people. the earth. They believed in ancestor worship,
divination and duality—for example, the duality
The origins of the universe between Hanin and Hurin, where Hanin was seen as
superior, right and masculine and Hurin was seen as
The Incas believed that the god Viracocha created inferior, left and feminine. Another duality was that
all things, including the sun, moon and all of of the sun and the moon, where the sun was male
humanity. They believed the world was made up of and the moon was female, being both the sister and
three aspects: wife of the sun.
* the past, called Uku Pacha The Incas believed that each person had two
souls. At death one soul tried to return to its place
* the present world, called Kay Pacha
of origin while the other soul stayed with the body.
* the future world, called Hanan Pacha. After death good people joined the sun in heaven
People could access all three worlds because they and revealed themselves on earth as huacas, the
were not viewed sequentially but were represented spirits of nature.
as three concentric circles.
FIG. 7.16 Ancient Incan temple ruins at Machu Picchu

Sacred spaces
Certain places such as mountains, rivers, buildings and ancient shrines
were believed to possess supernatural powers. At many of these places
the Incas built impressive temples.
Rituals
The Incas worshipped the dead, their ancestors, the heroes of the beginning
of time, their king and the cycles of nature, making daily offerings and
sacrifices. Animal and human sacrifices only occurred on special occasions.
For example, the enthronement of a king necessitated the sacrifice of two
hundred children. Other occasions for animal and human sacrifices might
be times of crisis such as famine or disease. Crises were considered to be the
result of the breaking of taboos and required a confession of sins. During
early Incan times these confessions were made in public but in later times
they were made in private.
Every month there was a different festival. For example, the month
Intip Raimi was dedicated to the sun god, Inti. The festival was opened
by the king and his family, offerings were made to the god, omens were
given and inevitably an animal was sacrificed, usually a llama. Feasting
and drinking followed, bringing the festival to an end.
Religion and society FIG. 7.17 Incan mummy in the desert,

probably a sacrificial victim
The Incas imbued the calendar with religious meaning because it

epitomised the fact that both time and space were considered sacred.
Consequently they developed a sophisticated method of telling the time.
Religious beliefs permeated all aspects of society. The Incas embalmed
their dead and treated them as sacred. Sacrifices were made for the
dead by the priests, whose prayers were important and were offered on
behalf of believers. They also listened to people’s confessions and were
responsible for divination, while the priestesses made chicha (maize
wine) and fabrics used in religious celebrations.
Search for meaning

As in all the Mesoamerican religions, the Incas sought to keep the gods
happy so that their world would remain in balance. By following rituals
to support their beliefs, they believed that their gods would be happy
and in turn would look after them.
activities
1. Use the photograph of the mummy (Fig. 7.17) as a stimulus to research
the Incan practices of human sacrifice and burial. You will find some
interesting articles at the National Geographic website.
2. Why is the isolation of Machu Picchu (see Fig. 7.16) significant for
understanding the Incan people? What are some of the significant
facts that the study of this site has revealed about Incan society and
religious beliefs?

Shinto
Shinto is a religion with ancient beginnings. This reluctant to be involved in anything to do with it.
animistic belief system was already present in Japan They welcomed the Buddhists, who looked after
by 500 BCE. There is no known founder, no written everything to do with death and funerals.
scripture and no dogma. In the eighth century CE it Another reason these two religions were
took its name from shin tao, meaning the way of compatible was because adherents of Shinto regard
the spirits. In its early form shamans led adherents Buddha as another kami (spirit), whereas the
in nature worship, fertility cults and the practice of Buddhists saw the many kami as manifestations of
divination. the Buddha or of bodhisattvas.
Shinto is the traditional indigenous religion of As in many other indigenous religions in other
Japan, still practised by the majority of Japanese parts of the world, people believed that the shamans
people today. During the late 19th and early 20th were the link between them and the kami. As
century CE, Shinto became established as the state animists they believe that all things are influenced by
religion. This linked it to Japanese nationalism. Many the spirits that dwell in nature.
still regard it as the national religion of Japan, even
though the emperor no longer holds divine status. activities
When Buddhism came to Japan somewhere
1. How was the current Shinto religion formed and
between the sixth and eighth centuries CE, these two
what role did Buddhism have in its development as
religions developed a strong symbiotic relationship.
a religion?
One of the reasons for this was that the followers
of Shinto regarded death as unclean and so were 2. Why were these two religions so compatible?
FIG. 7.18 A Shinto shrine

The different forms of Shinto Shuma Shinto
Shuma Shinto (also known as Kyoha Shinto) consists
There are four different forms of Shinto. of some 13 different sects started by different people.
Each has distinct beliefs centred around a particular
Koshitsu Shinto deity, with some being almost monotheistic.
In Koshitsu Shinto (State Shinto or Shinto of
the Imperial House), the Japanese emperor is Minzoku Shinto
responsible for carrying out the rituals. He is Minzoku Shinto (Folk Shinto) is the traditional non-
symbolic of the state. This form of Shinto is institutionalised Shinto, practised by the ordinary
enshrined in the Japanese constitution. The male Japanese people. It is not a separate sect, nor does
and female clergy assist the emperor in the offering it have a centralised organisation or creed. It is seen
of the first pickings of each year’s harvest. in rural areas where there are lots of small images.
Often rural communities will select a layman each
Jinja Shinto year to be responsible for organising community
Jinja Shinto (Shrine Shinto) is the dominant worship, and individuals may practise their own
group of believers, being closest to the original agricultural rituals.
form of Shinto. Shrine Shinto was associated with
State Shinto until the end of the Second World activities
War. Up until this time the Japanese emperor was
1. a. Outline the four different forms of Shinto.
worshipped as a living god.
b. Which is important today, and to whom in
Japanese society is it important?
Shinto shrines 2. How has the importance of the four forms of
The majority of shrines in Japan belong to Jinja Shinto changed over time? (You may need to do
Honcho, the Association of Shinto Shrines. This more research on the Internet to develop a fuller
association lists the following points to guide answer to this question than the text provides.)
followers:
1. To be grateful for the blessings of Kami and the
benefits of the ancestors, and to be diligent in the Origin of the universe
observance of the Shinto rites, applying oneself to
them with sincerity, brightness and purity of heart. The story is told that earth and heaven were made
up of In and Yo, who formed an egg-shaped mass
2. To be helpful to others and in the world at large
without clear limitations. Heaven was formed by
through deeds of service without thought of
drawing out the cleaner, more pure part that rose
rewards, and to seek the advancement of the
to the top, while the rest settled to the bottom to
world as one whose life mediates the will of Kami.
become the earth. The earth required more work
3. To bind oneself with others in harmonious because of its impurities and so took longer to
acknowledgement of the will of the emperor, develop than heaven.
praying that the country may flourish and that Next the deities were formed, eight in all. A reed
other peoples too may live in peace and prosperity. that sprouted from the earth became the god Kuni-
(Shinto Online Network Association) toko-tachi no Mikoto. Next, seven more generations
of male and female kami were born. First Kuni no
sa-tsuchi no Mikoto and Toyo-kumi-nu no Mikoto,
both pure males, were born. Then came:
Uhiji-ni no Mikoto
Suhiji-ni no Mikoto
Oho-to nochi no Mikoto
Oho-to mahe no Mikoto
Izanagi no Mikoto and Izanami no Mikoto.

When Izanagi no Mikoto and Izanami no Mikoto descended
from heaven, their union produced the islands of Japan. They
became the parents of the kami. One of their daughters, Amaterasu
Omikami, the sun goddess, became the dominant deity. It is said
that she gave birth to the first emperor and therefore is the ancestor
of the imperial family of Japan. It is her descendants who are
believed to have unified the country. Her shrine is called Jingu and
is at Ise.
As with most other religions, the mythology surrounding
creation forms the basis of Shinto beliefs. It is this mythology that
permeates the lives of Shinto adherents. For a fuller and more
precise account students may refer to the Shinto text, the Kojiki, or
by consulting suitable websites.
FIG. 7.19 Heian Jingu Shrine
Supernatural powers and deities—kami

The kami are spirits associated with particular places,
families and communities. In Shinto there is no sense of the
supernatural, or of one supreme transcendent god; instead there
are the kami. These spirits are not regarded as gods, neither are
they regarded as all-powerful, each having its limitations. The
kami are seen as protectors of the different aspects of nature, of
families and of land.
The kami are associated with particular locations such as a
distinctive rock by the seashore, a grove of trees or a waterfall.
The kami may be the spirits of deceased ancestors, emperors or
prominent military figures, or the spirits of important animals
such as tigers or different elements of nature such as waterfalls.
Generally the kami are benevolent, but when angered they can
become vengeful and must be placated.
Shinto texts
There are four significant texts, but none that contain dogma,
creeds or rules for ethical living. Rather, they are compilations
of ancient myths and traditional teachings previously passed
down orally. In these stories the foundation of Japan and the
relationship between the people and the kami are explained. FIG. 7.20 A torii gate in Kyoto, marking the entrance to a
Most of the stories date from the eighth century CE. The four waterfall, believed to be the home of a kami. The kami are
spirits associated with special places such as a waterfall.
texts are:
* The Record of Ancient Matters (the Kojiki), written in 712 CE
* The Six National Histories (the Rokkokushi) activities
* The Continuing Chronicles of Japan (the Shoku Nihongi and 1. Who or what is In and Yo?
Nihon Shoki), written in 720 CE 2. Outline in point form the formation of
* a study of Shinto and Japanese policies and history, the Jinno the universe according to Shinto beliefs.
Shotoki, written in the 14th century CE. 3. What is the role of ‘spirits’ in this religion?

Principal beliefs
As a starting point it needs to be understood that there are four aspects of
Shinto. These are:
1. Tradition and family. These must be honoured.
2. Love of nature. Most shrines are built in special places such as
groves of trees, beside a waterfall or at the edge of a village.
3. Physical cleanliness. Ablutions must be carried out before
prayers or when approaching a shrine. Purity is at the heart of the
understanding of good and evil.
4. Festival and ceremonies. ‘Matsuri’, as they are called, are joyful
occasions with lots of colour and activity.
Shinto adherents believe that all life comes from the kami and
therefore they are children of the kami. In early times the role of the
clan was central, and worship of the kami was associated with where
ancestral spirits and local agricultural deities were believed to be located.
Today the idea of community brings together ancestors, descendants and
individuals for each member of society.
Shinto displays a positive attitude towards life and the nation.
Pollution, including decay, bodily waste that must be cleansed and spilt
blood, is a defilement. Through time this concept of purity developed
into the modern attitude of the need for each person to keep his or her
heart pure.
For purification to be effective the ritual words must be recited by
a qualified practitioner. Within the Shinto traditions there is a loosely
FIG. 7.21 Offertory box and bell rope. organised priesthood. These priests preside over rituals and ceremonies
The bell is rung by the worshipper before after first purifying themselves by bathing and abstinence from sex and
offering their prayers to the kami.
certain foods. The words used in rituals are like sacred mantras. Typical
items found in rituals include a mirror representing the sun disc, jewels
for talismans and branches of the sacred sakaki tree. By presiding over
rituals the priests mediate with the kami to bring harmony between
‘
people and nature.
Shinto
adherents activities
believe that all 1. Is the Shinto religion an oral tradition, a written tradition or both?
Explain your answer, and the good and bad aspects associated
life comes from with each.
the kami and 2. What are the four aspects of the Shinto religion?
therefore they 3. Purification and cleanliness also form part of Buddhism. How has this
been incorporated into Shinto?
are children of
’
4. What is the importance of community to Shinto followers?
the kami.

Shrines and rituals and their influence
in society
In Shinto, visiting shrines and taking part in rituals
brings the community together.
A matsuri is any ritual occasion where the
offering of thanks and praise is made to the kami
at a shrine. Rituals include the rites of passage of
birth, celebrations for boys at ages three and seven
and girls at age five, marriage and the celebration of
family ancestors. Offerings such as food and drink
are made to the kami. Priests use a branch from the
sakaki tree to sprinkle holy water on the people,
thus bestowing the kami’s blessing on them. Then
everyone shares the food that has been prepared
for the kami. It is through rituals such as these that
communication with the kami takes place. FIG. 7.23 Granite Shinto lantern with cherry trees in blossom
Shrines do not have to be buildings but can be
different aspects of nature, including rocks, trees or devotees bow deeply in respect to the kami. It is
mountains. They are located at places where people then time for the worshippers to offer their prayers.
sense the presence of kami. However, in many Within each shrine there will be a wall where
places shrines have been constructed at sites where the ema are hung. These are five-sided wooden
it is believed kami are residing and a jinga, or small boards on which prayerful requests are written.
house, is constructed for them. Probably the best At New Year priests will burn these ema to make
known feature of Shinto shrines is the distinctive way for the next year’s prayers. Behind the prayer
timber or stone gateways called torii, which define hall is another hall called the honden. Only priests
the sacred space of the shrines. can enter this sacred space, which is inhabited by
At the entrance to each shrine is a source of the kami.
running water from which people will ladle water At other times the priests might leave the shrine
to rinse their mouths and wash their hands. to purify and bless something or someone that
Worshippers then proceed to the haiden (prayer cannot be brought to the shrine.
hall). They clap their hands twice to alert the kami Yasukuni shrine was founded in 1869 under the
to their presence. A monetary donation is placed orders of Emperor Meiji and is dedicated to the
in the offertory box and a bell rung, and then the souls of all those who have fallen in battle for Japan
since that time.
Festivals
During festivals the image of the kami may be
taken out to the community on wheeled trolleys
called mikoshi, to be paraded throughout the town
in order to bring blessings to the whole community.
Celebrations will vary from community to
community, but they are always colourful, with
floats and dancers in beautiful costumes, boats
and bonfires. Many of their rituals are intended to
entertain the kami as well as the people. A well-
known example of this is sumo wrestling. Each
community will have its own shrines, which will be
looked after by a committee of prominent citizens.
FIG. 7.22 Ema boards are small wooden plaques on which Shinto Worship is a means of bringing the community
worshippers write their prayers or wishes. together in a happy and joyful manner.

Commonly celebrated Shinto festivals religious traditions. Emphasis is placed on right
practice, sensibility and attitude.
• Oshogatsu—New Year
There is no concept of the transcendent because
This is a very large festival with large
everything, including the spiritual, is a part of this
attendances, when people thank the kami and
world, one single unified creation, with no founder,
make resolutions for the New Year.
no god, no sense of exclusivity. Adherents can even
• Seijin Shiki—Adults Day follow other religions, but Shinto is rarely practised
This is a coming-of-age celebration. outside of Japan.
• Haru Matsuri—Spring Festival Through its local shrines and the shrines in
Springtime is an occasion for many festivals, people’s homes, Shinto could be said to be a
often surrounding the planting of crops. grassroots religion. It is a system of beliefs and
• Aki Matsuri—Autumn Festival practices that individuals can identify with closely.
This is a time to thank the kami for a good The rituals enable humans to communicate with
harvest. kami, and at its essence Shinto is the fulfilling
of the ritual rather than the belief. It is easy for
• Shichigosan
individuals to comply with and is readily accessible
This is when parents give thanks for their
to all. In one of its four forms it is widely practised
children’s lives and pray for their futures.
throughout Japan.
• Rei-sai
This is an annual festival celebrated on a date
relevant to the shrine where it takes place.
activities
1. Why is it incorrect to call the kami gods?
2. Explain the importance of ritual purity to Shinto
activities and how it is practised.
1. Why are shrines important to the followers of 3. Write an account of a year in the life of a Shinto
Shinto? family.
2. What is the importance of shrines if they can be
anything? Or can they be anything?
3. How can this be a gate (Fig 7.24) if it is surrounded
by water?
4. How is sumo wrestling part of this religion?
Search for meaning

Shinto is not a way of explaining the world. It is not
thought of as a religion in the Western sense. Rather
it is an integral aspect of Japanese life. It is accepting
of the validity of other religions, commonly paying
respect to other faiths, their practices and objects of
worship. This is one reason why it can coexist with
Buddhism.
Shinto sees people as basically good and has
no concept of original sin. With no canonical
scripture there is a sense of morality but no actual
ethical commandments. In order to please the
kami adherents aspire to makoto (sincerity of heart),
revering the kami’s mushi (powers of creation and
harmony). Morally speaking, people must do no
harm and their actions should benefit others, but
there is no code of ethical behaviour as in other FIG. 7.24 Floating torii gate outside Itsukushima Shrine at Miyajima

Nordic religion
The following are some interesting facts about the

ancient religion of the Nordic or Viking people of
Scandinavia.
FIG. 7.25 A burial site where stones have been laid out in the
shape of a boat
Norse mythology
The majority of information concerning Norse archaeologists to find and study, few clues to be
mythology comes from the Icelandic sagas, the Poetic gained from remaining artefacts.
Edda (copied into the Codex Regius in the 1270s) and There was a sacred grove at Gamla Uppsala in
the Prose Edda, written c. 1220 CE by Snorri Sturluson. Sweden where it is believed that human sacrifices
took place. There may have been temples here but
Principal beliefs no remains have been found.
When people died it was believed they went to
There were originally two families of gods, the Aesir the sacred place of Valhalla (the hall of the dead or
(newcomers) and the Vanir (older indigenous gods). In Odin’s Hall).
a war the Aesir overcame the Vanir and the two groups
became one. It was this family of gods that the Vikings Rituals
worshipped. The chief god was Odin while Thor was
the most popular god. Other well-known gods were Little is known about Nordic rituals. It would
Frey and Freyia. All the gods were in relationship with appear that they did not practise devotional rituals,
each other, as well as with giants, dwarfs and humans. nor worship as we think of it, nor did they have
But the giants were the enemies of the gods. a doctrinal body of law or knowledge. There is,
The gods held different societal functions. Some however, some evidence of ritual associated with
were militaristic, others religious and yet others the goddess of fertility, Freyia.
economic. Icelandic sagas also talk of magic, including Despite the fact that there was no priesthood,
foretelling the future, shape-shifting, healing and the chieftains often appointed themselves as priests,
cursing, implying the existence of shamans. though they would be more accurately regarded as
After death a person would travel to the afterlife. shamans.
The best way to do this would be accompanied by the Death, however, commanded complex
gods. The bravest warriors would accompany Odin arrangements, especially in the case of chieftains.
and his Valkyries to Valhalla (the hall of the dead). It is from the Vikings’ burials that we learn most
Here soldiers would engage in much feasting until about both their society and religious beliefs. The
Ragnarok. Vikings believed that after they died they would
Later the Vikings adopted Christianity while the join their gods in the afterlife, so they were buried
old Nordic beliefs were retained as folk tales told in with the goods they would require in the next life.
the Eddas. At first Christ was just one god tolerated These grave goods have been found at most burial
among many, but it was not many generations sites. For men there were weapons and the tools
before the Vikings adopted the new faith. During required for their trade. For women there were items
this process pagans lived alongside Christians. required in the home as well as jewellery. Food and
drink were also considered necessary provisions
Sacred spaces for the dead. It was not unusual in the case of a
warrior for his horse and dogs to be sacrificed and
Sacred spaces tended to be environmental locations buried with him.
where people felt they could commune with the Other forms of burial included being laid to
gods. This means that there are few remains for rest in wooden chambers or being buried in oval,

circular or rectangular pits. In Denmark, wealthy women were sometimes
buried in wagons. In some regions cremation was practised. A funeral The Norse gods today
pyre would be built, the body burnt and the remains buried in a clay In Iceland today there are
pot with a mound of earth marking the spot. This was particularly still people who worship the
common in Sweden. Norse gods. This pantheon
of Norse gods is referred
Religion and society to as Asatru (belief in the
gods). The Icelandic state
The importance of the sea to the Vikings is obvious from the fact that recognises marriages and
many of the burials were in ships. In some cases a stone shaped like a funerals as legal when they
longboat was placed on top of the grave. Perhaps the boat was believed to are performed according to
be the vehicle in which the person would travel to the afterlife. these rites.
The wealth of people was evident from the artefacts placed in their
graves. For example, the grave goods found with the queen buried in the
Oseberg ship indicate that she must have been a very wealthy woman.
Search for meaning

Peoples from the Scandinavian region sought answers to the mysteries
of life in their pantheon of gods. Evidence comes from their myths
contained in the Eddas, which have come down to us from the
Icelandic peoples. These stories were a means to understand the world
in which they lived, a world where little farming land was available to
support their families. Was their plundering a means of surviving their
difficult situation?
activities
1. The double-headed snake is a creature of Norse mythology. What can
you find out about its meaning?
2. Research Viking burial. Use the following three examples to support
your findings:
• The Scar Viking boat burial in the Orkneys
• The Ladbyskibet Viking burial in Denmark
• The Oseberg ship in Norway.
3. Using library resources and the Internet (you may find the Jorvik FIG. 7.26 Viking attacks on the
Heritage Centre in York helpful ), build a picture of the life of English coast
a person of your age and sex in Norse society. How would you have
understood your world? What place would there have been for magic
and superstition? How important would a good burial have been?
4. After reading further on the Viking people, decide which of the
following contrasting descriptions of Viking civilisation is the most likely
and why. (This could also be set up as a class debate.)
• The Viking world was a world of warriors who conquered peoples
across the sea and looted whatever bounty they could. They would
fight to the death believing they would travel to Valhalla where there
would be much feasting until the coming of Ragnarok.
• The Vikings were a peaceful immigrant people seeking an opportunity
for trade and eager to assimilate with Anglo-Saxon society.

Review and research
Review
1. Create a visual presentation which identifies the differences and

similarities in religion between:
• the Aztecs
• the Maya people of South America
• the Incas of South America
• Shinto
• Nordic.
2. Use the visual presentation you completed for Review 1 as the

basis for an oral presentation. Explain to the class explain how two
religions of ancient origin differ in regard to their:
• origins
• beliefs
• religious practices
• influence on life of society.
3. Discuss the importance of Valhalla to the Vikings.
4. The Aztecs are often considered to have been very bloodthirsty. Is

this a fair assessment? Why or why not?
5. Compare the method of disposal of the dead between the followers

of Shinto and Nordic religions.
6. What is the significance of the location of Machu Picchu to the Inca

people?
7. Explain the significance of the torii gateways to the practice of

Shinto. Can you find anything similar in other belief systems?

Research
This chapter lends itself to discovery and exploration. 13. Using the information in this textbook about the
There are several ways that this could be approached. Shinto faith, research the religion of Taoism and
The development of a research task is one way of compare the two faith systems. How did each of
going about this. them satisfy a person’s search for meaning?
One approach would be for the teacher and the class 14. ‘Religion gave authority to the rulers and elites of
to study one belief system and the students to select ancient societies to justify war and provide social
another belief system to research. unity.’ Explain how this was so. Give examples.
Another option may be for students to compare two
15. ‘Aztec religion and its priestly caste were
different belief systems.
intertwined with political, military and economic
Students may be required to present their research to institutions in such a way that it led to the rise
the class as an oral, a PowerPoint presentation or in and fall of the Aztec Empire.’ Discuss.
some other medium.
16 Compare the principal beliefs of two different
Possible research questions religions of ancient origin.
8. How does the (Aztec, Maya, Inca, Shinto, 17. Explain the interconnection of beliefs and society
Nordic etc.) belief system answer the search for in two different religions of ancient origin.
meaning?
9. Discuss the importance of human sacrifice to

Mesoamerican belief systems.
10. People often confuse the Maya and the Aztecs.

Why do you think this is the case? In your
response, outline the similarities and differences
between the two belief systems.
11. Who do you think the Incas most resemble, the

Maya or the Aztecs? Why?
12. Mythology is an important aspect of all belief

systems discussed in this chapter. Explain its
significance in two belief systems.

08_KIN_OSR_ReAus.indd 178 11/9/09 10:44:00 AM
Religion in
Australia pre-1945
The focus of this study is the establishment and
development of religious traditions in Australia pre-1945.
Outcomes Content
P2 identifies the influence of religion and belief
systems on individuals and society Religious traditions in Australia pre-1945
P3 investigates religious traditions and belief • arrival and establishment of Christianity and
systems TWO other religious traditions in Australia
P4 describes the influence of religious traditions in • issues related to the development of Christianity
the life of adherents in Australia pre-1945:
P5 selects and uses relevant information about • sectarianism

religion from a variety of sources • social welfare
P6 undertakes effective research about religion, • the contribution of ONE religious tradition in
making appropriate use of time and resources Australia to each of the following pre-1945:
P7 uses appropriate terminology related to • rural and outback communities
religion and belief systems • education
P8 effectively communicates information, ideas • public morality
and issues using appropriate written, oral and
graphic forms (Studies of Religion Stage 6 Syllabus © Board of Studies NSW for and on
Prelim | Chapter 8 Australia pre-1945 179

ADHERENT person who follows or upholds a religion EVANGELICAL those with a distinctive view of personal
or doctrine. conversion, the authority of the Bible
AGNOSTIC person who holds the view that you can and missionary outreach.
neither prove nor disprove the existence EVANGELISTIC relating to or promoting the ardent
of God and that the essential nature of preaching of the Christian gospel.
things is unknowable. HIGH CHURCH a descriptive term used to describe Anglo-
ANTI-SEMITISM anti-Jewish sentiment. Opposition to Catholic worship within the Church of
and persecution of the Jewish people and England (now Anglican Church).
their religious beliefs and practices. LAITY all the people in a religious organisation
BISHOP a bishop is a priest promoted to a who are not clergy.
position of leadership and appointed to NON- a person from one of several Protestant
oversee a diocese (a geographical region). CONFORMIST denominations beyond the Church of
From the Greek word episkopos, meaning England who believed in a different
supervisor. set of doctrines and/or a different style
BUSH a ministry of the Church of England to of worship. Often coming from the
BROTHERHOOD the people of the Australian outback. Baptist, Methodist, Presbyterian or
Taking vows of poverty, chastity Congregationalist denominations.
and obedience, the men travelled in PARISH a geographical region centred on a
pairs through different regions of the particular Christian church.
countryside. Their ministry included
PAROCHIAL related to or located in a parish.
conducting church services, weddings,
baptisms and funerals to people in places POGROM an organised massacre or persecution of a
that may not have seen a clergyman for particular ethnic or religious group.
months or even years. SABBATARIANISM the Christian conviction that the Fourth
CLERGY people, such as ministers or priests, who Commandment was part of God’s moral
are trained or ordained for religious duties. law and that Sunday should therefore
be kept with the same strictness as the
COADJUTOR assistant to a bishop.
Jewish Sabbath. Civil courts enforced
DEIST person who believes, on the basis of observance in Britain, its colonies and
reason rather than revelation, in the the United States.
existence of a God who created the earth
SACRAMENT sacred rite or ceremony involving change
but is not involved in it.
for the individual.
DENOMINATION group of religious congregations with
SECTARIANISM excessive devotion to a particular
their own organisation and distinctive
religious denomination.
faith.
SECULARIST person who believes that government
DIOCESE a region administered by a bishop.
and education should not be connected
DISSENTERS Protestants who left the Church of to religion.
England after 1662, including not only
SYNOD a group of church delegates convened to
those who disagreed with the worship,
discuss and decide on church affairs.
the government and the theology of the
Church of England, but also those who TEMPERANCE abstinence from alcohol.
believed that the legal establishment of UNIVERSAL the right of all adult citizens to vote.
one church was wrong. Also referred to as SUFFRAGE
‘nonconformists’. WOWSERISM a common view among Protestants from
DOCTRINE moral or religious principles taught by a the 1890s on that openly disapproved
particular group. of consumption of alcohol, gambling,
ESTABLISHED the Church of England as it was in dancing and Sunday leisure time
CHURCH England—the state church, controlled activities in general. (‘Wowser’ is an
by the Government. As such it enjoyed acronym for ‘We Only Want Social Evils
a higher status than other Christian Remedied’.)
denominations.

The arrival of
Christianity in
Australia
Coming ashore at Sydney Cove on 26 January 1788

were followers of the Church of England, Catholics,
Methodists, Presbyterians, Jews, deists, agnostics
and unbelievers. Though they brought with them
a growing tolerance of this diversity of beliefs, they
also brought the sectarian intolerance that had
characterised England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland
since Henry VIII broke from the Roman Catholic
Church in 1534. From that time, kings and queens
had persecuted in turn Catholics, then Protestants,
then Catholics and some Protestants back and forth
for over 250 years.
An amendment to England’s Act of Toleration FIG. 8.1 Pamphlet regarding a directive for convicts
in 1779, despite popular protest, accepted to attend church, 1814
the coexistence of virtually all Protestant

denominations and Catholicism in England. Phillip’s successor, Lieutenant-Governor Grose,
However, it was not until the Test and Corporation apparently suspicious of any evangelism, was
Acts of 1828 that British law permitted ‘non- less tolerant of the work of Richard Johnson, the
conforming’ (that is, non–Church of England) colony’s first Church of England minister, who had
Protestants to hold government offices, be members arrived with the First Fleet. Governor Hunter, a
of parliament or attend university. Catholics Presbyterian who accepted some denominational
received the same rights after the Roman Catholic diversity, was particularly intolerant of the public
Relief Act of 1829. immorality that he ascribed to the colony’s many
‘irreligious’ people.
Official sectarianism In 1800 Governor King appointed Father James
Dixon, who had been transported for involvement
Early colonial Australia was marked by this in the Irish Rebellion of 1798, to minister to
imported sectarianism and by swings between Catholics. After an Irish convict rebellion in 1804
official tolerance and intolerance. The first (‘The Battle of Vinegar Hill’), King removed Dixon
governor, Arthur Phillip, supported the Church of and insisted on the primacy of the Church of
England by insisting that all convicts, no matter England.
what their beliefs, should attend that church’s William Bligh, governor from 1806 to 1808,
services on Sundays. Marriages in the colony were supported the denominational diversity of small
not considered valid unless performed and recorded farmers and traders against threats from the Church
by a Church of England clergyman. Many refused to of England–dominated New South Wales Corps,
‘legalise’ their union. but was disturbed by the general ‘filth of moral
corruption’ he found in the colony.

Official establishment of Christianity heritage. But other Protestants and Jews also rose
in Australia to prominence, especially in the mercantile world.
Lower administrators, professionals, small farmers and
Governor Macquarie’s replacement in 1821, Thomas skilled tradespeople tended to be non-conforming
Brisbane, was mainly supportive of the Church Protestants; this included a substantial number of
of England. However, he broke its monopoly on immigrants with Scottish (Presbyterian) and Welsh
government grants by giving some assistance (Methodist) heritage. A proportion of the working
to Catholic and Methodist ministries to help class was Catholic and identified strongly with Ireland.
reduce the ‘barbarous ignorance and total want By 1845 almost 99 per cent of the population
of education’ of the convicts. At first he did not described themselves as Christian, predominantly
include the Presbyterian Church, but after a rebuke Protestant, but with a quarter stating allegiance to
from the Colonial Office in London, he extended the Catholic Church. The 1861 census found that
subsidies to the Church of Scotland. 88 per cent of the population was Christian: 43
Governor Darling in New South Wales and per cent Church of England, 24 per cent Catholic,
Governor Arthur in Tasmania continued this policy 13 per cent Presbyterian and 8 per cent Methodist.
until 1836, when Governor Bourke accepted the Another 0.5 per cent was Jewish and 12 per cent
passage of the Church Act. This provided government belonged to ‘Other’ religions.
subsidies for salaries and church buildings for what With the exception of a small but significant
now became the four officially recognised Christian Lutheran population of Germanic descent,
denominations in Australia: Church of England, Australian society as revealed in the 1901 census
Catholic, Methodist and Presbyterian. was dominated ethnically and denominationally
by Anglo-Celts. Forty per cent of the population
activities was Church of England, 23 per cent Catholic and
34 per cent other Christian. Only about 1 per cent
1. Describe the religion followed by the convicts
professed non-Christian religions.
who came to Australia.
The Church of England held a favoured position
2. Research the religious life of a convict in the early in the early colony, but relations were often tense
years in Australia. You may like to research this with governors like Grose and Macquarie. They tried
further by examining: to make the church an instrument of government
• the practices that were forced on the convicts policy. However, ministers like Richard Johnson,
• why and how the government thought this
would help the convicts
• the battle for souls between the Catholic Church
and the Church of England in the early years.
Christian and Church of England

dominance
The first New South Wales census in 1828
categorised the colony’s almost 37 000 residents
into four ‘religions’, ranging from those with the
most adherents to those with the least: Protestant,
Catholic, Jewish, and ‘Mohammedans’ and ‘pagans’
(there were 19 ‘Mohammedans’). There was a degree
of class and ethnic affiliation among these groups.
Many government officials and senior administrators,
ex–New South Wales Corps pastoralists, and
a growing group of entrepreneurs tended to FIG. 8.2 St Matthew’s Anglican Church, Windsor, New South Wales,
support the Church of England and their English designed by the emancipist architect Francis Greenway

who arrived with the First Fleet in 1788, and restricting the right to vote to wealthier citizens,
Samuel Marsden, who arrived in 1794, insisted on most of whom favoured the Church of England.
independence. After Johnson left the colony in 1800, Broughton also lobbied against the appointment
Marsden’s moral and evangelical fervour earned to Australia in 1836 of the Catholic archbishop
him the popular epithet of the ‘flogging parson’ as John Bede Polding.
well as disdain from Governor Macquarie for his Apart from establishing dioceses and personally
‘Methodistical and other Sectarian Principles’. consecrating church buildings far and wide
In 1798 Marsden welcomed Congregationalist (including St John the Baptist Church in 1845 in
and Methodist missionaries to New South Wales, what was later to become Canberra), Broughton’s
but over time he sought an unrivalled ascendancy main contribution to strengthening the presence
for the Church of England. This antagonised the of the Church of England in Australia was to
growing number of members of other Protestant encourage church self-government separate from
denominations and Catholics. The first church, St English control. The British government eventually
John’s at Parramatta, was opened in 1803 and more relented, and in 1856 decision-making passed to an
Church of England ministers arrived after 1809. Australian synod of bishops, clergy and laity. A
The emancipist architect Francis Greenway was cast of Broughton’s tomb in Canterbury Cathedral
commissioned by Governor Macquarie to design can be seen in St Andrew’s Cathedral in Sydney.
three churches, including St Matthew’s in Windsor. In 1861, the Church of England could boast of
These were often the first large public buildings in having 43 per cent of the population as adherents.
rural areas and acted as focal points for community However, this proportion slowly declined until by
activities, serving as schools and meeting halls as 1901 the church could claim only 40 per cent. In this
much as places of worship. position, and with global tensions rising, the church
Archdeacon William Broughton, arriving in New became ever more Empire-loyal and conservative. The
South Wales in 1829, complained that the ‘lower church’s Mothers’ Union, established in Tasmania in
orders’ had ‘little disposition to attend’ church 1892, declared in its journal Mothers in Australia in
regularly. While doing little immediately to remedy 1914 that its role was to protect marriage and to train
this, he did establish the King’s School (named after children to be the ‘future mothers and fathers of the
his school in Canterbury, England) at Parramatta in Empire’. Fund-raising for church charities and mutual
1831 for the sons of the wealthy. It failed a few years help were the Mothers’ Union’s main welfare activities.
later. In 1836 Broughton was appointed the Church In 1919 the Sydney diocese established the
of England’s first and only Bishop of Australia. Bush Church Aid Society to assist rural and remote
In the same year parishes to provide welfare and ministry services
‘
and to overcome the generally parochial nature of
These (churches) the government
attempted to remedy charitable activity that had developed within the
were often the first the shortage of church Church of England.
large public buildings ministries in the The term ‘Anglican’ became associated with the
colony by distributing church in 1851, and the Australian church changed
in rural areas and subsidies among the its official title to the Anglican Church of Australia
acted as focal points four main Christian in 1981.
denominations
for community according to the activities
activities, serving as number of adherents 1. What was the religion of the working class and
each one claimed. With
schools and meeting this act, the Church of what nationality did most belong to?
2. By 1845 what were the percentages of different
halls as much as England was no longer
’
in an ‘established’ and religions in the population?
places of worship. exclusive relationship 3. How did the above percentages change by 1901?
with the government. 4. In the late 1700s there was conflict between the
Broughton fought against this concession to church and the government. Discuss in a group
popular government. As a member until 1844 of the nature of this conflict.
the hand-picked Legislative Council, he argued for

Catholics
After Father James Dixon returned to Ireland in

1808, there were no official Catholic priests in New
South Wales until Phillip Connolly and Joseph
Therry were appointed in 1820. (A controversial
Irish priest named Father Jeremiah O’Flynn
ministered in the colony during 1817 and 1818,
but without British Colonial Office permission.)
Connolly ministered in Tasmania while Therry so
antagonised Governor Darling in Sydney that in
1826 he was offered 300 pounds to leave the colony.
Dr William Ullathorne was sent in 1833 to restore
some order to the church in both Sydney and
Hobart, and in 1837 Therry was reinstated. FIG. 8.4 Caroline Chisholm was often outspoken in support of
On the advice of Ullathorne, John Bede Polding universal sufferage.
was made Australia’s first Catholic bishop in

1834 and archbishop in 1842. Polding and others It was in this period that Caroline Chisholm
published widely and regularly, arguing for relief undertook her work. She lobbied governments to
for working people and farmers affected by the provide assisted passage to Australia for female
Depression of the 1840s and criticising the degree of migrants and families, eventually helping 11 000
political influence wielded by squatters and ‘gentry’. settlers. Living in London from 1846 to 1854, she
By the late 1840s, political factions both within gathered funds to establish a hostel in Sydney for
and outside parliaments in New South Wales and both local women and new arrivals and to pay for
Tasmania had support from the Catholic leadership. their transport inland. Her grand scheme was to
establish a class of devout small farmers, and she
cast her net well beyond assisting only Catholics.
Chisholm was especially concerned by frontier
abuses and supported Governor Gipps’ decision
to retry the seven men acquitted of murdering
28 Aboriginals at Myall Creek in 1838. She also
campaigned to end convict transportation to
mainland eastern Australia, which was achieved in
1840. Caroline Chisholm was especially outspoken
in favour of universal suffrage and against the
concentration of political power in the hands of
squatters.
Another contribution to social welfare came
in 1857 when Bishop Polding founded the Good
Shepherd Sisters (after 1866 the Good Samaritan
Sisters), the first Australian religious order of
women. Their purpose was to undertake charitable
works including a women’s refuge in Sydney.
The initial dominance of the Catholic leadership
in Australia by clergy of English and Scottish origin
altered when six Irish bishops were appointed in the
eastern colonies between 1859 and 1869. To assist
in the production of native-born clergy, Cardinal
Moran founded St Patrick’s seminary at Manly in
FIG. 8.3 Roger Bede Vaughan, appointed coadjutor archbishop to 1889. Along with this went the slow expansion
John Bede Polding in 1873 of Catholic education. This included Mother

Mary MacKillop’s Sisters of Joseph, who between 1866 and 1871
established 35 schools in Adelaide with a special mission for
the poor.
By 1836 Polding had also established, with government financial
assistance, 13 primary schools, seven for boys and six for girls.
But it is his successor, Roger Bede Vaughan, who is remembered
for seeking to entrench a system of Catholic schools in Australia.
Vaughan was appointed coadjutor archbishop to Polding in 1873,
much to the consternation of the Irish-Australian bishops, who
found him to be too English. By 1875 he had taken on much of the
official work of leading the church while Polding devoted the last
two years of his life to missionary work.
Vaughan sought to expand the number and range of Catholic
schools despite growing resistance by governments to religious
schools. For instance, a government committee in 1844 decided
that denominational schools were both too costly and too
sectarian. In 1880 it became clear to Vaughan that Henry Parkes’
Public Instruction Act (1880) would abolish government funding
of church schools in 1882, and that only public schools would be
subsidised. In response Vaughan railed that such schools would
become ‘seed-plots of future immorality, infidelity and lawlessness,
being calculated to debase the standard of human excellence, and
to corrupt the political, social and individual life of future citizens’.
Slightly earlier, Archbishop Goold of Melbourne had called public
schools ‘Godless’, to which the Attorney-General replied that
Catholicism was ‘a fungus on the country’. In this atmosphere of
sectarian and anti-sectarian animosity, between 1872 and 1893
every state passed laws ending government subsidisation of church
schools.
It was from the 1870s that the Catholic Church began
deliberately to project a distinct culture and set of values. It set out
to establish an independent education system and shape Australian
politics even in the face of popular or political opposition. This
was probably a result of the principles expounded by Pope Pius IX
in his Syllabus of Errors of 1864. This culture also had a distinctly
Irish flavour, with the arrival of considerable numbers of clergy
from Ireland and the appointment of six Irish bishops to Australia
between 1859 and 1869. St Patrick’s seminary was established to
educate Australian clergy in an Irish way.
Probably less deliberately but to the same effect, the Australian
Labor Party, founded in 1891 in Queensland during Australia’s
worst economic collapse to that point in time, became the political
party capturing the allegiance of most Catholics. It drew its leaders
from both Protestant and Catholic ranks. It was also during the
1890s Depression that the St Vincent de Paul Society came to the
fore as a leading agency for social welfare, establishing 26 branches
by 1895 to assist needy families.
FIG. 8.5 Mother Mary MacKillop window at St Bede’s Church,

Braidwood, New South Wales, 2003

By 1914 almost 300 000 Irish Catholics had emigrated to Australia,
joining the Italian Catholic migrants who arrived with the gold rushes activities
of the 1850s in the east and the 1890s in Queensland and Western 1. Research Caroline Chisholm
Australia. This gave Catholicism the second greatest proportion of and why she made such a
adherents after the Church of England. About one-quarter of the huge impact on Australia.
population in the eastern states and slightly higher in Western Australia 2. What was the role of Mother
and South Australia was Catholic. Mary MacKillop’s Sisters of
The Catholic Women’s Social Guild was established in Melbourne in Joseph?
1916 and sought to better women’s working conditions and to tackle
3. What work was undertaken by
welfare issues like poverty and child neglect. By the 1930s branches of
Bishop Polding?
the Guild could be found in most dioceses. Over time its welfare work
became considerably more focused on local concerns, in the manner 4. From the 1840s to the
of most women’s auxiliary organisations, and away from the more 1880s the NSW government
political and trade union involvement envisaged by its founders, Mary tried to remove ‘God’ from
Glowery, a doctor, Anna Brennan, a lawyer, and Julia Flynn, a teacher. government schools. Debate
The eucharistic congresses in 1928 in Sydney and 1938 in Newcastle whether you think this
helped to keep the Catholic Church in prominence. worked. Who were the key
people in this debate and
Congregationalists and Methodists what was the outcome?
5. In the 1890s Catholic leaders
Until 1812 it was illegal under English law for religious services to be were involved in the birth of
held by ‘dissenting’ congregations. Nevertheless, such services were a political party. Which party
held in New South Wales from 1810 by the Congregationalist William was this, and do you think
Crook, much to the consternation of Samuel Marsden. A focal point for the events of the previous 50
the evangelical enthusiasm of both denominations was the founding years had an impact on this
of ‘Sunday schools’ for biblical instruction, the first being conducted by decision? Justify your answer.
the Anglican Thomas Hassall in 1813.
The arrival of the Methodist missionary Samuel Leigh in 1815
was initially welcomed by Marsden but not by the ‘High Church’
Governor Macquarie. A Methodist chapel was built west of Sydney
in 1817 and two more in Sydney in 1819. The steady alienation of
Methodism from the Church of England was mirrored by relations in
‘
New South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land (Tasmania). Disputes over Methodist women
membership, doctrine and services led to the rapid establishment of
separate institutions. were strongly
A Congregational Church was constituted in Hobart in 1832 and involved in one of
attracted some well-off parishioners who, like the businessman Henry
Hopkins, funded libraries, schools, and savings, temperance and the most significant
benevolent (charitable) societies. social and political
Methodism spread to all colonies and in 1854 became independent
of Britain. In 1902 the many branches of Methodism came together in organisations in
Australia …
’
the General Conference of the Methodist Church of Australasia.
Methodist women were strongly involved in one of the most
significant social and political organisations in Australia, the Women’s
Christian Temperance Union. Founded in the United States and
established in Australia in 1882, the union’s concern was with the
social issues of eliminating alcohol abuse (temperance) and improving
family life, accompanied by a political concern for extending voting
rights to women (female suffrage).

Methodists were keen missionaries, particularly
active in Papua New Guinea and the Pacific Islands.
In Australia they were heavily involved in education,
hospitals, homes for the aged and other social
welfare concerns. The church established an Inland
Mission in 1927 to provide welfare and ministry
services similar to those of the Presbyterians.
The Methodist denomination virtually
disappeared in 1976 when the Uniting Church was
formed, though most of its beliefs and concerns
were carried over into the new church as it was the
dominant partner.
activities
FIG. 8.6 John Dunmore Lang addressing the
1. When was Methodism welcomed into Australia? New South Wales Legislative Council
2. What were two key areas of Methodist influence
in Australian society in the late 1800s? Lang also had concerns about Catholicism in
Australia. He was known to call the Pope a ‘man
of sin’ and claimed that Caroline Chisholm’s
Presbyterians ecumenical welfare and immigration schemes were
part of a plot to take over Australia.
Presbyterianism is Scottish in origin, having broken The Presbyterian Women’s Missionary
from English control in the mid-1600s. The first Association, established in New South Wales in
Presbyterian service in Australia was held in 1795 by 1891, collected funds to support the church’s
Thomas Muir, a Scottish elder and convict, one of missionary activities in Australia and overseas.
five ‘Scottish Martyrs’ transported for their support At the same time, and in the midst of the 1890s
of trade unions. Depression, the church in Victoria set up Dorcas
The young and energetic minister John Dunmore Societies, whose women provided assistance to the
Lang arrived in New South Wales in 1823. He sick and destitute.
immediately demanded that the privileges extended John Flynn’s 1912 report on the need for an
by the colonial government to the Church of inland ministry led to the establishment of the
England be applied to his church. Beginning the Australian Inland Mission, with its patrol ministers
construction of the Scots Church in Sydney in 1824, and their treadle radios, a network of mission and
Lang sought the support of the British Colonial welfare centres in places like Cloncurry and the
Office which, against Governor Brisbane’s wishes, West Australian goldfields, and nursing centres in
granted him a large stipend. Alice Springs, Hall’s Creek, Thursday Island and
In 1830 Lang instituted a migration program other remote centres. These centres later provided
to bring Scottish tradesmen to Australia. The bases for the Flying Doctor Service. Flynn insisted
first Presbyterian school opened in 1831. Unlike that these services be made available to all.
Presbyterian minister John McGarvey who founded
the conservative Sydney Morning Herald in 1831, activities
Lang regularly produced a ‘muck-raking’ newssheet,
1. Outline three key contributions of the
the Colonist, whose political radicalism and disdain
Presbyterians in early Australia.
for inherited privilege at times outraged the
political, and the Presbyterian, establishment. His 2. Research the work of John Flynn that has made his
campaigning against the privileged position of the name so well known to Australians even today.
Church of England in the provision of education,
enshrined in the Church and Schools Corporation
of 1825, probably hastened its abolition in 1833.

Lutherans
South Australia, founded without convicts in 1836, attracted many

who had deep religious convictions and who chafed at religious
discrimination in Europe. It proved a haven for Lutherans escaping
religious persecution in Germany. Lutherans also settled in other
colonies, especially Queensland.
As early as 1837 Lutheran missionaries were working with
Indigenous peoples in Queensland and soon after in South Australia
and the Northern Territory. This work spread to New Guinea in 1886.
Lutherans were quick to take up new technologies such as radio, both
for evangelising with shows such as The Lutheran Hour and for linking
isolated groups of worshippers.
Greek Orthodox
The Sydney Gazette of 1818 mentioned the presence of Greek

Orthodox adherents in Eastern Australia. Greek nationals took part
in the gold rushes, and by the end of the 19th century there were
Orthodox communities in Sydney and Melbourne. The first church
was consecrated in Surry Hills, New South Wales, in 1898. By 1911 activity
the Orthodox Church probably had 2364 members, though they were Prepare an oral presentation on
recorded by the census as ‘Greek Catholic’. the work of the Lutheran and the
Orthodox communities in Australia were under the control of the Greek Orthodox churches in pre-
Patriarch of Jerusalem until 1903 when control moved to Athens and in 1945 Australia.
1908 to Constantinople (present-day Istanbul). In 1924 the Ecumenical
Patriarchate of Constantinople established the Holy Metropolis of
Australia and New Zealand, with Bishop Christophoros in charge.
FIG. 8.7 Departure of the first Lutheran missionaries from Tanunda, South Australia

Non-Christian
religions in Australia
pre-1945
Buddhism
Buddhism may well have come to Australia with the influx of

Chinese during the 1850s gold rushes in New South Wales and
Victoria. Many mining towns in Australia cherish remains of so-
called ‘joss houses’, some with statues of the Buddha. Buddhist
Sri Lankans who were brought to Australia to work in the sugar
industry and the pearl fisheries in the 1890s also brought their
beliefs with them. Like many Pacific Islanders (also indentured
in the sugar industry), a lot of Sri Lankans were deported from
Australia with the enactment of the Immigration Restriction Act
soon after Federation, but some managed to stay.
Buddhism attracted some Westerners too. In the 1920s there
was disillusionment in the Western world with Christianity and an
increasing fascination with the East and its religions. Australians
were no different, starting a Buddhist Society in 1925: the Little
Circle of Dharma. In Australia, as in other Western nations, this
type of adherence to Buddhism did not expand very far and
remained an esoteric and rather elitist fad.
Islam
It is possible that Islam reached Australia with the Macassan

trepang fishers in the 16th century. They buried their dead here and
some of their practices were observed by local Aborigines, but their
beliefs did not have a very great impact.
Pakistani, Afghani and Turkish camel drivers (popularly called
‘Afghans’ and mainly Muslims) were brought to Australia in the
second half of the 19th century to assist in opening up the inland. FIG. 8.8 Buddhist monk standing on steps of
Their work on the overland telegraph—completed in 1861—is Nan Tien temple, near Wollongong, NSW
commemorated in the name given to the central Australian train,
‘
the Ghan. They built the first Australian mosques in Adelaide about
1895, Perth in 1905, and later in Broken Hill and Alice Springs. Many mining towns in
Australia cherish remains
of so-called ‘joss houses’,
some with statues of
the Buddha.
’

Hinduism
Hinduism came to Australia in the 19th century through Australian

employers’ need for labour to work on the sugar plantations in the
tropical north. It is difficult to ascertain from official records how many
of the ‘Indians’ recruited for the plantations were Hindus and how
many were Muslims or Sikhs. It is estimated that by 1911, when the
Indian population was recorded as 4106, probably about 1000 were
Hindus. The Immigration Restriction Act 1901 (enacting the so-called
‘White Australia Policy’) stopped the further arrival of Indians and
prevented the spread of Hinduism.
‘ Judaism has been in
Australia since the First
Fleet. By 1820 there
were several hundred
Judaism
Judaism has been in Australia since the First Fleet. By 1820 there
were several hundred Jewish convicts. Others came in the late 1820s
as free settlers, many of them merchants, and organised worship in
Jewish convicts.
’
1828, at first in a private house and, in 1844, in a synagogue in York
Street, Sydney (now recreated at Sydney’s Jewish Museum). By 1878 a
government grant of 23 000 pounds went towards erecting the Great
Synagogue, still standing in Elizabeth Street, Sydney. activity
Meanwhile, Jews emigrated to the other colonies, and by the ‘One thing these non-Christian
1840s there were congregations worshipping in Hobart, Launceston, traditions have in common
Melbourne and Adelaide. With many Jews taking part in the various before 1945 is how they came
Australian gold rushes, congregations were established in 1864 in to Australia.’ Prepare a report
Brisbane and 1892 in Perth. discussing this hypothesis. Use
Anti-Semitic pogroms in eastern Europe and Russia in the 1890s supporting evidence.
and the Nazi regime’s attempt to exterminate Jews in Europe resulted in
fluctuating emigration to Australia, peaking in the 1930s and late 1940s.
FIG. 8.9 The Great Synagogue was built in 1878 with the help of a government grant. It still stands in Elizabeth Street, Sydney

Issues in the development
of Christianity in Australia
pre-1945
The impact of sectarianism
In the early years, the Church of England was the made the same point, that even though there
official church of the colony. Roman Catholic clergy was no established church in Australia, there was
were refused entry until it became clear to the nevertheless a willingness to publicly recognise the
authorities that Church of England chaplains could centrality of Christianity in the nation’s life.
not effectively minister to significant numbers of Irish By 1861, when the census registered the healthy
Catholic convicts. Other Protestant bodies such as the number of 428 759 Anglicans in New South Wales,
Congregationalists and Wesleyans were grudgingly Victoria, Tasmania and Queensland, government
given permission to hold services. Presbyterians, who subsidies began to be withdrawn from the Church
were members of the other national established of England. This withdrawal of government funds
church, the Church of Scotland, were initially coincided with the church’s desire for independence
treated like Dissenters until the Rev. John Dunmore from the British crown, as well as the local
Lang’s lobbying concerning a government grant for a government. The first had been responsible for the
Presbyterian building in 1824 changed that. appointment of senior clergy, trained in Britain, to
Members of the Church of England enjoyed the Church of England in Australia. In addition to
various exclusive privileges. Catholics and this, the local goverment had consistently interfered
Dissenters, for example, were often denied in the church’s affairs.
employment in public office. The Constitution of The Church of England in Australia maintained
the Commonwealth of Australia (1900) made it strong ties to Britain through the education of its
absolutely clear that there were to be no religious clergy and the appointment of senior clerics in the
tests in relation to government employment. church.
However, job discrimination against Catholics The Irishness of the Catholic Church gave it a
continued well into the 20th century in some cohesiveness born from both a common heritage
companies and small businesses. and a desire among Irish people to see their home
Quite early on, the various churches insisted on country break from English rule. Anti-English
their right to marry and bury their own members. sentiment, therefore, was a predictable feature of
Struggles broke out over cemeteries that, while Irish Catholicism in Australia. It found its most
nominally public, were actually controlled by the public expression in the political arena, where the
Church of England. The right of non–Church of tendency of the middle- and working-class Irish to
England clergy to bury their dead was not always vote for the Labor Party contrasted with the English
clear, especially in country districts. In the larger and Scottish Protestants’ preference for conservative
towns and cities the problem was solved by the parties such as the Nationalist Party of Australia
creation of general cemeteries, with divisions (now the Liberal Party) and the Country Party (now
included for all the major denominations. Disputes the National Party).
also occurred about the place of clergy at state Catholicism in Australia proceeded largely
functions (the symbolism of clerical presence through the inspiration of pioneering Irish leaders.
pointed to an official, public profession of In 1833, for example, Father John McEnroe arrived
Christianity). Prayers in parliaments and special in New South Wales, putting a strong case for
services to mark the opening of the legal year democratic government and protesting against

convict transportation. Many of his liberal ideas The contribution of Christianity to
were expressed in the newspaper that he founded, social welfare pre-1945
the Freeman’s Journal.
Though the Irish connection in the Catholic Through their churches, people became involved
Church in Australia was strong, it is important in voluntary associations and their management.
to note that around the first decade of the 20th This gave many Australians experience in civic and
century about 25 per cent of Australian Catholics moral responsibility. Churches encouraged people to
born outside the country were not Irish. For give freely of their time to service the community.
example, many Italian Catholics who came to The result has been a fascinating network of caring
Australia in the 1850s made their permanent home organisations staffed mainly by volunteers. This
here. One of Australia’s most important historical was a most important area of church influence,
documents is the chronicle of the Italian-born gold helping to make life more bearable for thousands of
digger Raffaello Carboni (1817–75), who witnessed Australians. Today, many of these organisations have
the military attack on the Eureka Stockade in 1854. become large professional organisations employing
By the turn of the 20th century, Victoria registered many people and receiving considerable government
1525 Italian-born persons, virtually all of whom assistance. The Salvation Army, St Vincent de Paul
would have been Catholics. conferences, city missions and the Sydney Anglican
One Australian-born child of Italian Catholic Home Mission Society are examples of voluntary
immigrants would make an enormous impact caring undertaken on a scale that could not be
on Australian society and on the Australian matched by government departments.
Catholic community. Bartholomew Augustine
Santamaria, born in 1915, was involved in the activities
national Secretariat of Catholic Action, a lay
1. What is ‘sectarianism’?
movement initiated by Archbishop Daniel Mannix
(1864–1963). Officiating first as assistant director 2. Give examples of religious discrimination in
(1947–54), Santamaria was a powerful voice for pre-1945 Australia.
the Catholic Church’s position on social issues 3. Being a member of a certain church may also
ranging from industrial labour to rural community have had advantages. Give examples of these
life. Santamaria, who was also president of the privileges.
Catholic Social Movement (1943–57), spearheaded 4. How did this discrimination and these benefits
a split in the Labor Party over its attitude towards affect government leaders and government policy
communism. Claiming that the Labor Party was during this period?
being manipulated by pro-communist sympathisers,
5. Some Australian-born children of Italian Catholic
Santamaria set himself the task of fighting against
immigrants made a big impact on Australia. Who
all manifestations of communism in Australia.
were they and what did they do?
6. Research the role of early churches in social
welfare. What activities did they initiate and are
‘ Santamaria was any still operating and relevant today?
a powerful voice for

the Catholic Church’s
position on social
issues ranging from
industrial labour to rural
community life.
’

The contribution of
Christianity to Australia
Religious traditions in rural and outback

communities pre-1945
Ministry in the Australian outback brought with it a unique set of
problems. Population was so sparse that is could take hours or even
days to journey from one family to another. Transportation was not
good, and loneliness in this isolated land was a constant presence activities
for ministers who ventured into the outback. 1. ‘For Christ and Continent’ was
Bush brotherhoods were established by the Church of England John Flynn’s motto. To what extent
in the late 1880s. The men who joined these orders agreed to vows do you think Flynn achieved what
of poverty, chastity and obedience. Ten of these brotherhoods were he set out to do? In your response
active in the outback regions of Australia, with the Brotherhood consider the ‘tyranny of distance’,
of the Good Shepherd being the most active in New South Wales making sure you outline the
country areas. These men travelled from one outback station to significance or otherwise of the
another. Working in pairs in an attempt to offset some of the radio and the aeroplane.
dangers of distance and loneliness, they were often the only people 2. What were the ‘bush brotherhoods’,
that station families saw from one year to the next. These men who was involved and what did
conducted services wherever they could, whether it was in an they do?
old barn, in hotel bars or under the stars. They administered the
sacrament of baptism, and conducted both marriages and funerals.
Some years later, in 1919, the Evangelical wing of the Church of
England established the Bush Church Aid Society (BCA). Both men
and women took active roles in bringing God’s message to those who
dwelt in inland regions. Unlike the bush brothers, some BCA workers
would stay in one location where they established hospitals and
hostels. Others travelled from one place to another, preaching God’s
word and teaching the children. It was not long before all the major
Christian denominations had established similar ministry teams.
A leading figure in the Presbyterian Church’s outback ministry
was the Rev. Dr John Flynn (1880–1951). Flynn was appointed the
church’s superintendent of Central Australia and the Northern
Territory, to which he both ministered and brought a range of
medical and social services. In 1912 the Presbyterian Church
founded the Australian Inland Mission.
It was Flynn’s aim to bring the church to the people of the
outback. He established his first centre of ministry in Oodnadatta
in South Australia. Transportation was by camel, horse or van, but
Flynn was not shy of modern innovations and soon capitalised
on the invention of the pedal radio and the aeroplane. In 1928 he FIG. 8.10 Reverend John Flynn
founded the Australian Inland Mission Aerial Medical Service. So
began what today is the Royal Flying Doctor Service. Flynn and his
ideas revolutionised both ministry and service in the outback for
those people who lived in such remote locations.

Religion and education in Australia pre-1945
The first colony’s troubled and divided beginnings ensured that

colonial religious life reflected the sectarian rivalries that had
fragmented the churches of Britain. Colonists concerned to leave such
religious divisions behind believed that ties between church and state
should be ended and that the churches should be supported by their
own adherents. Baptists, Congregationalists, some Presbyterians and activities
Wesleyans took this view.
1. Throughout this chapter
Initially, such concerns were partly met by the granting of financial
there are examples of many
aid to the major religious groups as well as the Church of England. Each
Christian churches involved in
church moved to maximise its religious and educational influence.
establishing and developing
However, even though each colony imposed a cap on religious
a church-based education
expenditure, some influential colonists wanted such aid ended. Their
system. Research why church
goal was to eliminate duplication and ensure that public instruction
leaders thought this was
was controlled and financed by each colonial government. Some
so important in a convict
Christians combined with secularists and revenue-conscious politicians
settlement, and indeed why it
to bring an end to this form of state aid. This was a major blow to the
continued well after convict
influence of the Protestant churches.
transportation stopped.
Even though secondary schools and university colleges were strong
2. In direct contrast, early
influences on colonial elites, the Roman Catholic Church showed that
governments favoured
its schools also provided a potent cultural and religious influence. By
religious-free education. Why
the end of the 19th century, an impressive Catholic school system was
was this view and that of the
in place in every colony. It built on the work of religious orders such as
churches so different?
the Sisters of Mercy, the Australian-founded Josephites, and the Marist
and Christian Brothers, who came to Australia at the invitation of 3. Is this debate still continuing
bishops such as Polding and Moran. Polding helped to ensure unity of in Australia? Search recent
action in Catholic communities. Lutherans also had their own school newspaper archives and
system, but it was much smaller. identify whether the reasons
Many Protestants argued that such denominational schools were have changed from pre-1945
sectarian and divisive. Catholics, however, insisted that it was a matter to the present.
of conscience to have schools run on religious principles in every part
of the curriculum. They claimed that they were denied justice by the
Protestant majority because they paid taxes for public schools that they
could not in conscience send their children to, while at the same time
having to finance their own schools.
FIG. 8.11 St Francis Convent school and adjoining

Catholic church, Hughenden, Queensland

Religion and public morality pre-1945
Christian influences on public morality can best be alcoholism that they wanted to ban the sale of
seen by looking at the examples of Sabbatarianism, liquor altogether. Such a ban was unlikely to be
family law and laws relating to the consumption of legislated, for too many Christians saw no harm
liquor and the regulation of gambling. in responsible drinking and believed that legal
prohibition would create more problems than it
Sabbatarianism solved.
Sunday observance has always been followed The high point of temperance campaigns
differently in the different churches. In the 19th was reached during the First World War, when
century an influential coalition of Protestants a significant majority voted for 6 pm closing of
fought any attempts to weaken the sanctity of the hotels. Strongly influenced by the Protestant
Christian Sabbath. They pointed to the Fourth churches, that legislation persisted until the 1950s.
Commandment (‘Remember the sabbath day, to Local opinion still ensures that some suburbs have
keep it holy’, Exodus 20:8) and argued that its no licensed hotels today.
observance was no less vital than the observance Church opposition to the restriction of gambling
of the other commandments. Honouring God lasted much longer, with roots lying in the 19th-
by worship was a guarantee of divine blessing on century denunciation of gain by methods other
the nation. Such groups opposed Sunday work, as than honest labour.
well as the sale of goods, the playing of sport, the Such attempts at social control have been called
opening of hotels and theatres, and the running of ‘wowserism’. These views were strongly cultivated
public transport on the Sabbath. in Protestant churches, which vented their hostility
Roman Catholics rejected the justification at fashionable dress, the exposure of the body that
offered by Protestants. Catholics were obliged to attended public bathing, indulgence in liquor and
attend mass and to abstain from servile labour, but gambling, the breaking of the Sabbath and the
once religious obligations had been met they were pursuit of unconventional sexual behaviour. Based
free to pursue recreation. on the ideal of a disciplined spiritual and moral life
Sabbath observance was often lax in the bush, and the service of God and neighbour, wowserism
and some radicals saw Sabbatarianism as another easily lent itself to derision and parody.
form of oppression against the working class. Christian attempts to control ideas can also
Nonetheless, many ordinary families who were not be seen in the troubled history of censorship.
especially religious clearly valued the opportunities The prohibition of the sale of certain books and
for rest and recreation that Sunday offered. They magazines, the banning of some plays and films,
had no desire to see a repeal of the legislation and the cutting of the text of various plays, films,
governing Sunday observance, even if they neither songs and imported television programs grew out
understood nor agreed with the evangelical of the Christian conviction that there were certain
Protestant theology that had provided the original forms of behaviour that were intrinsically corrupt
justification for the legislation. or blasphemous, and that these should not be
published, performed or broadcast.
Divorce
In the 19th century there were bitter struggles activities
over attempts to liberalise the divorce law. In New
1. What is Sabbatarianism?
South Wales in 1886, an eminent judge, Sir Alfred
Stephen, a devout Anglican, led the campaign to 2. Who practised it prior to 1945?
widen the grounds for divorce. The campaign was 3. Many social issues of pre-1945 Australia were
pursued in spite of opposition from bishops. The of significant concern to churches. Give some
reforms became law in 1892. examples of the issues and the view taken by the
churches.
Alcohol, gambling and censorship
Many Protestants were so concerned about the
severe problems caused by drunkenness and

Review and assess
Review
1. Outline the early arrival of Christianity and its impact on the colony.
2. What different religious orders established themselves in Australia

before 1945? When did they come and why?
3. Did non-Christian religions have any impact on pre-1945 Australia?

Explain your answer.
4. Explain how churches developed influence in many aspects of:
a. rural and outback communication
b. education
c. public morality
d. politics.
Multiple choice
5. A person who believes that the existence of God can neither be

proved nor disproved is:
a. a humanitarian
b. an atheist
c. an agnostic
d. an Episcopalian.
6. Anti-Semitism is:
a. a love of Jews
b. ambivalence towards Jews
c. hatred of Jews
d. none of the above.

7. The people that make up a church congregation 11. Who was the official Catholic priest in New South
are referred to as: Wales?
a. laity a. Father James Dixon
b. clergy b. Father Mick O’Brien
c. audience c. Father Gerald O’Flannigan
d. squad. d. Father Joseph Therry.
8. A synod is: 12. Who was the colony’s first Catholic bishop?
a. a group of church delegates a. Caroline Chisholm
b. a group of Uniting Church ministers b. William Broughton
c. the congregation c. John Bede Polding
d. government politicians. d. Father William Vaughn.
9. Marriages in the early colony were not 13. ‘Missionisation’ is the term that is used for:
considered valid unless they were conducted by:
a. establishing a mission in a developing country
a. a clergyman
b. preaching about Christianity in a Buddhist
b. a Church of England clergyman culture
c. a Catholic priest c. forced conversion of Aboriginal people to

Christianity from their own beliefs
d. the governor of the colony.
d. building a mission in a remote area of
10. The Bush Church Aid Society was established by Australia.
which denomination?
14. Circumcision, fire ceremony, nose piercing and
a. Presbyterian tooth extraction are all examples of:
b. Catholic a. funeral practices
c. Methodist b. rites of initiation for Aboriginal babies
d. Church of England. c. rites of initiation for young male Aboriginals
d. marriage ceremonies.

Introduction to Part 2,
the HSC Course
HSC
KIN_OSR_U2Int.indd Sec1:198 11/9/09 12:16:00 PM

The HSC section of this textbook begins with ‘Religion and belief
systems in Australia post-1945’, including contemporary Aboriginal
spiritualities. This topic addresses the fact that Australia is not only a
multicultural country but also a multi-faith community. Aboriginal
spirituality is an important part of the Australian religious landscape.
Readers are challenged to allow an understanding of Aboriginal
spirituality to influence their own thinking about Australian society,
particularly in the area of Christian spirituality. This chapter attempts
to clarify and inform students about Aboriginal spirituality from the
Aboriginal point of view.
The NSW Studies of Religion syllabus aims to increase students’
knowledge of whole religious traditions, with One-Unit students
studying two religious traditions and Two-Unit students studying
three. Areas of study include significant people and schools of
thought, ethical positions (bioethics, the environment and sexual
ethics) and public devotional practices.
Each chapter builds on the study of the religious traditions
presented in the Preliminary section of this text. The focus here is
not just to develop an understanding of the religious tradition itself
and how it influences the lives of the believers, but also to illustrate
the ways in which religion can be said to be an integral part of the
human experience. The authors have shown the unique response that
each tradition makes in developing its own self-understanding and
pursuing its own practices.
Religions have always been a part of Australian culture. They have
influenced the way in which this country has developed, particularly
since the arrival of the first Europeans, who brought to these shores a
mix of faiths and attitudes. The HSC section also looks at the religious
diversity that prevails in Australia today. Current statistics about the
distribution of religious traditions are included in order to illustrate
the changing patterns of belief among Australians.
Much of the development of modern Australian society is a
reflection of the influence of Christian beliefs and practices. From the
legal system to public holidays, Christianity has had an enormous
influence on the way Australians live. The response of Christians
to the social needs of Australians, and the initiatives taken by the
churches in stimulating the development of community in Australia,
are shown to be matters that are worthy of significant consideration.
The new Two-Unit study of ‘Religion and peace’ focuses on the
distinctive response of religious traditions to the issue of peace.
This topic is approached from both the position of individuals and
their inner response and the global position of world religions on
issues of peace.
Each chapter contains ‘Activities’ that will assist students in
revision. ‘Review and assess’ questions will assist with preparation for
assessment tasks and examinations. While not attempting to predict
possible examination questions, these tasks provide a strong basis for
the revision that students will need to undertake.
KIN_OSR_U2Int.indd Sec1:199 11/9/09 12:16:10 PM

Religion and belief
systems in Australia
post-1945
The focus of this study is religious expression in Australia’s multicultural
and multi-faith society since 1945. The study includes an appreciation
of Aboriginal spiritualities and their contribution to an understanding of
religious beliefs and religious expression in Australia today.
Outcomes Content
H1 explains aspects of religion and belief systems
Contemporary Aboriginal spiritualities
H2 describes and analyses the influence of religion
and belief systems on individuals and society • Aboriginal spirituality as determined by the
Dreaming
H3 examines the influence and expression of
religion and belief systems in Australia • issues for Aboriginal spiritualities in relation to:
H4 describes and analyses how aspects of religious • the effect of dispossession

traditions are expressed by their adherents • the Land Rights movement
H5 evaluates the influence of religious traditions in
the life of adherents Religious expression in Australia—1945 to the present
H6 organises, analyses and synthesises relevant • the religious landscape from 1945 to the present
information about religion from a variety of in relation to:
sources, considering usefulness, validity and bias • changing patterns of religious adherence
H8 applies appropriate terminology and concepts • the current religious landscape
related to religion and belief systems • religious dialogue in multi-faith Australia
H9 coherently and effectively communicates • ecumenical movements within Christianity
complex information, ideas and issues using
• Interfaith dialogue
appropriate written, oral and graphic forms
• The relationship between Aboriginal
spiritualities and religious traditions in the
process of Reconciliation

HSC | Chapter 9 Australia post-1945 201

ADVOCACY actions by churches or Christian groups PENTECOSTAL a group within Christianity that is
on behalf of minorities disregarded by characterised by enthusiastic prayer,
those in authority. contemporary music, large stadium style
ASSIMILATION Government Policy adopted in 1951 events and informal liturgy. Speaking in
that required all Aboriginal and part- tongues is an important characteristic.
Aboriginal people to live as members of a PROTECTORATE British policy enacted to a ‘protect’ the
single Australian community. SYSTEM ‘natives’. It became a mechanism of
BULLROARER a flat piece of wood or stone that is control over Aboriginal people.
swung around on a thong. REFORMED those religious groups whose formation
CENSUS the official numbering of a population. TRADITION was the result of the 16th-century
Protestant Reformation.
CEREMONIALISM the use of dance, song and symbolism
to ritualise the connections between RITUALS religious or secular in nature, and can be
totemism and ceremony. described as a patterned series of activities
that are capable of being repeated.
CHARISMATIC those Christians possessing God’s
SACRED SITES natural land formations where Aboriginal
spiritual gift of the ability to speak in
Ancestral Spirits interacted with creation.
tongues (glossolalia).
SEGREGATION/ government practices and policies that
CONSTITUTION the way in which a state is organised, the
PROTECTION set Aboriginals physically apart from
body of legal principles regulating the
white settlements.
relation of state authorities to each other.
SKINLINE bloodline of Aboriginal people.
DREAMING a European term that refers to the essence
of truth in Aboriginal religious beliefs. SOCIAL a theory assigning a hierarchy of the
DARWINISM human race according to skin colour.
EGALITARIANISM a commitment to the equality of
all people regardless of their social, SOVEREIGNTY supreme controlling power, or the power
economic or political situation. by which a people is self-governing.
HEDONISM the belief that pleasure is the chief good. STOLEN the taking of Aboriginal children from
GENERATIONS their parents by the authorities and the
KINSHIP SYSTEM networks of relationships governing
placing of these children in institutions
interactions between members of
far removed from their families.
Aboriginal language groups.
TERRA NULLIUS Latin words literally meaning ‘land
LAND RIGHTS the inherent rights of Aboriginals to their
belonging to no one’. An erroneous
land, forming the basis of a movement
British concept according to which the
designed to ensure the preservation of
continent of Australia was not inhabited
Aboriginal spirituality and culture.
by Indigenous peoples, and therefore was
MISSIONISATION the policy of forcing Aboriginal people available for claim and colonisation.
to reject their own religion and to accept
TOTEMISM an entity—plant, animal or natural
Christianity.
object—that has become the token or
NATIVE TITLE the exclusive title, rights and interests that emblem of an individual or a language
Aboriginal people have in regard to land. group. The entity cannot be gathered,
NATIVE TITLE Australian federal legislation that recognises hunted or even painted by those who
ACT 1993 the existence of Aboriginal native title in have it as their totem since it is believed
Australian federal law and the native title to link them to the spiritual force
rights of Aboriginal people. responsible for their existence.
NATIVE TITLE judgment of the High Court of Australia, TRANSCENDENT a religion that holds that there are beings
(MABO) delivered on 3 June 1992, declaring that RELIGION that exist beyond the known universe
JUDGMENT the Meriam people were entitled to the that are not subject to the laws of nature;
Murray Islands as owners, possessors and polytheism and monotheism are the two
occupiers. The judgment recognised the principal types of transcendent religion.
existence of Aboriginal native title. ‘WHITE the government policies that restricted
NEO-PAGANS those who have revived the old forms of AUSTRALIA’ the immigration of non-whites to
paganism. POLICY Australia from 1901 to 1973.

Contemporary Aboriginal
spiritualities
Aboriginal spirituality and the Aboriginals exercised the right of sovereignty,
or supreme controlling power, over their own
Dreaming
lands. They lived freely, in tribal communities,
Aboriginal religion is a living religion. This is across every corner of the continent. For centuries
because the whole of creation is linked together Aboriginals traded with Macassans. During the 17th
and every action or event of social significance and 18th centuries they saw explorers come and go,
has a spiritual significance. For Aboriginals, the from places as far away as the Netherlands, Portugal
correlation between their created world, their and Spain. Some groups even made contact when
social world and their spiritual world means that such explorers landed on the continent.
their religion is holistic and living, that it touches Aboriginal religion is not so much a series of
everything. complex religious practices as it is a way of life,
Aboriginal people lived in peace and harmony a way of living and being. Aboriginal religion is
with their land for over 40 000 years—more grounded in direct links to the land. Out of these
than 1600 generations. In that time Aboriginals vital relationships come responsibilities, and these
numbered up to (and perhaps over) one million lead in turn to religious practices.
people, living in some 600 to 700 tribes—each
with its own land, laws and political system. There activities
were at least 500 separate languages and even more
1. Re-read the material on the Dreaming in chapter 1
dialects, each as distinct from another as English
pages 17–27. Why is the Dreaming so interconnected
is from Dutch, or Chinese from Korean. Just as the
with the land?
Aboriginals had land, politics, self-government,
languages, culture and arts, so they also had their 2. In small groups, discuss the impact this relationship
own unique religion and spirituality. They lived in between the Dreaming and the land may have on
communion with the Creator and with each other. Aboriginal people today, including political activities.
FIG. 9.1 The landing of Captain Cook at Botany Bay, Sydney,

April 1770, by William MacLeod

Obligations to the land and people and resources according to kinship guidelines is
designed to minimise waste and maximise benefits
The Dreaming, the land and an individual or group for the whole community. The rules of kinship
of people are inexorably linked. promote the value of cooperation rather than that
The link between human beings and creation of competition.
is made through what Europeans have called
totemism. A totem can be any object, such as
a bird, plant or even some particular landmark,
through which a person is connected to the
creative spiritual force responsible for his or her
existence. The person, through the totem, becomes
inextricably linked with the land and to the Spirit
governing that territory. Each totem has its own
sacred sites and sites of significance associated
with the mythology of that totem. This means that
ultimately the land, through its totemic link, owns
the people.
Totemism is a system of belief that gives rise to
the existence of that special link, and also gives
effect to the relationships between the Ancestral FIG. 9.2 Walpa Gorge, Kata Tjuta (the Olgas), Northern Territory.
Beings through participation in a ceremonial Access is restricted by the Pitjantjatjara elders. This is a place of
Aboriginal ceremonial and gender-specific business (men’s business).
event. Such an event enables communication with
the Ancestral Spirit(s) and participation in the Other rules that govern the protection of sacred
rejuvenation of that ‘life-force’ that ensures the sites strictly control the type of people who may
stability of human experience. Aboriginals may visit those sites as well as the frequency of such
have a combination of individual and group totems visits. Different totems have different totemic sites,
so as to ensure that the whole range of human and visitation to those sites is usually prohibited by
expression is covered. both the owners of the sites (those who are linked
Totemism is formalised through ceremonialism. to the totems) and the keepers of the sites (those
It is through dance, song and symbolism that who are charged with the responsibility of caring
aspects of creation are linked with the creative life- for them).
force. Thus the balance and integrity of all creation Together these sets of rules that govern
is sustained and the stability of life preserved. While Aboriginal existence form the basis for societal
totemism itself is not a religion, it contains religious values that govern the action and interaction of the
elements because of the link that it makes between whole society. It would be useful to contrast some
creation and the Ancestral Beings. of these values with those that prevail in Western
society.
Value systems
The spiritual significance of the environment activities
is seen in Aboriginal people’s adaptation to it,
1. Define ‘totemism’.
rather than in any manipulation of it. It is seen in
rules governing hunter-gatherer technology. It is 2. What is the role of ceremonies in relation to
seen in the protection of sacred sites and sites of totemism?
significance. These values are very different from 3. What is meant by Aboriginal religion being
those that are apparent in non-Aboriginal society ‘holistic and living’?
in Australia. 4. Research Aboriginal values and compare these
The rules governing the hunter-gatherer with the values of another tradition such as
economy are designed both to enable Aboriginals Christianity. What similarities and differences
to carve out an existence in harsh climates, and occur? Why do you think these differences or
to protect and maintain the ecological balance similarities have evolved?
of their environment. Thus the sharing of food

Kinship and family
The dynamic wholeness and living spirituality of Aboriginal religion
are expressed tangibly in the structure of Aboriginal social and
cultural institutions. The most dominant of these is the kinship
system.
Kinship refers to the highly sophisticated networks of relationships
that govern interactions between members of language groups. These
relationships are so complex that even today many academics have
difficulty in fully understanding them.
In order to function within an Aboriginal society, one must have
not only a relationship to a language group but also a position within
it. Aboriginals find it very difficult to interact with people outside
their communities; the order governing social behaviours tends not
to accommodate interaction with outsiders if they ‘do not belong’.
Relationships are cultivated within an extended family in which each
person has a defined position. For example, it is not unusual for a
person to have many mothers and fathers, aunties, uncles, sisters,
brothers, nieces and nephews. When one is part of an Aboriginal
community, what becomes important is the position held and the
role played within this community.
There are strict rules and obligations assigned to each relationship.
When the structure of relationships is mapped out it tends to
resemble a spider’s web: all relationships interlink and overlap, and
every person is bound to every other person. Each of these positions, FIG. 9.3 Aboriginal cave paintings, such as
relationships and obligations is known by every member of the these in Kakadu National Park, often told of
relationships between clans, and the relationships
community. Even children, from a very young age, are made aware between family members.
and taught their position and functions within their community.
In short, Aboriginal spirituality is expressed through the
Dreaming, through the land and people, and through totems, values
and kinship systems.
Ceremonial life
activities
In an extended response,
explain the statement ‘Aboriginal Initiation
spirituality is expressed through Initiation is the Aboriginal ritual ceremony or religious rite of passage
the Dreaming, through the land denoting the transition from childhood to adulthood. There is a male
and people, and through totems, initiation and a female initiation. Although there are various stages of
values and kinship systems’. initiation, and different forms of initiation from one language group
to another, the laws governing these practices are fixed, maintained
and passed on from generation to generation. Initiation brings with it
responsibilities and obligations in both spiritual and social life.
Male initiation
Circumcision marks the stage at which an Aboriginal male moves from
boyhood to manhood. The initiate begins to learn skin relationships as
well as kinship, land and ceremonial obligations. His relationships with
and behaviours towards females will change. He is taught how to know
whom to approach and how to distinguish between acceptable and non-
acceptable behaviour, such as with mothers-in-law.

For boys the age at which such initiation rites this is not the case for a girl’s—the number of
are performed varies from six years to twelve years, participants is smaller and they are confined to
depending on the language group; there is no female relatives.
consistent process within Aboriginal Australia. The At the first sign of puberty a young girl is taken
initiation rite is seen as the ritual death of a boy and from the community to an isolated area, where
his spiritual rebirth into manhood. shelter has been prepared. There the old women,
Usually, the boy is taken from his community ensuring that food taboos are observed, pass on
by the male elders as the women begin to wail myths and songs to the girl. They teach the girl her
for him. Not far from the camp the sounds of the new responsibilities. They teach her how her roles
bullroarers are heard. These sounds symbolise the change and instruct her how to behave in married
voice of the Ancestral Being that will ingest the boy life and how to look after herself. No longer is the
(which results in his ritual death) and then spew girl allowed to behave in girlish or childish ways.
him back (which constitutes his rebirth and entry Her peers now become the women elders. They
into manhood). From this point forward he is no teach her the skills required in gathering food
longer considered to be a boy but has gained a new- sources, medicines and food preparation. She learns
found status and is assimilated with other initiated ceremonial Women’s Business. She learns respect
males into his community. for the boys. She learns about relationships. Her
The initiation ritual is characterised not so behaviour towards the male gender will change
much by the boy’s performance of certain acts as according to the kinship system and taboos
by his submission to the initiated elders, who act governing these relationships and associations. She
ritually upon him. During this period the boy’s learns about her mother’s land and her father’s land,
formal teaching at the hand of male elders begins, as well as about the relevant ceremonies, obligations
as does discipline and training for his new role. and so on.
This is a critical time in a young man’s life. Only Depending on her language group, at sunrise
through initiatory rites can young boys ever acquire following the isolation (menstruation) period,
the standing of an adult and the right to marry she may be taken to the nearest river or billabong
and participate in ritual life. Not all knowledge is where she will be ritually bathed with other young
obtained during the first initiatory rites; rather, women. Then she will be painted and decorated
the journey of knowledge begins here. Sacred and led back into the community. This symbolises
knowledge will be imparted to a man through the physical maturity—no longer is she a child but
course of his life. a woman, and she will be treated as a woman.
Throughout Australia there are many forms of If she has not been promised (betrothed), such
Aboriginal initiation. They include circumcision, arrangements are then made by the family.
cicatrisation (scarring of the body), fire ceremony, Initiation in Aboriginal society defines the
depilation (removal of hair), nose piercing and gender roles of men and women and differentiates
tooth extraction, to name a few. Circumcision between childhood and adulthood. Initiation brings
is considered to be the most important and increased status, responsibilities and obligations
widespread rite—only a very small number of to kinship, land, ceremonies and rituals. It does
groups do not perform it. In some Aboriginal not mean, however, that adulthood has been fully
communities the various initiation rites are reached. There are many stages in the passage
performed at different stages in a male’s life. to adulthood yet to be completed, and only at
marriage is adulthood finally recognised.
Female initiation
In Aboriginal society female initiates do not have to Funeral ceremonies
undertake the vigorous training and learning that Funeral ceremonies are among the most important
is required of males in their initiation rituals. This of Aboriginal ceremonial occasions. Songs and
does not mean, however, that the transition from ceremonies ensure that the spirit of the deceased
female adolescence to adulthood is not as important is carried back to a specific Ancestral Being’s land,
as the male equivalent. Whereas many community and that the responsibilities of the deceased are
members are involved in a boy’s initiation ritual, passed on. Communities acknowledge the skinline

or bloodline of the deceased, thus indicating
relationships with specific ancestors and with a
specific land and creation. The communities also
remember the person’s life and responsibilities.
Ceremonies vary from days to weeks, depending on
the importance and gender of the person.
During mourning, or what Aboriginal people call
‘sorry business’, the names of people who have died
are not spoken for up to three or four years, as a
sign of respect. After this the eldest son or daughter
can renew usage of the name by passing it on to an
infant.
activities FIG. 9.4 The British attempt to gain possession of Aboriginal land
was often met with resistance.
1. Outline the initiation ceremonies for males and
females.
The colonists, however, as representatives of the
2. What are the similarities and differences? British government, ignored the sovereignty and
3. Why do females and males place importance on strong resistance of the Aboriginal people and claimed
different aspects of initiation? ‘discovery’ of a ‘new land’. Further, the British declared
4. Why is ceremony such a key part of initiation? the place terra nullius, or ‘land belonging to no one’,
and proceeded to make three separate declarations
5. Why are funeral ceremonies so important to
of British sovereignty (1788, 1824 and 1829). From
Aboriginal people?
then on, the Aboriginal nations—which had existed
uninterrupted for tens of thousands of years—were
supposed to ‘be no more’. Terra nullius was, and still
Issues for Aboriginal spiritualities in is, a deliberate social construction designed to enable
European settlement without compensation for the
relation to land
dispossession of the Aboriginal peoples.
Dispossession The human cost of ‘discovery’

In 1768 an English naval officer, Lieutenant James White Australia often refers to its early years as the
Cook, was instructed by the British Navy to gain ‘age of discovery’ and the ‘pioneer era’. Aboriginals
‘the consent of the natives’ before taking possession remember something different. Terra nullius led
of the land in the name of the King of Great Britain. to the attempted extermination of the Aboriginal
In 1770 Cook attempted several landings along people. Genocide is the deliberate extermination
the eastern coast of Australia. More than once his of a people or nation. White Australian colonists
landing parties were repelled by Aboriginal people— employed direct genocidal practices, such as:
from the very beginning of British contact with • mass poisonings of water holes, rations and blankets
Australia, there was significant resistance from the
• so-called ‘dispersals’—a white euphemism for the
original inhabitants of the land. For example, from
murders of Aboriginal people
1788 to 1802 a skilled Aboriginal warrior named
Pemulwuy led the first operations of Aboriginal • discriminate shootings
armed resistance, routinely routing the British. • ‘revenge parties’ that murdered Aboriginal men,
Coastal tribes were not the only ones to oppose women and children, and at times wiped out
Europeans. The resistance efforts of Pemulwuy entire language groups.
were joined by those of other individuals such as Most enlightened Australians will acknowledge
Windradyne, Yagan, Multeggerah, Barak, Nemarluk, at least a minimal level of white ‘mistreatment’ of
Tjandamarra, and the Kalkadoon tribe in many Aboriginals, but few will realise the severity of the
parts of Australia. bloodstain on white history in this land.

FIG. 9.5 The Slaughterhouse Creek massacre, 1838, New South Wales, resulted in the deaths of over 200 Aboriginal people.
Aboriginal deaths
• Many Australians know of the smallpox epidemic of 1789, but not activities
many realise that it killed half the tribal groups in the Sydney region
1. The early Europeans called
and is believed to have been initiated and spread intentionally.
the period of exploration in
• In 1824, 100 Aboriginals were killed in the Bathurst massacre.
Australia the ‘age of discovery’
• In the 1830s, in the Fighting Hills massacre, over 50 Aboriginals were
and the ‘pioneer era’. Discuss
shot.
why Aboriginal people might
• In 1837, over 200 Aboriginals were killed in the (appropriately named)
think of this period differently.
Gravesend massacre.
• In the first half of 1838 alone, 100–300 Aboriginals were killed in the 2. In your opinion, would it be
Waterloo Creek massacre (January), 80 Aboriginals were killed in the hard for Aboriginal people to
Gwydir River massacre and a further 28 Aboriginals were killed in the forget this part of ‘our’ history?
Myall Creek massacre (June). Why?
• In 1840, over 100 Aboriginals—a whole tribal group—were killed in 3. Use the Internet to research
the Long Lagoon massacre. other impacts of white
• In 1841, 30 Aboriginals were killed in the Rufus River massacre. settlement on Aboriginal
people in the early years of
Britain waged war against [the Aboriginal] Nation. Massacres as settlement. Through your
systematic as those waged against the Jews in the twentieth century were research, identify the key
carried out in the name of God, anthropology, money, and land. The jolly reasons behind the disastrous
swagman was not especially jolly; the billabongs ran with blood. Few or impact on Aboriginal people of
none of these events were recorded and remembered by white Australians. white people moving into the
(John Pilger, quoted in Pattel-Grey, 1991, p.17) area.

sexual partners, and young Aboriginal boys were
made to work as stockmen or drovers. Aboriginals
were relegated to gathering and sleeping in ‘fringe
camps’ on the outskirts of white towns, farms and
other settlements.
The church, instead of condemning this
shameful state of affairs, made it worse. Claiming a
‘higher calling’, the church—with the full support
of colonial society—institutionalised the policy
of segregation. Early on, clergymen called for the
establishment of racist institutions that physically
FIG. 9.6 Bloomfield Aboriginal Mission, North Queensland, 1900 separated Aboriginals from whites. This won the full
was one of many missions where Aboriginal children were taken to support of colonial governments.
be assimilated into white society.
Missionisation was the policy of compelling
Colonisation and missionisation Aboriginal peoples to reject their own religion
From the very beginning of contact, European and accept Christianity. Aboriginals were forced
interests have worked to the detriment of Aboriginal to adapt to Christian norms and values. Through
people, their religion and their culture. This can be missionisation, Aboriginal children were taken from
seen most clearly, perhaps, in the collusion between their mothers and fathers, and Aboriginal families
state power (colonisation) and church power were split up and put into institutions far distant
(missionisation). This collusion was expressed in the from each other. This created what are known as the
practices and policies of segregation/protection Stolen Generations and destroyed the very fabric of
and assimilation. These issues have dominated Aboriginal family and cultural life.
Aboriginal–European relations for most of the past
two centuries.
Social Darwinism and theories attempting
to explain the hierarchy of human beings (with
whites at the top, peoples of colour in the middle
and black peoples at the bottom) were very popular
in Europe. When imported to Australia they were
firmly embraced by Euro-Australian colonists, who
firmly believed that Aboriginals were ‘inferior’ and a
‘dying race’.
Colonisation was the establishment, often
by violent physical force and military power, of FIG. 9.7 Children saying Christian prayers at Ooldea Mission,
British colonies (so-called ‘settlements’) on the South Australia
Australian continent. It removed Aboriginals

from their own traditional lands, destroyed their
sacred sites and essential resources, disrupted their activities
systems of hunting and gathering, and killed their
1. In his recent novel on Africa, James North
means of sustenance. Colonisation introduced
Patterson wrote that the white people brought
foreign diseases such as tuberculosis, measles and
the Bible to the black people who owned the land.
whooping cough. It brought vices such as alcohol.
Now the white people own the land and the black
It made Aboriginals dependent on white rations and
people have the Bible. How different is this from
handouts of sugar, flour, tea and blankets.
Australia?
Colonisation institutionalised the systematic
exploitation of Aboriginal people—in colonial 2. Why is separation of Aboriginal people from their
Australia, segregation walked hand-in-hand with land so important?
slavery. Aboriginals were compelled to become 3. Debate: ‘Was missionisation good for Aboriginal
labourers. Young Aboriginals girls were made to children?’
serve as domestics and often forced to double as

Separation system. It destroyed their traditional gender roles.
Separation, sometimes called ‘segregation’ or They were not allowed to speak their languages
even ‘protection’, denotes the practices, and later or pass them on to their children. Segregation/
policies, that deliberately set Aboriginals physically protection prohibited them from practising
apart from white settlements. Aboriginals were traditional religion, so a great deal of their language,
removed from their traditional lands, their sacred culture and ceremonies went underground.
sites, their families, and their food and water As global opinion and pressure about the rights
sources and forcibly herded into holding camps, of Indigenous peoples changed, and in an effort
in order to keep them away from the sight of to keep up appearances in the eyes of the world
white colonists. (and especially in the eyes of its British ‘parent’),
Segregation/protection dispossessed Aboriginals. Australia embarked on a campaign of ‘protection’
People were forcibly removed to missions (run of the ‘natives’. British policy established the
by churches) and reserves (run by governments). protectorate system in Australia, which, though
Authorities treated Aboriginals as if they were intended for good, became a mechanism to ‘control
children. They changed people’s names and decided the Aboriginal pest’ and keep Aboriginals physically
if, who and when they could marry. They totally removed from their own land. The laws gave so-
controlled their employment and wages—they called ‘protectors’ and ‘assistant protectors’ vast
determined whether or not Aboriginal people were powers over the lives of Aboriginal people. Private
to be paid, and how much, and put their wages into citizens, government employees, humanitarians,
bank accounts controlled by white administrators. clergymen, missionaries and, ominously, policemen
Most often Aboriginals never saw their money at were chosen for these positions.
all. By law, Aboriginals were not permitted even to Experiences such as mental and physical
leave missions and reserves. If caught attempting to deprivation and torture, and the indignity of
do so they were severely punished. being made a ward of the state, are within living
Segregation/protection was a deliberate attempt memory of many Aboriginals who lived under
to destroy Aboriginal people’s spirituality and their such ‘protection’. Some describe it as intended
religious links to the land. It shattered their kinship extermination.
FIG. 9.8 Maloga Mission Station, Moama

Vi Stanton, one of the Stolen Generations, that the protectorate system was an abysmal failure.
remembers: In the end, the Australian protectorate system was
abandoned. Aboriginal people were ‘on their own’.
You had virtually no freedoms whatsoever. It was put
out in the 1950s that if you dared identify yourself activities
as an Aborigine you would come under the Protector
1. Why were Aboriginal people removed from their
of Aboriginals. It’s invidious, but people thought they
land and community to be settled in missions or
were being protected! Do you know what protection
reserves?
was? The police would go into your home … into
2. ‘ The separation had a much stronger impact on
a tribal or non-tribal Aboriginal’s home without a
Aboriginal people because the authorities and
warrant and search it any time they felt like it. And
missionaries did not understand the Aboriginal
the police used this to extend where in 1968 I had
relationship to their land and kinship groups.’
to tape a conversation between a policeman and a
Discuss this statement and offer suggestions as to
woman and threaten police with it.
how or why this occurred.
(Gilbert, 1997, pp.8–9)
3. What was the ‘protectorate system’, and did it fail
And Elizabeth Pearce recalls: or succeed?
4. Create an oral presentation which explains the
Everyone who elected to come out from this ordinance meaning of the term ‘Stolen Generations’.
of the time was not, in future, to claim they were
Aboriginals. Therefore they were no longer to be
protected. They were virtually free. Now my father and Assimilation
others who had some dignity refused to be ‘protected’. On 1 January 1901, the Commonwealth of Australia
The authorities to this day say to tribal people that Constitution Act 1900 came into force. Aboriginal
when the choice was given to such people—that’s people were never asked about their opinions on
us—that we chose not to be known as Aboriginals. It’s the matter, were never included in the vote and,
not true! They were saying that for their own purposes! indeed, were not included in the nation itself.
It was all caused by that repressive ordinance! Section 127 of the Australian Constitution excluded
(Gilbert, 1997, p.9) ‘Aboriginal natives’ from being counted in any
population figures. Aboriginal people had been part
Thus, segregation/protection was simply an of the land from time immemorial, yet they were
exercise in semantics. Aboriginals continued to specifically and explicitly excluded from the text of
suffer injustice—in many cases at the hands of their the Federation document.
‘protectors’. Certain protectors did do some good; The high ideals of egalitarianism had clashed
nevertheless, overwhelming evidence makes it clear with the harsh realities of so-called ‘frontier
life’. Aboriginals were not dying out as had been
FIG. 9.9 Aboriginal children in missions and settlements were predicted, and the economic burden of protection
made to dress, talk and act like ‘white’ children. was ever increasing. The Australian government
and the churches began to look for scapegoats.
Neither could seem to ‘solve’ the ‘native problem’,
and racism led white Australians to blame the
Aboriginals themselves.
After Federation the Australian government
completely reversed its position on Aboriginals again
and moved from segregation/protection to developing
national practices and policies of ‘assimilation’.
Assimilation began as theory and practice
and later became formal state and federal policy
(adopted in 1961). That year the Native Welfare
Conference of federal and state ministers defined
assimilation this way:

… all Aborigines and part-Aborigines are expected Self-determination
eventually to attain the same manner of living as The most recent trend in Aboriginal administration
other Australians and to live as members of a single is the concept of Aboriginal self-determination.
Australia community, enjoying the same rights In this Aboriginals are supposed to be able to
and privileges, accepting the same responsibilities, determine and control their own business.
observing the same customs and influenced by the In 1973, the Australian states agreed to transfer
same beliefs and hopes as other Australians. their policy-making and coordinating functions in
(Native Welfare Conference, 1961) Aboriginal affairs to the Commonwealth. This led
to the development of several government agencies
Assimilation did not recognise Aboriginals as for Aboriginal self-determination, including the
the continent’s Indigenous people bearing inherent National Aboriginal Council, the Aboriginal
rights. Supported strongly by the church, the policy Development Commission, various ministries,
of assimilation theoretically worked towards the departments and state offices of Aboriginal
goal of ‘one nation’, whereby all nationalities and affairs, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
races in Australia would see themselves as one Commission, and the Council for Aboriginal
people. Assimilation was supposed to establish Reconciliation. These have, in turn, developed
true justice for all people of the country. In reality, government programs for Aboriginals, including
however, assimilation practices and policies showed the Training for Aboriginals Program, the Aboriginal
Enterprise Incentive Scheme and the Community
… a clear intent to eliminate the Aborigines as Development Employment Program.
an independent race and culture … [without] In fact, however, self-determination is dictated
any possibility of the Aborigines being allowed to to Aboriginal people by Australian government
develop as a community within Australian society, policy and practice. Commonwealth government
sharing the wealth of that society. coordination of Aboriginal affairs began an era of
(World Council of Churches, 1971, p.26) Commonwealth control of Aboriginal interests
via grants and other direct and indirect financial
To some people the words may have sounded like manipulation of Aboriginal communities.
justice, but to many Aboriginals they sounded like Many Aboriginal people still feel that Australian
cultural genocide all over again. If the black-skinned government (and social) understandings of
race could not be destroyed or separated off, then they Aboriginal self-determination are flawed. Even
might just be absorbed. Assimilation, then, became the after the death of the terra nullius myth, these
driving socio-political force in Australia and held sway understandings do not admit a true and full
throughout much of the 20th century. Aboriginal sovereignty—in law, politics, society,
Some believe that assimilation still strongly economics, culture or religion.
influences white attitudes towards Aboriginals In summary, the impact of European contact
today. Although it is no longer the official policy has been destructive to Aboriginal religious beliefs,
of Australian governments, it is still the ‘official systems and society. Yet Aboriginal people have
attitude’—and the social ideal against which transcended this oppression through the strength
Aboriginal people are judged. Assimilation remains and continuity of their beliefs.
the ‘unofficial’ policy, and at times the hidden
agenda, according to which white society determines activities
its interaction with the Indigenous people.
1. What was the impact of the Commonwealth
government taking control of Aboriginal affairs?
activities
2. Were its objectives met in the eyes of the
1. What was the policy of Aboriginal assimilation? Aboriginal people? Why or why not?
2. Was it effective for those groups of people 3. What is the policy of ‘self-determination’? Is it
involved: Aboriginals, politicians, church leaders? more effective than past policies? (You may need
3. By forming small groups, debate the difference to research this question further before answering,
between ‘official policy’ and ‘official attitude’ in or keep it in mind until the last section of this
respect to Aboriginal affairs. chapter and re-answer it.)

FIG. 9.10 Aboriginal and Anglo- Australians with Aboriginal flags at a protest march over
Aboriginal land rights
The land rights and native title movement

Aboriginal religion is based on land. Land is the heart of Aboriginal
Dreaming and provides the assurance needed for the continuation
of rituals and ceremonies. All relationships within Aboriginal
communities are determined through relationships to land. Aboriginals
live their lives being at one with the land, and land must be made
secure for Aboriginals so that their religious beliefs, tradition, languages
and culture will be preserved.
Because Aboriginal people are so passionate about their relationship
to their land, and because their identity, life and spirit are bound up
in it, they actively share and pass on to future generations this deep
spiritual relationship with the land. So the struggle of land rights is a
struggle that will continue into the future.
The untold story

The Aboriginal land rights movement is a religio-political movement
that seeks to secure the inherent rights of Aboriginals to their land,
and to ensure that their religious, spiritual and cultural integrity is
preserved.
From the beginning of the European invasion of Australia in the
late 1700s, Aboriginal people have been fighting for their land. At
first this was through direct, active resistance and so-called ‘frontier
wars’. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, Aboriginal resistance
was expressed less directly but no less actively. During the reign of the
assimilation policy, resistance often took the form of non-cooperation
and passive resistance (for example, in the missions and reserves); basic
community initiatives (for example, the 1938 Day of Mourning); and
strikes (for example, the 1946 Pilbara pastoral strike). More recently,
Aboriginal resistance has taken the form of national and international
action in support of land rights (for example, the 1988 March for
Justice, Freedom and Hope, and many delegations to the United
Nations). Aboriginals have thus been able to challenge the legal and
legislative bases of terra nullius.

FIG. 9.11 Prime Minister Gough
Whitlam talks to Aboriginal people
at the Aboriginal Tent Embassy
outside Parliament House, Canberra.
Four examples show the Aboriginal resolve in this regard.

1. In 1884, in Queensland, the Kalkadoons came to prominence in
colonial Australia—not because they were massacred, but because they
fought a pitched battle against the white Europeans at what is today
remembered as Battle Mountain. Contrary to passively accepting their
fate, a force of about 600 Kalkadoons fought to the last man. They
gained notoriety in white eyes for their fierce resistance but have been
remembered by Aboriginals as heroic.
2. On 26 January 1938 Aboriginal people in New South Wales took
the unheard-of steps of publishing a strong manifesto entitled
Aborigines Claim Citizen Rights, and of holding a public Aboriginal
Conference and Day of Mourning and Protest in Sydney. They
followed this up with a delegation that presented a ten-point plan
for Aboriginal equality to the Prime Minister. Though they did not
gain much positive action, the events generated significant public
and media interest.
3. On 1 May 1946 some 800 Aboriginal pastoral workers took the
unprecedented step of walking off a white station on strike in the
north-western Pilbara region of Western Australia. The strike lasted
until August 1949 and made it abundantly clear that the pastoral
industry indeed was dependent upon Aboriginal labour.
4. In 1972 Aboriginal people established the Aboriginal Tent Embassy
in Canberra. This became a focal point for Aboriginal protest against
denial of rights, abysmal living conditions and political inaction in
Aboriginal affairs by both federal and state governments. This original
tent embassy was taken down, violently, in full view of the national
press, an action that created an international furore. Twenty years
later, in January 1992, Aboriginals took over the old Parliament House
building in Canberra in order to commemorate the establishment
of the first tent embassy. A ‘Declaration of Aboriginal Sovereignty’
was presented to the federal Minister for Aboriginal Affairs, and a
few hours later all protesters were thrown out by Federal Police. Four
Aboriginals were arrested, laying the groundwork for subsequent
appeals to the Australian High Court and the International Court of
Justice in The Hague.

Land rights struggles Native title
In the 1950s the Aboriginal struggle for justice In June 1992 Aboriginal people finally won a
became heavily focused on land rights. Since then case in this area of law. Ten years earlier, five
Aboriginals have taken many actions, both against Indigenous plaintiffs from the Murray Islands in
governments and in the courts. Not surprisingly, the Torres Strait, off the northern tip of Australia,
until 1992 all of these actions were unsuccessful set in motion what has become one of the most
in law. significant legal challenges to the Australian nation-
In 1963 the people of Yirrkala, on the Gove state. These plaintiffs
Peninsula in north-east Arnhem Land, sent a bark
petition to the Federal Parliament. The petition … brought an action against the State of Queensland
was ignored, and a church-backed multinational for declarations that the Meriam people were entitled
corporation began massive bauxite mining to the Islands as owners, possessors, occupiers or
operations that desecrated the traditional lands of as persons entitled to use and enjoy the Islands …
the Yolngu people. Unbelievably, things got worse. and that the State of Queensland was not entitled to
‘In 1971 the Northern Territory Supreme Court extinguish the title of the Meriam people.
determined that the Yolngu had no legal rights to (Mabo v Queensland [No 2], 1992, 175 CLR 1)
their traditional land’ (Reynolds, 1989, p.86).
During the previous year the Aborigines In a landmark judgment known as the Native
Advancement League had sent a petition to the Title (Mabo) Judgment (from Mabo et al. v.
Secretary-General of the United Nations, requesting Queensland)—notably not unanimous—the High
that the body use its powers to uphold Aboriginal Court of Australia declared: ‘the Meriam people are
rights to land. This plea, too, went unheeded. entitled as against the whole world to possession,
Since direct appeal was failing, Aboriginals occupation, use and enjoyment of the lands of the
began to try their hand in the High Court of Murray Islands’ (Mabo v Queensland [No 2], 1992, 175
Australia. Until very recently, they gained nothing CLR 1). Further, the judgment by Justice Brennan
but frustration. For example, in 1971 the Yolngu indicated that continued adherence to terra nullius
people took their concerns to the High Court in the constituted a perpetuation of injustice. In other
landmark case Milirrpum v. Nabalco, but were denied words, the Australian High Court finally admitted
justice. In 1978 Aboriginals from the southern that terra nullius was dead, and that British claims
part of the country returned to the High Court in to sovereignty did not extinguish Aboriginal native
Coe v. Commonwealth, but again were defeated. In title to the land.
1982, in Koowarta v. Bjelke-Petersen, Aboriginals The Native Title Act 1993 is the legislation that
made a historic gain in law that, nevertheless, was recognised the existence of Aboriginal native title
limited in its impact and did not yield title for the in Australian federal law and the native title rights
traditional owners. Indeed, until 1992, every major of Aboriginal people. The act came into force on
case saw substantive defeat for Indigenous people. 1 January 1994.
activities
1. What is meant by ‘the land is the heart of
Aboriginal Dreaming’ and why would this have an
impact on land rights issues?
2. Why are land rights considered by Aboriginal
people to be an important part of their future?
3. What is meant by the phrase ‘the land rights
movement is a religio-political movement’?
4. Research examples of actions by Aboriginal people
to regain their land rights. Have these been violent?
Have they been successful? Why or why not?
FIG. 9.12 Eddie Mabo and members of Mabo legal team

The Native Title Act has many provisions that in another landmark judgment known as the Wik
have led to positive outcomes for Aboriginal Decision (from Wik Peoples v. Queensland), the High
people. For example, the Act established a National Court determined that native title may coexist with
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Land Fund for pastoral leases, and that, where there is conflict
the purpose of enabling dispossessed Aboriginal between the two, pastoralists’ rights will prevail.
people (those who would not benefit from the This decision did not determine whether or not
Act) to acquire land. The Act also established the native title exists over the pastoral leases, but it did
National Native Title Tribunal, which since its allow the Wik and Thayorre peoples to continue
formation has received almost 500 claims from their legal claim for native title in the Federal Court,
Aboriginal peoples around the country. The Act and it did highlight the importance of negotiation
has provisions for ‘Regional Agreements’ in which with Aboriginal people.
native title claimants, native title representative Sadly, the Wik Decision is also under attack. In
bodies and industry groups (such as pastoralists or 1997, Prime Minister John Howard proposed a ten-
miners) can negotiate with each other and come point plan that would severely undermine not only
to a generally accepted agreement about use and the gains made by the Wik Decision but also the
management of land. One such negotiation, the Native Title Act itself. The plan was widely opposed
Cape York Land Use Agreement, has been hailed by all sides.
as an excellent model for the future of what can The Native Title Judgment, the Native Title
be achieved between Aboriginal traditional land Act and the Wik Decision are only the first steps
owners and pastoralists. towards addressing the injustices of over 200 years
There are major problems, however, with both of European subjection of Aboriginal people. They
the Native Title Judgment and the Native Title show a fundamental change in the way that the
Act. Both recognise the rights of Aboriginals, but native title rights of Australia’s Aboriginal people
both focus exclusively on traditional people. That interact with Australia law. However, Aboriginal
is, both will affect only about 3–4 per cent of the people still struggle for more than words on paper.
total Aboriginal population. Further, within that They require the enactment of visible justice, where
small percentage, the ‘rights’ are limited to an even Aboriginal people have a pride of place and heritage
smaller segment that can show a direct ongoing that can be shared as well as respected.
connection (based on Aboriginal tradition, custom The Aboriginal struggle for land rights, which
or Law) with a parcel of vacant crown land. Also, runs in conjunction with the Native Title Judgment,
neither the Native Title Judgment nor the Native the Native Title Act and the Wik Decision, could
Title Act resolves the issue of continuing coexistence be a catalyst for full and proper recognition of the
of native title and pastoral leases. rights of Australia’s Aboriginal peoples to land and
Even worse, problematic as it might be, the Native social justice. They may secure land, which in the
Title Act is under attack. In 1996, the Australian long run may contribute to the continuation of
government proposed complicated amendments to Aboriginal traditions, languages and cultures—and
the Act, virtually all of which weaken it. One of the therefore Aboriginal religion and spirituality.
amendments, for example, severely restricts—and in
some cases removes—the right of Aboriginal people activities
to negotiate. Beyond weakening the Act, many
1. Why are the Native Title (Mabo) Judgment and the
of the proposed amendments breach the Radical
Wik Decision so important to Aboriginal people?
Discrimination Act 1975, as well as several other
international treaties to which Australia is a signatory. 2. Outline the importance of the Native Title Act
One year after the Native Title Judgment, 1993. Has it been effective?
another important case came into play. In June 3. Has the legislation actually changed the lives of
1993, the Wik peoples (later joined by the Thayorre Aboriginal people?
people) claimed native title in the Australian 4. ‘Many Aboriginal people do not have the
Federal Court over some of their traditional lands same basic human rights as white people in
on the Cape York Peninsula in Queensland—land Australia.’ Research this statement, outlining any
that contained two pastoral leases granted by the government programs to redress this situation.
government of Queensland. In December 1996,

Legacies of Australian Prime Ministers The High Court’s Native Title Judgment, which
Beginning from 1992, Aboriginal Australia has discarded the myth of terra nullius, and Keating’s
experienced a range of political leadership. The public acknowledgment in December 1992 of white
character of each Australian Prime Minister since guilt in the dispossession and murder of Aboriginal
then (Paul Keating, John Howard and Kevin Rudd) people (‘The Redfern Statement’), raised a storm
has differed dramatically and their impact will have of controversy and uncovered shocking displays
a lasting legacy. of racism. Fearmongering, along with omissions
and distortions of fact, were the order of the day.
Paul Keating Nevertheless, the Native Title Judgment became law.
From an Aboriginal point of view, Paul Keating
was one of the few Prime Ministers who proved John Howard
to be a man of his word and a man of moral In 1996 Australia elected a new Prime Minister,
integrity. Aboriginal people held him in high regard John Howard. He was a very different kind of
because of his courage in challenging Australian leader from his predecessor. Under the Howard
attitudes and the untruths about Aboriginal history. Government, Aboriginal people experienced harsh
Indigenous people found his leadership to be bold, outcomes and lost basic human rights and elected
courageous and heart-felt. representation. The gains of the Mabo Judgment
were undermined to the point where Aboriginal
people soon realised that they had native title in
name only. Howard also refused to say ‘sorry’ to
Aboriginal people for past atrocities, an action
that Aboriginal people felt would have enabled
the Australian people to move closer towards
reconciliation. He spent the rest of his time as Prime
Minister fending off questions about his inability to
apologise to Aboriginal Australia.
On 30 June 2005, Howard abolished the national
peak representative body known as the Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander Commission (ATSIC)—
even though the recommendation of a review
into ATSIC was not to abolish it. Now Aboriginal
people found themselves without a voice and
without representation at the national level. With
no one to speak, advocate or lobby for their rights,
they found themselves further removed from the
decision-making table.
On 21 June 2007 the Howard Government
announced the Northern Territory Emergency
Response (NTER) to Aboriginal communities.
The aims of NTER were to protect Aboriginal
children and make Aboriginal communities
safe. The intervention was intended to create a
better future for Aboriginal communities in the
Northern Territory in the long term. However,
for the purposes of the NTER, the operation of
the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 was suspended
and the protection of anti-discrimination law in
the Northern Territory was removed. Aboriginal
people all across Australia protested against
the intervention as a racist policy that debased
FIG. 9.13 Paul Keating’s speech at Redfern, December 1992 Aboriginal people’s human rights.

‘ On 13 February
2008, new Prime
Minister Kevin
Rudd apologised
to the Stolen
Generations.
’
FIG. 9.14 People in the rural NSW town of Kempsey on the day that Prime Minister
Kevin Rudd delivered an apology on behalf of Parliament for the injustices visited on
the Aboriginal Stolen Generations
Kevin Rudd
activities
On 13 February 2008, new Prime Minister Kevin Rudd apologised to
the Stolen Generations. The Apology was received by Aboriginal people 1. One of the key instruments of
with warmth, along with tears for those who had not lived long enough change for Aboriginal people
to hear it. Many Aboriginal people were consumed with thoughts of is politics, and one of the key
sadness for both those who had died and those who still had to live with leaders of change in politics is
deep scars of physical and emotional abuse. Rudd invited the Federal the Prime Minister. What have
Opposition to cooperate in a bipartisan approach to addressing the recent political leaders been able
centuries of disadvantage faced by Aboriginal people. to achieve for Aboriginal people?
In 2008 the Rudd Government also set up an independent review 2. The Rudd government’s Apology
of the Northern Territory Emergency Response (NTER) initiated by the on behalf of all Australians was
previous government. The review’s report was critical of the suspension a key event in Aboriginal and
of the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 and recommended that it be white Australian history. Read
reinstated. However, the report did not recommend that the NTER be the speeches by the Prime
stopped. Minister and the Opposition
Also in 2008 the Rudd Government established national consultations leader and outline the key points
with Aboriginal people to discuss their views and input on the possible both were making. How well do
establishment of another Aboriginal peak body in place of ATSIC. you think these speeches were
Thousands of Aboriginal people wrote submissions, seeking the received by Aboriginal people
establishment of another such body and providing thoughts on its and Australians generally?
possible role and structure. Awaiting the government’s response with 3. Research the events that have
anticipation, Aboriginal people nonetheless felt that only time would occurred since the Apology that
tell whether it would be able to provide the leadership required to tackle have improved, or potentially
Aboriginal disadvantage. will improve, Aboriginal land
rights and the standard of living
of Aboriginal people.

Religious expression in Australia—
1945 to the present
The changing pattern of religious adherence
Census data
A question on religious affiliation has been asked in
every census taken in Australia, with the voluntary activities
nature of this question being specifically stated since Questions on census data
1933. In 1971 the instruction ‘if no religion, write in Table 1: Major religious
none’ was introduced. This saw a seven-fold increase affiliations, 1901–2006.
from the previous census year in the proportion 1. In 1947 what was the
of people stating they had no religion. Since 1971 this proportion has Anglican Church still being
progressively increased to about 19% in 2006. Table 9.1 provides a summary referred to as?
of the major religious affiliations at each census since 1901.
2. In what year were there 10
percentage points difference
TABLE 9.1 Major religious affiliations, 1901–2006
between Anglican and
Christianity Other No Not Total Catholic affiliation?
religions religion stated/
Anglican Catholic Other Total 3. What is notable about the
inad-
equately Anglican and Catholic figures
described in 1986?
Census % % % % % % % ‘000 4. In which year did the total
year number of people responding
1901 39.7 22.7 33.7 96.1 1.4 0.4 2.0 3 773.8 to the census number
1911 38.4 22.4 35.1 95.9 0.8 0.4 2.9 4 455.0 17 753 800?
1921 43.7 21.7 31.6 96.9 0.7 0.5 1.9 5 435.7 5. Describe the difference in the
1933 38.7 19.6 28.1 86.4 0.4 0.2 12.9 6 629.8
‘other’ religious affiliations
between 1947 and 2006.
1947 39.0 20.9 28.1 88.0 0.5 0.3 11.1 7 579.4
6. Explain the increase in
1954 37.9 22.9 28.5 89.4 0.6 0.3 9.7 8 986.5
percentage points in the ‘no
1961 34.9 24.9 28.4 88.3 0.7 0.4 10.7 10 508.2
religion’ category.
1966 33.5 26.2 28.5 88.2 0.7 0.8 10.3 11 599.5
7. Describe the pattern of
1971 31.0 27.0 28.2 86.2 0.8 6.7 6.2 12 755.6 religious affiliation in the
1976 27.7 25.7 25.2 78.6 1.0 8.3 11.4 13 548.4 category ‘other’ between 1947
1981 26.1 26.0 24.3 76.4 1.4 10.8 11.4 14 576.3 and 2006.
1986 23.9 26.0 23.0 73.0 2.0 12.7 12.4 15 602.2 8. Why do you think people
1991 23.8 27.3 22.9 74.0 2.6 12.9 10.5 16 850.3
‘object to state’ their religious
affiliation?
1996 22.0 27.0 21.9 70.9 3.5 16.6 9.0 17 752.8
9. What are the most significant
2001 20.7 26.6 20.7 68.0 4.9 15.5 11.7 18 769.2
changes in religious affiliation
2006 18.7 25.8 19.3 63.9 5.6 18.7 11.9 19 855.3
between 1947 and 2006?
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006 Census of Population and Housing.

TABLE 9.2 Change in religious affiliations, 1996–2006
1996 2006 Growth
1996–2006
Religion ‘000 % ‘000 % %
Christianity 12 582.8 70.9 12 685.8 63.9 0.8
Catholic 4 799.0 27.0 5 126.9 25.8 6.8
Anglican 3 903.3 22.0 3 718.2 18.7 -4.7
Uniting Church 1 334.9 7.5 1 135.4 5.7 -14.9
Presbyterian and Reformed 675.5 3.8 596.7 3.0 -11.7
Eastern Orthodox 497.0 2.8 544.2 2.7 9.5
Baptist 295.2 1.7 316.7 1.6 7.3
Lutheran 250.0 1.4 251.1 1.3 0.4
Pentecostal 174.7 1.0 219.7 1.1 25.7
Other Christian 653.1 3.7 776.9 3.9 19.0
Non-Christian 616.4 3.5 1 105.1 5.6 79.3
Buddhism 199.8 1.1 418.8 2.1 109.6
Islam 200.9 1.1 340.4 1.7 69.4
Hinduism 67.3 0.4 148.1 0.7 120.2
Judaism 79.8 0.4 88.8 0.4 11.3
Other Non-Christian 68.6 0.4 109.0 0.5 58.8
Inadequately described 54.2 0.3 133.8 0.7 147.1
No religion 2 948.9 16.6 3 706.6 18.7 25.7
Not stated 1 550.6 8.7 2 224.0 11.2 43.4
Total 17 752.8 100.0 19 855.3 100.0 11.8
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006 Census
activities
Questions on data in Table 9.2: Change in religious affiliations, 1996–2006.
1. What does it mean when there is a negative growth rate?
2. Identify the denominations of Christianity that remained constant between 1996 and 2006 (that is, those
that have changed between 0 and 0.1 percentage points).
3. Is there anything that surprises you here?
4. Give three examples of ‘Other Christian’ religions.
5. What denominations do you think might be included under ‘Eastern Orthodox’?
6. Explain the percentage increase in ‘Non-Christian’ traditions between 1996 and 2006.
7. Why do you think Buddhism has increased more than Islam?
8. Give three examples of ‘Other Non-Christian’ religions.
9. How can the Lutherans decrease in percentage points between 1996 and 2006 but still show a positive
growth?
10. Write a paragraph to describe the changes in religious affiliation of ‘Non-Christian’ religions between 1996
and 2006.

TABLE 9.3 2006 Census—Religious affiliations by state/territory
NSW Vic Qld SA WA Tas NT ACT Total persons
Religion % % % % % % % % ‘000
Christianity 67.7 60.5 66.3 59.8 59.3 64.2 54.6 60.2 12 685.8
Buddhism 2.6 2.7 1.2 1.5 1.8 0.5 1.5 2.2 418.8
Hinduism 1.1 0.9 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.3 1.0 148.1
Judaism 0.6 0.8 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.0 0.1 0.2 88.8
Islam 2.6 2.2 0.5 0.7 1.2 0.2 0.6 1.3 340.4
Other religions 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.4 2.0 0.7 109.0
Inadequately described 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.8 133.8
No Religion 14.3 20.4 18.6 24.2 22.9 21.5 23.1 23.4 3 706.6
Not stated 10.1 11.2 11.7 12.0 12.8 12.2 17.1 10.2 2 224.0
Total persons (‘000) 6 549.2 4 932.4 3 904.5 1 514.3 1 959.1 476.5 192.9 324.0 19 855.3
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006 Census.
• Christianity remained the dominant religion in Australia, although

non-Christian religions continued to grow at a much faster rate.
Since 1996, the number of people reporting that they are Christian
grew from around 12.6 million to 12.7 million, but as a proportion
of the total population this number fell (from 71% to 64%). Over the
same period, those affiliated with non-Christian faiths increased from
around 0.6 million to 1.1 million people, and collectively accounted
for 5.6% of the total population in 2006 (up from 3.5% in 1996).
• Australia’s three most common non-Christian religious affiliations
were Buddhism (2.1% of the population), Islam (1.7%) and
Hinduism (0.7%). Of these groups, Hinduism experienced the fastest
proportional growth since 1996, more than doubling to 150 000,
followed by Buddhism, which doubled to 420 000.
• People affiliated with the main non-Christian religions were
clustered in Sydney and Melbourne. In 2006, 47% of Hindus and
47% of those affiliated with Islam lived in Sydney. Around 46% of
Australians affiliated with Judaism lived in Melbourne. Similarly, the
most common locations of people affiliated with Buddhism were in
Sydney (37%) and Melbourne (30%).
Source: ABS 2006 Census
activities
Questions on data in Table 9.3: 2006 Census—Religious affiliations by state/
territory.
1. What do you think is meant by the category ‘inadequately described’?
2. Why do you think the figures for Judaism are higher in New South
Wales and Victoria than elsewhere?
3. Why do you think the Northern Territory has the greatest percentage of
‘Other Religions’?

The current religious landscape of An Australian Prayer Book by the national
governing body, the General Synod, in 1978. This
followed the publication of The Australian Hymn
Christianity as the major religious tradition Book in 1977, an initiative sponsored by five
in Australia Protestant denominations. The modernisation of
Though Australia is rapidly becoming a multi-faith the Anglican prayer book continued, amidst much
society, the majority religious affiliation is still controversy, culminating in the publication in 1995
strongly Christian, as can been seen in the census of A Prayer Book for Australia, notable features of
data presented above. The Anglican Church and the which are inclusive language, prayers for Aboriginal
Roman Catholic Church still hold the dominant reconciliation and the adoption of a broad range of
roles, numerically speaking. metaphors for describing God.
Although the Anglican Church still maintains In recent years the proportion of Anglicans has
ties to Britain, these have weakened considerably. A continued to decline. In 1981 Anglicans represented
new constitution passed in 1962 dissolved legal ties 26.1% of the Australian population, but by 2006
to Britain. This meant that the Church of England their presence declined to 18.7%. The Anglican
in Australia was now free to determine all matters Church no longer holds the greatest proportion of
of faith, worship and discipline for itself. In keeping Christian adherents. That place has now been taken
with the aims of independence, the Church of by the Roman Catholic Church, which in 2006 held
England in Australia changed its name in 1982, 25.8% of the population.
dropping the reference to England and calling itself The Australian Catholic community has changed
the Anglican Church of Australia. considerably from its Anglo-Celtic origins. From
Other efforts to forge a distinctly Australian its pre–Second World War percentage of 17.5% of
idiom among Anglicans resulted in the publication the Australian population, the post-war Catholic
community rose to 20.7 percent, with Europe
contributing many nationalities under the Catholic
banner, such as Croatians, Germans, Italians,
Spaniards and Maltese. In the roughly ten-year
period between 1975 and 1984, the migration
of Indo-Chinese refugees and migrants from the
Philippines brought a sizeable Asian contingent
into the Catholic Church. Over 30 ethnic groups
constitute the Catholic Church in Australia today.
The Catholic Church now claims the largest number
of adherents of all denominations in the Australian
religious landscape.
Among the Protestant churches is the relatively
newly formed Uniting Church in Australia, founded
in 1977. Initially the Uniting Church was made up
of Methodists, Presbyterians and Congregationalists.
Their unity made them the largest of the reformist
tradition of Protestantism in Australia. Now the
third largest Christian denomination in Australia,
the Uniting Church constitutes a significant voice
in the Australian religious landscape.
One of the consequences of union is the variety
of worship forms found in the Uniting Church,
from formal liturgical styles to informal and creative
forms of worship. Like its Anglican and Catholic
cousins, it uses a three-year lectionary, which
not only gives a sense of continuity within each
FIG. 9.15 Large Catholic cathedral in Melbourne

congregation but also a sense of relationship with other Christian
denominations.
Ministry in the Uniting Church recognises that both men and women
can be ‘called to preach the gospel’. The church is committed to issues
of social justice through its Board of Social Responsibility and a range of
agencies, projects, hospitals and senior citizens’ institutions.
Unlike most Christian churches in Australia, the Pentecostal churches
have shown significant growth, with 185 000 attending on a typical
Sunday. Organised around influential preachers and their individual
churches or groups of churches, Pentecostal Christianity is distinctive
for its profusion of churches. As a consequence there is a great tendency
for followers to ‘switch’ between churches. The practice of enthusiastic
prayer, the use of contemporary music, the staging of large stadium
events and the avoidance of formalised liturgy have made Pentecostal
churches particularly attractive to the younger generation.
Churches that belong to this tradition include the Assemblies of
God (which has well over 500 congregations), the Christian Revival
Crusade, the Foursquare Gospel Churches and the Christian and
Missionary Alliance. Further Pentecostal churches, many of which refer
to themselves as ‘community centres’, include Hills Christian Centre in
Baulkham Hills and the Christian Growth Centre in Sutherland, both
in New South Wales. Other Pentecostal groups include the Bethesda
Movement and Associated Christian Assemblies International.
The impact of immigration

We have already seen that the Christian church
in Australia is an immigrant church, with the
convict years contributing to both Catholic and
Anglican denominations. The arrival of people of
other religious traditions added to this Christian
expression of faith in the early years of the colony;
however, their numbers were relatively small and
had little impact on the overall religious landscape.
It wasn’t until the 1900s that this picture began to
show significant change.
In the space of a few short years, Turkish-born
Australians grew from 2475 in 1966 to ten times
that number in 1981. By 1986, the Muslim Turkish
population (including children born of Turkish
parents) was about 50 000. Muslim migrants also
came from Lebanon, particularly after civil war
began there in 1975. Although Lebanese Muslims
had already settled in south Sydney in the 1960s,
a significant number—about 1400—migrated to
FIG. 9.16 Mosque at Sunshine, in Melbourne Australia between 1975 and 1977. Currently there are approximately
35 000 Lebanese Muslims in Australia, of whom about 20 000 are Sunni,
11 000 Shi‘a, and 5000 Druze and Alawi Muslims.
Migrants from other Muslim countries such as Egypt, Iraq, Syria,
Jordan and Indonesia have also settled in Australia. The total Australian
Muslim population is composed of migrants from about 35 countries.

Buddhism
There has been a considerable increase in the
numbers of Buddhists immigrating to Australia since
the suspension of the ‘White Australia’ policy in
the mid-1960s. Before this, however, the Englishman
Leo Berkeley, a keen protagonist of Buddhism, had
migrated to Australia from London. The year was
1947. He soon formed a society for those interested
in Buddhism, holding lecture evenings with guest
speakers.
The year 1950 saw the founding of the World
Fellowship of Buddhists and the subsequent
Australian visit of the Buddhist nun Dhammadinna
(1881–1967), who came to spread Buddhist
teachings. An American convert, she gave impetus
to the formalisation of Berkeley’s society, which
was formally constituted as the Buddhist Society of FIG. 9.17 New Buddhist temple built by the Vietnamese
New South Wales on 4 May 1953. It continues to and Asian community in Australia
this day as the oldest Buddhist society in Australia.

A year later saw Buddhist societies being founded Census figures indicate that during the decade
in both Queensland and Victoria. The Buddhist 1981 to 1991, Buddhism was the fastest-growing
Federation of Australia was formed in 1958, taking religion in Australia, with an increase of over 100 000
over from the New South Wales society as the to nearly 140 000 people.
organisational member of the World Federation Today the Buddhist community in Australia
of Buddhists. is very diverse, with representatives from the
These early Western-based developments of Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana (Tibetan)
Buddhism stand in stark contrast to the later traditions as well as significant numbers of Zen and
expressions of Buddhism in Australia, which came Pure Land Buddhists. The popularity of the Dalai
on the back of immigrants. In 1973 all barriers to Lama has meant that Tibetan Buddhism has taken on
non-Europeans were finally removed and Australia a higher profile in Australia.
became attractive to Asian migrants. Currently there
are well over 200 000 ethnic Chinese in Australia, FIG. 9.18 Inside a Buddhist temple
drawn from several Asian countries including
China, Papua New Guinea, Singapore, Vietnam and
Malaysia. Many of the Chinese immigrants from
Hong Kong and Singapore, both previous British
colonies, tend to be Christian. The Vietnamese
account for the largest ethnic group of Buddhists in
Australia. Sri Lankans, Indians, Tibetans and Nepalis,
Thais, Burmese, Cambodians and Laotians are
represented in significant numbers among Australia’s
various Buddhist communities.
Indo-Chinese migrants began arriving in 1975.
There are over 35 000 Vietnamese Buddhists
in Australia, coming from both Theravada and
Mahayana traditions—the Mahayana followers
bringing their own monks and establishing their own
organisations. Smaller numbers have arrived from
Laos and Cambodia. These Theravada Buddhists have
tended to join already existing groups.

Judaism
After the Second World War, in which almost six
million Jews were killed by the Nazis throughout
Europe, Jewish survivors made their way to Israel
or Western countries such as Australia. Between
1945 and 1960 approximately 30 000 Jews arrived
from Europe (excluding Britain), joining the already
long-established Australian Jewish communities of
Melbourne and Sydney.
As a result of this wave of Jewish migration, the
Australian Jewish community has become one of the
more distinctive of the Jewish communities outside
Israel.
FIG. 9.19 Jewish temple in suburban Australia
Almost parallel to the European migration, Jews

from Egypt, Iraq, Iran and even India migrated to
Australia. This was mainly in the 1940s and 1950s.
These were Sephardi Jews who, unlike the European
Ashkenazi Jews, have an Arabic-Spanish tradition
of prayers, music and religio-cultural customs.
Some Sephardi Jews intermarried and integrated
with Ashkenazi Jews and adopted their tradition,
but many attempted to remain distinct, gathering
in their own synagogues in the cities of Sydney,
Melbourne and Perth.
Diversity and unity

As can be seen, contemporary Australia is becoming
increasingly diverse in its religious composition. The
presence of synagogues, Buddhist temples, Eastern
Orthodox churches, mosques and Hindu temples
has changed the Australian religious landscape,
diminishing in some areas the predominance of
Anglo-Celtic Christianity.
But the diversity has not developed without
resistance, at first officially through the ‘White
FIG. 9.20 Inside the Jewish synagogue above Australia’ policy and then in other unofficial ways
(such as protests against the building of mosques
and their associated schools, and notably against
the building of a largely underground Hindu temple
near Minto in New South Wales). But before it is
concluded that hostilities are the result of recent
migration, it should be remembered that conflict
has also been a significant feature of Catholic and
Protestant relations in Australia. Discriminatory
hiring policies were the norm before they were
widely rejected in the late 1960s and early
1970s and made illegal with the passing of anti-
discrimination legislation.

Sadly, it is at the times when as a nation Australians must try to come
to terms with tragedy that religious traditions show the world that unity
within diversity is possible.
Modern developments in Australian religion

Denominational switching
‘Denominational switching’ is one of several factors influencing the
face of Christianity in Australia today. The term is used to describe the
phenomenon of people changing from one denomination to another.
Although a feature of Christianity, as a process it can occur within or
across the boundaries of any religious tradition.
‘
Most commonly seen in Protestant churches, denominational
switching enables a person to find a spiritual ‘home’ where he or she … loyalty is to
feels most at ease with the style of worship and the views put forward parish first and
by the ministerial team of the parish. It can be likened to the concept of
shopping around for the best deal and is often poorly regarded by more denomination second,
conservative Protestants—unless, of course, it means welcoming a new especially among the
’
member into their congregation.
In order to visualise the effect of denominational switching, it is younger members.
necessary to look at the census data from the Australian Bureau of
Statistics (ABS). The National Church Life Survey (NCLS) regularly
produces its own material from extensive surveys of worshipping
Christians. Coupled together, these survey results give us a fairly accurate
picture of the religious landscape.
One of the facts learnt from these survey results is that in many cases
loyalty is to parish first and denomination second, especially among the
younger members. Leaving the churches of their parents, these people
are seeking places where the average age of congregations is younger,
the music modern and the message clear. Many seek Pentecostal or
charismatic churches to the detriment of the older and more traditional
congregations.
activity
Look up the ABS census data and describe the changes in adherents in the
different Protestant denominations. Can you find out the age breakdown for
these changes? By consulting National Church Life Survey information,
outline what you think may be the reasons for these changes.
The rise of New Age religions

It was the counterculture movement of the 1960s that opened the
way for the New Age movement, which can be described as ‘a loosely
structured network of individuals and organisations holding new visions of
enlightenment and harmony while subscribing to a common worldview’
(Ron Rhodes, New Age Movement [1995]). The counterculture movement
was a time when people became open to new ways of thinking and
doing. These were seen in people’s acceptance of new religious beliefs
and cosmologies. Hinduism and its different deities became popular,

FIG. 9.21 New Age
religions are usually
supportive of protection
for the environment.
prompting people to think again about the divine. Secularism

For example, many saw the countercultural way of There is a general trend in modern society to replace
life of the Hare Krishnas as appealing. religious belief and practice with other kinds of
Considerable diversity is found within the knowledge and activity, drawn largely from the
movement today, encompassing a great number secular disciplines of sociology, psychology and the
and variety of religious and secular philosophies. hard sciences.
Included are holistic health professionals, ecologists, Secularism is when religious perspectives
political activists, educators, human potential have been abandoned in favour of a more non-
advocates, goddess worshippers, reincarnationists, religious response to life’s questions. Many see it
astrologers and many others. as an abandonment of religion in order to move
‘New Agers’, as they are often referred to, have to a more hedonistic stance. Others see it as an
certain characteristics in common, such as the attempt to abandon attitudes that instil guilt in
belief that it is possible to draw the ‘truth’ from a the individual. Still others would see secularism
variety of sources. This often results in a syncretic as an option that excludes any form of religious
philosophy informing their worldview. Rather than adherence.
being exclusivist in their approach, New Agers tend Sociologist of religion J. M. Yinger points out
to be inclusive, with all reality being seen as both that secular philosophies such as Positivism with its
interrelated and interdependent. faith in science, Marxism with its faith in revolution
New Age spirituality is multifaceted, drawing on and Freudianism with its faith in psychoanalysis
Eastern meditation, altered states of consciousness, serve as secular alternatives to religion, not as
reincarnation, spiritualism and many other sources. religions in themselves. But he also points out
These spiritualities are affirming rather than guilt- that each only ever succeeds in providing a partial
laden. response to the question of the human condition.
Within this movement are the neo-pagans, Alternatively, there need not be anything
who have revived the paganism of old that rejected to replace a religious stance, but simply an
organised religion, male domination and the abuse abandonment of those concerns that the secularist
of nature. Like-minded people include goddess sees as restricting—perhaps almost in the sense of
worshippers, who seek the inner divinity that they reductionism, the abandonment of that which is
believe is present in everyone. no longer seen as relevant to the comfortable life in
modern-day society.
activity
Each year Sydney hosts the ‘Mind, Body, Spirit activities
Festival’. Find out when and where this is held. What 1. In your own words write a definition of
is the purpose of this festival? Is it correct to say it is ‘secularism’.
a celebration of New Age spiritualities? Explain your 2. Your friend does not take the subject ‘Studies of
response. Religion’ and is puzzled by your use of the term
‘secularism’. How would you explain it to them?

Religious dialogue in
multi-faith Australia
Ecumenism and ecumenical Milestones in the development of the
ecumenical movement
movements
1910 World Missionary Conference in
One of the significant features of post-war Edinburgh
Australian Christianity is its development 1921 Formation of the International Missionary
of ecumenism, stressing the common values Council
and teachings that prevail across the many 1925 Universal Christian Conference of Life
churches and denominations making up the and Work (Stockholm)
Christian world. 1927 World Conference on Faith and Order
(Lausanne)
The biblical justification for ecumenism 1948 First assembly of the World Council of
• The vision in John’s Gospel (17:21): ‘that Churches (Amsterdam) brings together
they may all be one … so that the world Protestants, Eastern Orthodox (including
may believe.’ Russian Orthodox) and Old Catholic
• God’s plan ‘for the fullness of time, to gather bodies
up all things in him [Christ], things in 1960 The Vatican formally recognises the
heaven and things on earth.’ existence of the ecumenical movement,
(Ephesians 1:10) establishing the Secretariat for Promoting
Christian Unity
1961 The World Council of Churches unites
Characteristics of ecumenism with the International Missionary
• the uniting of professing Christians of all Council
denominations 1962–65 Protestant and Eastern Orthodox
• cooperation across denominations observers are invited to the Second
• focus on things in common. Vatican Council
1964 The Second Vatican Council’s Decree on
Ecumenism encourages Catholic dialogue
Although the foundations of ecumenism with Protestant and Orthodox churches
were set in the early 1900s, it wasn’t until the 1966 Pope Paul VI meets with the Archbishop
formation of the World Council of Churches of Canterbury
in 1948 and the groundswell of the 1960s that 1968 Fourth Assembly of the World Council of
it became a movement within the Christian Churches sees Protestants, Orthodox and
church that drew people’s attention. Catholics working together
The Greek term oikoumene is synonymous 1969 Pope Paul VI visits World Council of
with the ecumenical movement. It is a word for Churches headquarters in Geneva
‘the whole inhabited earth’ and was first used 1995 Pope John Paul II’s encyclical Ut Unum
to mean ‘ecumenical’ in a statement from the Sint reaffirms the Roman Catholic
World Council of Churches in 1951. Church’s commitment to Christian
ecumenism
1999 Pope John Paul II becomes the first Pope
to visit Orthodox nations
1999 Catholics and Lutherans sign a
joint declaration on the doctrine of
justification, resolving some of the issues
that led up to the Reformation

[The word ‘ecumenical’] is properly used to describe everything that relates to
the whole task of the whole Church to bring the Gospel to the whole world. It
therefore covers … both Unity and Mission in the context of the whole world.
(World Council of Churches Central Committee, August 1951)
It is both a relational and dynamic concept, extending beyond the

fellowship of Christians and churches to the human community within
the whole of creation. It is the transformation of the inhabited earth
into the living household (oikos) of God, that remains the calling of the
ecumenical movement.
• The Catholic Church defined the term ‘ecumenical movement’ in its
Decree on Ecumenism (1961) as ‘the initiatives and activities planned
and undertaken … to promote Christian unity’.
• The Orthodox churches have been participants from the beginning
and talk about ‘ecumenism in time’—the rediscovery of the shared
history and ethos of all Christians. At the Third Assembly of the WCC
(World Council of Churches) in 1961 (New Delhi) they stated, ‘the
immediate objective of the ecumenical search is a reintegration of the
Christian mind, a recovery of the Apostolic Tradition, a fullness of
Christian vision and belief, in agreement with all ages’.
• The churches of the reformed traditions (e.g. the Dutch Reformed
Church and the Presbyterian Church) have professed no common
understanding of ecumenism. Some would define it as the external
relations between churches, others as the coming and being together
of churches, and still others the manifestation of Christian concern for
a world community in justice and peace.
• Modern examples of the ecumenical movement are:
the Taizé community in France
the formation of the Uniting Church in Australia
the Week of Prayer for Christian Unity.
The National Council of Churches in Australia

In Australia, state-based ecumenical councils as well as the National
Council of Churches in Australia (NCCA) seek to voice common concerns
to the government on issues that directly affect Christian life. In 1994
the Catholic Church joined the already strongly functioning Australian
Council of Churches and so the National Council of Churches in
Australia came into being.

Changing alliances—religion in Australia today
One of the best religious developments in Australia during the last half of
the 20th century is the growth of ecumenism, a growth in love, knowledge
and cooperation between the Christian Churches. Ecumenism has now
become so widely accepted and taken for granted that younger Christians—
people born after the 1960s—with their generally poor knowledge of history
are sometimes surprised to learn that dialogue and cooperation between
the different Christian denominations, between Catholics and Protestants,
between the Orthodox and Catholics is a relatively recent phenomenon,
the exception rather than the rule in the history of post-Reformation
Christianity, and indeed for most of the time since the 1054 rupture
between Rome and Constantinople …
The weekend news reports told us of the latest riots in Northern
Ireland between Protestants and Catholics. Indeed part of the Australian
achievement is that we are so different from Northern Ireland …
In 1984 I was in charge of a wonderful Irish-Australian parish in
western Victoria, where the Catholic majority lived in prefect harmony
with their non-Catholic neighbours, even if there was not always perfect activities
peace between the different constituent villages of the parish. That year
1. Look up the following
saw the first ever ecumenical service, held in the Anglican Church, which
New Testament references
was extremely well attended by both sides. One of the Catholic men
containing the word
mentioned to me that he had been to this Anglican Church only once
oikoumene (inhabited world).
before, as a child to stone its roof.
What can you learn about
These examples serve to remind us of how far we have come and how
oikoumene from them?
much has been achieved. Although it is impossible to imagine an about-
turn away from ecumenism they also serve as a caution against taking this • Luke 4:5–7
achievement too much for granted. • Luke 2:1
(Extracts from the Halifax-Portal Lecture, May 2002 • Acts 17:6
By Cardinal George Pell, Archbishop of Sydney)
• Revelation 16:14
• Hebrews 2:5
activity 2. Research the Taizé Movement
Read the above extracts from the 2002 Halifax-Portal Lecture. (The entire of France. Who was Brother
lecture can be found on the Archdiocese of Sydney website). Using Roger? What is the purpose
dot points, outline the major points that Cardinal Pell makes in this portion of the community? What
of his lecture. is the composition of the
community? Who visits the
community? How is the
The NSW Ecumenical Council liturgy of the community
The NSW Ecumenical Council is a network of 16 Christian churches structured? Why do they use
throughout New South Wales and the Australia Capital Territory. It aims Latin in many of their hymns
to promote the working together of Christian churches. The council and choruses?
works by three major principles: 3. Australian churches celebrate
1. to maintain ‘the unity of the Spirit in the bonds of peace’ the Week of Prayer for
(Ephesians 4:3) Christian Unity. What is it
2. to be committed to the gospel and to proclaiming it together and when is it held? Who
celebrates it and what are
3. to live out the implications of the gospel for service in the world.
some of the activities that are
The life of the NSW Ecumenical Council is centred on the unity and undertaken?
core truths of God in Jesus Christ.

Interfaith dialogue
Interfaith dialogue can no longer be the luxury of
a few. Positive relationships need to be established
among the religious traditions themselves. Such
dialogue must become the catalyst for personal,
social and cultural transformation. FIG 9.22 Muslims visiting a Jewish synagogue to establish
Catholic theologian Dr Gerard Hall SM states a positive relationship between the two traditions
eight facts as to why interfaith dialogue is essential.

an open dialogue with other faiths bore fruit in
1. We live in a postmodern world in the sense that 1992 with its Guidelines for Catholic–Jewish Relations,
no single religion, culture, system or ideology has produced under the auspices of the Bishops’
any convincing claim to be the one voice of truth. Committee for Ecumenical and Interfaith Relations of
2. We live in a democracy so that everyone has the the Australian Catholic Bishops Conference.
right to present and defend his/her own system The establishment in 1991 of the Australian
of beliefs and practices—even if we consider Council of Christians and Jews has also fostered
these to be inferior or in error. understanding between Christians and Jews and has
3. We live in a secular society which is, at best, countered anti-Semitism. One of the council’s most
ambivalent about the role of religion—especially significant achievements is its formulation of a set of
organised religion—in politics and the affairs of guidelines for Christian teachers and preachers that
state. is intended to help them deal more sensitively with
4. We live in a global world in which our national various passages in the New Testament that have
identities in no way preclude our responsibilities traditionally been used against Jews and Judaism.
for the well-being of all humanity and the one Entitled Rightly Explaining the Word of Truth, the
earth we share. guidelines were developed with the cooperation
5. We are yet to grasp the full reality that Australia of the heads of the Anglican, Roman Catholic
is a pluralistic, multicultural, multi-religious and Uniting Churches, as well as other Christian
society in which dialogue among people of denominations such as the Lutheran Church.
different traditions and with indigenous peoples is Other independent interfaith associations have
a requirement of social cohesion. emerged in Australia, the best known being the
6. Spirituality, truth and goodness are not the World Council on Religion and Peace (WCRP)
domain of religion alone so that the religions composed of representatives from the major
need to be open to dialogue with indigenous, religious traditions. The WCRP was the major
secular and non-religious voices. recipient of a 1995 federal government grant in
7. The religious traditions have a particular honour of the United Nations’ ‘Year of Tolerance’.
responsibility in promoting strategies that enable Occasional resistance to other faith traditions
dignity and justice for Australia’s first peoples and is part of the reality of religiously diverse societies,
other marginalised groups (including more recent but the predominant trend in Australia is a ‘live and
victims of governmental policy such as refugees, let live’ ethic. In some cases a profound interest in
asylum seekers and the mentally ill). learning about other groups is evident.
8. Finally, dialogue is rooted in the nature
and dignity of the human person and is ‘an activity
indispensable step along the path towards
Internet research: Read the paper by Gerard Hall SM
human self-realisation … both of each
(‘The call to interfaith dialogue’, Australian EJournal
individual and of every human community’ [Ut
of Theology, Issue 5, August 2005 [available online
Unum Sint, n. 28].
]). Select ten points that you think aid in the
understanding of interfaith dialogue. Compare these
An example of interfaith dialogue
with the points other students in your class have
Dialogue between Christian groups is complemented
selected and as a class make a list of the ten most
by dialogue between religious traditions. For example,
important points.
the Catholic Church’s commitment to maintaining

Aboriginal spiritualities and
religious traditions in the process of
reconciliation
Aboriginal theology offers a vast spectrum of styles,

‘ The history of contact between
Aboriginal and Western cultures
is full of racism, classism, sexism
ranging from the ‘traditional’ (or non-Western) to and other forms of colonial,
the ‘Aboriginal’ (or post-Western). Each of these
expansionist oppression—with
reflects a differing measure of ‘encounter’ with
European missions and theologies, and each has its the Aboriginal people bearing the
’
own characteristics, limitations and contributions.
brunt of the violence.
Western Christianity’s impact on Aboriginal
society In this vein, it is important to know that
The history of the encounter between traditional Aboriginals have never been given the critical
Aboriginal religion and Western Christian mission tools to understand the Christian Bible fully. From
theology provides a framework for understanding the very first missions to later, more organised
how the various forms of Aboriginal theology are denominational initiatives, the Australian churches
expressed today. ‘read-out’ the meaning of the text of the Bible in a
The history of contact between Aboriginal way that distorted more than just the words. The
and Western cultures is full of racism, classism, churches had the benefit of thousands of years of
sexism and other forms of colonial, expansionist analytical study of the biblical text, and yet they
oppression—with the Aboriginal people bearing consistently omitted from their interpretations the
the brunt of the violence. The church was very numerous instances of black people— and people of
much a part of this assault, drawing its personnel colour—in the scriptures.
from the same society, and its theology from the On the whole, Western Christian missions
same lines of thought and analysis, as the European have left a legacy of a ‘missionised theology’ that
invaders who stole the continent by force of arms continues, to this day, to have a negative impact
and legal hocus-pocus. The church preached on Aboriginal thinking. This way of doing theology
the language of love, yet it enforced ‘mission remains self-righteous, judgmental, oppressive and
policies’ based on hate, fear, violence, division full of institutionalised racism and sexism. There are
and denominationalism. Church and state worked various expressions of missionised theology being
together, and the results of this two-pronged practised in Australia today.
onslaught have been nothing short of genocidal.
Aboriginal people’s experiences of the Nominal theology
transcendent were expected to be limited to Over the years, many Aboriginal people have
Western understandings. Indeed, their expressions been forced into mission stations and reserves by
of God, church, faith and life were assimilated into ‘Christians of good will’. People in their thousands
Western expressions. Most European ‘Christians’ were ‘preached at’, ‘baptised’ and ‘converted’ to
actually came to take the land, and preached the Christian religion—often by force, sometimes
falsehoods and heresies to Aboriginal people in by violence, and almost always under duress.
order to rationalise the ‘takeover’. One of the most Aboriginals were made to attend church services,
notorious examples of this Western theological sing hymns, go to Sunday school and so on. If they
deceit across Australia was the teaching of the did not, their food rations would be cut, they would
Hamitic curse, which supposedly condemned be isolated from other members of their family and
all ‘black-skinned peoples’ to eternal inferiority. community, or they would be ‘punished’ in some
Sadly, some missionaries were quite efficient, and other way for their ‘heathenism’. Many Aboriginals
a few older Aboriginal people still believe they are became nominal Christians as they really had no
condemned by God to be ‘less than whites’. other choice.

In time, this forced contact led to theological osmosis. Aboriginals
were survivors, and therefore they ‘absorbed’ white, European,
conservative theology. This legacy continues today in Aboriginal
fundamentalist, Pentecostal and evangelical expressions.
Most—if not all—adherents of conservative theology reject their own
Aboriginal identity, culture and languages. Most are concerned with
personal sin and salvation, with individual conversion and piety, as
opposed to institutionalised or corporate sins such as white racism and
greed. They maintain a very narrow and apocalyptic worldview, believing
that land rights and justice are all in heaven, and that fighting for these
here and now on earth is wrong, indeed sinful. Some acknowledge
the existence of traditional spirituality, ceremonies and other cultural
practices, but they generally discourage them.
In one way or another, all of these conservative expressions deny
various aspects of Aboriginal personhood, socio-cultural identity and
Indigenous religious being. They betray a direct, interventionist, white,
European ‘missionised’ theology.
Liberal theology
There is a liberal tradition in Aboriginal theology. This is characterised by
dependence—theological, ecclesiological, social, structural, economic—
on Western church structures and entities. The representatives of this
tradition are fiercely loyal to their denominational allegiances, but at
times are open to working ecumenically. Motions and resolutions come
easily, but direct action is not always forthcoming.
• As far back as the 1930s, Tom Foster, an Aboriginal evangelist from
La Perouse, raised important issues of justice and equality, and
criticised white missionaries as constituting a destructive influence on
Aboriginal people and culture.
• In 1976 Pastor Douglas Nicholls (Churches of Christ) became
Governor of South Australia, thus mixing a deep faith as a pastor with
political commitment.
• In the latter part of the 1970s, the Rev. Djiniyini Gondarra (Uniting
Church) was part of the leadership of a major spiritual revival at
Galiwin’ku, in north-east Arnhem Land. His writings have focused
on this revival, and on ‘contextualising’ the Christian gospel for
Aboriginal people.
• In 1985 the Rev. Arthur Malcolm became the first Aboriginal Bishop
in Australia, as Anglican Assistant Bishop of North Queensland. He activities
is truly a gifted ‘pastor’, counselling and nurturing Aboriginal people 1. Outline the position of the
in their pain, suffering, hope and visions. He is deeply committed to Aboriginal contributor to this
reconciliation. section of this chapter in regard
• Pastor Cecil Grant (Churches of Christ) is active in contextualising the to the impact of religious
gospel and is involved in lay theological education. traditions on Aboriginal people.
• For many years, spanning this entire period, Pastor George Rosendale 2. Explain the difference between
(Lutheran Church) has worked on a holistic approach to Aboriginal ‘nominal theology’ and ‘liberal
theology, encompassing traditional Dreaming stories as well as modern theology’.
theological method.

FIG 9.23 Patrick Dodson
Story-telling theology
Aboriginal story-telling theology embraces traditional and cultural
teaching, and preserves a link between the Dreaming stories and the
biblical scriptures. Many Aboriginal theologians use this form of teaching
both to maintain the Aboriginal oral tradition and to bring Aboriginals
a greater understanding of theology so that they can make it relevant
to their daily lives. It is a non-Western, non-intellectualised method
of teaching the highest truths about creation and life. By using the
Dreaming stories, Aboriginal theologians are able to bring to life the
teachings of the gospel, which may then be sung and danced to life
through traditional Aboriginal ceremonies.
One outstanding Aboriginal person who is very gifted in this tradition
is Pastor George Rosendale, from the Hopevale community in far north
Queensland. Through this practice he is able to make the gospel more
meaningful and relevant to the Aboriginal way of life.
Aboriginal theology
Aboriginal theology is a radical movement in theology. It aims at creating
an Indigenous theology, leaning heavily on the notion of biblical justice.
It is autonomous (post-Western, post-denominational) and emphasises
liberation, prophetic obedience, and action. It treasures traditional
Aboriginal religion as the divine grounding for contemporary faith
and identity. It keeps traditional practices such as ceremonies as potent
reminders of important cosmic and temporal truth. And it holds the
Dreaming as a timeless guide for active engagement.
• In the 1960s the Rev. Don Brady worked with the Methodist
Church in Brisbane. He was a gifted and passionate preacher,
and a tireless campaigner for Aboriginal rights. He was always
to be found leading Aboriginal land rights marches. His strong
theological stance, combined with his persistent efforts at direct
action for justice, eventually led the church to remove him from
the ministry—a measure that broke him.

• In the 1970s the Rev. Charles Harris followed preserves the ancient wisdom of Aboriginal culture
Brady in the ministry in Brisbane. His work and tradition, and also reinterprets and reformulates
continued the prophetic stands for justice, more recent Western theological concepts. It is very
eventually culminating in his vision of the diverse and has much to offer to those who are
Uniting Aboriginal and Islander Christian willing to learn.
Congress in 1985. His subsequent writings
reveal a true passion and thirst for justice. The Aboriginal and Islander Commission of
• In 1975 Patrick Dodson became the first ordained the National Council of Churches in Australia
Aboriginal Roman Catholic priest. Like Brady and Finally, as an organisation, the Aboriginal and
Harris, his stands were far too threatening for the Islander Commission of the National Council
hierarchical, institutionalised church, and he left of Churches (NCCA) in Australia during its first
both the priesthood and the church. decade took unprecedented and dramatic strides
towards discerning and embodying an Aboriginal,
These great leaders have been followed by others autonomous theology.
with a strong theology and passion for justice. Fr In 1991, under the leadership of Dr Anne Pattel-
Dave Passi, a Torres Strait Islander priest of the Malo Gray, Aboriginal religion/spirituality took the World
cult, is also a fully qualified and ordained priest of Council of Churches (WCC) by storm. Demonstrated
the Anglican Church of Australia. He was one of the throughout the WCC Seventh Assembly in Canberra,
five original plaintiffs in the landmark native title Aboriginal music, art, dance and spirituality took
(Mabo) land rights case, which shattered the legal precedence on a world platform.
fiction that the Australian continent was terra nullius. This was the first time Aboriginal religion/
Passi was led by his strong theological commitment spirituality had been showcased to the world. It
to justice. The Rev. Dhalanganda Garrawurra was to have a lasting impact, challenging the world
(Uniting Church) was assistant to the president at of religious leaders to open the door for future
Nungalinya College in Darwin—this despite the conversations with the Aboriginal world.
fact that he was denied food rations by Christian
missionaries when he did not go to church on the activities
Aboriginal reserve as a youth.
1. What is ‘Aboriginal theology’?
Though he probably did not consider himself to
be an Aboriginal Christian theologian, Kevin Gilbert 2. How does this theology treat the Dreaming?
(1933–1993) nevertheless provided one of the most 3. Outline the work of the Rev. Don Brady and others
comprehensive critiques of Christian theology and in this movement.
Christianity itself. His works demonstrated vast 4. Research the Aboriginal and Islander Commission
knowledge of both the Bible and Christianity, though of the National Council of Churches in Australia
he stood at the fringe of Christian hermeneutics. and the work it has done for reconciliation.
His sharp insights offered a major contribution to
5. How have such organisations, including recently
Aboriginal theology.
the World Council of Churches, helped the process
Aboriginal theology encompasses everything from
of reconciliation?
the timeless oral tradition of Dreaming stories to the
modern written tradition of biblical scholarship. It

Review and assess
Review
1. To what extent is Aboriginal religion a way of life?
2. Prepare an oral report for the class on the importance of native title
to the land rights movement in Australia.
3. Debate: The link between the Dreaming and the land rights
movement was made for political reasons.’
4. Prepare a visual and textual presentation for a particular audience

(for example, Year 7 students) on the importance of kinship to
Aboriginal spirituality.
5. Research the Wik decision and form a hypothesis on the impact of

the decision on the land rights movement.
6. Describe the connection between the Dreaming and the land and
their interrelationship with Aboriginal spirituality.
7. Account for the religious landscape in Australia today in a visual

display of the various religions and their history.
8. Discuss the diversity of religious traditions present in Australia today.
9. Evaluate the importance of interfaith dialogue to multi-faith Australia.
10. Describe the rise of New Age religions in Australia and discuss their
impact on religious expression in Australia today.
11. Explain the impact that immigration has had on the religious
landscape of Australia in the latter part of the 20th century.
12. Describe the role of the various religious traditions in the process of
reconciliation.
Multiple choice questions
13. Aboriginal people received recognition as Australian citizens in:

a. 1901
b. 1938
c. 1967
d. 1972

14. Aboriginal liberal theology has developed from: c. the arrival of Europeans
a. the union of Presbyterian, Methodist and d. totems
Congregational churches
21. When people use the term ‘self-determination’,
b. the forced acceptance of Christianity
they mean that:
c. nominal theology
a. people are able to determine and control their
d. Aboriginal Christians who operate from a own business
Western-style church model
b. the authorities determine the affairs of others
15. The 1986 Australian census figures show that: c. Indigenous people have assigned responsibility
a. Anglicans outnumber Catholics to white authority figures to determine their
future
b. Uniting Church members number more than
Anglicans d. none of the above
c. there are more members of other religions than 22 ‘Native title’ is another name for:
the total number of Christians
a. Wik
d. the number of people who stated ‘No religion’
b. Mabo
was greater than the number of Christians.
c. Yolngu
16. The Church of England in Australia changed its d. Koori
name in 1982 to become known as:
a. the Uniting Anglican Church Short response (5 marks)
b. the Anglican Church 23. ‘The churches should act together in all matters
c. the Church of Anglicans in Australia except those in which deep differences of
d. the Anglican Church of Australia conviction compel them to act seperately.’
Conference on Faith and Order, 1952
17. The Uniting Church was made up of:
Using the above statement and your own
a. Presbyterians, Methodists and Baptists
knowledge, describe the impact of Christian
b. Anglicans, Catholics and Methodists ecumenical movements in Australia.
c. Presbyterians, Baptists and Anglicans (Studies of Religion II HSC Examination Paper © Board of Studies NSW for
and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2007)
d. Methodists, Presbyterians and Congregationalists
24. Discuss the contribution of Christianity to social
18. The fastest-growing Christian denomination is: welfare since 1945.
a. Catholics
25. Explain the impact of the Wik decision on the land
b. Anglicans
rights movement.
c. Pentecostals
d. Orthodox 26. Describe the role of one religious tradition in rural
and outback Australia.
19 Denominational switching is common within:
27. ‘For Aboriginals, the correlation between their
a. Christianity
created world, their social world and their spiritual
b. Hinduism world means that their religion is holistic and
c. Buddhism living, that it touches everything.’ Discuss.
d. Islam
28. Explain the importance of kinship to Aboriginal
20. Which of the following factors did not contribute people.
to the stolen generations?
29. What is the importance of the ‘sacred’ to
a. missionisation Aboriginal people?
b. reserves

Buddhism
The focus of this study is the contribution of significant people, ideas,
practices and ethical teachings to an understanding of Buddhism as a
living religious tradition. The study of Buddhism is to be of the WHOLE
tradition where applicable.
Outcomes Guru Rinpoche (Padmasambhava)

Sister Dhammadinna
A student:
Tenzin Palmo
XIVth Dalai Lama
and belief systems on individuals and society Pure Land
H4 describes and analyses how aspects of religious Soto Zen

traditions are expressed by their adherents Won Buddhism
H5 evaluates the influence of religious traditions another person or school of thought
in the life of adherents significant to Buddhism
H6 organises, analyses and synthesises relevant • the effect of that person or school of thought on
information from a variety of sources, Buddhism
considering usefulness, validity and bias
H7 conducts effective research about religion and Ethics
evaluates the findings from the research • one of the following areas of ethical teaching in
H8 applies appropriate terminology and concepts Buddhism:
related to religion and belief systems bioethics
H9 coherently and effectively communicates environmental ethics
complex information, ideas and issues using sexual ethics
appropriate written, oral and graphic forms
Significant practices in the life of adherents
Content • one significant practice within Buddhism other
than daily prayer drawn from:
Pilgrimage
Significant people and ideas Temple puja
• the contribution to Buddhism of one significant Wesak
person or school of thought other than Buddha
drawn from behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2009.)
Asoka
Nargajuna
Vasubandhu
HSC | Chapter 10 Buddhism 239

ABSOLUTISTS those who believe that certain ethical MISSIONARIES men and women who travel outside
teachings are always to be applied. their homeland to spread the teachings
AHIMSA the teaching that no sentient life form is of their religious faith.
to be harmed. NIRVANA the teaching of the ultimate destiny for
ANATTA the teaching that there is no soul. all sentient life forms.
ANICCA the teaching that everything changes PANCASILAM the ethical precepts of Buddhism.
and is impermanent. PILGRIMS people who journey to a sacred shrine
BODHISATTVA a being who has achieved ultimate for spiritual development.
perfection and aids all sentient beings in PRAJNA wisdom and insight into what reality
achieving nirvana. truly is.
BUDDHA the Enlightened One, born as Siddhartha PUJA private or public ritual.
Gautama. SAMADHI the practice of meditation.
BUDDHA NATURE the teaching that all things have the SAMSARA the teaching that at death a person’s
same reality or basis of existence. karma will find a new life form.
CONDITIONED the Buddhist teaching on cause and effect. SILA the ethical system within Buddhism.
ARISING
STUPAS monuments that house relics of holy
CONFUCIANISM a Chinese school of philosophy and ethics. men and women, in particular, relics of
DANA generosity. the Lord Buddha.
DHARMA the teachings of the Lord Buddha and SUNYATA void, emptiness as the basis of all reality.
the laws of the universe. TAOISM ancient system of religion and
DUKKHA the teaching that all aspects of life philosophy originating in China.
have an element of suffering or THANGKAS Tibetan spiritual images.
incompleteness.
THERAVADA the School of Elders in Buddhism found
ECLECTIC choosing certain aspects of a system of in South-East Asia.
thought without accepting the whole of
THREE REFUGES the principal teachings of Buddhism
the system.
on the Buddha, the Dharma and the
EUTHANASIA the act of bringing about a person’s Sangha; also known as the Three Jewels.
death out of a desire to relieve the
TRIPITAKA the ‘three baskets’, one of the sacred
person of suffering.
texts of Buddhism.
GOMPA meditation hall in Vajrayana (Tibetan)
UTILITARIANS those who believe that circumstances are
Buddhism.
important in deciding the rightness of
IRWONSANG the symbol of ultimate reality adopted an act.
by Won Buddhists.
VAJRAYANA the school of Buddhism found in Tibet
KARMA the consequence of all acts that are done and Nepal.
willingly.
VIHARA shrine room in Theravada Buddhism.
KUSALA a good act.
VOTIVE OFFERING offering given in fulfilment of a vow or
MAHAYANA the School of the Great Wheel in to gain favour.
Buddhism found in northern countries
WESAK an annual festival celebrating Gautama
of Asia.
Buddha’s birth, enlightenment and
MALAS Tibetan prayer beads. paranirvana.

Significant people and
schools of thought
The contribution of Asoka
Buddhism in the third century BCE was one of the major religious
traditions in India. During the 300 years since the death of the Lord
Buddha, it had adapted to local customs and was practised within
various tribes and cultures. Furthermore, it was a religion that was
flexible since the Lord Buddha had left many important issues open to
interpretation. Because it was a religion that gave the individual sole
responsibility for his or her own spiritual development, it required
no central structures or shrines in order to define the individual as a
Buddhist. Consequently, it was popular with merchants and traders. It
was tolerant of other religious traditions, and did not seek to convert
people through proselytising (active conversion) but through example
and witness. The Sangha (the community of monks and nuns) was
an important witness to the claim that Buddhism was a means to a
successful spiritual life. The educated members of society were attracted
to its teaching since, like Hinduism, it had developed sophisticated ways
of answering philosophical problems and had a high-quality body of
literature.
Asoka was made emperor of the Mauryan Empire in India in 268 BCE.
Much of the information about him comes from two sources. First,
during his reign he erected pillars and carved out messages in rock (Rock
Edicts) by which his teachings were outlined. These are an important
source for studying how Asoka understood Buddhist teachings. Second,
FIG. 10.1 The triple-lion icon of the great both during his life and after it, many stories arose about him that
emperor Asoka’s famous pillar has been indicate how people thought about him and how important they
adopted as modern India’s state symbol.
thought he was for Buddhism.
The Mauryan Empire stretched over

Taxna
most of India and into modern-day Iran.
Asoka was the first Buddhist emperor. Before Indraprastha
his coronation he had served as a prince

Mathura
(kumara, governor) along with at least four
Pattala
other princes. He seems to have gained
Mauryas Pataliputra
control of the empire through his fierceness
and skill in battle. Initially he belonged Ujjain
Bodh Gaya
to a Hindu sect, the Ajivakas, which had Sanchi
the religious allegiance of his father, the

Emperor Bindusara. Stories written about
Asoka describe him as a harsh ruler before
Arabian Bay of
his conversion to Buddhism in 261 BCE.
Sea Bengal
After this conversion he was known as
Dharmasoka (Asoka the Just or Asoka of the
Teachings), indicating a radical change in
character.
FIG. 10.2 Kingdom of Mauryas

His conversion did not immediately change his Asoka’s contribution to the development of
political and imperial efforts to strengthen and Buddhism
expand his kingdom. On coming to the throne, he Asoka contributed to the development of Buddhism
was in a strong position to attack Syria and other in three significant ways. First, he maintained it as
parts of the Persian Empire. In 261 BCE he was quick a significant religious tradition within his kingdom.
to put down an uprising for independence in the Second, he supported and encouraged missionaries
kingdom of Kalinga (central-eastern India). An to expand Buddhism beyond his borders. Third, and
inscription of 256 BCE, Rock Edict 13, describes the most importantly, he showed that Buddhism could
devastation brought about by this war. Not only be the basis for government and foreign affairs.
were there massive casualties on both sides but Though Buddhism was one of the major religious
also many innocent people, including holy men, traditions before Asoka came to the throne, he
massacred. ensured that the other religious traditions also
Asoka’s response to this war was to recommit received his support and generosity. His policy of
himself to the principal teachings and ethical toleration of all traditions reflects his understanding
behaviour of Buddhism. A rock edict of 258 BCE of Buddhism as only one way to achieve spiritual
describes Asoka going to the Sangha in the previous development. Asoka believed that all sects were
year (259 BCE) to commit himself more strongly fundamentally good and that peaceful coexistence
to the teachings of Buddhism. He saw that wars was essential in maintaining harmony in his
were inconsistent with the teachings of Buddhism, empire. He knew that individuals had different
particularly that of ahimsa (the First Ethical needs and abilities and should be able to choose
Precept, which demands that no sentient life form which religious traditions suited them best.
be harmed). He further concluded that war damaged Asoka also found ways of instructing his people
the reputation of Buddhism, did not prevent further about Buddhism. For the educated he erected pillars
evil and harmed innocent people. and created rock carvings to outline his religious
Asoka also realised that Buddhism could be used understanding. For those who had no education
as a practical basis for governing and maintaining he used storytelling, poetry, sculpture, Buddhist
his kingdom. The rock edicts express his conviction symbols (such as the lotus, the tree and the wheel)
that ahimsa and dana (generosity) were the most and paintings to inform them about the life and
important bases for administering his kingdom. teaching of the Lord Buddha. He also strengthened
In the Kalinga Edicts he instructed his officials to the position of Buddhism by building stupas that
seek affection from the people and be impartial in contained the relics of the Buddhas so that ordinary
their judgments. In 255 BCE he set up officials to people had access to important shrines and sites.
maintain relationships with the other major
religious traditions and to increase the proper
understanding of Buddhism, both within his
kingdom and outside it.
activities
1. Who was Asoka?
2. How did he gain control of the Mauryan
Empire?
3. Was he always a Buddhist? If not, why did
he change to being a Buddhist?
4. How did Buddhism impact on his rulings?
5. Create a brief dot-point biography of Asoka
including the following information: birth,
socio-political background, key events,
achievements, death.
FIG. 10.3 The Sanchi stupa and gateway in Bhopal, India, built by Asoka

FIG. 10.4 Asoka pillar in Lumbini
Asoka believed that Buddhism was a way of empire. The number required within the empire
spiritual development for all people. His pillars and remained at ten.
rock edicts were placed throughout his kingdom Asoka showed that Buddhism could be a strong
and written in various tribal dialects so that the basis for government and foreign policy. Though
teachings could be widely disseminated. He also dealing with hostile neighbours, he made it
communicated Buddhist teachings in Greek and clear that his foreign policy was one of peaceful
Aramaic for foreigners. This showed that Buddhist coexistence and diplomacy. Likewise, his internal
concepts were able to be translated into other affairs were based on toleration and acceptance
languages and cultures. of difference. He established structures of social
Another of Asoka’s significant contributions to welfare by planting medicinal herb gardens for
Buddhism was the active missionary activity that his people and trees to give shade for pilgrims.
he supported and encouraged. Though there had He supported and maintained the administrative
been Buddhist missionaries before the time of Asoka, structure of the Sangha by generous donations
without his financial and political support there could and the building of new viharas (shrine rooms).
not have been such widespread missionary activity. He also applied Buddhist teachings to his system
In 257 BCE King Tisya of Sri Lanka welcomed of law and punishment. Criminals who were to be
Asoka’s son, Mahendra, a monk, as ambassador. executed were given three days during which their
There is a possibility that Asoka’s daughter families could plead for mercy or the criminals had
established the female Sangha in Sri Lanka. King opportunities to make donations in order to receive
Tisya accepted instruction in Buddhism and a better life after death.
was converted, along with his court and many
aristocratic families. activity
Under Asoka, the number of Buddhists increased
Research Asoka’s contribution to the development of
in southern India, while missionaries travelled
Buddhism by maintaining it as a significant religious
to Kashmir, the Himalayas, the western coast of
tradition, by encouraging missionary activity and
India and lower Burma. This expansion was made
by using it as the basis for government and foreign
possible by Asoka’s decision that only five monks
affairs. Give examples.
were needed to consecrate new monks outside his

Asoka’s contribution to the expression of Buddhism
Buddhism is expressed through its beliefs, sacred texts, rituals, structures
and symbols. Asoka contributed to all of these expressions.
Asoka believed that Buddhism was a religious tradition for all
people. It was not restricted only to wealthy and educated people.
There is, however, little evidence that he saw the need to spell out the
important beliefs of the tradition. Indeed there is no evidence that he
wrote about key teachings like samsara (though he was aware that a
person was reborn), anatta or nirvana. He probably believed that the
practice of Buddhism was more important than any discussion about its
teachings—a view also held by the Lord Buddha.
It was ethics that seemed most important for Asoka. He understood
ethics as the practical application of belief. Many of his writings were about
how to live a good life as a Buddhist, and a large part of administrating his
empire was devoted to the correct observance of the Dharma.
He believed that all people were, like him, responsible for their
own development. He was concerned to ensure that they understood
what was correct. He emphasised the importance of respect for elders
and striving after the truth. For him the first ethical precept, ahimsa,
was most important. He abolished the hunting of animals, fish and
birds by his court, converted his court to vegetarianism and forbade
animal sacrifices. In the edict of 243 BCE, he stresses the importance of
compassion, generosity, truth and purity and the need to avoid anger,
cruelty, pride and jealousy.
Much of the sacred text known as the Tripitaka had been formed
before Asoka’s time. He did, however, convene a meeting of the Sangha
in his capital, Patiliputta, around 250 BCE. At this council the third book
of the Theravada Buddhist Abhidharma Pitaka (the Book of Discourses)
was composed. This council, known as the Third Buddhist Council,
also expelled monks who did not agree with the correct teachings and
their heresies were examined. This council became known as the Third
Rehearsal of the Tripitaka.
Asoka’s contribution to Buddhist ritual was primarily in creating new
pilgrimage sites and making pilgrimage easier for people. This gave the
ordinary person greater access to key relics and greater contact with the
Sangha, for Asoka established monasteries at these new pilgrimage places.
He himself undertook pilgrimages—for example, he travelled to Bodh
Gaya, where Buddha was enlightened, in 259 BCE and held discussions
with the monks there, generously donating gifts to the community and
teaching the people about Buddhism. In 255 BCE he built a stupa in Nepal
and in 249 BCE travelled to Lumbini, the site of Buddha’s birth.
Asoka did not hesitate to intervene in the workings and FIG. 10.5 Bodhnath Stupa in Nepal
administration of the Sangha. Realising its importance in maintaining
Buddhist teaching, he directly intervened in deciding which teachings
were correct. He undertook to ensure that the Sangha would remain
without schism. At times his intervention had disastrous results. One of
his directives was misinterpreted by officials who consequently killed
some of the monks opposed to his decision. Asoka worried about his
part in this and needed to find out whether he was guilty for this offence
from a much-revered monk, Thera Tissa. Tissa pronounced that Asoka
was not responsible.

Asoka further outlined in the Bhabra Inscriptions and vegetarianism) he acted as a model for his
that the monks should be satisfied with their humble fellow believers.
possessions. He also spoke in this inscription about Asoka provided the means of spreading the
the attractiveness of life in the Sangha. teachings of Buddhism throughout his empire. He
used symbolism and graphic art forms to instruct
activity ordinary people, provided officials to teach the
Dharma, and used the written text on pillars and in
Complete the following chart.
rock carvings to teach the educated and foreigners.
BUDDHIST CONTRIBUTION EXAMPLES Furthermore, in translating Buddhist ideas into
EXPRESSIONS BY ASOKA AND other languages he showed the adaptability of
EVIDENCE Buddhism to other ways of thinking.
beliefs
Asoka’s significance after his lifetime
ethics Another important contribution to Buddhism was
Asoka’s support and encouragement of missionaries.
symbols The establishment of Buddhism outside of India
(where it nearly died out) ensured the religious
rituals tradition’s ongoing existence and contribution to
Asian culture and thought. The conversion of the
structure court in Sri Lanka was essential for the development
(Sangha) of Theravada Buddhism, while expansion north
into Nepal and beyond would eventually see the
sacred texts
development of the Mahayana and Vajrayana
schools of Buddhism.
Asoka also became a model for later Buddhists.
Asoka’s significance during his lifetime His commitment to Buddhist teaching and its use
Asoka’s significance for Buddhism during his as a basis for politics and administration established
lifetime was principally in strengthening and it as a religious tradition well able to adapt to
maintaining it as a major religious tradition different forms of government and policy. Asoka
in India. Under him there was no essential believed that Buddhism was not just a passive
reinterpretation of Buddhist teachings or major acceptance of the teachings but required application
development in understanding as to how to live in a person’s life and ethical practice. These virtues
as a Buddhist. continued to impress Buddhists beyond his death.
Asoka’s most important contribution to He demonstrated the practical application of belief
Buddhism was his ability to apply its teaching to the everyday life of adherents.
to government and foreign policy. Buddhist
teaching became the means of ensuring security activities
and peace among his subjects, while at the same
1. How and why did Asoka apply Buddhism to
time indicating to possible hostile neighbours that
government and foreign policy?
his foreign policy was based on toleration and
diplomacy rather than further expansion of his 2. How did he inform the ordinary people about
empire. Within such a peaceful society, Buddhism Buddhism?
could expand. This environment also allowed for 3. Create a visual presentation showing how Asoka
strengthening the Sangha and maintaining the expanded the influence of Buddhism through
correct teachings. neighbouring countries.
It is clear that Asoka made no major 4. Why was this important to Indian Buddhism well
contributions in his lifetime to the principal after his death?
expressions of Buddhism. He did, however,
5. Discuss the significance of Asoka for Buddhism.
accept these as important and chose to support
Discuss why he still remains an important figure in
and maintain them. By his own life (for example,
Buddhism.
in practising the values of pilgrimage, ahimsa

The contribution of Won Buddhism
Won Buddhism was founded in Korea in 1915 when its founder, Soe-tae
San, became enlightened. At the time Korea was undergoing internal
political struggles with the Japanese occupation. During this occupation
the practice of Buddhism and any ideology that might have been a
means of cultivating opposition to the occupying forces were banned.
After enlightenment, Soe-tae San began an intense study of all major
religious traditions that had been practised within Korea. This included
reading the major works of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism.
Having studied these religious systems, Soe-tae San determined that
‘ The symbol
(circle) can also be
seen posted high
the means of achieving enlightenment was best brought about through
Buddhism. However, he acknowledged that some teachings from
above Won Buddhist
the other traditions were also useful. The eventual teaching of Won temples like the
Buddhism would be eclectic, that is, it would draw not only on the ideas
cross on Christian
’
and concepts of Buddhism but also on appropriate teachings from other
religious traditions. churches.
He attracted disciples but did not establish the Association for the
Study of the Buddha-Dharma until 1924 in Iksan. Though enlightened, The Scriptures of Won
Soe-tae San was hesitant in the political climate of his country to Buddhism (Bongkil Chung)
announce his teachings. His wife was very supportive, and Soe-tae
San eventually had a dream that convinced him to establish the new
understanding of Buddhism. In the dream his companions, set the task
of building a wall but unable to do so, committed themselves to Won
Buddhism by offering to sever one of their fingers. This demonstration
of the validity of Won Buddhism helped convinced Soe-tae San to make
public his insights and teachings.
FIG. 10.6 Rituals in a Won Buddhist temple

The principal teaching is that of the Irwonsang, Contribution to development of Buddhism
or Circle. This symbol expresses the key teaching Won Buddhism is a modern reinterpretation of the
of Won Buddhism. All reality is one, and the teachings of the Lord Buddha. It is situated within
understanding that reality is made up of different Mahayana Buddhism; however, since it is eclectic,
parts is delusional. Soe-tae San taught that all culturally determined (it is very much a Korean
religions, if investigated closely, demonstrate this understanding) and influenced by the events and
Oneness of Reality, and that enlightenment is thoughts of the 20th century, it is distinct from other
nothing other than coming to realise and become schools of Buddhism, and in some teachings unique.
one with this unity of all things. Soe-tae San reinterpreted Buddhism in the religious
This unity is not an interconnection of all things context of northern Asian schools of religious thought.
into a system that operates as a whole according to He accepted that Confucianism offered many practical
the laws of nature, as modern physics understands teachings that could indicate to people how they
the unity of the universe. Rather, it collapses all should live their lives. Confucianism emphasises the
things into a formless unity. In Mahayana Buddhism need to pay due reverence to those better than you. It
this ultimate formless reality is known as nirvana or particularly emphasises the recognition of authentic
sunyata (‘void’). The purpose in life is to attain this rule in society, the significance of a person’s ancestors,
understanding. and the duties and responsibilities of a person towards
This concept of the ultimate nature of all things parents, teachers and others who have gained wisdom.
as nothing is not a new teaching. It is central to an Won Buddhism also spells out the obligations
understanding of Buddhism, in particular Mahayana of people to observe and obey the legitimate laws
Buddhism. In this school the Lord Buddha is of society. For Won Buddhists, paying respect
understood in a number of ways. First, he is a historic and honouring the wise are means by which one
human who gained enlightenment 2500 years ago. carries out the ethical obligations symbolised
The Buddha is also that fundamental reality that by the Irwonsang. Since older people and more
underlies all things—the Buddha Nature. This is what learned people have better insight into reality, it is
each aspect of the world has and what gives it its true important to pay attention to them so that a person
identity and purpose. Another way to understand may move closer towards enlightenment.
the Buddha is to acknowledge that the Buddha is the Though all schools of Buddhism emphasise the
ultimate reality, which is made up of not things but need to pay respect towards elders and authentic
is no–thing. The Buddha is nirvana or sunyata. government, Won Buddhism expresses it more
For Soe-tae San the teaching symbolised in within a social system where clearly defined levels
the Irwonsang had ethical application as well of honour are recognised.
as consequences for how he structured the From Taoism, Soe-tae San accepted that the
administration of his school and the practice of universe was a harmony of balanced forces. Taoism’s
adherents. principal teaching is that there are complementary
activities
1. Where did Won Buddhism begin and what were
the circumstances in the country at that time?
2. Why did Soe-tae San believe Buddhism was the
‘best’ religion for his country?
3. How did Soe-tae change Buddhism and why?
4. What is the fundamental teaching of Won
Buddhism?
5. As a group, discuss ‘nirvana’ and create a concise
definition.
6. Create a visual presentation outlining the principal
teachings of Won Buddhism.
FIG. 10.7 Yin yang symbol of Taoism

forces that require balance (earth and heaven, male Contribution to the expression of Buddhism
and female), and that individuals too must strive Won Buddhism’s emphasis on achieving
in life to achieve this balance, this harmony, for enlightenment within a secular world and bringing
themselves. about a more compassionate society determines its
Won Buddhism teaches that this harmony can expression. With the importance of understanding
be learned both from those who are wise and from one’s own situation within society and the
a person’s own striving for enlightenment through universe, three activities become highly significant:
meditation, study and compassionate work. meditation, education and ethical application.
Adherents are expected to devote time to the There are no intermediaries for the believer
study of the teachings of Soe-tae San and his to seek extraordinary assistance, as there are
successors. They are also expected to attend retreats Bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhism. And since
that give them time to meditate on the Irwonsang the ultimate reality is beyond that of the historical
and its implications, and to work towards a more Buddha, there is no central importance to his image
just society. within a shrine. This has been replaced by the
Unlike most schools of Buddhism, Won Irwonsang, the great Circle. This image is not an
Buddhism does not have a priestly caste. Though object of worship but a symbol that draws believers
organised around men who have demonstrated into an understanding of what ultimate reality is.
wisdom and those who are able to instruct and Since meditation and education are highly
guide other believers towards enlightenment, there significant, Won Buddhists attend institutes
are no monks or priests. Rituals are conducted by that offer instruction on the better practice of
lay people, and there is no requirement for these meditation and a
‘
officials to abandon the life of the secular world. deeper understanding
Won Buddhism is also a product of the 20th The great circle of the teachings
century and incorporates many aspects of modern through study. There
… is not an object
living. It recognises that people have to live in a are educational
secular world and maintain careers in order to care of worship but a institutes, training
for family. It accepts that people live in a capitalist institutes and others
symbol that draws
economy but teaches that believers must attempt to that inform the
respond differently to this system. Accumulation of believers into an believer about society,
wealth at the expense of others is forbidden. Won culture and industry.
understanding
Buddhists are obliged to assist others less fortunate Without a
than themselves and to ensure that all members of of what ultimate priesthood, the
’
society receive the benefits of society. practice of the religious
reality is.
In order to achieve this, Won Buddhism tradition is divided
emphasises both social welfare and, in particular, into two spheres: first,
education. Soe-tae San understood that through public or common
education a person will come to understand forms of instruction
what is needed to change society from greed and and meditation, and second, private meditation and
self-centredness to compassion and generosity. study within the home. Like other modern religious
Education of the young is given high importance, organisations, Won Buddhism has congregations
for Won Buddhism focuses not only on achieving of believers attached to specific temples (similar
enlightenment for the individual but also on to those found within European Christianity,
transforming the world. which has parishes and churches specific to local
congregations).
activity Important also as an expression is the ethical
behaviour of believers. There is to be no separation
Debate how Won Buddhism has contributed to the
between the teachings and a person’s social
development of Buddhism by maintaining it as a
obligation. Respect for the old and wise, for teachers
significant religious tradition while at the same time
and governments, is a way of expressing one’s faith
adapting ideas from other religious traditions and
in the Irwonsang. Ethical behaviour is also shown
ideologies of the 20th century. Include examples.
through abstaining from alcohol and smoking, and

through collaborative work in bringing about a
more just society.
activities
1. What is the Irwonsang?
2. Explain how education is an important element of
Won Buddhism.
3. How does this religious tradition survive without a
priesthood?
4. Complete the following chart.
BUDDHIST CONTRIBUTION EXAMPLES

EXPRESSIONS BY WON AND
BUDDHISM EVIDENCE
beliefs FIG. 10.8 Won Buddhism centre in New York. There are a small number
of Won Buddhism centres in America, Europe and Japan.
ethics
the importance of the laity in bringing about
symbols a transformation of society, Won Buddhism
is characterised by less reliance on monastic
rituals
supervision and dependence.
Won Buddhism has established centres outside
structure
Korea in America, Europe and Japan. The number of
(Sangha)
these centres is small.
sacred texts Won Buddhism has not fundamentally changed
the essential teachings of Buddhism. It has applied
them within a certain context of the modern age but
is not a radical departure from them. The teachings
Impact of Won Buddhism on Buddhism and ethics it holds as central have been part of the
Won Buddhism’s major contribution to Buddhism Buddhist tradition throughout its history. Even
is its reapplication of Buddhist traditions within a though it has incorporated teachings from traditions
given social, historic and economic context. Though other than Buddhism, in particular social and ethical
maintaining the fundamental teachings of Buddhism, teachings, these are not foreign to those found
Won Buddhism positions itself well within the 20th within the other three schools of Buddhism.
century, and in particular in the country of Korea. That the other schools of Buddhism seem to be
This adoption of new ideas, or the integration of more popular, both in the countries of Asia and
ideas from other systems of religion, is not foreign in the West, may be due to the fact that they do
to Buddhism. As Buddhist teaching has encountered not respond too specifically to the demands of a
new cultures and societies, it has always shown a given time or country but rather offer a means
great ability to assimilate new ideas and practices and of transcending all social, historic and economic
to apply its teachings to new circumstances. Won contexts. These schools would argue that, through
Buddhism continues this process of adaptation. their teachings and ethical systems, they too will
Won Buddhism continues to demonstrate bring about the transformation of all societies.
that Buddhism is pertinent to the modern world
and can survive in a secular society. The fact activity
that it has moved away from Buddhist forms
Evaluate the significance of Won Buddhism for
such as priesthood (the Sangha) represents an
Buddhism. In the evaluation, present arguments
understanding that certain structures existing
to show that Won Buddhism is not fundamentally
in other schools are no longer pertinent to the
different from Mahayana Buddhism.
expression of Buddhism. In its emphasis on

Buddhist ethical teachings
A common ethic
Any discussion of ethics in Buddhism must
There are 350 million Buddhists worldwide. They recognise that there are two possible approaches to
follow many different forms of Buddhism, but deciding what is right or wrong. Some Buddhists
all traditions and teachings stress non-violence, (absolutists) argue that certain teachings are to
tolerance of differences, following Dharma and be applied in all cases because they are universally
the practice of meditation. true. So, for example, the teaching of ahimsa (the
avoidance of harm to any sentient life form) is to
Buddhist teachings on bioethics be applied in all cases. On the other hand, there
are also Buddhists (utilitarians) who, though
In Buddhism, ethics is the practical application of recognising the truthfulness of these teachings,
beliefs in the everyday life of believers. The principal argue that consideration of circumstances and
beliefs in Buddhism are to take refuge in the Buddha, overall happiness (lessening of dukkha) should be
the Dharma and the Sangha, and therefore all taken into account.
ethical behaviour will be determined by these beliefs. Bioethics is the understanding of what makes
Furthermore, the direct consequence of any acts that for a good moral response to issues connected
the person chooses to do is karma, which increases as with the start of human life (abortion), its dignity
a result of good acts and decreases as a result of bad and development throughout life (cloning and
acts. Therefore, an act has consequences in regard organ transplants), and the termination of that life
to a person’s samsara (rebirth) and the individual’s (euthanasia).
advancement towards nirvana.
There is an important inter-relatedness between activities
a person’s ethical behaviour (sila), development in
1. Why is ethical behaviour important to Buddhists
understanding (prajna) and practice of meditation
and their advancement towards nirvana?
(samadhi). Increasing in prajna enables Buddhists
to better understand what they must do ethically 2. What are two possible approaches for a Buddhist
and therefore gives them greater peacefulness of to decide what is right or wrong?
mind to practise samadhi. In all ethical behaviour
there is always a direct link with the essential Abortion
components in developing the spiritual life. The first critical bioethical issue is to establish
Unlike other religious traditions, Buddhism when a human person comes into existence. The
holds that advancement in the spiritual life depends consistent teaching of Buddhism is that a human
on the individual’s own efforts, though he may seek person is formed at the moment of conception,
guidance from others. There is no assistance from a though some argue that full personhood is not
god or any sense of divine reward or punishment. achieved until birth. At conception, therefore, a
While a changeless soul would not be affected sentient human life has begun, and any means used
by any moral choice or activity, Buddhism to end that life is the killing of a human person.
recognises that there is no constant, unchanging The second critical bioethical issue is whether
soul (anatta) and thus there is a need for ethics. the taking of human life through abortion is ever
Because everything undergoes change (anicca) and justified. The absolutist position is that any killing
thus everything contains some form of suffering of a human person is to be avoided and that the act
or unsatisfactoriness (dukkha), ethics is a way by brings about bad karma.
which the individual reduces suffering and draws According to the teaching of the Buddha, there
closer to the unchanging condition of nirvana. These are certain conditions that have to be present in order
three human conditions (anatta, anicca and dukkha) for an act to be called killing. First, the victim must
underpin the whole of Buddhist ethics. be a human being and the person doing the killing

must understand that it is a human life being ended. Cloning and organ transplants
Second, to gain bad karma the person must be free Cloning is the reproduction from a single cell of
and willing to kill the person and choose the means exact copies of a living organism, or of exact copies
by which it is done. Finally, the act must actually of organs of a living organism that may be used for
kill the human being. For an act of abortion to be organ donations. The fully cloned human being
unjustified, all conditions would have to be present. offers an opportunity for karma to re-enter the
Therefore, both the doctor who performs the process towards enlightenment.
abortion and the mother would gain bad karma as a For Buddhists the opportunity to become human
result of their decision to terminate the pregnancy if is highly significant. As a human the being is able to
the circumstances do not permit it. The foetus also take up the three essential processes that will assist
suffers bad karma in that it is not permitted to gain the person on the path towards nirvana—that is,
existence as a human person and must return to the the person is able to gain wisdom (prajna), act on
cycle of rebirth. Its spiritual development is prevented. it (sila) and gain less desire and grasping through
Even though an act of killing is judged to bring meditation (samadhi). It is also as a human that
about bad karma, there are some Buddhists who see a person may accept the Dharma given by the
that circumstances must be taken into account. The Buddha and may undertake the disciplined life of
Dalai Lama has stated: the Sangha. Enlightenment can only happen as a
human being.
If the unborn child will be retarded or if the birth Since Buddhists believe that there is no
will create serious problems for the parent, these permanent soul (anatta), there is no problem
are cases where there can be an exception. I think about the identity of the cloned individual. It does
abortion should be approved or disapproved not share with its host a part of the host’s soul or
according to each circumstance. personality, even though it is identical in genetic
(Dalai Lama, New York Times, 28 November 1993) makeup. Cloning is accepted by Buddhists since it
allows greater opportunity for karma to take human
This utilitarian position would argue that the form. Whether a human is produced sexually or
health of the foetus or mother, the conditions without sex is not a concern in Buddhism.
under which the child will live, and the ability of As in all ethical decisions, the intention of
the parents to raise the child well should also be the people involved in producing the clone is
taken into account. The freedom and willingness of significant. If the cloning is undertaken for selfish
the pregnant woman would be of great importance reasons or for purely monetary gain or fame, then
in determining the rightness or wrongness of the the act will produce bad karma for the practitioner.
abortion. The resulting bad karma would depend on Similarly, the intended ‘use’ of the clone is
the knowledge, freedom and situation of the significant in that any planned abuse of the clone
pregnant woman. The doctor’s intention to assist in would result in bad karma for the practitioner.
limiting suffering is also of significance in For Buddhists the cloning of organs for
determining the karmic result. transplants in patients is a good act. Again,
In some understandings of the teaching, abortion production of organs for reasons other than
is considered an act creating less bad karma than the assisting the ill or undertaking legitimate medical
murder of an adult human being. This is because the research (for example, financial gain or as selfish
size of the sentient life form and the effort needed to ‘organ reserves’) would result in bad karma.
kill it changes the amount of bad karma created. The donation of an organ from one person
to another is an act of generosity (dana) and is
activities therefore a good act, particularly if that donation
saves a life or reduces the suffering of another. If,
1. For an act of abortion to be unjustified, what
however, the intention is other than generosity or
conditions would have to be present for a Buddhist?
reducing suffering (for example, the selling of an
2. What was the Dalai Lama’s view on abortion of a organ for financial gain), then the act would bring
child that will be retarded when born? about bad karma.
3. How is karma related to abortion?

activities activities
1. What is the Buddhist view of cloning and the 1. What are passive and active euthanasia?
reasons for it? 2. What are the two significant issues regarding
2. Why is the person’s intention with cloning the key to euthanasia for Buddhists?
good karma or bad karma? 3. Is euthanasia a ‘clear-cut’ decision for all
3. Debate: ‘How can organ donation bring good and Buddhists? Why or why not?
bad karma?’ 4. Complete the following chart.
PRINCIPAL SIGNIFICANCE EXAMPLES FROM

Euthanasia TEACHINGS FOR ETHICAL ABORTION,
There are two types of euthanasia (mercy killing). TEACHINGS CLONING
Passive euthanasia is where a person’s death is AND ORGAN
brought about by removing life-support equipment TRANSPLANT,
or medication and by the administering of pain- EUTHANASIA
relieving drugs that hasten a person’s death. Dharma
Active euthanasia is the direct intention to
terminate a person’s own life or that of another Sangha
in order to relieve that person of suffering or loss
of dignity. karma
For a Buddhist there are two significant
issues. First, what is the intention of the person samsara
undertaking or performing the act of euthanasia?
ahimsa
Second, what is the condition or value of the life
being terminated? For an absolutist, the teaching
dana
that no killing of a human person is ever right
means that all acts of active euthanasia bring
about bad karma. Both the doctor and the patient
who asks for the act of killing will receive bad Buddhist teachings on sexual ethics
karma. For some absolutists, however, the removal
of extraordinary means to sustain life and the One of the five precepts of pancasilam (ethical
administering of drugs to alleviate suffering are not behaviour) directly relates to sexual conduct: ‘I
seen as intentional acts of killing. Rather, they are undertake the precept to avoid misconduct in
understood as a humanitarian way of allowing a matters of sensual pleasure.’ For Buddhists, the
person to die with dignity. primary undertaking is to avoid causing suffering
For a utilitarian Buddhist, the issue is not as either to oneself or to others when engaged in
clear. Consideration of the reduction of suffering sensual pleasure. There are no ‘laws’ or specific
for the ill person is important, as is consideration codes that spell out misconduct, only that people
of the quality of life for that person. If the suffering must ensure that they are not harming themselves
is such that it reduces the quality of human life, or others.
then to end such suffering may well be judged Given that Buddhism exists in many cultures
to bring about a lessening of bad karma, even with differing understandings of family structure
though there is the intent of killing. If, however, and, in particular, of marriage relationships, what
the intention to kill has other selfish reasons (for might be judged adultery will vary. Adultery with
example, that the death relieves the burden of care another’s wife, even with her husband’s agreement,
from the family), then such a killing would bring will always create bad karma. Bad karma is produced
about greater bad karma. even when sex is had with someone who is in
Some Buddhists would argue that the suffering a permanent relationship with another person
of the person is a means of reducing bad karma. outside of marriage, such as those engaged or under
Euthanasia would prevent possible development of the protection of another (such as young girls).
the person towards achieving nirvana more quickly. There are some cultures that see premarital sex as

breaking this precept (Sri Lanka). Others judge the intimately inter-related. Thus, what is done by one
seriousness of the act according to the virtue of the part of the environment affects all other parts of the
woman. environment.
Since the Four Noble Truths clearly spell out Though the human has entered a privileged state
that the cause of suffering is desire and that the end of existence that may bring about enlightenment,
of suffering takes place when a person reduces or this human state is not considered ‘superior’ to
ceases to desire, any compulsive sexual behaviour any other state in nature. Indeed, the human
would be seen to be against this precept. Likewise, state is characterised by prajna (wisdom), samadhi
any sexual behaviour that would bring about (reflection) and sila (ethical action), so human
scandal or disgust to another person would produce beings are obliged to treat nature in a way that
bad karma. Any sexual act that is undertaken demonstrates their wisdom and compassionate
against the will of another (for example, rape) application of that understanding.
would bring about a great deal of bad karma. As always in Buddhism, ahimsa is of primary
Masturbation, though not primarily a breach importance in understanding human obligations
of this precept, entails the person in fantasy and towards nature. Since the human is caught up in
desire, which are causes of suffering. It is, however, the cycle of rebirths because of karma, the human
significant for a monk in that an intentional realises that all other sentient beings are equally
emission of semen requires a meeting of the caught up in this cycle. It is on account of karma
Sangha. This is because the monk has entered a life that there are so many different sentient beings. The
by which he has committed himself to removing all human person, to have arrived at human existence,
desires and cravings. must have previously lived as other forms of non-
There has been a consistent condemnation human sentient life.
of homosexuality throughout most of Buddhist Since a life lived badly may well bring about a
tradition. There is some acceptance of rebirth in non-human sentient life, it is necessary
homosexuality today as long as it avoids harm to for the Buddhist to treat other life forms as possible
the person and to other people. rebirths of close relatives or acquaintances.
activities
1. What is the primary undertaking of Buddhists
engaged in sensual pleasure?
2. Discuss which sexual activities would be
considered bad karma.
3. How has the Buddhist view of homosexuality
changed recently? Research this further.
4. ‘In Buddhism good acts are understood as those
that lessen cravings and desire. These acts,
therefore, produce good karma.’ Discuss this
quote using the information about Buddhist
sexual ethics.
Buddhist teachings on
environmental ethics
Buddhist teachings on the environment reflect the
understanding of the principle of conditioned
arising. This concept sees all states of existence
coming out of another state. It is the Buddhist
understanding of cause and effect. All of nature FIG. 10.9 Learning from a visiting Buddhist monk in a small
arises from other natural causes. Nature is home temple in Melbourne

Within Buddhism there has been a very clear understanding that
non-sentient nature also contributes to the path towards enlightenment.
Harmony with non-living nature creates a means of deeper reflection
about a person’s own nature and that of nirvana. In Buddhist paintings,
gardens and other forms of art, the human is not central to the scene but
is demonstrated to be a part of the landscape.
‘ In Buddhist
paintings, gardens
and other forms
of art, the human
is not central to
the scene but is
demonstrated to
be a part of the
landscape.
’
FIG. 10.10 Waterlily garden at the Binglin Si Bright Spirit Buddhist Temple, Lanzhou, Gansu
Province, China
There has also been a strong tradition for the members of the Sangha
to move outside the monastery and retreat to the forest. In groups or activity
alone, the monks use the natural environment to find seclusion from the Discuss in groups the consequences
distractions of everyday life and a basis for deeper meditation. of Buddhist ethical teachings for the
The teaching of ahimsa forms the basis for how human beings conservation of the environment.
treat animals. The eating of meat, animal experimentation and animal
exploitation must be decided on this principle. Most Buddhists believe
that an animal should not be harmed or killed in order for humans to
benefit from such action. Though vegetarianism is not compulsory, the
eating of meat known to have been killed for the sole purpose of feeding
humans would be seen as willingly accepting a breach of the teaching of
ahimsa. Likewise, animal experimentation and exploitation would also
be seen as violating this teaching.

Significant practices in
the life of Buddhists
Pilgrimage
In Buddhism, pilgrimage is an outward journey to a sacred shrine that
brings about an inner growth and development of the pilgrim’s faith and
spirituality.
The Lord Buddha himself expressed the importance of pilgrimages
and instructed his disciples that after his cremation his ashes were to
be collected and placed in a stupa. In the Mahaparinirvana Sutta, three
significant pilgrimage sites are noted: Lumbini, the place of the Lord
Buddha’s birth; Bodh Gaya, the location of his enlightenment; and
Sanath (Benares), where he preached his first sermon. This sutta also tells
of the dispute among the eight surrounding kingdoms about which of
them should possess his ashes. Finally, the ashes were divided among the
kingdoms while the urn containing the ashes became another important
pilgrimage site. Later, the very ground upon which the Lord Buddha was
cremated became a site for pilgrimage.
FIG. 10.11 Buddha, Mehabodhi Temple, made out of gold around The practice of pilgrimage, therefore, has been
the 13th century always significant for Buddhists. In the third
century BCE the first Buddhist emperor, Asoka,
undertook pilgrimages to the three major sites
of Lumbini, Bodh Gaya and Sanath. He also
showed what had by then become traditional for
pilgrims to do when reaching the site. He attended
discussions with the monks of the Sangha, gave
generous donations to the Sangha and offered
temple puja. He understood that pilgrimage
was a means of strengthening and uniting the
Buddhist tradition and so created many new sites
for ordinary people to gain access for their own
spiritual development. He sent cuttings of the
Bodhi Tree under which the Lord Buddha was
enlightened to Sri Lanka after the king there was
converted, thus making a visible connection with
the Founder and the tradition.
Pilgrimages may be made to places containing
the relics of the Lord Buddha (such as the Temple
of the Tooth in Kandy, Sri Lanka), those of other
Buddhas (such as the Shwedagon Stupa) and those
of Bodhisattvas (such as the shrine to Avalokitesvara
in Kyoto). They can also be made to places famous
for their learning or guidance in the spiritual life
(such as the Potala Palace in Tibet). Pilgrimages
may be undertaken to celebrate festivals at
important shrines.

FIG. 10.12 Tibetan Buddhist pilgrims on the Kora, walking around Mount Kailas, Tibet, which
is sacred to Buddhists
The reasons for making a pilgrimage may vary from person to person.
Adherents may wish to gain good karma to balance previous acts thought
not to have been beneficial. They may want to encounter the actual sites
that are significant for Buddhism. The merit gained through contact with
relics and the guidance undertaken by holy men are further reasons for
pilgrimage. A pilgrimage can also be undertaken to receive assistance
from a Bodhisattva in matters of health, career or prosperity.
A pilgrimage consists of three stages: preparation, the actual
pilgrimage and the transformed life that follows. To prepare for a
pilgrimage, adherents may increase practices of devotion (puja) or
meditation (samadhi). They may undertake to observe more precisely the
five precepts of ethical behaviour or decide to adopt while on pilgrimage
one or more of the five extra precepts undertaken by monks and nuns
(for example, to abstain from food after midday and to avoid distracting
entertainment).
On pilgrimage, adherents might choose to visit shrines and holy activities
places other than the shrine of their destination. They may attend temple 1. What is a pilgrimage?
puja and be guided by monks or nuns at these shrines while also giving 2. Why is a pilgrimage important
donations. On arrival at the main pilgrimage site, adherents will attend to Buddhists?
temple puja, performing most of the practices involved, joining in the
3. Where and when are
chanting of the monks and being guided into a better understanding of
pilgrimages held?
prajna, sila and samadhi.
On their return, pilgrims may well guide others into a better practice 4. What happens on a
of Buddhism and inform them about their experience of the variety pilgrimage?
of Buddhism often found at important pilgrimage sites. (Major sites 5. Describe in point form the
attract adherents from all schools of Buddhism and many countries.) three stages of pilgrimage in
They may bring back to their village religious objects for veneration by Buddhism. Each stage should
the community or texts to be used by the local community to develop have information about what
understanding about the teachings of Buddhism. is done by the pilgrim.

Key beliefs and pilgrimages in Buddhism Pilgrimage also recognises the Dharma. The Lord
Belief in the Lord Buddha is expressed by the very act Buddha encouraged pilgrimage in his teachings and
of pilgrimage. The practice is undertaken to progress many of the pilgrimage sites present opportunities
towards enlightenment, which the Buddha achieved. to listen to those teachings and receive instruction
The pilgrim will venerate the statue(s) of the Lord on them. Pilgrims can join in the recitation of the
Buddha in the vihara (shrine room in Theravada Dharma with the members of the Sangha, and the
Buddhism) or in the gompa (Vajrayana Buddhism). decorations of the temple and adjoining buildings
These statues may depict different stages in the may demonstrate parts of the Dharma. The Dharma
Lord Buddha’s life, or through particular hand can also be recited with the use of malas (prayer
gestures and body postures may indicate one or beads) and with the turning of the prayer wheels
more of the virtues or practices of the Lord Buddha. found at most Tibetan shrines.
In Mahayana Buddhism, pilgrims will also find The Sangha is significant for pilgrims.
statues of other Buddhas (for example, Amitaba) or Monasteries are often attached to shrines and
Bodhisattvas (for example, Avalokitesvara). the monks lead adherents in chants, prayers and
The images of the Lord Buddha are higher acts of reverence. They also deliver instruction
than any other in the shrine room, indicating the and guidance to pilgrims. Pilgrims give donations
central importance of the Buddha. Pilgrims place of food and other items (for example, financial
votive offerings before the images and offer prayers assistance) to the Sangha, thus demonstrating dana.
or petitions. These votive offerings vary but may Buddhists realise that a pilgrimage contributes to
be flowers (particularly the lotus as a sign of the their spiritual development by creating good karma.
flowering of Buddhism above the muddy waters of This has consequences for samsara and progress
ordinary life), candles or incense. towards nirvana. In Tibet, in the chanting of Aum
Before entering the shrine, pilgrims remove mani padme hum (‘To the diamond jewel of nirvana
their shoes as a sign of reverence. They also make in the insight and mercy of samsara’) the pilgrim
customary acts of reverence, such as bows or recalls the reality of the afterlife and the goal of
prostrations. They may make three prostrations spiritual development. Pilgrims may, through dana,
to revere the Three Refuges (Buddha, Dharma transfer their good karma to other people.
and Sangha). Pilgrims may use this opportunity On pilgrimage, adherents observe closely the
to acknowledge previous faults and make vows of three practices of spiritual development: sila,
future devotion and practice. samadhi and prajna. In Vajrayana Buddhism
pilgrims use thangkas (spiritual images) as aids for
FIG. 10.13 Tibetan Buddhist pilgrims prostrating outside the meditation and worship.
Jokhong Temple, Lhasa, Tibet
activity
Create a table with three columns
headed ‘Principal beliefs’,
‘Pilgrimage’, ‘Examples’. The
first column should include the
following principal beliefs: the
Buddha, Dharma, Sangha, karma,
Bodhisattvas. In the second
column explain how pilgrimage
demonstrates these beliefs. In the
third column give examples.

Significance of pilgrimage to the individual Buddhist
Pilgrimage gives identity to the adherent. It is an outward sign that
the pilgrim is a Buddhist and is committed to his or her beliefs. It also
engages the individual in the development of the inner spiritual journey
towards enlightenment and nirvana. It gives the adherent opportunities
for deeper reflection on life as a Buddhist. By undergoing pilgrimage, the
adherent shows belief in a reality beyond ordinary life and that he or she
is solely responsible for gaining this reality (nirvana). A pilgrimage site
may well be understood to have ‘powers’ or ‘spiritual force’ that will aid
the pilgrim in life. The pilgrimage may bring about heightened levels of
the ‘mystical’ for the adherent.
The journey to a shrine removes the distractions and temptations of
activities ordinary life and therefore reduces the cravings that bring about dukkha
(suffering). It assists the pilgrim in ways of discipline and better practice.
1. Why do individuals feel
At the shrines, the pilgrim gains further insight into the life of the
compelled to undertake a
Lord Buddha and the significance of his teachings. The act of pilgrimage
pilgrimage?
brings with it good karma that will result in a better samsara, or it may
2. Why does a pilgrimage
reduce bad karma gained in previous lives. It also improves prajna
provide good karma?
through guidance and instruction. It provides opportunities for further
3. ‘Ritual is the celebration of acts of generosity and compassion, develops the ethical life of the
beliefs.’ Demonstrate how pilgrim by the practice of humility and courage, and gives greater time
pilgrimage is a celebration and effort for meditation.
of an individual’s beliefs in Pilgrimage strengthens the adherent’s understanding of the
Buddhism. Give examples. importance of the Sangha. Their lives of detachment, learning and
4. Empathy. Imagine you devotion act as models for the pilgrim. Their guidance is sought and
are on a pilgrimage which teachings appreciated.
takes two weeks to reach. Particularly at major shrines, pilgrims come into contact with forms
Write down your feelings of Buddhism different from those in their local village or city. These
after one week on the shrines introduce the individual to the great richness and diversity of
road on foot in an Asian Buddhism. This may well challenge the pilgrim’s beliefs and practices,
country. but it may also be an experience of the celebration of a shared faith.
The adherent will witness new forms of practice and devotion and will
observe new expressions of Buddhist architecture and art. Pilgrimage
allows adherents to experience the international community of
Buddhists, and they gain personal support in understanding that their
beliefs are shared by many.
FIG. 10.14 Pilgrims in monastery

courtyard, Sakya, Tibet

Significance of pilgrimage to the Buddhist
community
As with the individual, pilgrimage gives identity
to the community that is supporting and
encouraging its members to undergo pilgrimage.
The community recognises that this is a significant
and extraordinary means of developing the
spiritual life. It shows clearly the beliefs held by the
community. It may well strengthen the bonds of
the community, particularly if the community has
shared its resources so that the person can undergo
the pilgrimage (for example, by providing support
for the pilgrim’s family). The pilgrimage may be
undertaken on behalf of the community. FIG. 10.15 Monks from Ki monastery preparing for holy puja
For those communities attached to the shrine
or site, pilgrimage provides increased wealth and Temple puja
prestige. In particular, the community of the Sangha
gains great benefit from bequests and donations. Buddhist puja (devotion)—both at home and at
Pilgrims will contribute to a better understanding the temple—is not a form of worship of gods or
of Buddhism for the home community by giving goddesses. Though it may be a time of prayer, its
instruction and guidance on their return. The most significant characteristic is that it enables the
pilgrim may well become a model for others. individual and community to come to a greater
Religious objects and texts may be brought realisation of the teachings of Buddhism, and of the
back to enrich the community’s devotion and need for each individual to attain, through his or
understanding. her own responsibility, the fruit of enlightenment.
Through the experience of the pilgrim, the It is not a sacrament at which a person is united
community is introduced to the variety of with a god or goddess, nor is it an obligation to
Buddhist teachings and practices. This informs the observe a key ritual, for enlightenment can be
community of other schools of Buddhism and the achieved without its practice.
international Buddhist community. The temple is generally constructed with three
Pilgrimage also connects the community to this main buildings or rooms. There is the shrine room
ancient traditional custom. It therefore provides containing the images of the Lord Buddha or
a link between the community and the broader Bodhisattvas; the meditation hall; and, for most,
religious tradition. the monastery for monks. These buildings may also
have attached to them stupas or pagodas containing
activities the relics of the Lord Buddha (such as his hair, teeth
or bones) or of other holy men and women. Many
1. List five reasons why pilgrimage is significant to a
important temples will also have a Bodhi tree that
Buddhist. Give examples.
is a descendant of the one under which the Buddha
2. What is the relationship between pilgrimage and found enlightenment. In large temple complexes
the community? there may also be shrines to other Buddhas or
3. How does a pilgrimage help the community? revered men and women.
4. Create a mind map that shows the connection The original design of the temples and vihara was
between the significance of pilgrimage to the simple, reflecting the simple life of the Buddha and the
individual and its significance to the Buddhist Sangha. Over time temples have become beautifully
community. decorated places, with precious images and leaves of
gold placed by devotees on the outside surfaces.
Unlike the practice in other religious traditions,
devotion at a Buddhist temple is seldom a
congregational act. There is no set period of time for
devotion in a temple, and people are free to enter

tree or a stupa three times while saying repetitive
prayers. These circumambulations may be led by
members of the Sangha.
In the shrine room, devotees may offer food,
flowers, lighted candles or incense to the images of
the Buddha on their raised platform.
There is often another raised platform for the
members of the Sangha, indicating their importance
and separation from the life of the laity. Commonly
the monks lead people in chanting. In all schools of
Buddhism devotees may use strings of beads—like
FIG. 10.16 Buddhist shrine room rosaries in some Christian traditions—to help them
count the verses that are being chanted. From
during its opening hours and begin their puja along the raised platform the monks deliver sermons
with a group that entered earlier. and instructions to the devotees. In Vajrayana
Devotees who attend the temple must ensure Buddhism, devotees may also fly prayer flags or turn
that they have dressed properly for it, and, in prayer wheels.
many cases, have washed their hands and faces
before entering the shrine room. There may be
areas outside the temple for these ablutions to
take place. It is a mark of respect and reverence to
remove the shoes before entering the shrine room,
demonstrating that a person is leaving the ordinary
world and embarking upon a sacred activity.
Primarily devotees acknowledge the Three
Refuges—the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha.
They may bow three times in reverence to the
Refuges and in acknowledgement that these Refuges
will assist them in gaining enlightenment. While
bowing devotees may hold their hands together
and touch their head, their mouth and their chest,
symbolising the importance of mind, speech and
body in living out Buddhism. FIG. 10.18 Prayer wheels in Nepal
The Three Refuges may also be acknowledged by
walking around a statue of the Buddha, the Bodhi In some temples, devotees donate money or gifts in
order to have their wishes or prayers written on pieces
of wood that will be burnt in the temple. The resulting
smoke is symbolic of the prayers of the devotees going
up into the heavens to be received by the Buddha
or Bodhisattva. Devotees also give donations to the
Sangha to receive merit from the visit.
activities
1. What is Buddhist puja?
2. What would you find inside a temple?
3. Illustrate the layout of a temple in Buddhism. In
particular, show the objects and floor plan of the
shrine room and indicate the significance of the
layout and the decorations.
FIG. 10.17 Buddhist monks acknowledging the Three Refuges

FIG. 10.19 Man being ordained as a Buddhist monk. Only senior monks attend this ceremony.
Key beliefs and temple puja in Buddhism

Clearly, temple puja is a significant means of expressing the important
beliefs of Buddhism. The temple itself represents the fact that the tradition
of Buddhism is a sacred quest or journey that is both removed from
ordinary life and central to it. The fact that many villages have their own
public shrines continually reminds the community of its attachment to
this religious tradition.
Purifying the body before entering the shrine room and removing the shoes
also indicate that Buddhism requires a reverence for the spiritual. Though
enlightenment takes place within this world, it is not of this world. People
must distance themselves from the desires of this life in order to gain nirvana.
The Three Refuges are significantly acknowledged. The most common
gesture is that of three bows to show reverence to the Buddha, the Dharma
and the Sangha. The presence of the images of the Lord Buddha and other
activity
holy men and women, the attendance of the members of the Sangha, and Create a table with three
the listening to the chant of the Dharma and its explanation all recognise columns headed ‘Principal
the central importance of the Three Refuges. beliefs’, ‘Temple puja’,
Dana (generosity) is a strong part of devotion. Devotees do not merely ‘Examples’. The first column
attend ceremonies and rituals but are expected to donate money or gifts to should include the following
the Sangha and to those less fortunate. principal beliefs: the
Around the temple there may be pictures and images of the life of the Buddha, Dharma, Sangha,
Lord Buddha illustrating the important events and teachings in Buddhism. karma, Bodhisattvas. In the
These illustrations particularly assist those who are unable to read the second column explain how
teachings in coming to a clearer understanding. pilgrimage demonstrates
The practice of meditation is also a part of the temple puja. Devotees these beliefs. In the third
may join monks in meditating or receive instruction in improving their column give examples.
own practice. Better meditation means a better understanding of the
teaching (prajna) and therefore a more perceptive appreciation of how to
live the ethical life (sila).

Significance of temple puja for the Buddhist
community
Every village is proud of its temple or public shrine.
It is cared for and maintained. It is the focus of the
community’s life and may well be situated close to
public markets or squares in which the community
gathers to celebrate significant festivals and times
of the year. It is a continual reminder of the
community’s identity as Buddhist and is the central
focus for village life. Its height may enable it to be
seen from distant rice paddies and surrounding
FIG. 10.20 This new Australian Vietnamese community is proud areas, again reminding people as they live their
of its new temple (see entrance gate, Figure 9.17). daily lives that attention to spiritual activities is
Significance of temple puja to the individual important for them to gain enlightenment.
Buddhist Though there are no congregational rituals as
For the individual, temple puja is one means used such at the temple, the community does come
for attaining enlightenment. It is a good act that together on feast days and during festival times
should be freely chosen (kusala) and that will bring to offer devotion to the Three Refuges. This
about good karma. This in turn ensures a better strengthens the identity of the community as
samsara and progress towards nirvana. Buddhist.
At puja individuals acknowledge the importance If the temple is of great significance (for example,
of the Three Refuges. They further accept their the Temple of the Emerald Buddha in Bangkok),
own identity as Buddhists, and their participation it will attract Buddhists from around the world
with others may strengthen their commitment to and, indeed, non-Buddhists. This allows the
Buddhism. Buddhist community to experience the diversity of
The acts of generosity and compassion are also Buddhist practice and custom and may challenge a
significant in increasing an individual’s good karma. community’s understanding of Buddhism.
Increasing prajna will bring about better practice in
samadhi and result in a better sila. Listening to the FIG. 10.21 While the community is new to Australia, it has built a
sermons and instructions from the members of the large temple to strengthen their identity.
Sangha assists the individual in coming to a better

understanding of the religious tradition.
The temple is also the site where men and
women are ordained as monks and nuns. This
ceremony may only take place when there are a
certain number of monks to perform it. The ritual
is highly significant not only for the individual
but also for his or her family. It is a time for the
community to acknowledge the significance of the
Sangha and the need for an individual to commit
more fully to the teachings and practice of the
Buddhism
If the individual attends temple puja as a pilgrim,
all the benefits of the pilgrimage will be achieved by
that individual.
activities
1. Why is temple puja valuable for the individual?
2. What ceremonies take place in the temple?

Temples of great significance may also house Wesak
important libraries of Buddhist teachings and may
well be Buddhist universities. Access to higher In Buddhism festivals are occasions for devotion
learning is therefore possible for the Buddhist and remembering important aspects of the religious
community at these sites. Again, the greater the teaching. Those who attend these festivals and offer
number of devotees attracted to the temple, the devotion receive karma both for themselves and
greater the wealth of the Sangha and the lay for their communities. Festivals may be localised
community associated with the temple. and attended only by those who are devoted to a
particular shrine or temple, or they may be occasions
activity that attract Buddhists from all over the country.
Festivals are celebrated according to a lunar calendar.
1. Why is the temple important for the community?
Wesak puja is the celebration of the birth,
2. Create a mind map that shows the connection enlightenment and paranirvana of the Lord
between the significance of temple puja to the Buddha. (The paranirvana is what was seen by those
individual and its significance to the Buddhist left behind as the death of the Buddha, but in fact
community. it was the final passing of the Buddha into nirvana.)
3. List five reasons why temple puja is significant to It is celebrated at the time of the New Year, usually
a Buddhist. Give examples. around the month of May, and is the culmination
of one to three days of celebration.
Buddhists start celebrating the New Year by
ensuring there remains nothing of the old year
present in their houses. This entails a good cleaning
of the house. Any image of the Lord Buddha is
cleaned with water. Lay Buddhists symbolically wash
the hands of monks and elderly relatives, indicating
acceptance of the need to develop personal purity
and aid others in drawing closer to nirvana.
In certain countries of South-East Asia, people
build sand stupas or pagodas that represent the
remains of the Lord Buddha and, symbolically, the
deeds of the previous year. After standing for a day,
the stupas are destroyed, acknowledging the desire
to let go of all previous acts of bad karma.
Though there is a focus on the evil done in the
previous year and a wish to improve karma in the
next, the festivals are joyous. People play games,
listen to music, attend drama performances and
come together to appreciate dance and movement.
People may decorate their houses or villages for Wesak.
They may erect stalls for food and refreshment in the
streets and have neighbours join in feasting.
In some countries, the members of the Sangha
lead people in prayer, meditation and instruction.
Wesak is an occasion for the participation of the
Sangha. Particular importance is given to sermons and
instruction, which may go on for a long time. Though
it is a festival of happiness, Wesak is also a time to
remember that all desires, including festivals, bring
about suffering. People may also visit temple sites and
FIG. 10.22 Australian Buddhist community celebrating look at images of the Buddha to remind them of the
Wesak with a visiting West Australian monk great events of his life and his important teachings.

Key beliefs and Wesak
Wesak celebrates the Three Refuges. It also activities
acknowledges an ongoing living religious tradition 1. Why are festivals important to Buddhists?
that remains pertinent for believers today.
2. What is the celebration of Wesak puja?
In commemorating the birth, enlightenment
3. Why is cleanliness so important?
and paranirvana of the Lord Buddha, the festival
recognises the significance of the birth of the 4. What is the main emphasis of the festival of
Buddha as a human who becomes enlightened. Wesak?
This is an important belief in that it shows that 5. Create a table with three columns headed
every human is capable of enlightenment and all ‘Principal beliefs’, ‘Wesak’, ‘Examples’. The first
can gain it through their own efforts. Wesak further column should include the following principal
acknowledges the ultimate goal of Buddhism—the beliefs: the Buddha, Dharma, Sangha, karma,
attainment of nirvana. Bodhisattvas. In the second column explain how
In the acts of cleaning and of washing the hands Wesak demonstrates these beliefs. In the third
of the monks, Buddhists acknowledge that acts column give examples.
of the will have a serious consequence. Good acts
(kusala) bring about good karma that enables a
person to draw nearer to the goal of nirvana and Significance of Wesak for the individual
provides an opportunity for a better afterlife in the Buddhist
cycle of samara. Bad acts (akusala) that are freely Wesak is a time for the individual to reflect on the
chosen result in a bad rebirth. key teachings of Buddhism, especially the Three
The festival of Refuges, and to examine his or her life according
Wesak, with its to these teachings. In acknowledging failure in
‘ The festival
of Wesak, with
its emphasis on
emphasis on accepting
the responsibilities
of the ethical life, is
also a celebration of
the previous year and a sincere desire to act in
a more appropriate way in the coming year, the
individual acknowledges the significance of karma
and samsara. It is a time for individuals to affirm
the human spirit. The Buddhism as an important aspect of their identity.
accepting the Lord Buddha preached It is also a time for individuals to increase
responsibilities that his way was the their generosity and compassion. Attending the
Middle Path—a life lived celebrations and services at the temple, devotees
of the ethical
between the extremes of accept that nirvana is achieved through self-
life, is also hardship and frivolity. determination and continuous practice. For
There is a place in the individuals, to understand better the life and
a celebration
Buddhist life for joy and teaching of the Lord Buddha (prajna) will assist
of the human celebration. them in improving both their ethical life (sila) and
’
The Sangha plays their practice of meditation (samadhi).
spirit.
a significant role in Wesak is also a chance for individuals to
the feast of Wesak. celebrate life and its joys with other members of
Buddhists acknowledge the Buddhist community. For many Buddhists the
the wisdom of the ordinary demands of life are often harsh, and a
members of the Community and spend time festival like Wesak encourages them to persevere in
listening to their advice and their explanation of their faith. It is a time to recommit personally to the
the important teachings of the Dharma. The Sangha lifelong challenge of the way to enlightenment.
is further shown appreciation by gifts of food,
clothing and donations at this time. activities
Wesak, like other festivals, is also a time for
Create a mind map that shows the connection
compassion towards those who are in need.
between the significance of the festival of Wesak to
Believers demonstrate their generosity by giving
the individual and its significance to the Buddhist
to the needy and ensuring that all attending the
community.
festival enjoy this time of the year.

‘ … Wesak as an annual
celebration ties the community
to the Buddhist tradition that
stretches back 2500 years.
’
Significance of Wesak for the Buddhist community
Wesak, in one form or another, is a principal festival throughout the
Buddhist world. The Buddhist community strengthens its identity by
coming together to celebrate and remember the birth, enlightenment
and paranirvana of the Lord Buddha. Though this festival has cultural
differences throughout the world, all Buddhists recognise the basic
components of the festival—the centrality of the stories of the Lord
Buddha’s life, the need to accept responsibility for one’s actions and a
joyous celebration of being alive.
The community further acknowledges the significance of the Sangha
in its life. This festival offers the opportunity to attend the local temple
and listen, as a community, to the sermons and instructions of members
of the Sangha. It is also a means of communally preparing festival meals
for the monks and remaining with them as they join in the feast.
The community may come together to decorate the temple and its
surrounds or to decorate the village. These are seen to be acts of dana in
that they involve putting aside one’s own enjoyment in order to ensure
that all feel a part of the festival.
When Wesak is held at particularly important national shrines or
temples, the community may well welcome pilgrims. This brings into
the community’s life different forms of Buddhism and different ways
of expressing Buddhism. This may either strengthen the belief of the
community in accepting that different forms of Buddhism do not weaken
its claim to bring about enlightenment, or challenge the community’s
activity local understanding of Buddhism.
List five reasons why Wesak is Finally, Wesak as an annual celebration ties the community to the
significant to a Buddhist. Give Buddhist tradition that stretches back 2500 years. It reconfirms the
examples. tradition as a valid explanation of life and a means by which believers
can attain happiness through its practice and teaching.

Review and assess
Review
1. Discuss the contribution of ONE significant person or school of

thought, other than Buddha, to the expression of Buddhism.
2. Choose one significant person or school of thought in Buddhism.

Analyse how that significant person or school of thought responded
to the challenges being faced by Buddhism in the person’s life or the
development of the school of thought.
3. Choose one significant practice in Buddhism—pilgrimage, temple puja

or Wesak. Evaluate how that significant practice contributes to the life
of the adherent.
4. Choose one significant person or school of thought and evaluate its

impact on contemporary Buddhism.
5. Choose one of the following areas of ethical teachings in Buddhism—

bioethics, sexual ethics or environmental ethics. List the reasons why
there are different teachings on this issue within Buddhism.

Extended response (15 marks) Extended response (20 marks)
6. a. Outline TWO contributions to Buddhism made 9. Analyse how ONE significant practice expresses the
by ONE significant person or school of thought, beliefs of Buddhism. Choose from: pilgrimage;
other than Buddha. temple puja; Wesak.
(Studies of Religion II HSC Examination Paper © Board of Studies NSW for
b. Describe the effect on Buddhism of one person
or school of thought, other than Buddha.
10. ‘Ethics is the practical application of beliefs’.
c. Explain how Buddhist ethical teachings Choose one of the following ethical issues—
influence the lives of adherents. Choose an bioethics, sexual ethics or environmental ethics—
aspect from ONE of the following areas: and demonstrate how a Buddhist applies his or
her beliefs to this issue.
• bioethics
• environmental ethics 11. Choose a significant person or school of thought
• sexual ethics. in Buddhism. Discuss its significance for the three
(Studies of Religion II HSC Examination Paper © Board of Studies NSW for schools of Buddhism—Theravadan, Mahayana and
and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2007) Vajrayana.
7 Analyse the impact of ONE significant person or

school of thought, other than the Buddha, on both
the development and expression of Buddhism.
8. Explain how the beliefs of Buddhism are expressed

in EITHER pilgrimage OR temple puja OR Wesak.

Christianity
practices and ethical teachings to an understanding of Christianity as a
living religious tradition. The study of Christianity is to be of the WHOLE
Outcomes Pope John XXIII

Billy Graham
A student:
Dennis Bennett
Sarah Maitland
Liberation theology
and belief systems on individuals and society
Feminist theology
H4 describes and analyses how aspects of religious
traditions are expressed by their adherents another person or school of thought
significant to Christianity
H5 evaluates the influence of religious traditions
in the life of adherents • the effect of that person OR school of thought on
Christianity
H6 organises, analyses and synthesises relevant
information about religion from a variety of
Ethics
sources, considering usefulness, validity and
bias • ONEof the following areas of ethical teaching in
Christianity:
H7 conducts effective research about religion and
evaluates the findings from the research bioethics
H8 applies appropriate terminology and concepts environmental ethics

related to religion and belief systems sexual ethics
H9 coherently and effectively communicates
complex information, ideas and issues using Significant practices in the life of adherents
appropriate written, oral and graphic forms. • ONE significant practice within Christianity drawn
from:
baptism
Content
marriage ceremony
Students learn about: Saturday/Sunday worship

Significant people and ideas behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2009.)
• the contribution to Christianity of ONE significant

person OR school of thought, other than Jesus,
drawn from:
Paul of Tarsus
Hildegard of Bingen
Martin Luther
Catherine Booth
HSC | Chapter 11 Christianity 269

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS analysis and interpretation of scriptural LAST SUPPER the last meal shared by Jesus with his
texts. apostles that instituted the Eucharist.
BIOETHICS ethics concerned with health care and LOW CHURCH evangelical reformed Protestant
scientific research. Churches that rely on the Bible.
CATECHISM summary of Christian doctrine. MASS the commemoration of the Last Supper
CATHOLIC letters written to the new Christian in a formal ceremony.
EPISTLES communities that were general in MORALITY the decisions people make based on
nature. their ethical system.
CHRIST the Messiah, the anointed one—from NATURAL LAW the order that governs the natural
the Greek Christos. universe.
CONSCIENCE our individual sense of what is right PAPACY the leadership of the Pope and
and wrong. Cardinals based in Rome.
DISCIPLESHIP the fellowship offered by the Christian PATRIARCHY a society where males have primary
community. responsibility and control.
EKKLESIA a church or congregation in the early PHARISEES a first-century Jewish group who valued
Hellenic Christian communities. the oral law of Moses and the Torah as
EPISTLE a letter with teaching or instruction guidance for how to live life as a Jew.
contained within it. PROTESTANT a 16th-century movement to reform
ETHICS a system by which people decide what REFORMATION the Catholic Church that led to the
is right and good. formation of the Protestant Churches.
EUCHARIST Christian sacrament that RITE the detailed description of a particular

commemorates the Last Supper of Jesus ritual, such as the Rite of Marriage.
Christ. Also known as communion, RITUAL the prescribed actions and words that
holy communion or the Lord’s Supper. form part of a liturgy or act of worship.
EUTHANASIA use of medical technology to end life. SABBATH the day of rest established by the
FEMINIST the movement to reconsider Jewish tradition.
THEOLOGY tradition and scripture from a SACRAMENTS sacred rites or ceremonies involving
feminist perspective, recovering new change for the individual.
interpretations and new inclusive SALVATION deliverance from sin gained through
understandings of Christianity. the death and resurrection of Jesus.
GENTILE a person who is not of the Jewish faith. SERMON teaching about Christianity given
HELLENIC emanating from the Greek world. usually by the celebrant during
HERMENEUTICS the science of analysing and worship services.
interpreting texts. SITUATION ETHICS making the right choice according to
HIGH CHURCH associated with the Anglican tradition the situation, often called the ‘love
of Christianity. ethic’, popularised by Joseph Fletcher
in 1966.
HOMILY explanation of the Gospel given by the
celebrant of the service. SOLA FIDE the doctrine of justification which
states that we are saved by faith alone.
HOMOSEXUALITY sexual attraction to or activity among
members of the same sex. SOLA SCRIPTURA the doctrine that the Bible is the only
authority for Christian faith.
INDULGENCES a remission of punishment for sins
granted for good works done. STEWARDSHIP the responsibility given to humanity
to care for the earth as outlined in
JESUS MOVEMENT a sect that developed in Jerusalem and
Genesis.
Judaea after Jesus’ death.
THEOLOGY the study of religion and religious
KASHRUTH the Jewish food laws that determine
beliefs.
what is clean and unclean.
THESES arguments or ideas.

Significant people and ideas
Significant people who have reflected upon, agitated for and initiated
change have shaped Christianity, the world’s largest religion. The ideas
raised by these people have been attempts to respond to the needs of
Christian adherents in changing contexts throughout Christianity’s two
millennia of existence. At times viewed as heroes or heretics, these men
and women undeniably changed the face of Christianity.
Paul of Tarsus
One of the core arguments advanced by Paul (c. 10 BCE–67 CE) was that
Christianity was a world religion. It was not a Jewish sect but open Saul to Paul
to everyone: Jews and Gentiles, all of whom were drawn to Jesus of There are several theories as to
Nazareth’s countercultural teachings of love, forgiveness and salvation why Saul changed his name to
for all believers (see Chapter 3, page 67). Paul after his conversion. One
The Gospel writer Luke tells us that Paul was born in Tarsus, a town in is that ‘Paul’ is a Romanised
Asia Minor (Acts 9:11). Originally known as Saul, he was a Roman citizen version of ‘Saul’ and would
and a tentmaker by trade, and was well educated in his Jewish faith. have suited his role as apostle
Having grown up in the Hellenic world, he also understood both Greek to the Gentiles. A second
and Roman culture. Although Saul was a contemporary of Jesus and possible reason is that the
became a great leader of Christianity, he never met Jesus of Nazareth. As Greek name Paulos meant
a Pharisee, Saul actively persecuted Christians until, according to Acts ‘little’, and for Paul it was
9:3–19, he was converted to Christianity through a supernatural event. appropriate for him as a ‘little
His witness to this in Acts 22 and Acts 26 indicates that he had come to one’ in the service of Christ.
a dramatic realisation that Jesus was the authentic way to salvation for
believers in God.
‘ ... he (Paul)
was converted to
Christianity through
a supernatural
event.
’
FIG. 11.1 The Conversion of Saint Paul

Paul’s mission
Saul, now known as Paul, travelled to Arabia and Damascus, preaching
salvation through Christ. He journeyed to Jerusalem to speak with
Peter, James and John who were the leaders of the Jesus movement.
From here Paul began his work as a missionary to the Hellenic world.
Travelling on four major journeys around the Mediterranean, he spread
the message of the Christ to all who would listen. Paul set up house
churches with leaders in many of the major towns, including the
trading ports of Ephesus, Corinth, Philippi and Antioch.
Setting up these churches in seaports, through which vast numbers
of people travelled, helped the message of Christianity to spread
quickly across the Hellenic world. The cosmopolitan nature of this
region meant that it was open to new religions and ideas, unlike
Palestine where Jesus had lived and preached. This resulted in a
dramatic increase in the number of converts to Christianity in the
Greek-speaking world.
The Pauline letters

Paul wrote epistles to support the fledgling house church communities
around the Mediterranean. These became important sources of
interpretation of the teachings of Jesus and helped the new Christian
churches to find their faith in a shared community. These letters, the
first writings of what later formed the New Testament, provided the
foundation of what was to become Christian doctrine and ethical
teaching. Paul was the first Christian theologian, and later theologians FIG. 11.3 Ephesus, an important centre of
such as Saint Augustine and Martin Luther were indebted to his work, Christianity for St Paul
which defined the significance of Jesus as Christ and Saviour.
Rome
Adriatic Black Sea
Puteoli Sea
Neapolis Philippi
Neapolis Byzantium
Thessalonica Amphipolis
Tyrrhenian Beroea Apollonia
Sea Latisa Troas
Assos
Nicopolis Mytilene
Messina Sardis
Antioch
Rhegium Smyrna
Athens Iconium Edessa
Corinth Lystra Anatarbus
Syracusa Miletus
Ionian Sparta
Tarsus
Attalia Perge
Sea
Melita
Myra
ANTIOCH
Rhodes
Salamis Palmyra
Gortuna
Paphos
Sidon
Tyre
Mediterranean Sea Ptolemais
Paul’s first journey Caesarea
Paul’s second journey Cyrene
Paul’s third journey JERUSALEM
Paul’s journey to Rome (traditional)
Alexandria
FIG. 11.2 The journeys of St Paul

TABLE 11.1 Letters written by Paul or his disciples
PAULINE CORPUS CATHOLIC EPISTLES

Paul’s central ideas
Reflections on the person of Jesus and Letters written for all Christians.
• faith in God alone (Romans
living the Christian life. 1 Peter
2:4–5): that salvation was
1 Thessalonians James
offered to all who believed
2 Thessalonians Jude
in God
Galatians 1 John
• humankind saved by the death
1 Corinthians 2 John
and resurrection of Jesus Christ
2 Corinthians 3 John
(1 Corinthians 1:18, 21–25;
Romans 2 Peter
Romans 1:16; 2 Corinthians 4:4)
Captivity letters written while Paul Pastoral letters written for leaders/ • the church as the body of
was in prison. pastors. Christ (1 Corinthians 12:13)
Colossians 1 Timothy • the mercy of God (Romans
Ephesians 2 Timothy 4:5, 17)
Philippians Titus • the call to a life of freedom and
Philemon responsibility (Galatians 5:14)
• Those letters in bold are agreed to have been written by Paul. • the centrality of the Lord’s
• Other letters reflect Paul’s ideas but may have been written under his Supper (1 Corinthians 11:23–26)
leadership or added to by one of his followers.
Paul’s challenge to Christianity

As a member of the Hellenic world, Paul recognised activities
the relevance of the message of Christianity beyond 1. Biographical sketch: Create a brief dot point
the Jewish faith. He became an advocate for the biography of Paul of Tarsus including the following
inclusion of the Gentiles among the true followers of information: key dates, socio-political background,
Christianity. Until Paul’s challenge, Jewish Christians significant writings, key events and achievements.
believed that non-Jews had to convert to Judaism and
2. Key event: Read Acts 15 and outline the impact of
follow the Law of Moses, which included food laws
the Council of Jerusalem on early Christianity.
and circumcision. Paul challenged this belief at the
Council of Jerusalem in c. 50 CE. Acts 15 recounts the 3. Ethical teachings: Read the following scripture
events of the council and the decision that enabled passages and clarify how Paul modelled for early
Gentiles as well as Jews to be followers of Jesus of Christians the path to a Christian life:
Nazareth and call themselves Christians. • the importance of love (1 Corinthians 13)
• membership of the body of Christ
(1 Corinthians 12:13)
• Christ’s call to a life of freedom and
responsibility (Galatians 5:14)
yra • the physical self as the temple of the Holy Spirit
4. Theological understanding: The four Gospels
describe the story and teachings of Jesus, but
Paul defined the role of Jesus as Saviour and the
personal and communal responsibility of Christians.
In small groups, examine the letters to the Romans,
Galatians, Ephesians and Thessalonians to locate
FIG. 11.4 Statue of the apostle St Paul evidence to support this view of Paul’s theology.

Paul of Tarsus’ contribution to Christianity
Any one of his achievements would have made • Paul opened up a challenge to the first followers
Paul of Tarsus a significant figure in the history of of Jesus to accept Gentiles as well as Jews into
Christianity. It is truly extraordinary that Paul was the community of the faithful. This permitted
a teacher, a theologian, a missionary, a writer, and freedom from the laws of kashruth for all
a rebel in challenging the leadership of the early Gentile Christians, further encouraging the
church to make Christianity inclusive. spread of the religion.
• Paul’s writings make up over a quarter of the • Paul’s teachings on salvation through grace
New Testament. His letters were the earliest and the resurrection of Jesus Christ are central to
Christian writings and influenced the authors his theology and had an impact on the work of
of the Gospels. His epistles were written to give later theologians such as Saint Augustine, Martin
guidance to early Christian communities. Luther, John Calvin and Karl Barth. Paul taught
• Paul outlined the ethical demands of being that Jesus was the Son of God who was sent to
a Christian. He called on the new Church overcome the power of sin (Romans 6:22) and
communities to share with each other, to work that his combined death and resurrection was the
together for the good of the whole community saving event for all people (Romans 4:26).
and to live the life modelled by Jesus Christ. He • Paul was a martyr for his faith. Details of his
reminded them that the church (the ekklesia) life after 60 CE are not clear, but several theories
was the body of Christ. ascribe his death to the Roman authorities.
• Paul’s work as a missionary, establishing Paul’s status as a Roman citizen had provided
churches in centres of the Hellenic world him with great protection, but his allegiance to
such as Corinth, Philippi and Antioch, was Christianity cost him his life during the reign of
a significant development of Christianity. He Emperor Nero.
took Christianity from a Jewish sect existing in
Palestine to a religion reaching the known world, activity
spreading east to Gaul, south to Egypt and north Was Paul anti-women? Paul’s letter to the Romans
to Asia Minor. He used the name ‘Christian’ indicates that it was to be carried to Rome by Phoebe,
positively when those before had used it as a a deaconess of the early church (Romans 16).
derogatory term. Another woman, Priscilla, was acknowledged with
her husband, Aquila, as house leader for the church
at Ephesus. These roles suggest that Paul was rather
countercultural in his approach to women, offering
them leadership positions. Research the role of
women in Paul’s house church communities.
Paul of Tarsus’ impact on Christianity

Paul is an important figure for all denominations
of Christianity and his contribution is far-reaching.
His writings continue to be a means by which
many Christians learn about their faith. Paul’s work
most significantly underpins the Christian belief
in salvation through faith in Jesus Christ. One of
the most significant contributions that Paul made
was to the establishment of the written tradition of
Christianity.
Paul is considered Christianity’s second founder.
It was Paul who explained to the early Christians
the message and mission of Jesus Christ. Paul spread
FIG. 11.5 St Paul of Tarsus announces the Holy Gospel the message of Christianity in the Graeco-Roman

FIG. 11.6 St Paul in Rome with the emperor Nero. A mural in Kykkos Monestry, Cyprus
world. This inclusive approach led to the concept of the universal

church open to all, ‘Gentile or Jew, servant or free’ (Galatians 3:28).
Interpretations of Paul’s teaching though history (for example, in
the Protestant Reformation) have seen different understandings
of how that belief is expressed. What began as a means by which
Gentiles could access salvation has led to divisions that have
separated expressions of Christianity up to today.
Paul enabled the translation of the message of Christianity from
its Palestinian origins to the urban environment of the Graeco- activity
Roman world. He made the faith relevant to a range of situations Use the following headings and
culturally and religiously different from that of Jesus. In the Graeco- subheadings to create a table of
Roman world the Christian communities met in house churches. information on Paul’s contribution to
The houses were able to provide room for all to meet and share a Christianity.
meal. Membership of the Hellenic Christian church was different • Contribution to development:
and included tradespeople as well as nobility or the wealthy, such Reform, Reinterpretation,
as the cloth merchant Lydia (Acts 16:11–15, 40). Redirection, Expansion
In his many writings, Paul taught about the nature of Jesus
• Contribution to expression:
himself, as human and divine. He clarified the theology of Christ and
Principal beliefs, Sacred text and
the church in his letters to various church communities. This clarity,
writing, Core ethical teaching,
however, was not to last. The Council of Nicaea in 325 CE debated
Devotion and ritual
the nature of Jesus and formulated the doctrine of the Trinity. The
East–West Schism in 1054 CE was in part caused by a disagreement • Significance to Christianity:
about the nature and relationship of the persons in the Trinity. Contemporary influence, To
Paul’s writings provide direction on how to live a Christian life. later generations, To the whole
The letters offer guidance in ethics, such as what is involved in tradition
community-membership of the body of Christ, and in religious
practice, such as how to commemorate the Last Supper to remember
Christ’s sacrifice (1 Corinthians 11:24). He also warned Christians to
live a life that is worthy, for ‘we are God’s work of art’ (Ephesians 2).
Paul’s teaching was fundamental in the development of
Protestant thinking. Martin Luther took the concept of justification
by faith from the teaching of Paul. John Calvin also looked to Paul
for fundamental understanding of Christian teaching. Paul’s role as a
missionary provided support for the evangelical Christian churches.
Today the different expressions of Christianity look to Paul for
direction in clarifying teachings on the role of women and sexuality.

Martin Luther
Martin Luther (1483–1546 CE) brought about

significant change to Christianity during his
lifetime and his impact continued into later
centuries. He challenged the role of the papacy and
the importance of priesthood as well as debating
what was the true path to salvation. Luther
translated the Bible into German, wrote sermons
on Christian life and is credited with beginning the
Protestant Reformation.
A bolt from the blue

A lightning bolt struck the ground near Luther
as he was returning from a trip to the university,
convincing him to join the priesthood. He cried
out and vowed to become a monk if he lived.
FIG. 11.7 Martin Luther
Luther grew up in Eisleben, attended university Luther’s central teachings

in Erfurt and then entered the church as an • Justification by faith (sola fide): All people have
Augustinian monk. He studied for a Doctorate to do to achieve salvation is to have faith in
of Theology and began to teach at University of God. Nothing else will save them.
Wittenberg. His study of Paul’s letters convinced • Scripture alone (sola scriptura): The Bible is the
him that faith alone mattered to the Christian. one source of authority for Christians.
Luther challenged church teaching on indulgences • Theology of the cross: The source of all
and responded by posting 95 Theses on the knowledge of God is the death and resurrection
door of the church of Wittenberg, hoping to of Jesus.
encourage church leadership to end the practice of • Universal priesthood: All Christians are part of
indulgences. The response of church authorities was the universal priesthood of believers.
to excommunicate him in 1521, and Luther went
into hiding at Wartburg Castle.
During this time of seclusion, Luther translated
the New Testament into German. The development
of the printing press by Johannes Guttenberg a
century before now meant that Luther’s translation
could be made accessible for all Germans, an
important first for Christianity. Until then, the
clergy had always explained the Bible to the
community, but now Christians could read the
passages of scripture and interpret them for
themselves.
The era that was ushered in by Martin Luther’s
challenge to church teaching was to be later called
the Protestant Reformation. Although Luther is
given credit for the start of the Reformation, many
others were asking questions about papal power and
the abuses that had crept into Christian practice. FIG. 11.8 Martin Luther burning papal bulls

activity
What were the key factors encouraging the rise of Protestant thinking
in Luther’s time? Explore the following signs of the times:
• the rise of Humanism (Erasmus)
• papal power and taxes
• dispensation, absolution and indulgences.
Luther’s contribution to Christianity

Luther did not intend to bring about a rift within Christianity. He
was being true to his role as a theologian, teacher and Augustinian
monk in studying the source of Christian teaching. Luther’s actions
eventually led to the Reformation of the Catholic Church.
Luther’s writings were significant for Christianity. The Luther
Bible, printed in 1534, was the first German translation of the
scriptures. He wrote several catechisms for adults and children. His
best-known works include To the Christian Nobility of the German
Nation, On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church and On the Freedom
of a Christian. In 1526 Luther produced a document on liturgical
reform. He also composed hymns for communal singing.
Luther emphasised the importance of the Bible. The medieval
church put much emphasis on the Pope and the hierarchy of the
bishops and priests. Luther held that the Bible was the word of
God and the church ran the risk of error in interpreting this for the
community. He believed that the teachings on indulgences were
one example of this error.
Luther’s theological teaching was focused on individuals and
their relationship with God. God was the centre of the universe
and all activity, and the performance of good works was not a ticket
to heaven. To this end he rejected church authority and church
tradition as sources of teaching on salvation. Justification by faith
was the key aspect of his theology.
Faith is the ‘Yes’ of the heart … a gift of God … on what does this
faith rest? On Christ, born of a woman, made under the law.
(Luther, Werke, 49.9)
Other significant aspects of Luther’s theology were the theology

of the cross, the priesthood of all believers and the role of the
sacraments, including the Eucharist. FIG. 11.9 Wartburg Castle, where Luther
translated the New Testament
activity
Luther’s anti-Semitic views were influential but common in the era
in which he was living. He campaigned against the Jews in Germany
and believed that they could no longer call themselves the people
of God. Many argue that these ideas were used by the Nazi Party to
inflame Germans during the 1930s. Was Luther anti-Semitic?

The impact of Luther on Christianity
• Luther believed in the importance of two
Luther’s greatest impact was to be one of the
sacraments, baptism and holy communion, as
initiators of the Protestant Reformation. His actions
Jesus Christ instituted them. Many Protestant
in posting the 95 Theses led to the Protestant
churches continue to maintain this approach
Reformation and later to the Catholic Counter-
to the sacraments today. Luther’s concerns
Reformation. These significant events allowed
about liturgy included questioning the
Christianity to renew itself and bring about
elaborate vestments worn by priests and the
important reforms. Other Protestants, such as
detailed ceremony associated with sacraments.
Ulrich Zwingli in Switzerland and John Calvin in
He wanted to maintain the simplicity of
France, emerged at the same time as Luther and the
liturgy and focus on personal relationship with
movement for change became rapid. The role of the
Christ. He advocated that the Mass should be
printing press in disseminating his ideas was central
said in the language of the people and not in
to Luther’s success in sharing his concerns about
Latin.
Christian leadership.
• Luther encouraged the people to sing during
worship services. Until Luther’s time, music
and singing were the responsibility of monks
and priests. Luther’s legacy in establishing a
tradition of singing in community continues
today in both Protestant and Catholic
churches.
• Luther’s challenge of the leadership of the
Roman Catholic Church was an opportunity
for renewal for the church leadership.
Indulgences and other church abuses had
led to a disconnection between the church
authorities and the community. The Counter-
Reformation (1560–1648) was an important
opportunity for the Catholic Church to
respond to the challenges that Luther had
raised. It allowed the church to establish a
response to Protestantism and Renaissance
thinking, and to review its own practices and
tradition.
activity
Use the following headings and subheadings to
create a table of information on Luther’s contribution
to Christianity.
• Contribution to development: Reform,
Reinterpretation, Redirection, Expansion
FIG. 11.10 Doors of Wittenberg Cathedral • Contribution to expression: Principal beliefs,
Sacred text and writing, Core ethical teaching,
• An emphasis on the gospel of forgiveness
Devotion and ritual
and salvation was central to Luther’s
theology and had a long-term impact on • Significance to Christianity: Contemporary
Christian theology. Protestant expressions influence, To later generations, To the whole
of Christianity see Luther as particularly tradition
important in emphasising the merciful God
and salvation found through faith in Christ.

Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza
Feminist theology emerged from the feminist movement of the

19th and 20th centuries that recognised the rights of women to
vote, to equal pay and to access to education. It was influenced by
the other significant theology of the time—liberation theology.
Using understandings drawn from sociology, feminist theologians
examined the ‘community of equals’ (Galatians 3:28) that Jesus
formed and argued it was a very different one from the Jewish and
Graeco-Roman society around it.
One contemporary feminist theologian and biblical scholar is
Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza (b. 1938). Her approach to scriptural
‘
analysis has been groundbreaking and her methodology considered
academically rigorous. Schüssler Fiorenza’s greatest contribution to Christian
theology has been in the technique of applying a ‘hermeneutics scripture had been
of suspicion’ to biblical texts—reading scriptural texts carefully,
looking for the underlying assumptions of the writer. She wished to written from a
find out what constituted authentic Christianity as expressed in the male perspective
early Christian communities.
Schüssler Fiorenza studied theology at the University of and as such failed
Würzburg, the first woman to be admitted to theological studies to acknowledge the
normally reserved for men studying for the priesthood. She
completed two theological degrees and travelled to the United
roles and stories
States to teach and continue her research in the field of biblical of the women
’
studies. Her writings have been foundational to the feminist
theology movement and to biblical scholarship.
present.
Schüssler Fiorenza’s ‘hermeneutic of suspicion’ held that
Christian scripture had been written from a male perspective
and as such failed to acknowledge the roles and stories of the
women present. Schüssler Fiorenza’s methodology then applied a
‘hermeneutic of proclamation’ to suggest a new interpretation for
today’s church and a ‘hermeneutic of remembrance’ to recover and
celebrate the stories of women in the scriptures.
While some feminist theologians felt that the church remained
too patriarchal and chose to leave it, Schüssler Fiorenza argued that
patriarchy did not originate with Christianity. The discipleship of
equals evident in the Jesus movement (described in Galatians) was
a reality, but she also recognised a continuing tension between the
emergent Christianity and the Graeco-Roman world in which it
existed.
One of Schüssler Fiorenza’s works, Jesus: Miriam’s Child, Sophia’s
Prophet (1994), explored the link between Jesus as sage and Sophia,
divine Wisdom, from the Old Testament. Schüssler Fiorenza believed
that this new understanding of Jesus made interpretation of Christian
scripture more accessible to a wider range of believers, particularly
those who were marginalised. Schüssler Fiorenza’s analysis of Christian
doctrine in this book was a call to move to a more open and less
dogmatic understanding of Christianity.

Schüssler Fiorenza remains critical of the Schüssler Fiorenza’s contributions to
existing academic community in its setting of the Christianity
intellectual agenda, describing it as particularly Schüssler Fiorenza’s contributions can be seen in
male and Western in its focus. several areas of Christian teaching and practice:
• Schüssler Fiorenza has contributed to the
‘As a woman I could not have become a theologian
area of Christian feminist theology. As
or a philosopher in the past, because I couldn’t
her understanding developed about the era
go to university or study theology and philosophy.
of the Jesus Movement, Schüssler Fiorenza
The same is true, for instance, for my colleagues
explored the roles of women and contributed
Cornell West, Fernando Segovia, or Kwok Pui Lan,
new understandings about the significance of
and many other scholars from the margins. We are
these women and their contribution to early
supposed to have ‘made it’ having gone through all
Christianity.
the hoops, excelled in all the exams, and having
become as full professors a part of the academy. Yet • Biblical scholarship is also indebted to the
we still do not define academic discourse but remain work of Schüssler Fiorenza. Her hermeneutic
marginal to it.’ framework for biblical interpretation uses a
(Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza quoted in Norton, historical and theological understanding of the
MB, Journal of Philosophy and Theology, 2003). era to evaluate the reliability of the evidence in
the texts. This has proven a useful methodology
for analysing scripture.
Schüssler Fiorenza continues to teach and work
in the field of biblical studies. She is currently the • Schüssler Fiorenza has also been a role model
Krister Stendahl Professor of Divinity at the Harvard of leadership in the church, becoming the
Divinity School in Cambridge, Massachusetts. first woman to be elected president of the
Society of Biblical Literature and taking on a
Professorship at Harvard School of Theology. She
activities
has also demonstrated leadership of women’s
1. Biographical sketch: Create a dot point sketch of organisations in her co-founding of the Journal
Schüssler Fiorenza’s life. Include important works of Feminist Studies in Religion. She is a member
that she has written and influential positions of the Women’s Caucus: Religious Studies, the
she has held. Add to this list some of the other Women’s Ordination Conference (Catholic) and
theologians who have been significant influences the New York Feminist Scholars in Religion. She
in her work and those whom she has influenced. continues to speak out about the place of women
2. Key writings: Examine extracts from Schüssler in Christianity.
Fiorenza’s works to provide evidence of her • Schüssler Fiorenza’s writings are considered
approach to Christian theology: In Memory of scholarly works on biblical exegesis and feminist
Her: A Feminist Reconstruction of Christian Origins theology. Appearing in books and essays over
(1983), Bread Not Stone: The Challenge of Feminist several decades, Schüssler Fiorenza’s work has
Biblical Interpretation (1984), But She Said: Feminist been translated into several languages and widely
Practices of Biblical Interpretation (1992), Jesus: distributed.
Miriam’s Child, Sophia’s Prophet (1994).
• Schüssler Fiorenza’s concern about Western
3. Theological understanding: Explore examples of male dominance in the academic world and
the approach of ‘hermeneutics of suspicion’ as the need to listen to the stories of those scholars
outlined by Schüssler Fiorenza. from other backgrounds have encouraged many
to question current discourse in the academic
field. For Schüssler Fiorenza, intellectual
discussion displays the same bias exposed by her
work in biblical exegesis.

‘
The impact of Schüssler Fiorenza on Christianity Schüssler Fiorenza has
Schüssler Fiorenza is a significant figure in theology and
biblical studies. Her work demonstrates a number of impacts on constantly challenged the
Christianity. church hierarchy to listen
• Ecumenical: Schüssler Fiorenza’s work has broad acceptance
to the new interpretation of
across a range of expressions of Christianity, not just the
Catholic perspective from which she speaks. scriptural texts and respond
’
to their call.
• Inclusive: Looking for the voice of the women in the text has
illuminated the need to ‘hear’ what is not said in a text—what
has been left out of the story. This has significance when
considering the importance of the voices of those who are activity
seldom heard, like those in disadvantaged societies, or those who Use the following headings and
lack a means by which their stories can be shared. subheadings to create a table of
• Challenging: Schüssler Fiorenza has constantly challenged information on Schüssler Fiorenza’s
the church hierarchy to listen to the new interpretation of contribution to Christianity.
scriptural texts and respond to their call. Her academic works • Contribution to development:
have challenged the thinking of many theologians and are Reform, Reinterpretation,
acknowledged by more liberal Christians as significant for Redirection, Expansion
understanding the early Christian community. Some might
• Contribution to expression:
argue that as a feminist theologian her impact is limited, but in
Principal beliefs, Sacred text and
recent years her call to value academic leaders from non-Western
writing, Core ethical teaching,
backgrounds has broadened her influence.
Devotion and ritual
• Introduced new methodologies: Schüssler Fiorenza introduced
• Significance to Christianity:
the ‘hermeneutics of suspicion, proclamation, remembrance and
Contemporary influence, To
creative actualisation’, as articulated in her books In Memory of
later generations, To the whole
Her (1983) and Bread Not Stone (1984), which provided a new
tradition
approach to biblical exegesis.

Ethics
In its simplest explanation, ethics is a practical Bioethics

application of belief. It is a system by which
conduct is determined to be appropriate or not. Bioethics is the area of science that deals with
Morality is concerned with the individual decisions ethical choices faced in medical research and the
taken based on the ethical system. treatment of patients where advanced medical
Christian ethics are based on right relationships: technology is used. Ethical issues that Christians
with God, with one’s neighbour and with oneself. might have concerns with are cloning, IVF and
The importance of ethics to Christian adherents lies screening embryos, abortion, euthanasia, stem
in the guidance that they provide in living each day cell technology and genetic engineering. The key
according to their beliefs. Christian belief that is challenged in bioethical
All Christians would hold that teachings found research is the value or sanctity of human life.
in the Bible—the Ten Commandments (Exodus
20:2–17), the Beatitudes (Matthew 5:3–10/ Luke The preservation of human life and
6:20–26) and Jesus’ Commandment of Love (Luke euthanasia
10:25–27)—are key sources for determining ethical Christians have always believed that life is sacred
behaviour. There remains, however, a diversity of and should be preserved. Life is considered a gift
ethical standpoints on issues such as bioethics from God. But Christians also realise that death is
and sexual behaviour. These standpoints exist in inevitable. The reality is that we live in a society
different Christian churches where other sources of where medical care is capable of prolonging life
authority, such as tradition or episcopal leadership, through use of technology. The question becomes:
are considered important to the expression of what is the quality of life that can be achieved
Christianity. In Protestant ethics, the primacy of for the person, and is sustaining life at any cost
biblical ethical teaching is evident. In Catholic and appropriate?
Orthodox Churches, natural law is also regarded as The Fifth Commandment clearly states that it is
important. In Pentecostal churches, the pastor is a wrong to take another human life: ‘You shall not
significant source of guidance for ethical teaching. murder’ (Exodus 20:13). The Bible does not give
Traditional Christian ethics are grounded any specific teaching on euthanasia, but many
either in a natural law approach (which holds that Christians would use this commandment to argue
certain actions are wrong because they go against that euthanasia is not permitted.
our human nature) or in a Bible-based approach. The challenge for those who consider euthanasia
Both result in moral absolutes such as the beliefs often occurs when the patient is suffering from the
that homosexuality is wrong; abortion is wrong; effects of ongoing illness and their quality of life
euthanasia is wrong. These behaviours or actions is not being maintained. Christians would regard
are held to be, by their nature, evil, independent of suffering and pain as part of what it means to be
the context. human and through that pain they can arrive at
Some contemporary theologians suggest that some understanding of Jesus Christ’s sacrifice. Saint
situation ethics—which are based on the centrality Paul spoke of ‘suffering [that] produces endurance’
of love and the idea that actions are not right or (Romans 5:3) as part of life. But for families, the
wrong in themselves, but depend on the context or ongoing suffering of the patient is not something
‘situation’ in which an action occurs—are a more they wish to prolong.
appropriate Christian ethical approach. Situation
ethics claims that Jesus came to do away with a Catholic teaching on the preservation of
legalistic approach to religion and replaced it with human life
the law of love. Catholic teaching is based on the principles of
natural law. In addition to this teaching, in matters
of the preservation of human life the distinction

is made between ordinary and extraordinary means Cicely Saunders, a member of the Anglican
of prolonging life. Ordinary means are necessary Church, founded the Hospice Movement in 1967.
and reasonable for the preservation of human life. Hospices are places where terminally ill people can
Extraordinary means are those that are out of balance be given specialist care during the last phase of their
with the outcome or particularly burdensome for lives. The aim of a hospice is to provide holistic care
the family. The balance needs to be maintained of the dying, managing their pain and providing
between maintaining pain relief and not hastening medical care but also looking to support the person
death for the patient. Sometimes the administration with emotional, spiritual and physical aid during
of a pain reliever might also have the side effect of this difficult time.
suppressing respiration, so it is important that ‘Death
is in no way intended or sought, even if the risk of it
is reasonably taken; the intention is simply to relieve
pain’ (Declaration on Euthanasia, Sacred Congregation
for the Doctrine of the Faith [1980]).
In 2007, the Congregation for the Doctrine of
the Faith noted:
The administration of food and water even by

artificial means is, in principle, an ordinary and
proportionate means of preserving life. It is therefore
obligatory to the extent to which, and for as long as,
it is shown to accomplish its proper finality, which
is the hydration and nourishment of the patient.
In this way suffering and death by starvation and
dehydration are prevented.
(Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith,
Declaration on Euthanasia, 1980)
FIG. 11.11 Euthanasia demonstration July 1, 1996
In the Catechism of the Catholic Church there are
two statements on euthanasia: Society of Friends (Quaker) teaching on the
preservation of human life
Intentional euthanasia, whatever its forms or Members of the Society of Friends are not united
motives, is murder. It is gravely contrary to the on their approach to euthanasia. ‘There are
dignity of the human person and to the respect due some Quakers who believe that people should be
to the living God, his Creator. (Paragraph 2324) allowed to die with dignity and would wish the
Whatever its motives and means, direct euthanasia option of legal euthanasia to be available. Other
consists in putting an end to the lives of Quakers would say that if we care for each other,
handicapped, sick, or dying persons. It is morally offer proper support and pain relief, euthanasia
unacceptable. (Paragraph 2277) should not be needed. Some Quakers work in the
(Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1997) hospice movement, which seeks to care for patients
so that the quality of life is maintained as death
Anglican teaching on the preservation of approaches.’ (Quakers in the UK, quoted in Stephen
human life Richards, [1999]).
The Anglican Church takes a similar view to that
of the Catholic Church. Its stance is that assisting activities
a person to die is a moral evil and that this might
1. Research other Christian denominations to
make sick or dying people vulnerable. The Anglican
determine their stance on euthanasia.
Church in the United Kingdom successfully
challenged a bill that would have allowed 2. Use the Internet to find out which countries in the
euthanasia, the Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill world allow assisted dying and what has been the
Bill, leading to its defeat in 2006. response of the Christian churches to that change.

Environmental ethics
The Christian churches have not always considered Several Old Testament sources detail ways in
environmental issues a major ethical concern. New which humans should care for the earth. The
awareness of global issues such as the increase in book of Leviticus provides a guide to responsible
carbon dioxide emissions and the destruction of agricultural practices (Leviticus 25) and careful
natural ecosystems resulting in detrimental effects husbanding of animals (Leviticus 22) to ensure
on communities has alarmed many, including the health and the continuity of the genetic line.
leaders of Christian communities. This has led Psalms 8 and 104 celebrate the wonder of creation
to collective statements on issues such as global and our responsibility to care for it.
warming and ecological action. In the New Testament, Jesus uses stories about
God’s care for the earth to demonstrate his care for us.
activity
Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow: they
Brainstorm some issues associated with the neither toil nor spin, yet I tell you, even Solomon in
environment. Use the sources of teaching below to all his glory was not clothed like one of these. But if
predict the Christian response to the issue. God so clothes the grass of the field, which is alive
today and tomorrow is thrown into the oven, will he
Sources of teaching: sacred text not much more clothe you— you of little faith?
The Bible is a key source of ethical teaching on (Matthew 6:28–30)
ecological issues. The creation stories of Genesis
1 and 2 give us an insight into the importance of Christians believe that God’s care for us
caring for world. ‘God looked at everything he had provides an example of how we should respond by
made, and found it very good’ (Genesis 1:31). God maintaining creation, his gift to humanity.
set man and woman in the Garden of Eden to care
for it (Genesis 1:28). Christians would contend Historical Christian responses
that from that moment humanity was given Throughout history, Christian responses to
stewardship of the earth. environmental issues are evident in the actions
of individuals. Francis of Assisi, living in the 12th
century, rejected the life of wealth he was born
to and chose a simple path, caring for all God’s
creation and celebrating this concern in prayer
and action. Hildegard of Bingen, living in the
same historical era, reflected her concern for the
environment and creation in writing, music and
art. Her works, including Scivias and Liber divinorum
operum (1163–70), demonstrated her awareness of
our need to care for God’s creation.
FIG. 11.12 Adam and Eve FIG. 11.13 St Francis stained glass

Environmental issue: climate change
Thomas Berry, a contemporary Catholic theologian and ecologist,
Climate change
challenges Christians today to recognise God in creation and value
the relationship people have with the divine. He is critical of the Climate change is a long-term
modern reliance on science for the solution to the world’s problems change in the climate brought
and suggests we should take more heed of the needs of creation. about by human action such
Berry considers we need to develop a new creation story to describe as increased carbon dioxide
our new awareness of the impact of humans on the earth. emissions and deforestation.
Sallie McFague, a feminist theologian, calls on humanity to Increased ocean levels from
create a new theology of nature. She argues we must recognise that melting glaciers and the
the world is a physical expression of God. shrinking polar icecap are
considered a threat to low-lying
If I imagine God (deep down) to be a super-being, residing somewhere areas such as Pacific islands.
above and apart from the world, who created and judges the world but
otherwise is absent from it, then I will conduct my affairs largely without
day-to-day concern about God. If the God I believe in is supernatural,
transcendent and only intermittently interested in the world, then this
God is not a factor in my daily actions. Whether or not I treat myself to
that expensive car is certainly not relevant to such a God.
(Sallie McFague, ‘Global Warming: A Theological Problem’ [2008])
The National Council of Churches in Australia (NCCA)

released a statement, Sustaining Creation, in 2003 that called on
government to act responsibly towards our environment.
We believe that a better, more holistic, understanding of the Earth,

which recognises that human beings are part of the created order
and not separate from it, will make a major contribution to the
transforming change that is essential for the well-being of the planet
in the third millennium.
(Rev. John Henderson, NCCA, 2003)
The NCCA represents 17 Christian churches within Australia

working together on issues that affect all the Christian churches.
They have been outspoken on many environmental issues
including care of rivers and endangered species, recognising the
need to set targets for the use of renewable energy and encouraging
the community to live an ecologically responsible life.
The Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew of the Orthodox Church
said in a recent encyclical:
FIG. 11.14 Amazon deforestation
We know that the abuse, deviation, violation and arrogance of
humanity contribute to the destruction of the travailing nature,
which is subjected to the corruption of creation … we also know that
this destruction actually comprises self-destruction. Therefore, we
invite all of you, irrespective of position and profession, to remain
faithful to a natural use of all God’s creation, ‘offering thanks to the
God, who created the world and granted everything to us’.
(Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew, Encyclical on Protection
of the Environment, 1.9.08)

Catholic Earthcare, an agency of the Catholic Bishops Commission
for Justice and Service, released an ecological vision for Catholic
Education in NSW, On Holy Ground, in 2006. It outlined facts such as
that the ecological footprint of an average Australian is 7.1 hectares of
renewable natural resources per person compared to that of the average
African at 1.7 hectares. Our way of living is unsustainable for our
planet’s resources.
activities
1. Describe the sources of
ethical teaching for three
Christian Churches (include
consideration of sacred
text, church authority and
FIG. 11.15 Kiribati
conscience).
Concern around the fate of the Pacific Island communities 2. Explain the teachings on
of Tuvalu, the Torres Strait and Kiribati has galvanised Christian environmental ethics on ONE
responses to climate change in Australia. The Pacific Calling Partnership, issue from the perspective of
an initiative of the Edmund Rice Centre (Roman Catholic), has three Christian churches.
endeavoured to put the issues of these communities before the
Australian community. Meetings were held in 2006 and 2008 to find
ways to work together for the future of these communities and to call
on Australians to take action to halt climate change.
moral judgments
Sexual ethics informed by dependent on the context
scripture and prayer in which they are made
our sense of right

and wrong reflecting Natural law Conscience Situation ethics
the balance evident
in nature
Sources of ethical teaching on Teaching

Tradition authority
sexual ethics
Divine Tradition Magisterium papal (Roman bishop pastor

(Orthodox) (Roman Catholic) The Catholic) (Anglican) (Pentecostal)
Bible
the Ten Commandments the Beatitudes (Matthew

(Exodus 20:2–17) 5:3–10/ Luke 6:20–26)
Jesus’ Commandment of The writing of St Paul:
Love (Luke 10:25–27) particularly 1 Corinthians
FIG. 11.16 Sources of ethical teaching on sexual ethics

Christian approaches to sexual ethics have their For this reason God gave them up to degrading
foundation in scripture, especially in the teachings passions. Their women exchanged natural
of Jesus in the Gospels and in the writing of Paul. intercourse for unnatural, and in the same way also
In the Gospels it is Jesus who stops those who the men, giving up natural intercourse with women,
would stone the accused adulterer (John 8:7). In the were consumed with passion for one another. Men
parable stories Jesus gave examples of living that committed shameless acts with men and received in
were life-giving, summed up in John 10:10: ‘I have their own persons the due penalty for their error.
come that you may have life and have it to the full.’ (Romans 1:26–27)
Paul was writing for the early Christian
communities in the Hellenic world, where the The apostle Peter too challenges the Christian
excesses of Roman life were evident. He gave community to live a different life from those
guidance to these communities, encouraging the around them:
valuing of relationship and the importance of
modesty and moral actions. In a world where the The Lord knows how to rescue the godly from trial,
Parousia (the return of the Messiah) was considered and to keep the unrighteous under punishment until
imminent, Paul’s concerns were with preparing the day of judgment—especially those who indulge
Christians for the next life. their flesh in depraved lust, and who despise authority.
(2 Peter 2:9–10)
Do you not know that your body is a temple of
the Holy Spirit within you, which you have from For Christians in the early church, living in the
God, and that you are not your own? For you were more permissive Hellenic culture, it was important
bought with a price; therefore glorify God in your for these leaders to address what they saw as aspects
body. (1 Corinthians 6:19–20) that could undermine the growth of the religion.
Sexual ethics issue: homosexuality

Homosexuality has existed since ancient times. In
Greek and then later Roman society it was tolerated
if not always approved. It was not accepted in
Jewish communities. As Christianity moved into the
broader Hellenic communities of the Mediterranean
it became an issue for Christians.
Sexual ethics in Christianity are underpinned by
several important Old Testament texts. The first is
Genesis 1:26–27 that states male and female human
beings are created together in God’s image and
likeness. Genesis 18–19 tells of the destruction of
Sodom, the idea being that God was unhappy with
the behaviour of its inhabitants.
The prohibition against homosexual behaviour
is expanded in Leviticus 18:22 and 20:13. The
book of Leviticus contains rules for behaviour for
the ancient Israelites and much of its concern was
with defining the Jewish people and ensuring they
did not follow the ways of the pagans in the lands
around them.
In the New Testament, Paul condemns
homosexuality:
FIG. 11.17 Aristotle and Plato debate Ethics

Contemporary Christian teaching
on homosexuality
Many Christians today are divided in their
approach to homosexual relationships. The US
Episcopalian (Anglican) Church consecrated a gay
bishop, Gene Robinson, in 2003. The Canadian
Anglican diocese of New Westminster in British
Columbia began blessing same sex unions in 2003.
The Windsor Report was commissioned in 2004
by Rowan Williams, Archbishop of Canterbury, to
formulate a middle ground response to the issue
of homosexuality. Unity on the issue is still to be
found. Sydney’s Anglican Archbishop, Peter Jensen,
supported the views of the more conservative
church leaders from Africa and South America in
opposing any change to church teaching.
The Uniting Church in
Australia faced the issue of
‘
gay and lesbian relationships FIG. 11.18 This church displays the rainbow flag welcoming gay
Both members to its congregation.
at the UCA 10th Assembly
churches in 2003. The Standing
Committee called on the The Roman Catholic Church’s approach is
(Roman
members of the church to grounded in natural law (from Aristotle’s Rhetoric).
Catholic and accept a diversity of belief The church teaches that the purpose of sexual
about same sex relationships. activity is procreation and unity between the man
Orthodox) see
They agreed to allow and woman. Therefore, as the union between two
homosexual individual presbyteries and men cannot produce a child, it is against natural
behaviour, synods to choose whether law. The Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith
on not to accept gays and released a document, Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic
rather than lesbians for ordination. The Church on the Pastoral Care of Homosexual Persons, in
orientation, as church’s then president, October 1986. This restated the church’s stance that
’
Dean Drayton, said, ‘The homosexuality is intrinsically disordered and that
sinful. Assembly has decided that homosexuals should lead a chaste life, seeking support
we are a diverse church, we from the church to find the right path.
have great and genuinely In 2008, as the Australian Federal Parliament
held differences, but instead of allowing these prepared the apology to the stolen generations,
differences to divide us, we will hold together in an unofficial group of Christian leaders from the
something greater—our love of God and our love of Baptist, Pentecostal, Anglican and Church of Christ
the Uniting Church itself’. communities, calling themselves the 100 Revs, offered
The Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches an apology to the gay and lesbian community in
remain faithful to the biblical teachings from Australia. They marked this in their active support of
Genesis, Leviticus and the letters of Paul. Both the Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras Parade.
Churches see homosexual behaviour, rather than
orientation, as sinful. In 2003 the Coptic Orthodox activity
Church responded to events of that year by taking a
Use the evidence provided from the various Christian
strong stand against homosexual behaviour: ‘While
denominations, along with any research you can
we condemn homosexuality, we invite those who
provide, to explain the importance of sacred text and
are under this sin to repent out of concern for their
tradition to Christians for ethical guidance in matters
eternal life’ (Coptic Orthodox Church Press Release,
of sexual ethics.
29 August 2003).

Significant practices
for the life of
adherents
Christianity has significant practices to both mark changing status

within the community and celebrate communally key beliefs The benefits of religious
essential to the expression of faith. All Christian churches recognise practice
the importance of ritual and religious practice both in the home What are the benefits of religious
and together as a community. Baptism, marriage and Saturday/ practice for adherents?
Sunday worship are three practices evident in most expressions of • Church attendance is one of
Christianity. the most important indicators
of marital stability and
Baptism happiness.
• The practice of religion
Baptism has been used since ancient times as a rite to mark has been shown to help
purification, commitment and inclusion in the religion. Jesus was people move out of poverty
baptised by John the Baptist in the River Jordan (Mark 1:9). John by providing people with
the Baptist had used baptism as a purification ritual for his Jewish direction, motivation and
followers. For Jesus as the Messiah, it was also a signifier that he purpose in their lives.
would baptise—not with water but with the Holy Spirit. Jesus gave • Religious practice helps to
instructions for his own followers to baptise people in his name reduce levels of suicide, drug
(Matthew 28:19). and alcohol abuse and even
Baptism is the rite that marks the admission of an individual mental illnesses such as
into most of the Christian churches. Infant baptism has been depression.
practised since early times of Christianity. In the early third • Religious practice helps to
century CE, Tertullian mentioned it as a practice used by early reduce levels of crime.
Christians and Hippolytus of Rome wrote detailed instructions on
how to conduct it.
‘ All Christian
churches recognise
the importance of
ritual and religious
practice both in the
home and together as
a community.
’

TABLE 11.2 The rite of baptism
RITUAL ROMAN CATHOLIC ANGLICAN GREEK ORTHODOX BAPTIST CHURCH

ELEMENT
Celebrant priest priest or minister priest minister
Other roles parents parents cantors: sing response believer (candidate)

godparents godparents in Greek community
community community parents
godparents
community
Sacred text Romans 6:3–11 The Collect of the Day Romans 6:3–11 The Sunday service
Matthew 28:16–20 Lesson from scripture Matthew 28:16–20 readings
Significant baptismal font, water, baptismal font, water, baptismal font, water, baptismal garment
symbols oil, candle, white cloth oil, candle oil, candle, new clothes, (white)
movement around baptismal pool
church
Sacred space church or baptistry church church baptismal pool
Features of ritual The Eucharist may rite of baptism child is received into adult rite of baptism/
include rite of baptism the church—Eucharist believer’s baptism
(for example, Easter and full initiation are
Vigil Mass) part of the ceremony
Structure of ritual • priest greets • gathering hymn, • begins in entrance of • believer’s baptism is
community psalm or anthem the church part of the Sunday
• priest questions • priest greets • exorcism worship service
parents and confirms community • signing of the cross • includes testimony
their wish for baptism • the Collect of the Day • naming by the person being
• priest, parents and is prayed • lighting of the baptised declaring
godparents trace the • lesson from scripture baptismal candle their faith in Jesus
sign of the cross on • sermon • removal of clothes Christ
child • presentation and • anointing with oil • full immersion in
• Liturgy of the Word examination of • blessing of the water pool
• homily candidate • full immersion in the
• rite of exorcism and • baptismal covenant is baptismal font
anointing with oil prayed • sacrament of
• baptismal waters • prayers of Chrismation
blessed thanksgiving and • dressing in new
• profession of faith blessing over the clothes
• baptism with water water • religious dance circle
on forehead • prayers of font three times
• child clothed in white consecration over the • tonsure—cutting of
cloth oils the hair
• parents and • baptism • Holy Eucharist
godparents given • the Lord’s Prayer
candle recited
• Prayers of the Faithful • concluding prayer
• the Lord’s Prayer
• final blessing
Impact on For most Christian denominations, baptism is normally celebrated in childhood. Usually the parents and
individual godparents take the child to the church community and the child is welcomed into the church. Baptism
marks the movement of the child/adult to a recognised place within the community of the church.
The rite of exorcism is included in the Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches.
Adult baptism is part of Baptist and Pentecostal church practice.
In infant baptism, parents and godparents make promises on behalf of the candidate.
The community renews its baptismal promises on this occasion.

How baptism expresses Christian beliefs
The Roman Catholic, Anglican and Greek Orthodox
churches baptise children as they believe it is
important the child is brought up in the faith of the
community and offered the gift of salvation through
the church. Other denominations, such as Baptist,
Churches of Christ and many of the evangelical
churches, choose to wait until the candidate is an
adult as they feel this is more faithful to the New
Testament practice of baptising adults. This is called
‘believer’s baptism’. Often this is done in a pool in
the church, or at a beach or river. Believer’s baptism
recognises a person’s dedication of their life to Christ
and his teachings. In many of these churches, a
naming or dedication ceremony is held for a baby
rather than a baptismal rite.
Anglican and Baptist Churches use the service of
the day and include the baptismal rite as part of the
FIG. 11.19 Roman Catholic baptism (infant) normal church service. The Roman Catholic and
Greek Orthodox churches have separate services,
or in the case of the Roman Catholic Church, the
baptism can be part of the Easter Vigil Service.
The Society of Friends (Quakers) holds that
outward rites such as baptism are not necessary to
be part of the community. Even a child raised as
a Quaker must confirm their readiness to join the
community as an adult worshipper. The Salvation
Army also does not follow the practice of baptising
followers. The Army feels that there are dangers in
a heavy dependence on ceremonies and rituals. To
become a Salvation Army soldier, adherents have to
study the ways of the Army, acknowledge allegiance
to the ways of the Army and pray for God’s help in
keeping their promise.
Sacred sources: Baptism
FIG. 11.20 Protestant baptism (adult) • rite of initiation into the church
• symbolism of water (Mark 1:9)
• immersion in water (John 3:5)
• anointing with oil (1 Samuel 10:1–3)
• candle (John 1:19)
• new clothes (Galatians 3:26–27)
FIG. 11.21 Orthodox baptism (infant)

The significance of baptism
Baptism is a rite of passage. In the Christian community it marks activity
transition from outside the community via initiation into new life in the Outline the significance of the
Christian church. Salvation is the key teaching of baptism (Acts 2:38). use of water for the Christian
ceremony of baptism. Integrate
TABLE 11.3 The significance of the baptismal rite these two photographs into your
answer.
ANALYSIS BAPTISMAL RITE
Name The word ‘baptism’ comes from the Greek baptizo, to
dip, plunge or immerse.
The history of Christianity places baptism as a ritual
from the early times—Jesus called on his followers to
undertake it in his name.
Baptism is mentioned by historians Tertullian and
Christian presbyter Hippolytus of Rome.
Principal beliefs The ceremony centres on acknowledgement and

commitment by the candidate (or parents and
godparents) to the core beliefs of Christianity: the
divinity and humanity of Jesus, God and the Trinity,
revelation, salvation.
Readings from scripture and the words of the prayers
reaffirm these beliefs.
The individual’s Baptism initiates the candidate into the Christian

connection to beliefs community.
The symbolism (water, candle, oil, new garment)
reminds the candidate and community of the
connection to the church. FIG. 11.22 Infant baptism
Relation to the Baptism reaffirms the community’s commitment to

Christian community their own baptismal promises.
The community is more aware than the candidate (a
baby) of the commitment to their faith and their role in
assisting the candidate in remaining part of the church.
The marriage ceremony
The marriage ceremony is a significant rite for Christians. It recognises

the instruction given in Genesis that humans should be fruitful and
multiply, but most significantly it mirrors the relationship of Jesus and
his church—a relationship of love and sacrifice. For the church it is an
acknowledgement of a commitment between two people in the sight
of God and the community. In the Catholic and Orthodox churches,
marriage is one of the sacraments. For other churches, marriage is an
important ceremony and rite of passage, but it is not seen in the same
way as baptism and communion. FIG. 11.23 Baptism by immersion
Each expression of Christianity has unique elements in its practice
of marriage.

TABLE 11.4 The features of ceremony
EXPRESSION OF FEATURES OF SIGNIFICANT
CHRISTIANITY CEREMONY ELEMENTS
Roman Catholic introductory rite • Eucharist is included if
Liturgy of the Word it is a Nuptial Mass.
homily • sacred readings
liturgy of marriage • marriage vows
Liturgy of the Eucharist
(optional)
concluding rite
Anglican introductory rite • communion service if

declaration of consent desired
ministry of the Word • sacred readings
marriage vows and • marriage vows
exchange of rings • exchange of rings
prayers
blessing of marriage
communion service
(optional)
Uniting introductory rite • sacred readings

Bible readings • marriage vows
marriage vows and • exchange of rings
exchange of rings
minister’s address
blessing
Orthodox betrothal service • blessing of the rings

marriage service • crowning ceremony
Bible readings • cup of wine
common cup of wine • dance of Isaiah
dance of Isaiah
removal of crowns
conclusion
How the marriage ceremony expresses

Christian beliefs ‘Haven’t you read,’ he replied, ‘that at the beginning
The scriptural sources about marriage are found in the Creator “made them male and female”, and
both the Old and New Testaments. said, “For this reason a man will leave his father
and mother and be united to his wife, and the two
So God created humankind in his image, in the will become one flesh”? So they are no longer two,
image of God he created them; male and female he but one. Therefore what God has joined together, let
created them. God blessed them, and God said to man not separate.’
them, ‘Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth (Matthew 19:4–6)
and subdue it.’
(Genesis 1:27–28)
… for we are members of his body. ‘For this reason
a man will leave his father and mother and be
For this reason a man will leave his father and united to his wife, and the two will become one
mother and be united to his wife, and they will flesh.’ This is a profound mystery— but I am
become one flesh. talking about Christ and the church. However,
(Genesis 2:24) each one of you also must love his wife as he loves
himself, and the wife must respect her husband.
(Ephesians 5:29–33)

There are unique aspects to church teaching on marriage for each of
the expressions of Christianity:
• Catholic Christianity: Catholics believe that marriage is a divine
institution and constitutes one of the seven sacraments of the
church. Catholics are encouraged to marry within the church.
One of the principal teachings of Catholic marriage is that sex is
primarily for procreation. The only way to dissolve a marriage is by
annulment whereby it is considered that the grounds for the original
marriage were invalid.
• Orthodox Christianity: Eastern Orthodox Christians believe
marriage is a sacred mystery and a sacrament. The link between
husband and wife is closely aligned to the relationship between
Christ and the church. The Orthodox Church recognises the
important role of the Holy Spirit in the marriage ceremony. The
crowns and the cup of wine are markers of the change of status for
the bride and groom from single to married.
• Protestant Christianity: Most Protestant churches hold that
marriage is an important event, a solemn covenant between husband
and wife, a commitment made before the faith community. A small
number of Protestant churches allow same sex marriages.
The significance of the marriage ceremony
Greek Orthodox marriage ceremony

For the community, the ceremony, conducted by a priest, is always
held in a church to acknowledge the significance of the event. On the
altar there are the symbols: the holy Gospels, a cup of wine, the rings
and wedding crowns, and two candles. The candles are a reminder of
Christ as the light of the world, and the rings, crown and cup mark the
change of status for the bride and groom. The Gospels represent the
importance of sacred scripture to the union.
For the individual, this commitment is made between the couple
by the priest through the action of the Holy Spirit. The ritual actions
of the placing of rings, the wearing of crowns and the dance are all
important to mark the change of status of the bride and groom from
single to married.
Roman Catholic marriage ceremony

For the community, the ceremony is always held in a church and is
conducted by a priest. Symbolism is significant, with a new candle,
representing the light of Christ in the new marriage, lit from two
candles representing the families of the bride and groom. The readings
provide wisdom for the community about the sacredness of the
sacrament of marriage.
For the individual, the rings are exchanged and vows recited
to acknowledge the new relationship between husband and wife.
Marriage is a sacrament in the Roman Catholic Church and can only be FIG. 11.24 Rings exchanged betweeen man
celebrated by a priest, whose role is to unite the couple in the presence and woman in marriage symbolise union.
of God and the community.

Anglican marriage ceremony
For the community, the commitment between the
bride and groom is acknowledged and witnessed
‘
by the community and presided over by the priest, All current
who reads the nuptial blessing. The service is
usually taken from the Book of Common Prayer. expressions of
For the individual, the commitment is between Christianity
the bride and groom and as such they are the
central figures in the ceremony. The role of the recognise the
priest is to witness and bless the union. importance of
Saturday/Sunday
activity
Describe and analyse how the marriage ceremony
expressed the beliefs of Christianity.
worship.
’
Saturday/Sunday worship
Worship for Christians on Saturday/Sunday has

its foundation in the Jewish practice of Sabbath
observance. The Sabbath was for rest as laid down in
the laws of the Jewish community (Leviticus 23:2–3)
and told in foundational stories—the seventh day
of rest in the first creation story (Genesis 2:2).
The early Christians celebrated the day of Jesus’
resurrection (Acts 20:7) and saw it as a time for
the community to come together and break bread
as Jesus had called on them to do in his memory
(Luke 22:19).
Most current expressions of Christianity
recognise the importance of Saturday/Sunday
worship. The Roman Catholic, Anglican and
Orthodox churches recognise Sunday as the day of
observance. Seventh Day Adventists and Seventh
Day Baptists currently worship on Saturday.
Initially Christians worshipped on Saturday, but as
the religion moved into the Hellenic world it was
immersed in Roman society, where Sunday was the
day of religious observance. There was also a desire
among some Christians to distance themselves from
Jewish practice of Sabbath observance. In 321 CE the
Emperor Constantine declared Sunday to be the day FIG. 11.25 The Last Supper
of rest for the empire. This was made binding for
Christians by the Council of Laodicea in 360 CE.

• Catholic worship service: The primary Catholic worship service for
Saturday/Sunday worship is the Mass. The format includes an Opening
Prayer, Liturgy of the Word (including readings from the Old and New
Testaments), a Homily, Liturgy of the Eucharist and a Closing Prayer.
• Anglican worship service: At a celebration of the Eucharist the
format includes a Gathering Prayer, the Word of God (including
readings from Old and New Testaments), a Homily and Petitions,
Holy Communion and a Commissioning Prayer. (There are some
differences between Low Church and High Church [evangelical and
Anglo-Catholic] services.)
• Orthodox worship service: The Orthodox service is called the
Divine Liturgy. It begins with the Liturgy of the Catechumens
leading to the Epistle Lesson, the Gospel and then the Sermon. The
Liturgy of the Faithful follows. In this, communion is shared. Finally
a prayer of Thanksgiving and Benediction is given.
• Quaker worship service: The meeting begins with the practice
of sitting together in silence. From time to time, a member of the
group may be moved to speak, offering a message that is unplanned
but prompted by the Holy Spirit. People sing, read or pray for the
group out loud. The meeting room is simple, with chairs and a table
holding a Bible and a copy of Quaker Faith and Practice. The elders
shake hands as a sign of peace and then tea is shared.
• Salvation Army: The Army puts great emphasis on personal faith
and a spiritual relationship with God. It does not feel that New
FIG. 11.26 Formal Christian
Testament writings command that believers share the Last Supper worship service
meal as a communion service. Meetings don’t have a set order of
service but often include music and singing. Bible readings are an
essential part of the service. An officer usually leads the meeting and
gives the sermon.
How Saturday/Sunday worship expresses

Christian beliefs
Belief is central to the practice of Saturday/Sunday
worship. The service is focused on readings
from scripture (with sermon/homily) and/or the
celebration of holy communion. The scripture
readings may include focus on readings from
Old and New Testaments. In Catholic, Orthodox
and Anglo-Catholic services, the priest reads the
readings from the Gospels. For many Protestant
communities, the Word has primacy and the
sermon is a key tool for analysing it. Services in all
denominations usually include prayers and hymns.
Not all Saturday/Sunday worship services include
holy communion.
FIG. 11.27 Home church Bible study

TABLE 11.5 Beliefs about holy communion
EXPRESSION OF BELIEF ABOUT EXPLANATION

CHRISTIANITY HOLY COMMUNION
Anglican (Anglo- transubstantiation The bread and wine
Catholic, High become the actual body
Anglican), Catholic and blood of Christ.
and Orthodox
Lutheran consubstantiation The bread and wine stay

as bread and wine and
also become the body
and blood of Christ.
Anglican, Uniting symbol The bread and wine are

Church and symbolic of the body
Evangelical and blood of Christ.
Baptist, Seventh Day memorial The memory of Jesus’

Adventist, Church of sacrifice.
Christ
Salvation Army, do not celebrate There is no need to

Quakers communion celebrate this event.
The significance of Saturday/Sunday worship

For the individual adherent, the worship service is a means of
connection with God in the time spent in personal reflection and
meditation on the scriptures. It is an opportunity to reconnect
with the memory of the Last Supper and reflect on how faith offers
spiritual direction for the individual. It is a chance to reflect on the
ethical directions from the sermon given during the service.
For the Christian community, the practice of communal worship
is an important action. Fellowship is an important element of
all Christian communities. The service provides an opportunity
to instruct members in aspects of faith. This is done through the
readings from Old and New Testaments and the sermon or homily.
The celebration of the Lord’s Supper (Eucharist/communion) is an
opportunity in some denominations to remember or in others to
share a sacrament.
activity
Use the following synonyms for analysis and the scaffold to prepare
an analysis of the significance of the practice of Saturday/Sunday
worship for the Christian community.
ANALYSIS: appraisal, assessment, break down, criticism, critique,
diagnosis, test, enquiry, examination, investigation, review, study.
ANALYSE: appraise, arrange, assess, break down, catalogue, classify,
derive, distinguish, evaluate, explore, scan, scrutinise.
SCAFFOLD: Component: explained
Relationship clarified

Review and assess
Review
1. ‘Everything about Paul is arguable, his life, death, authorship of his

letters, theology, significance in the history and convolutions of
Christianity. He recognises and praises women as apostles—and as
prophets, teachers and spiritual leaders … Half the letters ascribed
to Paul are pseudo-Pauline … these soften or contradict Paul’s
most egalitarian and inclusory stands, as does the later Acts of
the Apostles, in which Paul is a chief actor but presented as less
threatening to the Roman authorities after the Jewish revolt of the
late ’60s.’ (Frank White, Turkish Daily News, 20 October 2007)
Can St Paul still be a significant person for Christianity if White’s

assertions are true? Explain why or why not.
2. The Alliance of Religions and Conservation (ARC), a group that

works with many of the world’s religions, released a Faith Statement
in 2003 that challenged Christians to see a way forward on the
environmental challenge:
For some Christians, the way forward lies in a rediscovery of distinctive
teachings, lifestyles, and insights contained within their tradition. For
others, it requires a radical rethinking of what it means to be Christian.
For yet others, there is still a struggle to reconcile centuries of human-
centred Christian teaching with the truths that the environmentalists are
telling us about the state of the world we are responsible for creating. For
all of them, the core remains the belief in the Creator God who so loved
the world that he sent his only begotten Son, that whoever believes in
him should have eternal life (John 3:16). In the past, we can now see,
this promise of life eternal has often been interpreted by the churches as
meaning only human life. The challenge to all Christians is to discover
anew the truth that God’s love and liberation is for all creation, not
just humanity; to realise that we should have been stewards, priests, co-
creators with God for the rest of creation but have actually often been the
ones responsible for its destruction; and to seek new ways of living and
being Christians that will restore that balance and give the hope of life to
so much of the endangered planet.
Have the Christian churches responded to the ARC’s challenge?

Explain your answer.
3. Outline the significance of the use of water for the Christian

ceremony of baptism.

Extended response (15 marks)
4. a. Link ONE significant Christian practice to TWO 10. Explain the Christian ethical teachings of
Christian beliefs. bioethics OR environmental ethics OR sexual
ethics, by giving examples.
b. Describe the significance for the individual of
ONE of the following Christian practices: Extended response (20 marks)
• baptism
11. Assess the effect on Christianity of ONE significant
• marriage ceremony person or school of thought in Christianity, other
• Saturday/Sunday worship. than Jesus.
c. Explain how Christian ethical teachings
influence the lives of adherents. Choose an
12. Explain the contribution of ONE significant person
aspect from ONE of the following areas:
or school of thought, other than Jesus, on both
• bioethics the development and expression of Christianity.
• environmental ethics
13. Describe Christian ethical teachings on bioethics
• sexual ethics.
OR environmental ethics OR sexual ethics.
14. Explain how the beliefs of Christianity are
5. Discuss the impact of a significant person demonstrated in EITHER baptism, OR the marriage
or school of thought, other than Jesus, on ceremony OR Saturday/Sunday worship.
Christianity.
6. Explain Christian ethical teachings on bioethics

ORenvironmental ethics OR sexual ethics.
7. Describe ONE significant practice within

Christianity drawn from:
• baptism
• marriage ceremony
• Saturday/Sunday worship.
8. Analyse the impact of a significant person

or school of thought, other than Jesus, on
Christianity.
9. Outline the Christian ethical teachings on

bioethics OR environmental ethics OR sexual ethics.

Hinduism
practices and ethical teachings to an understanding of Hinduism as a
living religious tradition. The study of Hinduism is to be of the WHOLE

Shankara
Outcomes
Ramanuja
A student:
Madhva
Mirabai (Mira Bai)
Bhakti Movement
Ram Mohan Roy
Ramakrishna
traditions are expressed by their adherents
Mohandas Gandhi
in the life of adherents Purva Mimamsa school of thought
H6 organises, analyses and synthesises relevant Vedanta school of thought
information about religion from a variety of another person or school of thought
sources, considering usefulness, validity and significant to Hinduism
bias
• the effect of that person OR school of thought on
H7 conducts effective research about religion and Hinduism
evaluates the findings from the research
H8 applies appropriate terminology and concepts Ethics
related to religion and belief systems • ONEof the following areas of ethical teaching in
H9 coherently and effectively communicates Hinduism:
complex information, ideas and issues using bioethics
appropriate written, oral and graphic forms.
environmental ethics
sexual ethics
Content
Students learn about: Significant practices in the lives of adherents
• ONEsignificant practice within Hinduism other
Significant people and ideas than daily prayer drawn from:
• the contribution to Hinduism of one significant marriage ceremony
person or school of thought, other than the
pilgrimage
Vedas, drawn from:
temple worship

HSC | Chapter 12 Hinduism 301

ADVAITA Shankara’s teaching of non-duality, MANDAP the wedding altar as prepared by the
that everything in its innermost bride’s family.
essence, is Brahman. MANDIR a Hindu temple.
AHIMSA the concept of doing no harm, non- MANTRA a short saying or verse from the Vedas
violence—not only in deed but also in uttered to invoke the power of a deity,
thought and word. a spiritual formula containing a name
ALVARS twelve poets and saints from South of God.
India, followers of Vishnu. The MOKSHA liberation from samsara, the cycle of
forerunners of the Bhakti Movement. rebirths, and the discovery of the true
AYODHYA the birthplace of Rama. self.
BHAJAN/KIRTAN devotional songs. NAYANARS a group of poets and saints from South
BHAKTI loving devotional worship of a India who were devotees of Shiva.
personal god, an important expression PUJA worship involving offerings to a deity.
of Hinduism. SADHU an ascetic or holy man.
BRAHMAN Absolute Being or Supreme Being, the SANNYASIN/ renunciate—a person in the final stage
transcendent divine reality. SANNYASI of life who has renounced the world.
DARSHANA the viewing of the image of the deity SATYAGRAHA persistence in the truth.
in the inner sanctuary.
SHAIVAS devotees of Shiva. Also known as
DEVOTEES religious followers. Shaivites.
DHARMA a set of values that supports and SHRADDHA rites or offerings for departed relatives
sustains normal life in the world. given at puja.
A person’s religious duty.
SHUDRA artisan class (varna) of Hindu society.
DHARMASHASTRA books containing specific ethics
SOODAR the mark made with red paste on the
addressing specific religious duties.
bride’s hair parting.
DISCIPLE follower.
TEPPAM a joyous Hindu festival held in
HARIJANS Untouchables or ‘God’s people’. January or February each year.
JIVA soul or individual self that experiences UNTOUCHABLES outcastes, people who lived on
death and rebirth. the fringes of settlements. Gandhi
KAMA sexual or sensual pleasure. called them Harijans, ‘God’s people’.
KSHATRIYAS the warrior class (varna) of Hindu ‘Untouchability’ is now outlawed in
society. India. The term in common usage
today is ‘dalit’.
KUMBH MELA a Hindu festival held every four years,
culminating in the Maha (‘Great’) VAISHNAVAS followers or devotees of the god
Kumbh Mela held once every twelve Vishnu. Also known as Vaishnavites.
years at Prayaga. VAISHYA merchant class (varna) of Hindu
LINGA a symbol or sign indicating the society.
Absolute Being, originally thought VARANASI the most sacred place of pilgrimage,
to be a phallic symbol, a symbol of situated on the River Ganga (Ganges).
potency associated with the god Shiva. VARNAS the four major classes of society.
MAHATMA a title given to a person of outstanding VIVAHA marriage.
character and spirituality, translated
YATRA pilgrimage.
as ‘great soul’. A person who is great
in spirit.

Shankara India, many of which are still in existence today. He

composed a number of works and it is upon these
Many believe Shankara (788–820 CE) is the most writings that his historical reputation rests. Most of his
important of the Hindu teachers. Unfortunately, the writings took the form of commentaries on sacred texts,
accounts of his life that are available cannot be relied principally the main Upanishads and the Bhagavad
on as historical truth, for they were composed by Gita. Many people still study his writings today.
followers several centuries after he died. But they do
convey a lot of valuable information about his ideas Shankara’s teaching—Advaita
and teachings. The central message of Shankara’s teaching comes
According to these legends, Shankara left home in from the Upanishads. It claims that Brahman is the
his early youth in search of a guru (spiritual teacher). sole reality and that all living beings are, in their
After travelling north through the country he found innermost essence, identical to Brahman.
his guru and was duly instructed and initiated as a An important question at this time concerned
wandering ascetic or sannyasin. Thereafter he began how the world came about from Brahman, the
to travel throughout the whole country, gathering absolute spiritual reality. It is a fundamental premise
disciples along the way, and emerging victorious in much of Indian thought that whatever changes
from numerous debates with the followers of other cannot be eternal and whatever is not eternal cannot
schools of Hindu thought. be fully real. The Upanishads teach that Brahman is
Shankara is said to have established monastic eternal. But if Brahman is the source of the universe,
institutions in the north, south, east and west of then Brahman would have to undergo some change
FIG. 12.1 Shankara with his followers

in the act of the production of the universe. How, then, could Brahman
be said to be changeless and eternal? One of the problems that Shankara
faced was how to account for what the Upanishads said: that Brahman is
eternal and that Brahman is the source of the universe.
According to Shankara, only Brahman really exists. Brahman is
changeless and therefore eternal and absolutely real. Brahman is pure
Being and pure Consciousness. The universe appears in Brahman, and
Brahman does not undergo any change. In accounting for this, Shankara
gives the example of how a rope appears as a snake. A person can mistake
a piece of rope lying on the ground for a snake—the ‘appearance’ of the
snake cannot be denied, but the rope has not actually changed into a
snake. The snake is therefore an unreal appearance while the rope is real.
In a similar way, Shankara says, Brahman has not undergone any change,
and yet the universe has ‘appeared’ in Brahman. According to Shankara,
Brahman seems to be associated with a wondrous power called maya, and
it is by means of this power that the universe appears.
Shankara does not deny the empirical appearance of the universe, but
he says that it is not absolutely real, for only Brahman is absolutely real.
He says that by analysis we can see that the universe is other than what
‘
it seems to be. For example, a wooden table has no existence of its own
apart from the wood that comprises it, and the wood has no existence The teachings
apart from its constituents (the cells of wood). These cells are made up of of Shankara are
atoms, which in turn are reducible to smaller parts and still smaller parts,
and so on. Thus the universe, which seems so solid and substantial, is encapsulated
found when analysed to be much less than substantial. in a traditional
The central idea in Shankara’s teaching is that the essence of the
individual soul is identical to Brahman. This can be explained through an verse: ‘Brahman is
illustration that Shankara himself used. Suppose that there are a number real, the world is
’
of clay pots. The pots may be different in size and shape, but each exists
in space, and space is simply one. The one space seems to be divided by
unreal.’
the pots. Shankara says that physical bodies are analogous to the pots
and that there exists a single reality in and through all bodies that is
analogous to the space. That reality is Brahman.
Shankara’s teaching is called Advaita or ‘non-duality’, and is an
attempt to offer a consistent explanation of the Upanishads, which
reveal that everything in its innermost essence is Brahman. Shankara
taught that it is the ignorance of our true nature that keeps us bound,
and when we gain the insight into who we are, namely Brahman, then
we will be liberated from future rebirth. The teachings of Shankara are
encapsulated in a traditional verse: ‘Brahman is real, the world is unreal.’
The individual soul is Brahman itself and is not other than Brahman.
activities
1. Describe the nature of Shankara’s writings and when and where he
wrote them.
2. What is the central message of Shankara’s teaching?
3. How does Shankara ‘see’ or ‘interpret’ Brahman?
4. Why is Shankara’s teaching called ‘non-duality’ (Advaita)?

Ramanuja said that there are three real entities:
God, all of the souls and the physical universe. This
is unlike the teaching of Shankara, who said that
only Brahman is truly real. Ramanuja developed
a particular theological model of the relation of
the souls and the world to God. He said that just
as the human person is a soul within a body, so
God can be considered to be the Soul indwelling
in everything. All individual souls and the entire
material world have God as their innermost Soul;
accordingly, the souls and the world can be looked
upon, in a metaphorical way, as comprising his
‘body’. Ramanuja’s religious philosophy is called
Vishishtadvaita, meaning that God is One, though
qualified by the real existence of all souls and
matter.
The teaching of Ramanuja provided an
important philosophical and theological base to
the religion of loving devotion to a personal God.
The bhakti tradition continued to develop in the
FIG. 12.2 Ramanuja centuries after Ramanuja.
Ramanuja activities
1. How did Ramanuja’s teachings differ from
After Shankara, a religious teacher called Ramanuja
Shankara’s?
(1017–1137 CE) gathered many disciples around him.
He opposed Shankara’s teachings, putting forward 2. How did Ramanuja and Shankara view God
a very different interpretation of the scriptures. His differently?
teaching did not follow the Upanishads as closely as 3. Who did Ramanuja see as God and why?
the teaching of Shankara did. 4. What are the three real entities that Ramanuja
wrote of, and how did these views differ from
Ramanuja’s teaching—Vishishtadvaita Shankara’s?
Ramanuja’s teaching was part of the theistic
devotional movement called bhakti, or loving
devotion to a personal god. This has persisted in
India for over 2000 years and remains one of the
characteristic features of Hinduism today. Ramanuja
said that Brahman is not an abstract Being, but a
personal God.
For Ramanuja, there was only one supreme God,
Lord Vishnu. The purpose of life is to cultivate
loving devotion to Vishnu and to surrender to
him. Vishnu bestows his grace on a soul who has
surrendered to him, and at the time of death that
soul will go to the heaven of Vishnu and remain
there forever. Other souls continue to be reborn
as celestial beings, human beings or animals
until, having achieved human birth, they devote
themselves to Vishnu and gain liberation through
his grace. FIG. 12.3 A woman lights up burning sticks in a bhakti temple in
Indonesia.

The Bhakti Movement The Bhakti Movement
Loving devotion to a personal
God is one of the characteristic Today there many sectarian followers of the various bhakti traditions
features of popular Hinduism. that developed in Hinduism from the first centuries of the Common Era.
There are many gods in These sectarian devotees generally fall into two groups. The first group
Hinduism, and they are consists of Shaivas, who worship Shiva as the sole Supreme Being. The
understood in different ways. second group is made up of the exclusive devotees of Vishnu (or his
A notable example of the incarnations as Rama or Krishna) and of Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu.
bhakti tradition is the Hare The devotees of these two deities are called Vaishnavas and consider
Krishna Movement (ISKCON), Vishnu to be the sole Supreme Being.
whose adherents are followers From the sixth century CE the Bhakti Movement gained momentum.
of Krishna. In bhakti thinking God is usually thought of in a very personal way as
possessing a form and having wonderful attributes. This teaching can
be traced to the Bhagavad Gita. Though the movement may have had
activity its origins in the north of India, it was in the south that it developed
most fruitfully. Between the sixth and ninth centuries CE, the devotees
Using the Sydney ISKCON
of Vishnu were called Alvars and the devotees of Shiva were called
website, answer the following
Nayanars, and they wandered from temple to temple in the south of
questions.
India composing and singing religious poetry of intense devotional
• Outline the history of fervour. The collections of these hymns, composed in the Tamil
the ISKCON movement. language, form an important part of the sacred devotional literature of
Include the name of the southern India. Gradually the Bhakti Movement spread throughout the
founder and the scriptural entire country, bringing its message of passionate devotion. This was
foundations. accompanied by the idea of social equality—for the bhakti devotee, caste
• What is ‘Krishna had no meaning.
Consciousness’ and what The followers of the bhakti traditions say that liberation means
are its teachings? going to heaven, which results only from the grace of the god, who
• Describe their worship. becomes pleased with the devotion of the worshipper. Thus, while some
Hindus consider that liberation means the knowledge of identity of
• Explain their emphasis on
the innermost Self with the Absolute Spirit, many others believe that
food.
liberation is the result of devotion to a personal deity.
• Why is the farming
community an important Shaivas
aspect of this movement? The Shaivas also worship the
• Name some of their wife of Shiva in her various
methods of outreach to forms as Parvati, Kali and
the wider community. Durga, as well as Ganesha and
Subramanya, the two sons of
Shiva and Parvati. Some Shaivas
will be especially devoted to
Shiva, others to Parvati, Kali or
Durga, and still others will be
especially devoted to Ganesha or
Subramanya. The choice belongs
to the devotee, who will speak of
his or her ishta-devata (favourite
deity). Thus a particular deity
can be the special object of
devotion and worship.
FIG. 12.4 Festival of Shiva

Vaishnavas father-in-law attempted to poison her using a liquid
The Vaishnavas tend to play down the importance offering to the image of Krishna. By custom, the
of Shiva and the gods connected to Shiva. Among devotee should receive whatever has been offered to
Vaishnavas, some will be especially devoted to the god as a consecrated gift. She drank the poison
Vishnu, others to his incarnations as Rama and but it had no effect on her; instead, she glowed with
Krishna. The goddess Lakshmi does not receive as health and radiance. In her devotional songs Mira
much exclusive devotion as the goddesses Kali or Bai frequently refers to her drinking poison.
Durga.
activities
1. The followers of the various bhakti traditions
fall into two groups: Shaivas and Vaishnavas.
Research each and explain how their beliefs differ.
2. How did the Bhakti tradition spread through India?
3. How do followers of bhakti view ‘liberation’
compared with other Hindus?
Mira Bai
It is hard to distinguish the life of Mira Bai
(1503–73 CE) from the legends that have grown
up around her. Mira Bai came from Rajasthan, FIG. 12.5 Kusum Sarovar Lake and temple in Vrindavan, India
a region of deserts and fortress-like kingdoms to
the west of Delhi. Even today much of Rajasthan In time Mira Bai escaped the confines of her
remains similar, both architecturally and culturally, husband’s family. She travelled to Vrindavan, near
to how it was in the time of Mira Bai. Delhi, a place sacred to devotees of Krishna. It was
here that Krishna was believed to have spent his
Her story childhood and youth. She was especially devoted
Mira Bai is believed to have been a princess who, to Krishna, and often spoke of the legend of
ever since she was a little girl, was devoted solely Krishna as the ‘Lifter of the Mountain’, referring
to Lord Krishna. She did not want to marry, but to his miracle of raising a hill to provide shelter
against her wishes her family arranged that she for his friends from continuous rain and storms.
be married to the son of a neighbouring princely In Vrindavan Mira met with other devotees of
family. As was the custom, the bride went to live Krishna and was soon at the centre of the circle of
with her husband’s family. Her life thereafter was Krishna worshippers. Later she went to the Krishna
one of struggle and conflict with the family, who temple at Dwarka, a city on the Arabian Sea in the
wanted her to conform to the traditional role of westernmost part of India associated with the later
a wife. This conflict comes through in a number life of Krishna. Her husband’s family repeatedly
of her poems and highlights the limited role of a tried to persuade her to return, and eventually she
woman in traditional Indian society. She was not relented. Before she could go back, however, she
expected to be anything other than a wife and merged into the image of Krishna while at worship
mother. in the temple and was not seen again.
Mira Bai soon disappointed her mother-in-law Mira Bai’s poems to Krishna are poems of love
and her husband’s family because she did not and longing, and convey the pain of a lover’s
conform to the pattern of behaviour expected of a separation. They form a part of the culture of
young bride. She spent her time in the company bhakti. Indeed, Mira Bai is one of the best known of
of visiting holy men and was indifferent to all the bhakti poets. Her poetry is neither elaborate nor
other interests. Her sisters-in-law tried to dissuade artificial; it is folk poetry, written in a simple and
her from such pursuits, but in vain. Finally her fresh style. Mira Bai’s poems are especially popular

in Rajasthan and other parts of northern India.
Some of her poems have been set to music with
lively rhythms so that they can be sung in homes
or temples by groups of worshippers. This type of
communal singing is called bhajan or kirtan, and it
forms an important part of popular Hindu devotion.
The principal theme in Mira Bai’s poetry is her
single-minded love of Krishna and her relationship
with him. This is not a placid or abstract idea
of love; the poems are full of emotion, such as
the sadness of separation. They record Mira Bai’s
longing for Krishna, and in one of them she sees
herself as someone who has been mystically wedded
to him, his secret bride.
The following is one of Mira Bai’s poems. Her
poems reflect the difficulties of her personal life,
her loving relationship with Lord Krishna, and her
sadness at the feeling of separation from him.
Life without Hari [Krishna] is no life, friend,

And though my mother-in-law fights,
My sister-in-law teases,
The rana [king] is angered,
A guard is stationed on a stool outside,
and a lock is mounted on the door,
How can I abandon the love I have loved
in life after life?
Mira’s Lord is the clever Mountain Lifter:
Why would I want anyone else?
Sister, I had a dream that I wed
the Lord of those who live in need:
Five-hundred-sixty thousand people came
and the Lord of Braj [Krishna] was the groom.
In dream they set up a wedding arch;
in dream he grasped my hand;
in dream he led me around the wedding fire FIG. 12.6 Pilgrims at the holy pilgrimage of Alandi, near the city
and I became unshakeably his bride. of Pune in India, gather in groups to sing. This communal singing
is called bhajan or kirtan.
Mira’s been granted her mountain lifting Lord:
from living past lives, a prize.
(Mira Bai, quoted in Beck et al, 2005, pp 393–4)
activities ‘ Mira Bai’s poems to Krishna are

poems of love and longing, and convey
’
1. Outline the life of Mira Bai until she merged into the pain of a lover’s separation.
the image of Krishna.
2. Why was her life so different from that of other
women?
3. Discuss as a class what is special about Mira Bai’s
poetry that it forms part of the culture of bhakti.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi What does ‘Mahatma’ mean?
The term Mahatma is a title that is sometimes
Mahatma Gandhi, as he is most commonly known given to a person of outstanding moral character
(1869–1948), is one of the outstanding figures of and spirituality. Though the word is generally
modern times. He did not, however, display any translated ‘great soul’, it means a person who is
signs of his future greatness as a young man. He ‘great’ in spirit, someone who is not ‘small’, that
was a mediocre student. He was married at the is, selfish or petty-minded or mean.
age of thirteen, which in the 19th century was the
local custom, to a girl of his own age. He wrote in Gandhi was a man whose concern was
An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments with essentially ethical, as we can see from the way he
Truth that in his youth he enjoyed an active sex life defined the nature of God as ‘Truth’. One of the
with his young wife. However, later in life he took a main features of his teaching was ahimsa (non-
vow of celibacy. In his autobiography he expressed violence/non-injury), which he looked upon as
a feeling of guilt for engaging in sex when he the supreme virtue. In developing his views on
should have been attending to his dying father. The non-violence, Gandhi was especially influenced by
memory of this event seems to have left a lasting the Indian religion of Jainism and the Sermon on
impression on him; he became an opponent of the Mount.
child marriage, and his youthful interest in sex was The combination of Gandhi’s two concerns,
transformed into a near obsession with celibacy. truth and non-violence, led to the development
Gandhi was sent to England to study law. In of his famous method of resistance against British
1893 he accepted an offer of a temporary job in rule in India. He called his method satyagraha
South Africa, returning to India in 1914. It was (‘persistence in the truth’). For Gandhi this involved
during these formative years in South Africa, when more than passive resistance. It meant that a person
he became involved in the struggle for the rights of remained unflinchingly steadfast in the pursuit of a
Indians against discrimination by the South African right and just cause, never bearing hatred towards
government, that Gandhi became increasingly
interested in religion and developed the ideas for
which he later became famous. He had a lawyer’s
mind: careful, systematic and shrewd. What he read
he considered carefully; and it was the ideas that he
discovered in books such as The Kingdom of God Is
Within You by the Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy and
Unto the Last by John Ruskin, an alternative social
thinker of the time, that changed the course of his
life. Among the scriptures, the Bhagavad Gita was
of immense importance to him; he also read the
Bible and found the New Testament very moving,
especially the Sermon on the Mount.
Gandhi believed that God is present in all
religions but is the sole property of none. He
thought that each religion developed as an attempt
by human beings to understand God, but that it is
not possible for the finite fully to understand the
infinite. He therefore saw no need of conversion, for
no religion could claim to possess the whole truth.
In his prayer meetings he would say prayers from
the sacred books of all of the great world religions.
For Gandhi, God was a nameless and formless
Being who could not be positively described by any
attribute other than ‘Truth’. Gandhi said that God is
Truth; sometimes he even said that Truth is God. FIG. 12.7 Mahatma Gandhi

those who stand in opposition, and always being Gandhi’s many writings consist largely of his
willing to endure even severe physical punishment replies to the numerous letters that he received.
without seeking to retaliate. In the end, Gandhi He discussed many different topics in his letters.
said, opponents will see the error of their ways, In a single morning’s correspondence he could
and truth will win. Such was the idea that Gandhi write about God to one person, offer naturopathic
espoused. He tried to practise it in his own life and advice to another, advocate celibacy to a third,
to communicate it to his followers in their political and discuss the best way to build a hygienic latrine
struggle against British rule. with someone else. All of these were important
Gandhi not only tried to end British rule matters to Gandhi. Indeed, he was a man for whom
in India; he also sought to reform some of the every detail of life was important. His practical
practices that had developed within Hinduism. emphasis is demonstrated by his advocacy of the
He opposed the concept of ‘untouchability’, spinning wheel as a national symbol. For Gandhi
according to which many Hindus were considered the spinning wheel represented a simple, non-
to be outside the four main varnas (classes) and industrial, self-sufficient, village way of life whereby
were ignored and ill treated by the higher classes. people supplied their own needs and were able
Gandhi called the Untouchables Harijans, or ‘God’s to earn some extra money. What seemed to be an
people’, and argued that untouchability had no odd symbol was chosen because it had a practical
place in Hinduism. He made enemies among some dimension, and this should tell us something about
conservative Hindu groups in his efforts to end this the nature of the man.
type of discrimination. In 1948 Gandhi was shot at one of his prayer
meetings by a Hindu extremist who thought that he
was too concerned with the welfare of Muslims. As
he died, he uttered the name of Rama, the Hindu god
who is worshipped as the embodiment of a life of
virtuous conduct. Gandhi, too, is venerated in India
because he lived such a life of virtuous conduct.
activities
1. Outline Gandhi’s early life before he was married
at thirteen years of age.
2. How important do you think Gandhi’s years in
Africa were to developing his views on religion
and life? Explain why.
3. What relation did Gandhi see between different
religions and God, and how did this influence his
view of God?
4. Discuss why truth was very important to Gandhi.
5. Where is it suggested that Gandhi got his ideas
about non-violence?
6. How did Gandhi apply this non-violent truth
against the British governing India?
7. Why was satyagraha more than passive resistance?
8. How did Gandhi try to reform the Indian people
and religion?
9. Why is the spinning wheel an important symbol
and what does it represent?
10. How did Gandhi die and why?
FIG. 12.8 Mahatma Gandhi

Hindu ethics
Hindu ethical teachings, whether bioethical, soul is different from that of the Judaeo-Christian
environmental or sexual, all start from the same religions. Hindus believe that the individual soul
point, the sacredness of life. Further information on (jiva) does not perish on the death of the body,
the underlying ethical principles of Hinduism can but will be reborn again and again until it finds
be found in Chapter 2. spiritual liberation. The soul has been reborn
countless times in the past and will continue to be
Bioethics reborn in the future. Krishna referred to this point
in chapter two of the Bhagavad Gita as one reason
The Laws of Manu, written some 2000 years ago, for Arjuna not to leave the battlefield. Therefore,
emphasise the importance of married couples having while abortion is prohibited as an unnatural act,
children. Children are important to Hindus, and it is the attitude of Hindus towards it is not the same as
the hope of most couples that they will have a son. that of Christians because their attitude towards life
With this attitude it is not surprising that Hinduism, is different from that held in Christianity. Hindus
while it offers no objection to contraception, holds believe that the soul does not have one life in this
that abortion is not permissible. In theory there world but a series of lives, and so if the body for
is general acceptance of the various reproductive some reason is destroyed, the soul in that body will
technologies although the higher castes will not be reborn in another body.
accept donor sperm. It is this need to keep the lineage
pure that makes adoption unacceptable to many. In
practice, however, these technologies are rarely used.
Abortion
The following passage demonstrates the reverence
that Hinduism holds for life. All life is precious
because God is the source of everything.
His being is the source of all being, the seed of all

things that in this life have their life … He is God,
hidden in all beings, their innermost soul who is in
all. He watches the works of creation, lives in all
things, watches all things. (Svetasvatara Upanishad)
In Him all things exist, from Him all things originate.

He has become all. He exists on every side. He is truly
the all. (Mahabharata Shanti Parva 47–56)
Neither do the Dharmashastra sanction

abortion, and they specify certain atonements
that a person should perform in order to expiate
the sin of an abortion. Despite the fact that the
Dharmashastra state that the unborn foetus has life,
abortion in India is legal.
It ought to be noted that while abortion is not
sanctioned in Hinduism, and in fact is considered
reprehensible, the Hindu understanding of the FIG. 12.9 Krishna as the charioteer with Arjuna, Hindu mythology

Without a central authority Hindus must been emitted from the Being of God in the act of
come to their own decisions regarding such issues creation. The formless God has assumed a form, as
as abortion. To have a male child is to fulfil the it were, and that form is the universe. The universe
parents’ obligations. In contrast, the birth of a is, then, the ‘body’ of the Supreme Being, who is
female child is the beginning of a financial burden. essentially formless.
The religious and ethical texts have very little The consequence of such a conception of matter
influence on daily life. is that the understanding of nature is very different
from that of some other religions. If the universe
activity is the ‘material form’ of the formless Supreme
Being, then the world is not something separate
If the Hindu dharma, which is the basis of Hindu
from God. Rather, the whole world is divine and
society’s ethics, makes no distinction between social
sacred. Therefore everything—space, atmosphere,
and moral motivations, what does this mean for the
fire, water, earth and all things that grow from the
issue of abortion? Discuss as a class.
earth—should be looked upon with awe and treated
with veneration. The ancient Hindu conception
Environmental ethics of nature presents a radical alternative view to the
perspective of most of the other great religions.
The earth is our mother and we are her children. Much of India’s population lives by farming.
(Source unknown) In cultivating the soil it is inevitable that some
creatures will be killed. Recognition of this fact is
For Hinduism, the well-being of humankind found in the Laws of Manu, which provides rituals
is dependent on proper and careful use of and prayers for seeking forgiveness for harm caused
natural resources. The care and protection of the to these creatures. ‘A householder has five slaughter
environment is a religious duty. The universe, in its houses: the hearth, the millstone, the broom, the
entirety, is seen as a manifestation of God, as seen mortar and the water jar: by using these he sins.’
in the hymn to Purusha: The householder is expected to share his food
with all living beings.
Purusha is the whole universe, that which was and
which shall be. Such is his greatness … A householder should regard deer, camels, donkeys,
One quarter of all beings make up a quarter of him mice, snakes, birds and bees as his sons: for what
The other three quarters are immortal in heaven difference is there between his sons and them?
Thence in all directions he spreads into living beings (Bhagavata Purana 7,14,9)
and inanimate matter.
(Rig Veda X.90) Trees and plants hold a special place in Hindu
rituals:
According to some of the ancient Hindu
scriptures, especially the Upanishads, the Supreme Even if there is only one tree full of flowers and
Being did not create the world out of some pre- fruits in a village, that place becomes worthy of
existing material, nor was the world created out of worship and respect. (Mahabharata)
nothing. Instead, the world was created, or rather
‘emitted’, from the Supreme Being. Thus there It is not surprising that vegetarianism is a
are statements in the Upanishads such as ‘space common practice among Hindus. It is seen by many
arose from Brahman’ and ‘That Being saw: “I shall to be a sign of religious purity and often of caste
become many, I shall be born.” ’ The Upanishad status. Some Hindus will eat mutton and chicken.
conception of the world, which not all Hindus But others will not eat red foods such as beetroot or
accept, is that the Supreme Being produced the watermelon because red is the colour of blood, nor
material that makes up the world from within will they drink red wine. Other people abstain from
himself, for there is no mention in these scriptures eating meat on certain days of the week, or some
that matter came from any other source. The world fast in order to honour the gods, believing this act
is not something that stands apart from God; on the will bring merit as well as improve their self-control
contrary, the matter that makes up the world has and physical well-being.

Why is the cow considered sacred?
It is a common sight in India to see a cow moving
leisurely along a road, pausing occasionally to
attempt to nibble a vegetable or a piece of fruit
from a roadside stall. The shopkeeper will threaten
and shout and the cow will move off, unhurt,
often with its prize.
Why do Hindus have a special respect for the cow?
The Hindus of Vedic times marvelled at how the
cow could produce warm, white milk from a diet
of mere grass. The nutritious milk could then be
turned into other valuable products such as curd,
butter and ghee. For these Hindus, the cow was so
valuable that it was used as the principal form of
currency.
By the time of the Mahabharata (400 BCE) there
was a prohibition against killing cows. This
prohibition persists among Hindus today. The cow
has economic value, but its sacredness resides in
its being seen as the symbol of the earth itself. The
earth continually produces fruits, vegetables and FIG. 12.10 Temple dedicated to Shiva and Parvati in Durbar
grains and it gives all of the resources necessary Square, Kathmandu, Nepal
for life. The cow is like the earth because it takes

very little for itself and goes on giving the delicious Hindus believe that kama (sexual pleasure)
foods upon which we depend. should be regarded as a legitimate part of life, but
that sexual behaviour ought to be restricted to the
relations between husband and wife. Therefore sex
activities outside of marriage is not permitted. Even within
marriage, some constraints have traditionally been
1. Explain how God and environment are
placed on the sexual relations of the couple. For
intertwined in the Hindu religion and the impact
example, it is said that they ought to avoid sex
this has on environmental perspectives.
during the time of the woman’s menstruation.
2. How the physical earth is created is very different Adultery is forbidden. Heterosexual monogamy is
in Hinduism than in other religions. Explain how. thus the norm for Hinduism.
3. Why would many Hindus not eat red meat? Homosexuality and lesbianism are not treated
4. Research activity: Cutting down trees for firewood by Hindus as legitimate alternative forms of sexual
is a major environmental problem. What is behaviour. They are infrequently referred to in
the Chipko Movement and what is it trying to the ancient Hindu Dharmashastra, and it would
achieve? Outline the Hindu ethical thinking that seem that they are looked upon as temporary states
underlies this movement. correctable by marriage. Not to marry and have
children is a violation of a person’s dharma.
In the past Hindus have had large families
Sexual ethics because in past times infant mortality was high.
Nowadays, many Hindus are restricting the number
In earlier times Hindu men could marry more than of children to two or three.
one wife, though monogamy was always highly Traditionally a son has been more highly valued
regarded and is now the law. Most of the Hindu than a daughter because the son remains in the
deities are married (for example, Shiva and Parvati, family, whereas a married daughter will soon live
Vishnu and Lakshmi, Brahma and Saraswati) and with her husband’s family. Also, a son is required to
this reinforces the fact that marriage is considered perform the funeral ceremonies of his parents and
to be the norm in Hindu society. thereby ensure their welfare after death. On a bride’s

marriage there is an expectation that her father will Most Hindu marriages are arranged by the
provide his daughter with a dowry, usually made up parents, and often the bride and groom will hardly
of both money and gifts. The amount of the dowry know each other—though nowadays, among
can be substantial and is agreed upon before the modern Hindus, ‘semi-arranged’ marriages give
marriage can take place. It is sometimes referred to couples more latitude to decide for themselves
as the ‘bride price’. Along with this, it is the bride’s whether or not they wish to marry. Most marriages
family that is responsible for most of the wedding are arranged between members of a specific sub-
expenses. It is not uncommon for this to place a caste. Modern Hindus are often not especially
tremendous financial burden on the bride’s family. concerned to observe these restrictions. One
It is not surprising that the preoccupation with male unfortunate feature that has crept into many
children continues into the present, and Hindus modern marriages is the demand that the bride’s
especially rejoice over the birth of a son. family supply an expensive dowry to the groom
or his family. This can amount to an avaricious
The ethics of marriage exploitation of the bride’s family by the groom and
In Hinduism marriage is regarded as a sacrament. A his family—on occasion the latter will expect that a
Hindu wedding is often an elaborate and expensive car, money, household appliances or even a house
occasion during which all the relatives and family be given at the time of the wedding.
friends of both the man and the woman come Since marriage is considered to be a sacrament,
together. The focal point of the ceremony occurs traditional Hinduism did not allow for divorce.
when the groom takes the bride’s hand and they However, divorce was always allowed by custom.
take seven steps around the sacred fire. Each step Among the four classes of society, the Brahmins,
represents a marriage vow, the seventh representing the highest class, had the strictest rules governing
a vow for their mutual and lasting friendship. After marriage and divorce. Nowadays, it is legally
the wedding, the woman formally leaves her parents’ permissible in India for Hindus to divorce in specific
home to begin life with her husband’s family. circumstances such as insanity, impotence or
Nowadays, some married couples living in cities cruelty. The state divorce law, however, is heavily
will set up home on their own, though living in an weighted in favour of the male and does not give
extended family situation is still the usual custom. property rights to the woman. The woman is
permitted only very limited maintenance in the
FIG. 12.11 Bride and groom around the sacred fire event of a divorce.
activities
1. What rules about sex are followed by Hindus?
2. Why did Hindu people traditionally have large
families and how has that changed in recent times?
3. Give one example of where an old tradition
has survived at the cost of families with female
children.
4. What is a sacrament? Hindus regard marriage as a
sacrament. What influence does this have on the
meaning and celebration of a marriage?
5. Research the nature of a dowry, and how it has
changed from the past to the present.
6. Debate: Divorce should not be allowed in Hindu
society.

Significant practices

Hindu marriage, vivaha, marks the beginning of the second stage of life,
that of the householder. As such it fulfils the householder’s dharma.
It is the most important of Hindu samskaras. It also helps fulfil the
four Hindu purusharthas (aims of life): dharma (duty), artha (wealth),
kama (sensual pleasure) and moksha (release from samsara, the cycle of
rebirths).
In Vedic times (approximately 1000–500 BCE), people married in their
late teens or twenties. Later, parents began to arrange for their daughters
to be married at a young age, though the couple
would not live as man and wife until after the girl had
reached puberty. The Kshatriyas, especially, observed
the custom of romantic love, as well as marriage by
conquest, whereby the girl was won by a display of
strength or carried off after victory in battle.
One of the reasons why child marriage became
prevalent, especially among Brahmins, was the belief
that a girl should not marry anyone beneath her
own class. It was generally decreed that a boy should
marry a girl of the same class as himself, though he
could marry a girl of a lower class should he wish. A
girl could marry someone of the same class as herself,
or of a higher class, but not someone of a lower
class. Thus a Brahmin boy should marry a Brahmin
girl, but he could also marry a Kshatriya, a Vaishya
or a Shudra, though this practice was discouraged.
A Brahmin girl, however, could not marry anyone
except a Brahmin. This led to Brahmin parents
making early marriage arrangements on behalf of
their daughters.
Nowadays, these distinctions are not as rigidly
adhered to as they once were, though it is still most
likely that marriages will occur between boys and girls
of the same class. The tendency among modern people
is for couples to marry later, in their twenties.
In arranged marriages, the parents are responsible
for choosing marriage partners for their children. If the
two sets of parents involved do not know each other
directly, each will make enquiries about the other
through relatives or acquaintances. Then the parents
will take the astrological birth charts of the boy and
girl to the astrologer in order that the compatibility of
FIG. 12.12 Bride and groom in a traditional Hindu wedding the couple can be determined. (Most parents will have
ceremony noted the exact time of birth of their child and will

The marriage ceremony is an important social
occasion. The atmosphere is one of auspiciousness
because the ceremony will take place on an
astrologically favourable day. It is a festive occasion
with people wearing their best clothes and there is
an abundance of food.
The ceremony usually takes place at the bride’s
home where her family will welcome the groom
and his family. The bride’s family will have prepared
an altar specially, usually in an outdoor area. A large
piece of canvas will be spread on the ground and
an altar and canopy erected. It is called a mandap.
The four pillars represent the parents of the bride
and groom and the important role they have played
in bringing up their children. It is richly decorated,
FIG. 12.13 Traditional astrological chart made soon after with the colours of red and silver prominent,
a child’s birth symbolising prosperity.
have had an astrological chart made soon after birth.) Traditionally the groom will arrive at the bride’s
If the charts match reasonably well and the couple’s home mounted on a white horse.
parents are in agreement, the marriage will go ahead.
In modern semi-arranged marriages, couples are
introduced to each other by parents or relatives but
are able to decide for themselves whether or not
they wish to proceed to marriage. Cases where the
boy and girl meet and decide to marry, without any
arrangement by the parents, have always existed
in Hindu society, especially among the Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas and Shudras. This type of ‘romantic
marriage’ is increasingly being adopted by modern
people living in the big cities.
activities
1. How was marriage and social class intertwined in
Hindu communities before recent times?
2. How has this changed today?

The rituals of the marriage ceremony vary from
region to region and caste to caste. The following is
an outline of the characteristics of a Hindu wedding
most likely to be undertaken.
Prior to the actual ceremony the couple will
have exchanged wedding rings to mark their
engagement. This ring ceremony is called the
misri. Some time after this ceremony and before
the wedding, the bride and her family and friends
will meet for the mehndi party, where henna and
turmeric are used to paint intricate designs on
hands and feet. The use of henna is thought to FIG. 12.14 The groom arriving at the bride’s home mounted on a
strengthen the bonds of love. white horse

FIG. 12.15 The groom is offered food.
Accompanying him is a
procession of his relatives and
friends and a musical band.
When the groom arrives he
is offered a drink of milk
and yoghurt, with honey
and ghee. The bride’s father
washes the groom’s feet and
gives him his wedding clothes.
The bride makes her way to
the mandap before her father
receives the groom there. Her
father then gives his daughter
to the gods, represented by
the fire, who in turn give her
to the groom. He promises to
look after her and to protect
her for the rest of her life.
FIG. 12.16 The mandap

The fire ceremony (homam)
A Brahmin priest knowledgeable in the mantras
of the Vedas will conduct the homam ceremony.
The sacred fire is lit, the fire and light symbolising
God. With the bride and groom standing in front
of the sacred fire, the priest utters Vedic mantras
while pouring offerings of ghee into the fire, asking
the gods to bless the marriage. The couple are then
seated near the fire.
The priest invites the groom to pour offerings
into the fire to the accompaniment of further
prayers. With the bride’s hand on his shoulder,
the groom says: ‘I am the Sun, you are the Earth.
May my seed, planted in you, produce children.
May they outlive us. May we love and admire one
another and protect each other with a kind heart.
May we see, hear and live a hundred autumns.’ At
this point the end of the bride’s sari may be knotted
to the groom’s scarf.
The bride’s father will give his daughter’s right
hand into the hand of the man soon to be her
husband. The bride’s father asks the bridegroom
to be moderate in his behaviour. Then there is an
exchange of gifts, with the groom’s mother giving
the bride a necklace called a mangala sutra.
The husband then says, ‘I hold your hand in the
spirit of dharma, we are both husband and wife.’
They then throw grains of roasted rice into the fire.
FIG. 12.17 Pouring offerings into the fire
A grinding stone has

been placed on the west
side of the sacred fire
while to the north-east of
the fire is a water jar. The
bride steps on this stone,
which symbolises a rock.
She is demonstrating her
willingness and strength to
overcome difficulties in the
pursuit of her duties.
FIG. 12.18 The bride’s father

presents a gift to the groom.

The bride and groom have now reached the
central part of the ceremony, the Saptapadi (seven
steps). The bride and groom walk around the fire,
and at each of their seven steps a prayer is said:
The first for food
The second for power
The third for prosperity
The fourth for wisdom
The fifth for children
The sixth for health
The seventh for friendship
The two people are now considered to be married.
Barley is poured into the couple’s hands by her
brothers. These grains are offered to the fire with
the promise that they will work together to help
others. The husband marks the parting in his wife’s
hair with a red paste called sindoor. This mark shows
that the woman is married.
If the ceremony is performed at night the groom
is supposed to point out to his bride the tiny Pole
Star, and the bride promises to be as firm in her
vows and as constant as the star, saying, ‘The Pole
Star is Dhruva [constant]. May I be Dhruva in my
husband’s family.’ The priest then sprinkles their
heads with water from the water jar. The priests and
the elders throw petals and grains of rice over the
couple wishing them peace and happiness in their
married life.
The wedding is followed by a celebration that
emphasises the provision of hospitality, in the form
of rich and abundant food for all of the guests.
FIG. 12.19 The Saptapadi (seven steps)
activities
1. Why are henna and turmeric used to paint
intricate designs on hands and feet?
2. What is a ‘mandap’ and what does it represent?
3. Using a visual presentation from your research on
the Internet, outline the sequence of events that
make up a Hindu wedding festival.
4. Why is fire an important part of the wedding
ceremony?
5. What are the seven prayers said for each of the
seven steps around the flame of the ceremony? How
important would you consider these for a successful
marriage? Discuss your views with other students.
6. What is sindoor and what does it stand for?

Pilgrimage for Hindus
Yatra (pilgrimage) and mandir (temple) worship are Millions of Hindus are engaged in pilgrimage
important aspects of the Hindu religion. For Hindus at any time of the year. A pilgrimage is a holiday
the physical world is an expression of the divine. from the routine of life, a holiday with a religious
Among natural phenomena some mountains and purpose. By undertaking the challenges of a
rivers are especially venerated. The river Ganga particular pilgrimage, the devotee hopes for some
(Ganges) is considered to be the most sacred of spiritual benefit. The journey will involve self-
all rivers. According to legend, the Ganga used to sacrifice and physical hardship in order to help the
flow only in the heavenly regions, but the sage person focus on his or her spiritual journey. The
Bhagiratha, wishing to bring its sacred waters to more difficult the journey, the greater the penance,
earth, performed severe austerities and eventually the closer to moksha a person comes.
his prayer was granted. In order to cushion the Pilgrimage is a way of personally giving thanks
earth from the force of the water as it falls from the and it is an expression of faith. Other reasons for
heavens, Shiva lets the Ganga first flow through the going on pilgrimage might be to seek a cure for an
coils of his matted hair before it reaches the earth illness from the deity of that location. It might be
high in the Himalayan mountains. to fulfil a promise when seeking a blessing. Water,
Hindus believe that a dip in holy waters purifies particularly running water, is seen as a means of
the soul, especially if it is taken at one of the three washing away sins so that a person may begin a
main pilgrimage towns along the banks of the new life. There are seven sacred rivers in India, each
Ganga: Haridwar (Hardwar) at the foothills of the associated with pilgrimage.
Himalayas; Prayaga (Allahabad), where the Ganga
joins the Yamuna and is believed also to meet the Places of pilgrimage
invisible Saraswati River; and Varanasi (Benares). There are many holy places of pilgrimage in India.
Today, it is said, there are more sacred sites in India There is a mandir to Vishnu at Badrinath and
than there are religious communities. another to Shiva at Kedarnath; both places are high
in the Himalayan mountains and can be reached
only by undertaking arduous journeys. There are
mandirs, mountains and rivers sacred to the gods
and goddesses throughout the country from the
Himalayas to the very tip of the south of India.
Perhaps the most sacred place of all is the city
of Varanasi situated on the River Ganga. This city
is especially sacred to Shiva, for it is believed that
Shiva liberates from rebirth those who die in this
city. Some Hindus come to Varanasi when they
are old and preparing for death, but many come
to bathe in the river because a dip in the Ganga at
Varanasi is believed to free the devotee from sin.
One special festival is called the Kumbh Mela,
a festival that take place four times over a 12-year
cycle in four different cities. The largest, the Maha
FIG. 12.20 Crowds of pilgrims during the festival of Khumh Mela

sit on ghats on the Ganga at Haridwar, India.

Amarnath in the state of Haridwar, Gangotri, Badrinath and Rishikesh are on the
Jammu and Kashmir is the upper reaches of the Ganga. Haridwar is one of the sites of the
site of a Himalayan cave famous Kumbh Mela pilgrimage.
dedicated to the god Shiva. Badrinath is 3000 metres in the Himalayas and is the site of
Amarnath a temple to Vishnu.
Kashmir
PAKISTAN
CHINA
Gangotri Mount Kailash
Badrinath
Vrindaban is a Vaishnavite Mount Kailash (Mount Meru)
site where it is believed that Rishikesh in Tibet is the source of four of
Krishna played on the banks Haridwar India’s most sacred rivers.
of the River Yamuna.
DELHI
Vrindaban
NEPAL
BHUTAN
Jaipur
Ayodhya
The city of Ayodhya is believed
to be the birthplace of Rama.
Allahabad Varanasi
Allahabad (Prayaga) is
on the confluences of the BANGLADES
SH
BANGLADESH
Ganga and Yamuna rivers.
Kolkata
Dwarka INDIA
M
MYANMAR
The Temple of the Mother
Goddess, Kali, in Kolkata.
Dwarka is on
the coast. It
Varanasi (Benares) is the most famous
amous pilgrimage site
site.
is regarded as
It is a Shaivite site on the River Ganga. For Hindus, the
Krishna’s city. Mumbai Ganga is a goddess.
Celebrations of
Varanasi is associated with rites for the dead. Many
both his birth
people go to the banks of the river to die. It is believed
and death take
that if a dying person sips the water of the Ganga, his
place here.
Hyderbad or her soul will be liberated. Corpses are cremated on its
banks and their ashes swept into the river.
Bangalore Chennai
Rameshwaram
SRI
Comorin LANKA
Comorin and
Rameshwaram
At all these sites there are shrines and
dwelling places for sadhus and ascetics.
FIG. 12.21 Pilgramage sites

FIG. 12.22 Many Hindus try to visit Varanasi, a famous pilgrimage site in India, to bathe in the holy Ganga
(‘Great’) Kumbh Mela, is held once every 12 years journeying.’ People often return home with a small
at Prayaga, a short distance from Allahabad. At this jar of water from the Ganga to keep in the house, a
time, in the one place, the equivalent of the entire few drops of which will be sprinkled on the tongue
population of Australia bathes in the Ganga on the of a dying family member.
single most auspicious day of the festival! Varanasi is sacred to all Hindus and has long
In order to undertake a pilgrimage devotees been regarded as a centre of Hindu learning. But it
carefully plan their journey. It will be long and is especially sacred to the devotees of Shiva, who
arduous, without material comforts and only basic believe Shiva himself liberates from rebirth those
accommodation. On arrival pilgrims perform puja who die in Varanasi.
with offerings for their departed relatives, known
as the shraddha rites. They will walk around, or Other Shaivite pilgrimage sites
circumambulate, the temple, sometimes prostrating There are a number of other important pilgrimage
themselves as they go, before seeking darshana, the sites for the followers of Shiva. At Kedarnath, high
viewing of the deity’s image in the inner shrine. in the Himalayan mountains, there is a Shiva
mandir. People used to have to walk there, but now
Varanasi it is possible to travel most of the way by road.
Varanasi, or Benares as it used to be known, is one Haridwar, where the Ganga leaves the mountains
of the oldest cities in the world, known to Hindus and enters the plains, is considered the entrance to
as a sacred city and a location of pilgrimage. Here the Himalayan regions and is a place sacred to the
the Ganga turns northward towards its source in the devotees of both Shiva and Vishnu.
Himalayan mountains before resuming its course Another famous centre of pilgrimage is located
to the sea. A place where a river turns back towards at Amarnath, in the northern state of Kashmir. Here
its source is considered sacred because it symbolises a sacred cave, situated 4000 metres up in the steep
the return of the spiritual seeker to the Source, to foothills of the Himalayas, is visited by up to 30 000
God. In India all rivers are sacred, but the Ganga is devout Hindus during one month of the year. The
particularly revered. journey, negotiated via a rough track, is hard and
Many Hindus will try to make the trip to dangerous, but pilgrims come to this place because
Varanasi at least once in their lives in order to bathe in the interior of the cave, sacred to Lord Shiva,
at the special bathing places, ghats, that extend is a symbol of his special potency: the linga. This
along one side of the river bank. Devotees believe particular version of the linga is an icicle, standing
that a pious dip in the Ganga will absolve them about two metres tall. It forms every year, though
of their past sins. In one of the earliest references it waxes and wanes with the climate. Upon its size
to pilgrimage, Aitareya Brahmana 7.15, the pilgrim depends the blessing of Shiva on the world: when
is likened to a growing flower that rises above the it is large there will be a fruitful year, but when it is
dirt: ‘All his sins fall away, slain by the labour of his small it signifies Shiva’s anger at the spread of evil.

During the festival of Teppam, in January where Rama prayed to Shiva before he travelled
or February each year, images of Shiva, in his the short distance over the sea to Lanka in order
incarnation as the Lord Sundareswarar, and of to defeat Ravana, the king of the demons. The
his wife Parvati as the Lady Minakshi, are taken southern town of Madurai has a famous Shiva
in procession from the temple and floated on mandir. Here Parvati, the wife of Shiva, is known
huge decorative rafts to an island situated in a as the goddess Minakshi and is the principal
vast artificial lake. This is an exciting and joyous deity of the temple. Chidambaram hosts another
occasion—shops and stalls sell food and drink, and ancient, famous and vibrant Shiva mandir in the
the temple is open day and night. Loud processions south of India, where ritual worship is performed
take place after dark, when candles, gongs, drums, by hereditary priests in a way that has remained
flutes, singing, and dancing add to the excitement. unchanged for the past thousand years.
At Prayaga (Allahabad), where the Rivers Ganga
and Yamuna merge, the great high gods split the Vaishnavite pilgrimage sites
seed of immortality in the form of a single drop of Sites of pilgrimage for the followers of Vishnu and
the seminal fluid of Shiva. Every 12 years, on the his incarnations outnumber those available to
festival of Kumbh Mela, millions of devout Hindus Shaivas. Important among these are Badrinath in
assemble here as pilgrims to bathe in the twice- the Himalayan mountains, situated not far from the
blessed waters. From here to the point at which Shiva mandir of Kedarnath. Badrinath is open to
the Ganga meets the Brahmaputra, another sacred pilgrims for only a few months of the year; the rest
river, the banks are lined with temples whose steps of the time it is covered in snow. The temple priest
lead down to the waters. There are many images at Badrinath traditionally comes from the south of
of the linga of Shiva next to the yoni (womb) of India.
Kali—male and female together. Millions of men Mathura, in the north, is famous as the
and women gather all the way to the delta, ritually birthplace of Krishna, and nearby Vrindavan is the
bathing, making private devotions and chanting location of the legends concerning his boyhood
sacred invocations. and youth. Ayodhya is famous as the birthplace of
Southern India has many large temples sacred Rama, the hero of the Ramayana. The large mandir
to Shiva, many of which cover hectares of land and to Krishna at Puri on the east coast of India attracts
are often constructed of intricately carved granite. many thousands of pilgrims, as does the Krishna
There is a famous Shiva mandir at Rameshwaram, mandir at Dwarka on the west coast. The huge
FIG. 12.23 Parvati, the wife of Shiva, is also known as Minakshi and is the principal deity at this temple in Madurai.

Vishnu mandir at Shri Rangam in the south of India
is one of great importance.
Tirupati, in the south near Chennai, has perhaps
become the most famous place of pilgrimage. Many
thousands of people come daily to worship and pray
to Venkateshwara, a form of Lord Vishnu, and the
temple is, after the Vatican, the wealthiest religious
institution in the world.
The place of pilgrimage in Hinduism

In summary, pilgrimage forms an important part of
the popular Hindu tradition. In India millions of
people at any one time are on the move to various
holy sites throughout the country. However, Hindus
are not compelled to go on pilgrimage, just as they
are not compelled to visit temples.
Some people undertake a pilgrimage in order
to visit a holy place and take the opportunity of
having the sight (darshana) of the deity that resides
in the temple. Others go on a pilgrimage in order
to pray to a deity at a certain place in the hope that
the deity will assist them in the resolution of some
personal difficulty. For others still, pilgrimage might
involve the fulfilment of a religious vow. Pilgrimage
is a legitimate opportunity to travel and experience
new places. It is like a holiday, though with a FIG. 12.24 Temple detail
devout goal.
but they believe God is present within consecrated
activities images. They do not worship idols.
Worship conducted in Hindu temples is similar
1. It is said that there are ‘more sacred sites in India
to home worship, though more elaborate. The
than there are religious communities’. Explain
deity is believed to be present in the consecrated
this statement, outlining why sacred sites are
temple image, having put himself or herself under
important to Hindu people.
the care of the devotees as an act of grace towards
2. Why is pilgrimage important to Hindus? them. That is why in Hindu temples the image
3. Is pilgrimage a compulsory part of being Hindu? If is worshipped, receives offerings of food, and is
not, why do people still go on a pilgrimage? bathed and rested at regular hours throughout the
day. Hindus come to a temple in order to offer their
devotions and experience darshana—the sight of
Temple worship the Lord present in the image within the inner
sanctuary of the temple. In most temples the
Hindus worship individually rather than Brahmin priests conduct the worship on behalf of
congregating for common worship. Some gather the worshipper. The Hindu temple is modelled on
to sing devotional songs called bhajan or kirtan. the court of a king and is a place of activity, with
But while Hindus are not required to worship worshippers constantly coming and going, priests
in a temple, some may choose to visit a temple chanting and the sound of musical instruments
frequently while others only rarely. Saturday is ringing out at regular hours. Hindu temples have
a special day to visit the temple for those who a lively atmosphere. Quiet meditation is done
worship Vishnu. Monday is a special day for elsewhere.
devotees of Shiva. Friday is a special day for The Hindu temple, often a huge structure of
devotees of the wife of Shiva. Hindus worship God carved stone, contains courtyards and corridors

that lead to a small, dark, cave-like shrine where An example of temple worship dedicated to Shiva
the deity dwells. Entering the temple, the devotee In a Shiva mandir, the inner sanctuary contains the
passes through a gateway that is often carved linga, symbol of Shiva. Outside the sanctuary will be
with scenes from Hindu mythology, showing the a sculptured image of the sacred bull Nandi, which
deeds of gods and sages. The devotee passes from will be facing the linga. Nandi represents single-
this external world into the courtyard and then minded devotion to the god Shiva. A bronze bell
through corridors to the centre of the temple. The hangs outside the shrine. The devotee rings the bell
carvings become less frequent, the way becomes to request the god’s attention. Sometimes holy water
more narrow, the darkness increases. At the centre will be dripping on the linga, anointing it. An oil
is the main shrine, dimly lit by flames flickering in lamp at the front of the shrine is lit during worship.
brass oil lamps. The priest, waving lighted camphor,
reveals to the devotee the form of the deity. In the Hindu temples in Australia
Hindu temple it is the immanence of God that is There are now Hindu temples in all mainland states
indicated by the small inner shrine. The journey to of Australia. In New South Wales the major Hindu
that room is itself a great symbol, laid out in space temples are all in Sydney: the Sri Venkateswara Temple
architecturally, of an interior journey that leads us in Helensburgh; the Murugan Temple in Mays Hill;
to the deity within ourselves. and the Shri Shiva Mandir in Minto. These three
temples have websites where students can explore and
FIG. 12.25 The recently built Murugan Temple in Sydney is learn more about Hindu worship in Australia.
remarkable in its detailed sculptures.
activities
1. When do Hindus go to a temple to
worship?
2. Is home worship acceptable? Why
or why not?
3. What sort of offerings would people
bring to a temple?
4. Create an oral presentation
outlining how Hindu worship at
a temple is different from that of
other religious traditions.
5. Visit the website of the Hindu
temple nearest to your school, or
select a mandir in New South Wales
and complete the following activity.
• Name and locate the mandir.
• To which deity is it dedicated?
• When was this mandir built?
• What is the composition of the
worshipping community?
• Outline the types of information
found on the website.
Name and explain one or two points of
interest that you found on the website.

Review and assess
Review
1. Discuss the contribution of ONE significant person or school of

thought, other than the Vedas, to the expression of Hinduism.
2. Explain Hindu ethical teachings on one of the following: bioethics,

environmental ethics or sexual ethics.
3. Analyse the significance of one of the following Hindu practices on

the individual: pilgrimage, temple worship or marriage ceremony.
4. Describe the contribution of ONE significant person or school of

thought in the religious tradition of Hinduism.
5. Analyse the impact of the person or school of thought on the religious

tradition of Hinduism.
6. Demonstrate how one of the following Hindu practices expresses the

beliefs of Hinduism: marriage ceremony, pilgrimage or temple puja.
7. Using research, describe what is happening and why in these Hindu

photographs below:

8. a. Link one significant Hindu practice to two 10. a. Explain the significance of public devotional
Hindu beliefs. practices to the Hindu adherent using
examples that you have studied.
b. Explain how Hindu ethical teachings influence
the lives of adherents. Choose an aspect from b. Drawing on ONE school of thought or
one of the following areas: significant individual you have studied, explain
• bioethics the significance of their contribution to Hindu
adherents.
• sexual ethics. c. What do you think was the motivation behind
the person of significance or school of thought
c. Describe the contribution to Hinduism made that you studied, for their influence on Hindu
by one significant person or school of thought, adherents?
other than the Vedas.
(Studies of Religion II HSC Examination Paper © Board of Studies NSW for Extended response (20 marks)
11. Assess the significance of ONE Hindu practice.

9. a. Discuss a variety of examples that demonstrate
Choose from: marriage ceremony; pilgrimage;
a Hindu’s view on one of the following:
temple worship.
• bioethics (Studies of Religion II HSC Examination Paper © Board of Studies NSW for
• sexual ethics. 12. Analyse the impact of ONE significant person or
school of thought on both the development and
b. Discuss the contribution to Hinduism of ONE expression of Hinduism.
significant person or school of thought that
you have studied. 13. Explain Hindu ethical teachings on bioethics OR
environmental ethics OR sexual ethics.
c. Describe the significant components in ONE of
the following in order for it to be considered a 14. Analyse the significance of Hindu beliefs and
religious act of devotion: explain how they impact on both the individual
• pilgrimage and the community in EITHER the marriage
ceremony OR pilgrimage.
• temple puja
• Wesak

13_KIN_OSR_Islam.indd 328 11/09/09 11:44 AM
Islam
practices and ethical teachings to an understanding of Islam as a living
religious tradition. The study of Islam is to be of the WHOLE tradition
where applicable.
mam Abu Hanifa

Outcomes
Imam Al-Shafi
A student: Abu ali Hussein Ibn Sina
H1 explains aspects of religion and belief systems Rabi‘a al-Adawiyya
H2 describes and analyses the influence of religion Al-Ghazali
Sayyid Maududi
Sayyid Qutb
another person or school of thought
significant to Islam
in the life of adherents
• the effect of that person OR school of thought on
Islam
sources, considering usefulness, validity and
bias Ethics
H7 conducts effective research about religion and • ONE of the following areas of ethical teaching in
evaluates the findings from the research Islam:
H8 applies appropriate terminology and concepts bioethics

related to religion and belief systems environmental ethics
H9 coherently and effectively communicates sexual ethics
appropriate written, oral and graphic forms. Significant practices in the life of adherents
• ONE significant practice within Islam drawn from:
Content Friday prayer at the mosque
Students learn about: funeral ceremony

Hajj
• the contribution to Islam of ONE significant behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2009.)
person OR school of thought, other than

Muhammad and the Four Rightly Guided
Caliphs, drawn from:
Khadijah Bint Khuwaylid
A’isha Bint AbuBakar
Fatima Al Zahra
mam Malik
HSC | Chapter 13 Islam 329

DA‘WA preaching, calling to the acceptance QIYAS the use of analogy to determine an
and practice of Islam. issue according to Islamic law.
DHIKR the spiritual exercise of ‘mindfulness’, QUR’AN the book revealed to Muhammad, the
(group) recitation or singing of prime foundation text of Islam.
devotional phrases and prayers from RAK‘A a cycle of postures and recitations
the Qur’an. comprising a unit in the ritual prayer.
EPISTEMOLOGY the theory of knowledge. SALAT ritual prayer (used of the five
FIQH jurisprudence. obligatory daily prayers, collectively or
HADITH used for individual sayings of the individually).
Prophet, and as a collective term to SHARI‘A divine highway of life; revealed
refer to the entire corpus of such canonical of Islam in the widest sense
sayings. As a collective term it is a of the words.
name for the second foundation text of SHI‘A the party of ‘Ali. The wing of Islam
Islam, the first being the Qur’an. that believes that guidance of the
HAJJ the annual pilgrimage to Mecca and community resided in ‘Ali and
the attendant ceremonies held between the Imams descended from him.
the seventh and tenth day of dhu’l- The twelfth Imam was taken into
hijja, the twelfth month of the Muslim occultation in 873/4, and will return to
year. introduce the millennium.
‘IBADAT acts of devotion, religious observances. SUFI one who lives an unostentatious life in
IHRAM ritual consecrated state of one making an attempt to experience the presence
the pilgrimage; clothing indicating an of God in the heart.
individual is in this consecrated state. SUNNI the wing of Islam that believes
IJMA’ consensus of the ‘ulama (and that the authority and guidance of
community) on an issue of Islamic law. the community is decided by the
community itself.
ISLAM the religion revealed to and preached
by Muhammad; act of acceptance of SURA a chapter of the Qur’an.
this religion. TASBIH type of rosary consisting of 99 beads
JIHAD dedicated effort, struggle (moral or for counting the recitation of the 99
physical). most beautiful names of God.
JUMU‘A Friday. Day of congregational prayer, ‘ULAMA Islamic faith leaders especially learned
from which it takes its name. in the Law and its application.
KA‘BA cube-shaped structure in the Sacred ‘UMRA the lesser pilgrimage to Mecca.
Mosque in Mecca, the ‘house of God’. WALI a saintly person, close to God thanks
KADI a judge in an Islamic court or tribunal. to outstanding virtue; friend, protector;
sometimes ‘friend of God’.
MU’AMALA’ human affairs and relationships.
MUSLIM one who professes faith in Islam.

Islam is above all else a religion. Its various As a religion, Islam is strongly individualistic,
foundational aspects—its profession of faith; the notwithstanding a great sense of community. Even
elaboration and proof of that faith in the Qur’an; when salat (ritual prayer) is performed in a group,
the law set out in the Qur’an; and the living every individual is solely responsible for every
demonstration and development of that law by the detail of his or her participation. Similarly, every
Prophet Muhammad—are the basis for a way of individual is ultimately responsible for his or her
life. It is a way of life that involves human beings acts. On the Day of Judgment, no one will be able to
thinking about God, thinking about themselves, intercede for anyone else, no one will be punished
thinking about themselves thinking about God, and for another’s evil deeds or rewarded for another’s
thinking about their relations with each other. good deeds. The example of others, however, may
It also has to do with the shape and organisation of serve as a model for good behaviour to be emulated,
a community, the way that community defines itself or as a warning about the punishment of evil deeds.
and its perception of those outside it. It generates It is individuals who serve as models, and
the study of the law, as part of God’s revelation certain individuals are identified with values,
of his will; of the nature of being; of time and ideas, tendencies and options that have established
eternity—in short, the deepest issues of philosophy themselves as currents within the varied textures of
and theology. It finds its expression in literature, the world of Islam.
poetry and prose, music (vocal and instrumental),
architecture and design, and supremely in activities
calligraphy. And all of these activities, with their
1. Revise the principal beliefs of Islam in Chapter 5.
variety of emphases, are embedded in a variety of
lifestyles—rural, urban, farming, sedentary and 2. Islam is seen to be practised as a group but is
mercantile—along with all the variety of personality actually about the individual. Discuss why this is
types and individual relationships, from the not a contradiction.
smallest social unit, the family, up to the largest.
FIG. 13.1 Even though prayer is performed as a group it is very individual

Khadijah bint Khuwaylid
The earliest significant individual is Muhammad’s first wife, Khadijah
bint [daughter of] Khuwaylid (d. 619 CE). Very little is known of her
early life. The sources make it clear, however, that when Muhammad
first met her she was a widow and an effective businesswoman, playing
‘
a role in her own right in the caravan trade. Muhammad acted as a
Her name reliable and trustworthy agent for her in her business dealings, and
(‘A’isha) is eventually they married (595 CE is the traditionally accepted date). The
marriage was happy and fruitful. She bore Muhammad four daughters,
a a popular and possibly two sons, both of whom died in infancy.
choice for girls, Khadijah believed that Muhammad had truly been called as the
Messenger of God. She said that no one of his qualities and virtues
and she is a could be deceived by a devil. She was the first Muslim. She stood
leading figure by him during the years when the tribes of Mecca boycotted and
persecuted him until she died in 619 after 24 years of marriage. She
for women’s endured successive pregnancies, and one of her daughters, Fatima, was
movements and to play a key role in subsequent Muslim life and devotion.
organisations
‘A’isha bint Abu Bakr
in the Muslim
’
‘A’isha (613–678 CE) was the daughter of Abu Bakr, one of Muhammad’s
world. earliest followers and closest personal friends—and the man who was
to be the first leader of the Muslim community after Muhammad’s
death in 632 CE. The betrothal in 620, when ‘A’isha was seven, and the
marriage in 622 were marks of the depth of friendship between the two
men.
‘A’isha was the closest of Muhammad’s wives to him. She is also the
one about whom most is known. She displayed a strong, individual
personality. There are 2210 sayings of the Prophet (hadith) related
through her. By way of comparison, only one other of Muhammad’s
wives, Umm Salma, is recorded as transmitting hadith, and she only
related 378.
An event in ‘A’isha’s life is mentioned in the Qur’an (sura 24:11–19).
It is related that on the way back from an expedition on which she
accompanied the Prophet (she was carried in a howdah mounted on
the back of a camel), the party halted for a while. She dismounted from
the howdah to relieve herself and dropped a necklace. On returning
to the howdah, she realised she had dropped it and returned to look
for it. While she was searching, the caravan moved on, the bearers
thinking she was inside the howdah. Left alone, she waited for someone
to come back for her when she was missed. While she was waiting, an
individual from the rearguard following the caravan discovered her and
recognised her. Modestly setting her on his own camel, he brought her
back to Madina, where she had not yet been missed. The circumstances
appeared compromising, and there were rumours that she had been
guilty of adultery. Muhammad was perplexed. The matter escalated into
a dispute that could have divided the Muslim community. Muhammad
asked advice from his companions. His cousin ‘Ali suggested that he put
an end to the matter by divorcing her. For this, it is said, ‘A’isha never
forgave ‘Ali. Others including a female servant insisted that ‘A’isha’s

virtue was absolute. Eventually Muhammad received Fatima does not have the role in history thanks
a revelation declaring her innocence. When her to her personality that ‘A’isha did. Neither she nor
parents urged her to be grateful to them and to any of Muhammad’s other daughters are recorded
Muhammad, she replied: ‘No thanks to you. You did as transmitting any hadith. But part of the theology
not believe me. Thanks is due to God alone.’ of the Shi‘a is the suffering of the Imams, and
There are other possible references to ‘A’isha in Fatima too, in the six months or so she lived after
the Qur’an, in particular to Muhammad’s relations the death of her father, shared in that suffering.
with Mary the Copt—who bore a son, Ibrahim, to The Shi‘a believe she suffered because her husband
Muhammad—and her jealousy of the newcomer. ‘Ali was cheated of his right to leadership of the
(Ibrahim died aged 18 months.) Muslim community after the death of Muhammad.
When ‘Ali became Caliph in 656 CE, ‘A’isha She suffered because Abu Bakr deprived her of what
moved into the spotlight again. When there was a she had the right to inherit from her father. She
revolt against him, she took the side of the rebels suffered because she was allowed to foresee the
and rode to the battlefield in a howdah mounted martyrdom of her two sons, Hasan and Husayn.
on a camel. The fighting was fierce—it is said that Hasan died in 669 CE, perhaps by poisoning, and
the howdah was like a hedgehog, so many were Husayn died a martyr’s death, with his body treated
the arrows sticking out of it. After ‘Ali’s army won, ignominiously, at the battle of Karbala’ (in present-
‘Ali approached her, and she said to him, ‘You have day Iraq) in 680 CE.
been victorious, now be magnanimous.’ He treated Fatima had perhaps five children: Hasan and
her with every courtesy and sent her under escort Husayn, two daughters, Zaynab and Umm Kulthum,
to Madina, where she lived the rest of her life in and a third son who died in infancy.
obscurity, but accessible to Muslims concerned with Spiritually, among the Shi‘a , Fatima enjoys a
stories about the Prophet and the meaning of hadith. wonderfully privileged position. There is a hadith
‘A’isha’s personality and popular memories of (not rejected by the Sunnis) that describes her
her are important in Muslim life. Her name is a as ‘Queen of the women in Paradise’, next to
popular choice for girls, and she is a leading figure Maryam, daughter of ‘Imran. She is given the title
for women’s movements and organisations in the batul, virgin, not because she did not conceive by
Muslim world. For example, the leading reformist intercourse with ‘Ali but because she was never
organisation in Indonesia (30 000 000 members) is defiled by menstruation. She is known as al-Zahra’
known as Muhammadiya. The women’s division is (‘the Radiant’). For the Shi‘a she is the embodiment
known as ‘A’ishiya. of all that is divine in womanhood—‘the noblest
ideal of human conception’ (Sayeed Ameer Ali).
activity
Khadijah and ‘A’isha were two very important women
in Muhammad’s life. Who were they and what
impact did they have on Muhammad and the early
development of Islam?
Fatima al-Zahra (Fatima the Radiant)

Fatima (c.605–633 CE) was probably Muhammad’s
youngest child, and she was the only one to
survive him. She married his paternal cousin ‘Ali
and was the only one of his children to bear him
grandchildren who survived infancy. Of these
children, two entered the pages of history, Hasan
and Husayn. It is these sons and their descendants
who became the focus of loyalty of the Shi‘a wing
of Islam. FIG. 13.2 Al Fatima mosque in Kuwait is named after the
daughter of Muhammad.

Muhammad, together with Fatima, ‘Ali, Hasan
and Husayn, are revered by the Shi‘a as a holy family,
united in its election and suffering as the household
of the Prophet. This household formed a ‘cloak’ of
shelter and guidance for the Muslim community,
having the privilege of sharing in the light of God
and understanding in full every level of meaning of
the Qur’an. From this household descended a line
of Imams, until the line was brought to a close, the
last Imam being taken into occultation to return at
the end of time, cleanse the earth of wickedness and
bring about the millennium.
But alongside this privileged role was the
component of grief and suffering. None of these
Imams died a natural death. None, except ‘Ali,
exercised political power, and he was murdered
entering a mosque at Kufa.
Fatima suffered bitterly after her father’s death. FIG. 13.3 The ancient Al Azhav Muslim University and Mosque in
She was pressured into accepting Abu Bakr as Caliph Cairo is the highest seat of Sunni Islamic learning.
instead of her husband.
‘
She was robbed of activities
Unlike her inheritance. After
1. Why was Fatima given the title batul, virgin, when
the Sunni, receiving the vision of
she bore children?
the fate of her two sons
the Shi‘a Hasan and Husayn, who 2. Why does Fatima enjoy the title ‘Queen of the
women in Paradise’?
do not have were to be second and
third Imams respectively, 3. What is the name of the mosque in Sydney
a general she died of grief six named after her? See if it has a website and
taboo on months after her father. research the reasons behind adopting this name.
For the Sunni, Fatima
representation is honoured as one of
of the human Muhammad’s daughters, Schools of thought and law
’
and the name ‘Fatima’
form ... is a popular choice by The ethical principles and spiritual values of the
parents for a daughter. Qur’an—the relations between God and human
For the Shi‘a , however, beings, and human beings with each other—are
she is highly honoured. She is the one female in the realised through the religious law, the shari‘a. The
Five of the Cloak. Unlike the Sunni, the Shi‘a do root meaning of this word is ‘road’, and this religious
not have a general taboo on representation of the law is the highway of life. It covers every aspect of
human form, especially prophetic figures and their human existence and includes ritual, moral, family,
families, and there are numerous examples of pictures criminal and mercantile issues and transactions.
of these five. In some the face of Fatima is veiled, as All human acts are to be classified as obligatory,
a model of the household from which the Shi‘a line recommended, neutral, undesirable or forbidden.
of authority descends. The sources for the detailed application of this over-
The title al-Zahra’ (‘the Radiant’) is only given arching law are the Qur’an, the hadith (sayings of the
to one other woman, Mary, mother of Jesus, also Prophet), qiyas (reasoning by analogy) and the ijma’
referred to among the Shi‘a as Maryam al-Zahra’, (consensus of the community).
and there is disagreement as to which ranks higher. Ijma’, along with the Qur’an, the sunna (the
Among the honours given her is that Fatima al- practice of the Prophet and the companions
Zahra’ is from time to time the name of a mosque established by hadith) and qiyas (analogy) is a source
(among the Shi‘a ). There is one in Sydney. of Sunni law. (It is not recognised as a source by the

Shi‘a). The word ijma’ means consensus, and is a looking to the common good of the community,
basis for decisions on issues on which the Qur’an and searched for techniques and modes of thinking that
hadith offer no opinion, whether on law or theology. could be used to realise Islamic law.
Its authority is based on a saying of Muhammad, ‘My Among these individuals were four after whom
community will never agree on error.’ schools of law were named. These four schools still
There are a number of views on what constitutes play an active role in the structure, organisation and
consensus in the Muslim community. For some it is internal management of the Muslim community
very limited, and was only possible in the time of the up to the present time. The four jurists’ names were
Prophet himself. For others, it can be achieved by a Abu Hanifa, Malik ibn Anas, Muhammad al-Shafi‘i
unanimity of scholars, or of the Muslim community and Ahmad ibn Hanbal.
as a whole. For yet others, a majority is sufficient. In The spread of Islam into areas distant from
fact, it can be said that there is no consensus among Madina brought exposure to different lifestyles,
Muslims on what constitutes consensus, and that this family structures and ethnicities. Conquest
exists only on the fundamentals of Islam. involved setting up new Islamic governmental
As scholars have applied it, it has been used as a systems, or transforming already existing centres
means of stabilising the practice of the community, of administration in ways that reflected the Islamic
for once an ijma’ has been established on an issue character of the new government. Distances were
it ranks as a precedent. On the other hand, it is considerable, and so schools of Islamic law developed
also used as an instrument of development and on the basis of local traditions in major centres of
change. For example, it is used to give a theoretical culture and trade. Until the early years of the ninth
basis for the acceptance of parliamentary and century, there was a fair degree of flexibility and scope
other democratic institutions of government in for regional—and indeed individual—variety in legal
the modern world. Their legislative authority and decisions. But during the eighth and ninth centuries
legitimacy is conferred by consensus. the codes of law were developed by four great jurists.
Qiyas (analogy) is an instrument to discover, These jurists in effect took supreme religious authority
by the use of reason, rulings appropriate to the out of the hands of the Caliph and gave the shari‘a an
numerous situations a society or individual might autonomous status—one to which, in theory at least,
face not specifically provided for in the Qur’an and the head of state was subject in his exercise of power.
sunna. It is a form of reasoning that grew out of a The jurists came from different backgrounds and
fairly liberal use of personal opinion. It involves had different personalities, and in their treatment of
making a ruling based on a precedent or a similar shari‘a they allowed different scope for precedent,
case. Thus, the Qur’an prohibits the drinking of individual judgment and analogy in matters not
wine. The reason for this is its effect on the mind directly dealt with in the Qur’an and hadith.
as a soporific. Narcotics are not mentioned in the
Qur’an. But, by analogy, they too may be prohibited. Malik ibn Anas
There is a range of views as to the permissibility Malik ibn Anas (c. 712–795 CE), often referred to
of the use of qiyas. Its validity was restricted by al- by Muslims with the honorific title Imam (leader,
Shafi‘i, who insisted that its starting point must be a leading figure), was brought up in Madina and spent
principle established in the Qur’an, the sunna or by most of his life there. He lived among the second
consensus (ijma‘); others attempted to exclude its use and third generation of Muslims in an environment
altogether, while yet others regarded it as a means of where the presence and memory of the Prophet
exercising individual judgment. were still palpable.
As the Muslim community grew, it expanded into He was revered in his lifetime for his skill in fiqh
territories with well-established legal systems of their (jurisprudence) and his knowledge of the hadith,
own. Islamic law had to respond to new situations both of which he devoted his life to. In his teaching
including many that were not directly covered by he restricted himself to hadith he deemed directly
the foundation texts of the Qur’an and hadith. The relevant to the public good (thus, for example, he
community did this by conscious adaptation where approved the keeping of a dog, though ritually
this was possible without contravening positive unclean, to guard the home). And he avoided teaching
law as set out in the Qur’an. The field was rich and hadith that had an anthropomorphic sense and might
complex, and it fell to the task of individuals who, have misled people.

Muhammad al-Shafi‘i
Muhammad al-Shafi‘i (767–820 CE) was born in
Mecca. He devoted himself to fiqh and studied in
Mecca, Madina, Iraq and Syria. His professional life
was divided largely between Baghdad and Cairo.
In his view, the approaches of Malik and
Abu Hanifa in certain respects lacked a decisive
authenticity. It was possible to argue—and
establish—that the ‘living tradition’ observed by
Malik in Madina did not necessarily represent
FIG. 13.4 The hadith are a record of the oral tradition relating the the practice of the Prophet. There could only be
words and deeds of Muhammad. Hadith collections are important a single source of legal authority, the example of
for determining the Muslim way of life, the ‘sunnah’.
Muhammad, and the example of Muhammad could
Malik ibn Anas is best known for a book called the be established only through the critical study of
Muwatta (‘The well-trodden path’), regarded as the the hadith. Because the authority of the Prophet
earliest formulation of Islamic law. The ‘path’ referred was divine, it held a position superior to the ‘living
to in the title is that trodden by the leaders of the tradition’ observed by Malik. The approach of Abu
community before him, and the book is a record of the Hanifa, on the other hand, for all his study of the
principles and precepts that had become established in hadith, allowed too much scope for what in al-
the life of the Muslim community in Madina. Shafi‘i ’s view was individual and arbitrary.
The great achievement of al-Shafi‘i was to elaborate
Abu Hanifa a unitary structure of Islamic law based on the four
Abu Hanifa (700–767 CE), also the recipient of the sources of law (the Qur’an, hadith, analogy and
honorific title Imam, was born in Kufa in present-day consensus), and in the process to develop a system
Iraq. He devoted his life to the study of fiqh and gained that could take account of variations and apparent
a large following. A number of collections of hadith contradictions in the two foundational texts.
on which he based his rulings have survived. He is
said to have earned a living as a cloth merchant. The Ahmad ibn Hanbal
governor of Kufa urged him to accept the position of Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855 CE), often referred
kadi (judge) in the province. He consistently refused, to simply as Ibn Hanbal, was born in Baghdad. He
and because of his refusal to enter into the service of devoted himself principally to the study of hadith,
the state he was flogged, and died in prison. travelling as a student to Iraq, Syria, the Hijaz
Abu Hanifa, living in the cosmopolitan and the Yemen. He was, for a time, a student of
environment of Kufa, was more pragmatic in his al-Shafi‘i.
rulings than Malik, whose mindset was formed by the Ibn Hanbal wrote no legal treatise, but many
more traditional environment of Madina. Abu Hanifa of his rulings and jurisprudential opinions were
also made a greater use of independent individual recorded by his son and other students. These
opinion than did Malik. His approach and his rulings add up to a corpus sufficient to sustain a school
indicated a move towards a systematic structure of of law. Historically it is the smallest, but in the
Islamic law in which concern for traditional practice contemporary world, because of its status in Saudi
made way for a use of ‘sound opinion’. Arabia and the role of this kingdom in da‘wa work
This difference led to the development of schools internationally, its influence is considerable.
of law distinguished by the way in which legal Ibn Hanbal rejected the use of reason in any
principles are used. There is more scope in the Hanafi form as a source of Islamic law and insisted that
school of law for developing a doctrine of equity in every legal rule could find its requisite authority
its rulings than in the other three schools, and the only in the Qur’an and the words or example of the
use in decision making of what in a given situation Prophet. His literal devotion to the words of the
might be regarded as better. By way of example, the Prophet in relation to every activity is illustrated in
Hanafi school is the only one in which a woman the anecdote that he never ate watermelon because
may give herself in marriage, and not depend on a he could find no hadith to establish the legal status
wali to sign the contract on her behalf. of this act.

He was an individual of adamantine will and courage,
notwithstanding his narrowness and literal understanding of the
foundation texts. When the Caliph al-Ma’mun in 833 CE declared as
a matter of faith that the Qur’an was created, Ibn Hanbal refused to
assent to the dogma and spent a number of years chained in prison until
the doctrine was withdrawn. His resistance, and the withdrawal of the
attempt by the Caliph to impose a religious belief, signified a victory for
the ‘ulama’ (scholars) as a class over the authority of the secular ruler.
activities
1. As Islam grew and encountered new circumstances, Muslims were
required to look to the common good of the community and develop
techniques and modes of thinking that could be used to realise Islamic
law. How did they do this while maintaining social harmony?
2. Schools of law were established and named after the four people in this
section. Investigate the role of these schools of law today. Do they play the
same role now as they did during their formation years from 700 to 855 CE?
3. Select one significant person and research their contribution to Islam.
The Sufi movement

The obverse of the regulation of external behaviour in codified Islamic law
was the development in Islam of the interior life—a sense of the presence
of God, and a longing for closeness to him and assurance of his love
and concern for his servants. For many Muslims, observance of the law
‘ They want
to experience
the presence of
is a matter of habit, a normal way of life. Even performance of the daily
prayers, observance of the Fast and other religious duties, notwithstanding
the spiritual richness they contain and the religious mindset they require,
can also become routine. But for some Muslims there is a passion to go
beyond what is routine. They want to experience the presence of God, to
God, to sense his sense his closeness to them in every phrase of the Qur’an they utter, and
closeness to them they long for this experience to dominate their lives.
This facet of Islam is epitomised in the lives and example of certain
in every phase
noted individuals in Muslim history. Their striving was part of what
of the Qur’an is called the Sufi movement, or the spiritual dimension of Islam. It
emphasised the importance of experiencing the presence of God in the
they utter, and
heart. Some Sufis carried the pursuit of this inwardness in religion so far
they long for his that they neglected outward observance. Others became so intoxicated
with their sense of the inward presence of God that they uttered words
experience to
that sounded blasphemous, such as al-Hallaj’s exclamation, ‘I am the
dominate their Ultimate Truth.’ Many of these Sufis did not belong to the conservative
’
and legalistically inclined religious establishment associated with various
lives.
rulers, who regarded the Sufis as undermining the basis of their authority.
The Sufi movement has a long history. It is often understood to
be associated with forms of religious devotion that go beyond the
requirements of legal obligation and is described as ‘mysticism’. But this
English word may be misleading since it does not have the connotations
of involvement in temporal affairs that is often part of the Sufi dimension
of Islam.

The word Sufism is probably derived from the Arabic word suf,
meaning ‘wool’. A Sufi, then, is one who wears plain wool, as opposed
to silk or other expensive materials. In other words, a Sufi is one who
lives a modest and unostentatious life. Sufis are determined to do
more than the law requires and seek to prevent religious practice from
becoming a matter of external routine. There are many ways of being a
Sufi and many traditions of Sufism, but all have the following aims in
common: to live wholly for God, to do more than the law requires for
the sake of God alone, and to regard distraction from him by the good
things of this world as tantamount to polytheism.
Sufi spiritual exercises include the performance of special prayers, the
self-discipline of additional days of fasting and additional hours spent in
prayer, and the recitation of the Qur’an. A core Sufi religious exercise is the
group practice of dhikr: the singing or recitation of devotional phrases,
verses or parts of verses from the Qur’an, and petitions for forgiveness and
blessing. In dhikr, God is referred to by the most beautiful names that the
Qur’an gives to him, and he is appealed to with an intensity designed to
fill the entire consciousness of the individual, so that it seems as though
God himself is heard saying his own words.
Some devotions require the utterance of Qur’anic phrases a set
number of times. These may be counted on the knuckles or by way of
tasbih—a string bearing 99 beads, one for each of the 99 most beautiful
names of God, divided into groups of 33.
Rabi‘a al-Adawiyya
There is much anecdotal biographical information about the first Sufis,
who were famed for their spirituality. The earliest of them were noted
for the asceticism of their lives. They lived with a sense of the presence
of God watching over them, a distaste for luxurious living, and not
least a fear of hell. One of the most famous of them is Hasan of Basra
(d. 728 CE).
Alongside these ascetics can be placed those with a burning love
of God, among whom the best known was a woman named Rabi‘a al-
Adawiyya (d. 801 CE). There is a story that on one occasion she was seen
running through the streets of Basra with a pail of water in one hand
and a blazing torch in the other. When asked what she was about, she
declared that the torch was to be used to burn down heaven, and the pail
of water to extinguish the fire of hell, so that humankind would worship
God, not out of fear of hell or desire of heaven, but for his own sake.
Rabi‘a al-Adawiyya was one of the greatest early figures of the Sufi
dimension of Islam. It was she who made central to this development FIG. 13.5 Muslim with prayer beads (tasbih)
a rigorous asceticism that required the abandonment of worldly
pleasures, even legitimate ones—not out of fear of hell, but rather
out of passionate love for God. More than any other individual, she
demonstrates that, in the mystical tradition and its cultivation of
holiness, there is no distinction of gender.
Rabi‘a was born in Basra (Iraq) around 713 CE and lived there most
of her life. The name Rabi‘a, meaning ‘fourth’, was given to her because
she was her father’s fourth daughter. Both her parents died while she
was still young and the family was broken up. Rabi‘a was sold as a
slave, yet so devoted was she to religion that she would fast during the

day and spend the night in prayer. There are few
spectacular events in the story of her long life—she
died in 801 CE, well over the age of 80—but there is
no doubting the impact of her personality, and the
significance and values that it communicated, even
if the anecdotes told of her tend to belong to the
realm of legend.
One night her master awoke and saw her
standing in prayer with a radiant light above her
head, the brightness of which filled the house. He
overheard her prayer that she be made able to serve
none but God. The next day he freed her. She spent
the rest of her life in prayer, fasting and teaching.
One of the stories told of her has to do with her
making the Hajj. While she was crossing the desert
in a caravan, the donkey carrying her baggage died.
Some of her companions offered to carry her baggage FIG. 13.6 An artist’s impression of the route of the Hajj
for her, but she declined their help, saying that she
put her trust in God alone. Thus they went ahead he gives with a husband. It does not please me to be
while she remained alone and prayed: ‘My Lord, do distracted from God for a single moment.’
kings treat a weak and solitary woman like this? You The other key point is the number of male
call me to your house, but on the way you let my travellers on the Sufi path who came to Rabi‘a’s house
donkey die, and leave me alone in the desert.’ The to ask for spiritual advice, and who are numbered
donkey stirred and rose up almost immediately upon among her friends. Her spiritual presence far
the completion of her prayer. Rabi‘a put her baggage transcended any consideration of gender difference.
on the donkey, and continued on her journey. When it became clear that she was dying, a number
Another pilgrimage story relates that when she of important individuals in the community gathered
was on her way to Mecca she saw the Ka‘ba coming round her. She said to them, ‘For the sake of God and
towards her. She said: ‘It is the Lord of the Ka‘ba I his prophets, get up and get out of my room.’ They
seek, what need have I of the Ka‘ba? I yearn to meet got up, left the room and closed the door. Then within
Him who said: “Whoever approaches Me by a span the room they heard a voice, God’s voice, speaking to
[of two fingers], I will come to him by a cubit.” ’ her the Qur’anic verse: ‘O soul at peace, return to your
Lord, well pleased, and well pleasing to him.’
My Lord, if I worship You from fear of hell, burn me From the time of Rabi‘a on there are numerous
in hell, and if I worship You from hope of Paradise, and diverse expressions of Sufi spirituality. Some
exclude me thence, but if I worship You for Your are marked by an ecstatic sense of God. In part this
own sake, then withhold not from me Your eternal was achieved by the constant recitation of particular
beauty. Qur’anic verses. The goal was to make them so much
(Prayer of Rabi‘a al-Adawiyya) a part of a person’s consciousness that it was as if he
or she heard God himself saying them. From this
Anecdotes about the life and faith of Rabi‘a could some found it only a short step to a sense of identity
be multiplied. There are, however, two points that with God. Some individuals would even, while in
need to be emphasised. First, her choice of celibacy trance, utter words as if to suggest that they were God,
was not a norm, or even a widely shared ideal, or that God was present in them speaking in them.
among the Sufis. Indeed, in mainstream Islam, One example is the statement of al-Hallaj (d. 922 CE)
marriage is regarded as an obligation. This being so, mentioned already: ‘I am the Ultimate Truth’ (that is,
a number of individuals were concerned at Rabi‘a’s God himself). Another is the exclamation of Ba Yazid
single status. Indeed, since she was such a well- al-Bistami (d. 875 CE), ‘There is nothing inside this
known personality, the governor of Basra himself gown [I wear] other than God!’ Such expressions were
was concerned that she be married. Her response often described as Sufi ‘drunkenness’—words uttered
was: ‘God can give me more or even double what by individuals ‘intoxicated with God’.

Alongside this, however, was a tradition of
‘
religious life that emphasised a sober, disciplined
piety that did not seek the achievement of (Al-Ghazali’s) work is as
overwhelming feelings of ecstasy, but rather the central to the theological
eradication, by means of internal self-scrutiny, of
such personal faults as selfishness and pride. history of Islam as perhaps
that of Augustine and
Al-Ghazali
Among Sufis there is one who has a significance Thomas Aquinas combined is
to Western Christianity.
’
for mainstream Islam in virtually every area of the
Muslim world. It is al-Ghazali (1058–1111 CE). He is
one of the giants of Islamic thought and spirituality
whose work is as central to the theological history established by reason—for example, that the number
of Islam as perhaps that of Augustine and Thomas 10 is greater than 3 and that the same thing cannot
Aquinas combined is to Western Christianity. be both created and uncreated. But sense perception
His work sums up the spiritual values in the then said to him, ‘How do you know that there is
Muslim tradition of the care for souls and spiritual not a higher faculty than reason, which stands in
counselling. relation to reason as waking consciousness stands in
Al-Ghazali was born in Tus, in present-day Iraq. relation to dreams—which stands in judgment upon
By his brilliance he won royal patronage and a reason and finds it wanting, just as reason stands in
university position in Baghdad at the age of 33. He judgment on sense perception and finds it wanting?’
was a great thinker, an outstanding spiritual director As he struggled to come to terms with his
and a pastoral theologian. scepticism, he suffered psychosomatic symptoms
His discovery of the mystical path was born out that he describes in his autobiography. He
of a crisis of faith. He grappled with a sense that diagnosed in himself the vice of pride, especially
the traditional intellectual proofs for the existence in the delight he found in being a key figure of the
of God were inadequate. Like many others, he was religious and juridical establishment. He feared this
puzzled at the variety of religions in the world, delight could threaten his salvation. His description
adherence to which seemed to be determined by of his struggle to give up his chair as a jurist in
accident of birth. He observed that the children of Baghdad, and to retire and meditate alone, is one of
Christians grew up as Christians, those of Jews as the classics of spiritual literature.
Jews, those of Muslims as Muslims.
For a time he lived in a state of total scepticism I continued to think of leaving my professorship
when any hope of acquiring certainty of religious in Baghdad. I would be on the point of coming
truth seemed a chimera. The fulfilment of ritual to a decision. One day I firmly resolved to depart
conditions may give an impression that all that from Baghdad and abandon all my responsibilities
needs to be done has been done; salvation should there. But I would step forward with one leg and
be assured. But for al-Ghazali there was a sense that back with the other. If in the morning I had a clear
everything had become routine. He felt a need, even a vision of the quest for the world to come, then in the
passion, to go beyond what was prescribed, to search evening an army of desires would launch an attack
to rediscover a continuing freshness and inspiration. on it. And so the passions of this world held me in
He tried to reassure himself by reflecting on the my place by their chains, while the voice of faith
schools and traditions of learning around him, and called me: Depart! Depart! There is little of life left
on the epistemology of certain knowledge. He to you. Before you lies a long journey, yet all the
considered sense perception, but it failed him. Sight, work and study that you are involved in is hypocrisy
the most powerful of the senses, told him that the and illusion. If you do not prepare for the world to
sun was the size of a coin, but mathematics could come now, when will you prepare for it? If you do
prove that it was many times the size of the earth. not make your decision now, when will you make
The shadow on a sun dial appeared to be motionless it? Only then did I find the call was one I could not
but was never still. He then felt that he could rely resist, and I made up my mind to leave Baghdad.
on the so-called ‘necessary truths’ that could be (Al-Ghazali, The Deliverance from Error)

FIG. 13.7 This mosque near Kertapati, Indonesia, is named after Al Ghazali. This is also a common name for Islamic educational institutions.
Al Ghazali was driven along the mystic path by love, the urge to
realise with heart and soul the Qur’anic words (sura 5:54), ‘He loves
them, and they love Him.’ Many of the chapters of the great work that
this love impelled him to write begin with invocations such as: ‘Praise be
to God, who set ablaze the hearts of His saints with the fire of His love,
and captivated their souls with yearning to meet Him and to see Him’.
In the fourth volume of his encyclopaedic work Ihya ‘ulum al-din (‘The
Revivification of the Religious Sciences’), he discusses in detail the various
stages of spiritual development and ascent. On this ascent, acts and states
such as repentance, patience, asceticism, thankfulness and yearning are
like rungs of a spiritual ladder leading to the mystical union.
One chapter treats ‘Hope and Fear’, which al-Ghazali describes as two
wings by which the soul may ascend from one station to the next, or
two mounts on which the soul may follow the steep and difficult path to
the world to come. Both these spiritual states are necessary. One draws
the soul to the Merciful and the delights of Paradise, the other serves as
a weapon to protect it against the temptations and distractions of this
world. Thus they work together.
But between the two there must be a balance, and the balance differs
from individual to individual. For one, an excess of fear may lead to
despair. Al-Ghazali quotes the advice that ‘Ali gave to a man whom fear
had brought to despair because of his sins: ‘For you, despairing of the
mercy of God is a greater fault than your sins.’ An excess of hope, on the
other hand, can lead to idleness and presumption. Both fear and hope,
then, may be a therapy for different conditions. Al-Ghazali analyses

various conditions and their treatment. His goal animal. When the beasts hear the song, they stretch
is to lead the soul to a stage beyond both fear and out their necks, their ears prick up and they quicken
hope to the presence of God. As he says, ‘One their pace until the litters and baggage on their
whose heart is ruled by truth, and whose presence backs bob up and down. Music and celebration are
beholds the majesty of truth perpetually, no longer part of all the occasions of human life—a birth, a
looks to the future, no longer has need of fear and betrothal, a marriage, the return of a traveller. And
hope. For when there is no longer any separation music and poetry can inspire one filled with the
between Creator and creature, and when truth has love of God to ecstasy.
revealed what is hidden, no residue of hope or fear Al-Ghazali’s style is perhaps florid to modern
remains.’ taste, but there is no doubt as to the spiritual
Al-Ghazali sees human beings as diverse and of passion that drives him. Consider only the
different potential, capable of advancing different introduction to Ihya ‘ulum al-din:
distances along the mystical path. For everyone the
goal is the same, but the distance each individual Praise be to God, who sets ablaze the hearts of
can travel is different. His saints with the fire of His love, and enraptures
Together with these insights as a spiritual their spirits and aspirations with yearning to meet
director, al-Ghazali had great commonsense. He Him and behold Him; Who brings their eyes and
said that if a person was choking and a glass of wine inner perceptions to halt in reflection on the beauty
was the only fluid (Jamal) of His presence until through the fragrance
available to relieve the of the breath of union with Him they became
‘ ... one not problem, it was lawful intoxicated, and by reflecting on the majesty of al-
to drink it. He disliked Jalal their hearts are moved and profoundly stirred.
moved by the extravagance and Then in both existences they see none other than
flowers of spring, excesses, not least in He, and in both domains, speak of none other than
spiritual exercises. (The He. No sooner is any form before their eyes than
or the sound of Qur’an itself warns their perceptions are already with the Designer [of
the strings of the against spending too that form]; if the sound of music touches their ear,
great a proportion of their innermost hearts are already with the Beloved.
lute, suffers from the night in prayer.) If a sound reaches their ear, whether troubling
a malady for He saw a place in daily or disquieting, whether filling with delight or
life for the siesta. He saddening, bringing happiness or arousing longing,
which there is was fond of quoting an or setting the emotions in tumult, such disturbance
no cure.
’ aphorism addressed to
religious devotees who
fasted too much: ‘Keep
your wits. God never had a saint who was mentally
bears them only to Him.
They have no delight, except through Him, no
disquiet except for Him, no sorrow except within
Him, and no longing except for what is in His
deficient.’ Clearly, he had noticed that holiness in presence, no stirring of the emotions except towards
some cases produced eccentricities. Him, and no place to frequent other than the aura
He was a great humanist. One section of his work that surrounds Him. From Him is all they hear
Ihya ‘ulum al-din is on the propriety of using music sama’uhum, and it is to Him (istima’uhum) they
and poetry in the quest for ecstasy. He argues the listen, for He has closed their eyes and their ears to
case for it, against those who say that legally it falls everything other than He. It is these God has chosen
into the category of what is undesirable (makruh). for His friendship. He has singled them out from the
He remarks that one not moved by the flowers pure in heart and His elect. Blessings and abundant
of spring, or the sound of the strings of the lute, greetings be on Muhammad, the one sent with His
suffers from a malady for which there is no cure. He message, and on his Kin and his Companions,
observes how the singing of a mother can sooth a leaders and guides to al-Haqq (the Truth)’.
child crying in its cradle, drawing its attention away (Al-Ghazali, Introduction, Vol. 2, Book 8,
from what troubles it. He notices how the singing Ihya ‘ulum al-din)
of the cameleer can reinvigorate the camels of a
caravan—though the camel by nature is a dumb

activities
1. What was (and is) the Sufi movement?
2. Describe Sufi spiritual exercises.
3. Describe dhikr and why it is undertaken.
4. Why is Al-Ghazali known as one of the giants of Islamic thought and
spirituality? Explain the work he did and the insights he developed.
5. Why did he love music and poetry so much? How did he use music and
poetry to explain this love of God?
Muhammad ‘Abduh
Towards the end of the 19th century, most of the Islamic world was
under European control. The Turkish Ottoman Empire was gradually
being dismembered, and Muslim legal thought and intellectual life in
general was stagnant. The individual who most epitomises the response
to the challenge posed by Islamic political and scientific backwardness
was an Egyptian, Muhammad ‘Abduh.
‘Abduh (1849–1905 CE), more than any other individual of his day,
was the inspiration for a reformist movement that had as its principal
goal the reformulation of Islamic law. This involved a ‘liberation’ from
the norms of the four schools of law and a direct access to the Qur’an
and Tradition, not seen through the eyes of later interpreters. In effect,
it involved a recasting of the legal system that would display Islam as a
rational religion, compatible with modern scientific discoveries and able
to respond to the various needs of the modern world.
FIG. 13.8 Turkish troops defeated by the British army under Sir Edmund Allenby retreat through Jerusalem by the Jaffa Gate (circa 1917).

‘Abduh believed that religion and reason could be
integrated in the Islamic faith in a way that would
stimulate and welcome social, legal and educational
reforms without undermining the religious essentials
of prayer, fasting and pilgrimage. Many of the
‘ Qutb saw Islam not
simply as a body of faith
and practice, but as a
’
prescriptions relating to religious observances were
not able to be easily modified, but the laws governing
universal ideology.
many aspects of Islamic social and professional life
were, according to ‘Abduh, clearly in need of reform. vision and interpretation of the Islamic revelation
One outcome of this was that the four law schools that went beyond all space and time.
established in the ninth century no longer enjoyed Qutb refused loyalty to the government of Abdel
exclusive authority, and that the prestige of the Nasser (President of Egypt from 1956 to 1970)
traditional ‘ulama was diminished. because of the latter’s ideological commitment to
‘Abduh, moreover, sought to restore the primal pan-Arabism and socialism. Nasser had him hanged.
understanding of the Qur’an, to recapture its integrity But Qutb’s writings have been widely translated,
after centuries of religious interpretation, and to and the radical vision that he preached with such
reform the traditional education system of Egypt. intensity and eloquence lives on as an inspiration
‘Abduh cultivated a deep patriotism, and was to the ‘militant tendency’ in many parts of the
concerned that Egypt act in order to regain its self- Muslim world. This attribution of violence and
respect as a nation with a great history. His ideas extremism to him is not totally justified. In an
had wide influence—extending far outside Egypt— educational visit to America between 1948 and
and he is still a revered icon of intellectual and 1952, he was disturbed by the freedom in sexual
spiritual renewal as far afield as Indonesia. relations, but even more horrified at the legalised
racism he saw—and doubtless, being a dark swarthy
activities man, experienced. Much of his writing was done in
prison while at the mercy of Nasser’s torturers.
1. ‘Muhammad ‘Abduh “liberated” Muslims from the
Sayyid Qutb is the only one of the figures
norms of the four schools of law.’ What is meant
mentioned in this chapter who was an outsider
by this and how did he do it?
to the Islamic religious class. He was educated not
2. When did this ‘reformation’ take place, and what in the religious school systems but at a secular
were the historical circumstance of the day that university, and he specialised in literature. His
helped him come up with the need for reform? commentary on the Qur’an is rich with literary
insights and a profound spirituality. It is from
such ‘outsiders’, educated without the traditional
Sayyid Qutb restraints and complex procedures built into
traditional Sunni education, that many of the
In the aftermath of the Second World War, the leaders of radical Islam emerge.
coming of European decolonisation and the
tensions of the Cold War, new challenges called activities
forth Muslim responses. These tended to be shaped
1. The Egyptian Sayyid Qutb lived in an important
by attitudes towards the establishment of the State
period of world history and change. What was this
of Israel in 1948. The ideological competition
period and what was happening in the world?
between capitalism and communism provided
the catalyst for attempts to transform Islam into a 2. Discuss how his view of Islam differs from that of
universal ideology in its own right—an offering of a those before him.
third way for humankind. 3. Where did he write most of his work and how did
The great figure in this movement was another he get there?
the Egyptian Sayyid Qutb (1900–1966). Qutb saw 4. Was he truly as militarily minded as some groups
Islam not simply as a body of faith and practice, would like to believe today?
but as a universal ideology. For him, the shari‘a was
an expression of cosmic law, and he enunciated a

Islamic ethics
In Islam, human obligations are divided into two Bioethical issues

broad categories: those that have to do with duties
to God (‘Ibadat) and those that concern human Bioethical issues include contraception. There is a
relationships (Mu’amala’). range of Muslim views on this. The principles used
The Qur’an sets out in broad outline the law that is for discussing its lawfulness or otherwise are drawn
to govern human life. It represents the pre-ordained from the Qur’an, sayings attributed to the Prophet,
structure of God’s commands. It is the shari‘a, the and the opinions of the founders of the four major
highway along which life is to be lived. It makes no Islamic law schools.
distinction between family, criminal, or ritual law. Withdrawal before ejaculation as a form of
All are part of a single texture. The understanding contraception was known to the early Muslims.
and ascertaining of that law is the discipline of fiqh There seem to have been three principal views
(jurisprudence). regarding contraception:
The ethical principles of Islam are based on 1. that it might be practised subject to no
obedience to God’s law. Basically this entails the conditions
formation of conscience in a way that stresses
2. that its permissibility was subject to the wife’s
human recognition of the sovereignty of God,
consent
human responsibility to obey God’s law, respect for
others, and the recognition that property, even of 3. that it was in every case unlawful.
the most wealthy, is held in trust. The great 12th-century scholar al-Ghazali held
The zeal to live according to these principles and that contraception was permissible provided that
to realise them fully is the essence of jihad, which it was performed in order to preserve a woman’s
includes within its range of meanings the idea of health or save her life, to avoid financial hardship
struggle against ‘evil tendencies’. This includes a or to avoid domestic problems caused by a large
continuing struggle against the personal faults and family. He added the qualification, however, that
flaws to which everyone is subject: greed, selfishness it was not permissible if the intention was to avoid
and resentment. The word is well known for its the birth of female children.
application to the concept of ‘holy war’, but it is These considerations, and the fact that there
important to note that this is only one of its senses. is no record of Muhammad having condemned
The term jihad is applied to every aspect of putting withdrawal, are widely taken—in Pakistan and
into practice Islamic ethical principles. Indonesia, for instance—as sufficient grounds to
Muslims apply the basic principles of fiqh (see regard family planning programs as permissible.
Chapter 5, pages 120–21) to broader issues, forming There are, however, some who take the view that
the basis for the development of legal opinions on a contraception for fear of poverty represents a lack of
range of characteristically modern problems, among trust in God’s promise that every child born will be
them bioethical issues, environmental ethics and provided for by divine providence.
sexual ethics. Likewise, there are different Islamic views on
abortion. Some ban it completely. Others regard it
activities as lawful up to the time of ‘ensoulment’, usually
calculated as occurring after 120 days of pregnancy.
In Islam, human obligations are duties to God
There are some who put a limit of 40 days on the
(‘Ibadat) and those that concern human relationships
permissibility of abortion; others prescribe 80 days.
(Mu’amala’). Describe each and how they are
It may be noted that in Indonesia, which has a
explained by the Qur’an.
vigorous family planning program, abortion at any
stage of pregnancy is illegal.

Infanticide, which was practised among the
Arabs at the time of the Prophet, and is explicitly
referred to in the Qur’an, is condemned without
qualification.
There is no objection to the assisted
insemination of a wife with the sperm of her
husband, but the use of sperm from a man other
than the husband (that is, from a donor) is
regarded as tantamount to adultery. As for surrogate
motherhood, it is condemned for a number of
reasons: it is against the law of God because it
tampers with the normal process of procreation;
it biologically divides motherhood and confuses
the institution of paternity; and by reducing
motherhood from a value to a price, it becomes an
evil form of exploitation.
There is little if any disagreement on euthanasia.
In Islamic theology, life and death are exclusively in
God’s hands, and represent an area in which human
beings have no right to intervene.
activities
Use biomedical examples to explain how Muslim
ethics may be interpreted using the Qur’an, sayings
attributed to the Prophet and the opinions of the
founders of the four major law schools.
Environmental ethics
Muslim thinkers have found in Islamic principles
the basis for an environmental ethic. Discussion FIG. 13.9 Large crowds massed through London streets protesting
of the environment as an issue in its own right is a the Danish cartoon series caused offence to the Muslim community
in February 2006
relatively recent development in the theology of the
Judaeo-Christian-Muslim tradition.
Contemporary Muslim writers understand the heirs to the earth’, is understood as entrusting
word ‘Scale’ in sura 55:7–8 of the Qur’an as referring humankind with this responsibility.
to a necessary balance between human needs on Care for the environment is linked in Islam with
earth and the welfare of other creatures in their own a care for animals: no living thing should be slain
environments. The passage reads as follows: without due cause, and ill-treatment of animals is
He has raised up the heavens and set the Scale of forbidden.
Justice [so firmly] that you cannot play it false.
All living things are part of a whole, linked activities
together on a planet on which, as far as is known,
1. Explain how the Qur’an is used to support
the balance of factors that sustains life is unique.
environmental protection.
The human life-cycle depends on care for the
environment—for the rivers, forests and oceans— 2. Debate: ‘Concern for the environment is only
since it cannot survive apart from the life-cycles of a recent development.’ Ensure your debate
all other living things. Another Qur’anic verse (sura preparation considers why discussion of it has not
6:165), ‘It is He who has made you vicegerents, become widespread and public until recently.

Sexual ethics
In Islam sexual morality is clearly defined: sexual relations outside
marriage are forbidden. By extension this includes homosexual
relations, although in addition the Qur’an is quite specific in
condemning homosexuality in its presentation of the story of the
people of Sodom, who were destroyed by fire from heaven.
Only a small part of the Qur’an is devoted to specific points of
law. Nevertheless, there are certain sinful acts for which particular
punishments are perscribed. For fornication, for example, the
penalty is 100 strokes of the lash (sura 24:2). The hadith, however,
complement this ruling by distinguishing between whether the
miscreants are single or married—the punishment is 100 lashes
if those guilty are single, but if married the penalty is stoning.
Such laws—along with the penalty for giving false witness (80
strokes of the lash [sura 24:4]) and theft (amputation of the hand
[sura 3:38])—are now widely regarded as admonitory and are not
generally applied, except in states such as Saudi Arabia and Iran.
Within the family, observance of ethical principles at an
everyday level is expressed by faithfulness in marriage—free mixing
between the sexes is regarded by many as potentially dangerous—
and by the dedication of parents in bringing up their children to
live their religion and to perform faithfully and honestly the tasks
of everyday life.
activities
1. Explain the ethical teachings of Islam in regard to sexual
behaviour (refer also to relevant aspects of Islamic bioethics).
2. How does this differ from the society and community group you
live in? Do you think these ethics would change how you behaved
sexually if you had to follow them, and how hard would they be
to follow? Would they be a benefit to your society?
3. How do Muslim sexual ethics differ from those of other religions?
Give examples.
Other ethical issues

Business ethics
The basic Muslim ethical principles also have implications for
business ethics. Traditionally, the giving or taking of interest on
financial transactions is banned. This had led to the creation of a
banking system not based in interest, and this is the major point
of difference between Western and Muslim business transactions. FIG. 13.10 Traditionally, the Muslim banking
Islamic banking, in which money deposited in the bank shares in system charges no interest.
the profit or loss incurred by the bank in its trading activities, is an

alternative that many Western economists believe deserves to be
taken seriously.
There are, however, Muslims living in the West who do not
regard the role that interest plays in modern banking as having

anything in common with usury, to which the community must be protected from injustice,
Qur’anic word riba applies. the occurrence of which requires resort to arms.
Ownership of property is not absolute. Up to 50 Nevertheless, the ultimate end of war is peace and
per cent of an estate has to be distributed according personal security, for peace is the will of Allah.
to Qur’anic laws of inheritance and is not available to
a person to distribute as they see fit. Property is held activity
in trust, and possession of it is regarded as a blessing.
1. Explain how business ethics for Muslims is
One of the recurring themes of the Qur’an is
different from common business practices in
compassion for the widow and the orphan. It imposes
Australian society.
a tax on unspent wealth called zakat, a word that can
be translated ‘poor tax’, for it provided the basis for 2. What is the Muslim view of warfare?
a system of social welfare. When Abu Bakr, the first 3. What is a jihad, and how, if ever, is it justified?
Caliph, faced the insurrection of the Arab tribes on
the news of Muhammad’s death, he found that their
greatest cause for revolt was the obligation imposed on
them ‘to take money from the rich to give to the poor’.
Violence, war and peace

In geopolitical issues, the principles established
at the very beginning of Islamic governance have
evolved and still apply. Extended feuding was
forbidden: a limit was set on disputes. The Qur’an
urges acceptance of a lesser compensation for a
slaying than the law of retaliation, strictly applied,
would allow:
Warfare, for Muslims, is an instrument of self-
defence. Even in this circumstance, war can be
You who believe, retaliation is decreed for you in the

case of a slaying: a freeman for a free, a slave for
a slave, a woman for a woman. But if the offender
is to a degree pardoned by his offended brother,
then let him follow accepted practice and reduce
the penalty out of kindness. This is a mercy and
mitigation from your Lord. (Qur’an, sura 2:178)
justified only if three conditions are met: that the

wrong to be righted is of a serious nature; that
there is a genuine prospect of a successful result to
the armed struggle; and that the harm done as a
result of the fighting is not disproportionate to the
good achieved. Unfortunately, as in most human
communities, such guidelines tend to be honoured
more in the breach than in the observance.
Muslims are obliged to participate in the jihad,
or ‘holy war’, in cases of external threats. The
FIG. 13.11 The sign sends a clear message during the

February 2006 demonstration in London.

the life of Muslims
Death and burial For Muslims, death is recognised as part of life.
When a person is dying, friends and relatives come
Care for and burial of the body is the final rite of in throngs to visit and pray, and to take part in the
passage. For Muslims, death is the gateway to God’s recitation of sura 36 of the Qur’an, called Ya Sin. It
judgment. Resurrection of the body is one of the is a chapter that celebrates the prophetic mission of
most central of Muslim beliefs. Muhammad, and it ends with a ringing declaration
Excessive mourning is discouraged. The body of the resurrection of the dead:
must be washed and wrapped in a shroud. Then it
is taken to a mosque for funeral prayers to be said. Man forgets how God created him and says:
Burial should take place as soon as possible after Who will restore to life bones that are now dust?
death. If death occurs in the morning, the burial Reply:
should take place before the sunset prayer. If it He who first created them will restore them to life,
occurs in the evening or at night, then burial should He knows everything of each created thing …
take place before the midday prayer the following Is not He who created the heavens and the earth
day. The body may be taken to the cemetery in a Able to create [again] the like of them?
coffin. At the graveside the body is removed from Indeed He is!
the coffin, and placed by four or six men in the He is the Creator, the All-knowing.
grave on its right side, the head supported by a His might is such that whenever He wishes a thing,
stone so that its face is directed towards Mecca. He need only say to it ‘Be’, and it is.
The Imam prays that the deceased’s good deeds will Praise then be to Him in whose hand is dominion
be rewarded and sins forgiven. The congregation Over all things.
murmurs amin—so may it be. The cloth covering To Him are you to be returned.
the face is loosened—symbolically, so that when (Qur’an, sura 36:78–79,81–83)
interrogated in the tomb as to its religion and its
prophet by the two angels Munkar and Nakir, it A death bed is a scene of mutual forgiveness and
can raise its head to answer these questions. Male reconciliation for wrongs done. It is a key element of
friends and family members throw a spade of Muslim teaching that some sins are not forgiven by
soil into the grave, then it is quickly filled in. In God unless the person sinned against first gives his
Australia, a front loader is used, concluding the or her forgiveness. And if a person has something on
ritual with a swift, fearful finality. his or her conscience, a peaceful death is not possible
until this forgiveness has been given.
Meetings of the bereaved for prayer and
recitations of the Qur’an are often held on the third,
seventh and fortieth day after a death.
activities
1. Death is very important for Muslims. Create an
oral presentation which examines what they
believe happens at death.
2. Outline the process undertaken with a body after
death and present this as a diagram.
3. Create an oral presentation on what Muslims
believe you need for a peaceful death.
FIG. 13.12 Muslim gravestone in an old Turkish graveyard

Friday congregational prayer
The word for the sixth day of the week in most Muslim countries is
jumu‘a, which means ‘assembly’ or ‘congregation’. It is given this name
because it is the weekly day of congregational prayer in Islam. This
prayer, for those who attend it, takes the place of the noon ritual prayer.
The congregational prayer consists of two rak‘a (prayer cycles), a
sermon and a sequence of optional prayers and recitations. Attendance
is compulsory for men, who are expected to participate in it at least once
a fortnight. Women may attend if facilities in the mosque are available
to them. Those not attending have the obligation to perform the noon-
prayer (zuhr) at home. Friday is not a day of rest, although it has a special
status, and the Eve of Friday (for the new day begins at sunset of the
preceding day) is a time of the week for special devotions—a time when,
in popular belief, prayers are especially likely to be answered.
The congregational prayer has an important social function. It is when
men of all classes and occupations assemble. The sermon at a mosque in
a metropolitan city can serve as an occasion for a political message to be
widely presented with particular authority.
activities
1. Outline who comes to Friday noon prayer and what happens.
2. Contact your local mosque, through your teacher, and see if it is
possible for you to observe noon prayer.
3. What happens on the Eve of Friday?
FIG. 13.13 Instructions for conduct during the Hajj or Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca are set down in the Holy Qur’an.

Pilgrimage
Another form of the ritual dimension of Islam is the The Shi‘a , as well as making the Meccan Hajj,
Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca, and the undertaking also pay ritual visits to the graves of the Imams in
of the prescribed rituals. This takes place during the present-day Iraq and Iran on their death days.
12th month of the lunar year. It is required at least
once during a lifetime and should be supplemented activities
by the lesser pilgrimage to Mecca, the ‘Umra, either
1. One of the best-known events in the Muslim
at the time of the Hajj season or at any other time
calendar is the pilgrimage to Mecca.
of the year. Both require Muslims to don white
garments after a ritual bath, to abstain from sexual • Why does it take place?
relations and to refrain from cutting the hair or • Who goes?
clipping the nails. This consecrated state is known • When do they go?
as ihram. The state of ihram indicates that pilgrims
• How long do they stay?
have separated themselves from worldly concerns
and are now dedicated exclusively to the worship • What do they do when they get there?
of God and the observance of his commandments. 2. Undertake research into the pilgrimage to Mecca.
The pilgrimage, then, is the supreme prayer for Build up a photo essay using pictures from the
forgiveness of sins committed and the ultimate Internet or free photo libraries to explain what is
preparation for eternity. happening.
The Hajj is a demanding exercise. In addition to
the expense of the journey to Mecca, the pilgrim
must contend with the sheer physical demands of
the pilgrimage rituals. These are exacerbated by the
immensity of the crowds (literally millions) and
the extremes of temperature—which in Mecca itself
may be over 40°C in summer and is rarely below
30°C, even during winter.
The focus of the pilgrimage is the Ka‘ba, the
cube-shaped structure in the centre of the Sacred
Mosque in Mecca. The Ka‘ba is revered as the house
of God. The pilgrims come, announcing their
presence to God, the Lord of the Ka‘ba, with the cry,
‘At your service, Lord God.’ They make a sevenfold
circumambulation of the Ka‘ba before setting out
to perform the prescribed rituals at the sacred sites
outside of Mecca. Once these and other ceremonies
in Mecca itself are completed, they return to the
Ka‘ba and bid farewell to the house of God, once
again by circumambulation.
Muslims making the Meccan pilgrimage
regularly include Madina in their itinerary, and
visit the mosque and tomb of the Prophet. Sufis
especially regularly visit the tombs of the founder
of the brotherhood to which they belong, and of
those with a special reputation for holiness. The
Shi’a regularly make pilgrimages to the tombs of
the Imams, especially on the anniversary of their
deaths. The Wahhabi tradition of Saudi Arabia, FIG. 13.14 Pilgrims come to pay their respects to the Prophet’s
however, regards such devotions as tantamount Mosque at Medina. Note the green capola, a distinctive feature of
this mosque.
to idolatry.

Review and assess
Review
1. Explain the contribution to the development and expression of Islam

of ONE significant individual or one school of thought (other than
Muhammad and the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs).
2. Analyse and evaluate the effect of a person or school of thought

found within the Islamic tradition. How is this reflected in Islamic
organisations that are currently active within modern society?
3. a. On the basis of your understanding of Islamic ethics as understood

through Islamic jurisprudence, comment on Muslim views in regard
to environmental ethics, sexual ethics or bioethics.
b. What references to the Qur’an and hadith are used to support these
views?
c. Name three Islamic organisations that assist Muslims in complying

with the ethical stance in one of these three areas.
4. Choose one of the following—Friday congregational prayer at the

mosque, burial or Hajj—and complete the activities below.
a State the scriptural authority that prescribes it.
b. List the elements of each ritual or ceremony.
c. Explain why each ritual/ceremony is important to the life of a

Muslim.
d. Show how these rituals/ceremonies express the beliefs of Islam and

how they contribute to the stability and cohesion of the Muslim
community.
5. Construct a glossary of Islamic terms, clearly defining each, used

when referring to environmental ethics, sexual ethics and bioethics.
6. Write a series of journal entries as a young Muslim about your

experiences when involved in one of the following—Friday
congregational prayer at the mosque, burial or Hajj (the pilgrimage
to Mecca). Comment on what you see and do and why the activities
involved have significant meaning for you as a Muslim.
7. Construct a biography of ONE significant individual or school of

thought (other then Muhammad and the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs)
that contributed to the development and expression of Islam.

Exam style questions 12. Explain Islamic ethical teachings on:
• bioethics
Extended response (15 marks) • environmental ethics
8. a. Outline two contributions to Islam made by • sexual ethics.

one significant person or school of thought,
13. Analyse the significance of the following
other than Muhammad and the Four Rightly
practices of the individual Muslim:
Guided Caliphs.
• death and mourning
b. Describe the effect on Islam of one significant • marriage
person or school of thought, other than
• synagogue services.
Muhammad and the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs.
14. Outline the following practices and demonstrate
c. Demonstrate how one of the following practices
how they express the beliefs of Islam:
expresses the beliefs of Islam:
• Friday prayer at the mosque
• funeral ceremony
• Hajj.
• Hajj.
and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2007) Extended response (20 marks)
9. Describe Islamic ethical teaching on: 15. Discuss Islamic ethical teachings in ONE area.
• bioethics Choose from: bioethics; environmental ethics;
sexual ethics.
• environmental ethics (Studies of Religion II HSC Examination Paper © Board of Studies NSW for
• sexual ethics.
16. Analyse the impact of ONE significant person or
10. Describe the significance of the following
school of thought, other than Muhammad or
practices to the Muslim community:
the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs, on both the
• Friday prayer at the mosque development and expression of Islam.
17. Analyse Islamic ethical teachings on bioethics OR
• Hajj.
environmental ethics OR sexual ethics.
11. Describe the contribution of TWO significant
18. Explain the significance of ONE of the following
persons or school of thought, other than
practices on both the individual and the Muslim
Muhammad or the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs,
community:
to the development of Islam.
• Hajj.

14
14_KIN_OSR_Judai.indd 354 11/09/09 11:48 AM

Judaism
practices and ethical teachings to an understanding of Judaism as a
living religious tradition. The study of Judaism is to be of the WHOLE
Beruriah
Outcomes
Rabbi Solomon Isaac (Rashi)
A student: Moses Maimonides
H1 explains aspects of religion and belief systems Kabbalah
H2 describes and analyses the influence of religion The Hassidim
and belief systems on individuals and society Moses Mendelssohn
H4 describes and analyses how aspects of religious Abraham Geiger
Rabbi Isaac Abraham Hacohen Kook (Rav Kook)
Jewish feminism
another person or school of thought significant
to Judaism
sources, considering usefulness, validity and bias • the effect of that person OR school of thought on
Judaism
H7 conducts effective research about religion and
evaluates the findings from the research
Ethics
H8 applies appropriate terminology and concepts
• ONEof the following areas of ethical teaching in
related to religion and belief systems
Judaism:
bioethics
appropriate written, oral and graphic forms. environmental ethics
sexual ethics
Content Significant practices in the life of adherents

• ONE significant practice within Judaism drawn
from:
Significant people and ideas death and mourning
• the contribution to Judaism of one significant marriage

person or school of thought, other than Abraham synagogue services
or Moses, drawn from:
Isaiah behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2009.)
Hillel (and Shamai)
HSC | Chapter 14 Judaism 355

Glossary
ANINUT the mourning status given to the close MIDRASH rabbinic commentary on the
relatives of the deceased between that scriptures, often in the form of a story.
person’s death and the burial. MINCHA afternoon prayer service.
ARON KODESH the ark (cabinet) used to house the MINYAN a group of ten adults over the age of 13
Torah scrolls in the synagogue. necessary for certain prayers to be said
AVEILUT mourning. in Judaism.
BA’AL TASHCHIT ‘do not be destructive or wasteful’: the MISHNAH text of the oral teaching of Judaism.
principle of not destroying anything MITZVOT the 613 laws contained in the Torah.
needlessly (the foundation of the
NER TAMID eternal light found above the ark in
Jewish attitude to the environment).
the synagogue.
BAR MITZVAH rite of passage whereby a Jewish boy
NISSUIN marriage, the wedding ceremony.
reaches maturity and adopts responsibil-
ity for his own religious observances. PIKUACH NEFESH Jewish law requiring its adherents to
violate almost all prohibitions in order
BIMAH elevated platform from which prayers
to preserve human life.
are led in the synagogue.
RODEF ‘pursue’ (Hebrew). Din rodef (‘law of
BRIT MILAH circumcision ceremony.
the pursuer’) holds that a person can
CHASSIDISM school of thought originating from the defend themselves against someone
teachings of Ba’al Shem Tov intending pursuing them to kill them.
to awaken adherents to the inner
SHACHARIT morning prayer service.
dimension of the Torah.
SHELOSHIM the period of 30 days following the
CHEVRA KADISHA a Jewish organisation that attends to the
shiva. Less intense period of mourning.
purification of bodies in preparation for
burial and assists in funeral preparations. SHEMA prayer that states the oneness of God:
‘Hear, O Israel: the Lord is our God, the
CHUPPAH traditional Jewish wedding canopy.
Lord is One’ (Deuteronomy 6:4).
GEMARA collection of commentaries containing
SHIVA the seven-day period of intense
ancient rabbinic discussion of the
mourning following the funeral.
Mishnah.
SHOMERIM people who sit with a body until the
HALACHA The word halachah is usually translated
funeral takes place.
as ‘Jewish law’, although a more literal
(and appropriate) translation might be SHUL Yiddish for ‘synagogue’.
‘the path that one walks’. SHULCHAN a practical guide to Jewish observance
KABBALAH the mystical study of Judaism. ARUCH written by Joseph Caro (1488–1575).
KADDISH a central prayer, blessing and TALLIT a fringed prayer shawl used during
sanctifying the name of God. certain Jewish rituals.
KETUBAH a marriage contract between husband TALMUD The ‘Oral Torah’ (Torah She Be Al Peh)
and wife that is signed before the consisting of the Mishnah and the
wedding. Gemara.
KIBBUTZ a communal agricultural settlement. TIKKUN OLAM the principle of ‘healing the world’.
KIDDUSHIN the first stage of the Torah-mandated TORAH the first five books of the Hebrew Bible.
marriage process. Kiddushin is TSA’AR BA’ALEI ‘suffering of living creatures’: the
accomplished beneath the chuppah CHAYIM principle of not causing unnecessary
(canopy) when the groom gives the pain to animals.
bride the ring. YAHRZEIT a time of remembering the dead
MAARIV evening prayer service. commemorated every year on the
MEZUZAH a box mounted on the doorpost anniversary of the death.
containing the words of the Shema
and the words of a companion passage
(Deuteronomy 11:13–21).

Martin Buber (1878–1965) Career as a teacher

In 1923 Buber was appointed the first lecturer
Born in Vienna in 1878, philosopher, Zionist thinker of Jewish religious thought at the University of
and theologian Martin Buber had a profound Frankfurt, where he remained for ten years. He worked
impact on both Jewish and Christian thinkers. closely with the distinguished Jewish thinker Franz
Following the divorce of his parents, Buber was Rosenzweig, translating the Torah into German. For
raised by his grandfather, Solomon Buber, who was Buber, education meant freedom and a liberation
a noted Talmud and Midrash scholar. Buber was of personality. He believed that the correct way to
brought up in Lemberg (now Lviv, Ukraine) and teach was to be a ‘personal example’. According to
later studied in Vienna, Berlin, Leipzig and Zürich. his philosophy, a teacher should constantly examine
He was religiously estranged from Judaism after his their actions and conscience and should not teach
bar mitzvah, and as a student became a member others if their own personal example is flawed.
of the Zionist movement. Zionism sought a Jewish Buber believed that the task of the educator was
homeland and sanctuary for the world’s Jews in to prepare the student to become a moral member of
their ancient homeland in Palestine. In 1901 Buber society. By ensuring this, an entire community could
became the editor of the Zionist journal Die Welt. be educated and thus society could be transformed.
He soon found himself in disagreement with the Within the educational system, Buber argued, the
Zionist establishment and became actively involved teacher is the dominant force. The student thus does
in a group that believed that the Zionist renaissance not have the power to make certain decisions and
should begin with a renewal of Jewish culture and must accept the choices of the teacher. In order to
spiritual life. equalise this situation, the educator must attempt to
understand the world of the student. This in turn leads
The relevance of Chassidism to a relationship of respect and mutuality. The teacher
At the age of 26, Buber began studying the world becomes the role model for the student and then,
of Chassidism. On a quest to realise a spiritual because the student feels more at ease with the teacher,
dimension in his life, he was drawn to the mystical he or she becomes more open to being educated. The
and spiritual emphasis of this school of thought. student is able to question without feeling at risk and
Through this study, he began to formulate his gains confidence in the educative process.
own philosophy. The Chassidic movement had The perfect educator, in Buber’s opinion, was the
revitalised European Jewry in the 18th century. Buber Chassidic master, who allowed his students to share
was deeply affected by its religious message and his life and in this way learn what he had to teach.
considered it his duty to convey that message to the Buber took up the position of director of the
world. Central Office for Jewish Adult Education in
The Chassidic philosophy is one in which Germany in 1933. There he carried out a ‘spiritual
holiness is seen in every aspect of the world. It is a war against Nazism’ until forced to leave in 1938. He
joyous celebration of life. Buber found in Chassidism went to Palestine where he became professor of social
an experience of direct communion with the Divine. philosophy at the Hebrew University, teaching there
He was impressed with the joy with which they until he retired in 1951.
worshipped. For Buber, the wonder of Chassidism Buber was passionate about the new nation
was the fact that in every relationship with people of Israel and became a widely respected lecturer
in the surrounding world, God could be found and on politics and education. He was known for his
celebrated. This was the essence of Judaism and of integrity and the ethical values he espoused. He died
religion itself. on 13 June 1965 in Jerusalem.

way that all people in a family can have their own
activities distinct relationships with other family members
1. For Buber there was a ‘spark of God’ and holiness depending on personalities and needs. Revelation
to every aspect of life, and all relationships had the is thus not something that happened in the past
potential to be the valuable and mutual ‘I–Thou’ (to Moses at Mount Sinai) but something that can
relationships. happen in the present. For Buber, the laws of the
Torah were developed in response to revelation
a. What does the word ‘holiness’ mean?
(in this case, revelation to Moses at Mount Sinai)
b. What objects in your own life do you consider and are therefore not necessarily binding on the
to be holy? following generations since they would be open to
c. What are some things in your personal life and their own revelation.
experience that you find holy? The dialogue between God and his people is a
d. Do you ever experience a sense of holiness? If continual one. God becomes present in every aspect
so, when? of life, communal, social, economic and so on.
According to Buber, a religious life is characterised
e. How do you create a sense of holiness?
by the way one meets the challenges of every day
2. Explain the term ‘Zionism’. and not by the affirmation of religious beliefs. It is
3. How was Martin Buber influenced by Chassidism? the way that we interact with other people, animals
4. Buber collaborated with his friend, the and objects that determines our morality, not the
distinguished Jewish thinker Franz Rosenzweig, to rituals that we may perform.
create what literary masterpiece?
I do not accept any absolute formulas for living. No
5. When Buber said that education meant freedom
preconceived code can see ahead to everything that
and a liberation of personality, what do you think
can happen in a man’s life. As we live, we grow and
he meant? Discuss in groups.
our beliefs change. They must change. So I think we
6. Buber had strong views on education. Explain should live with this constant discovery. We should
these views. be open to this adventure in heightened awareness of
living. We should stake our whole existence on our
Philosophy of dialogue willingness to explore and experience.
Buber developed the philosophy that it is neither (Martin Buber)
humanity in itself nor the world in itself that
determines morality, but rather the relation between FIG 14.1 Martin Buber
humanity and the world. He divided the different
types of relationships that occur into two kinds: the
‘I–Thou’ and the ‘I–It’. The ‘I–Thou’ relationship is
characterised by mutuality, openness, directness and
respect. The ‘I–It’ does not possess these qualities.
In the ‘I–Thou’ relationship, all parties to the
relationship are considered to be equal and are able
to participate in the relationship on a mutual level.
The ‘I–It’ relationship is not a true dialogue and
each participant is involved only to gain something
from the other.
According to Buber, God is the ‘Eternal Thou’.
God becomes evident to human beings through
their interactions with others—people, animals,
nature and works of art. God is present in all
human relationships. When a human being has
a relationship with God, it is what is called
‘revelation’. Each person can develop his or her
own particular relationship with God, in the same

Buber’s contribution to Judaism In the context of this ‘biblical humanism’, Buber
Buber is considered one of the most important succeeded in motivating a generation of Jews to
Jewish philosophers, writers and intellectuals of return to Judaism and belief in the state of Israel. He
recent times. He provided leadership in times of developed the idea of adult education in order to
Jewish crisis and proved to be a great influence on further the awareness of others and persuaded the
both the Jewish and non-Jewish worlds. Hebrew University of Jerusalem to open an adult
Buber held that the Jewish people had the task education section where a number of outstanding
of becoming a ‘holy people’ and being ‘a light scholars offered extra-mural seminars. The Institute
unto the nations’: ‘I, the LORD, have called you in for Adult Education at the Hebrew University of
righteousness, and will hold your hand and keep Jerusalem was named in his honour following his
you. And I will establish you as a covenant of the death.
people, for a light unto the nations’ (Isaiah 42:6). Buber was regarded as a pioneer bridge builder
This task must be carried out with humility as it was between Judaism and Christianity through his work
a mission from God. educating towards tolerance, respect and one’s
One of Buber’s greatest influences on the Jewish relationship to others. In 1963, he was awarded the
tradition was through his discovery and re-creation Erasmus Award (one of Europe’s highest prizes),
of Chassidism. He reawakened the Jewish world to presented to people who have contributed to the
the experience of Chassidic followers and helped spiritual unity of Europe.
bridge the gap between them and the more secular
Jewish world. Buber understood that faith was activities
more visible in the Chassidic world because of its
1. What is the ‘I–Thou’ relationship that Buber talks
community structure, but he believed that it was
about.
also evident in the more secular Jewish world in a
less condensed form. 2. Buber said that the laws of the Torah are the
At first Buber’s translations of Chassidic tales responses to revelation at a point in time and are
were informal and only loosely followed the essence therefore not necessarily binding upon the next
of the original. He believed that in this way he generation. Explain if he believed the Torah to be
would be able to communicate the very essence of important to the Jewish people today.
Chassidic spirituality. Later, however, he rejected 3. According to Buber, religion is an ongoing
this method and began to more closely follow the dialogue between humanity and God. What does
original texts. he mean, and why is this so important to his
According to Buber, religion is an ongoing contribution to Judaism?
dialogue between humans and God. He developed 4. What is ‘biblical humanism’? How and where did
the idea that the love of humanity leads to the Buber implement it?
love of God and vice versa. In order for people to
5. Research the reasons Buber received the Erasmus
truly achieve their divine purpose, they must walk
Award in 1963.
in God’s ways. He wrote: ‘The word of a person
who wishes to speak with a human being without
speaking with God is not fulfilled; but the word of
one who wishes to speak with God without man
goes astray.’
What the Bible teaches with such simplicity and

strength, and what cannot be learned from any
other book, is that there is truth and falsehood, and
that human existence inexorably stands at the side
of truth, and that there is justice and injustice, and
the salvation of mankind lies in opting for justice
and rejecting injustice.
(Martin Buber)

Abraham Joshua Heschel (1907–1972) One of his former
students, Rabbi Marc
Abraham Heschel was born in Warsaw, Poland, into a Tanenbaum (Director
family of distinguished rabbis and scholars. His early of Public Affairs for
years were devoted to the study of rabbinic literature, the American Jewish
and in later life he attributed his devotion and love for Committee), suggested
Judaism to living in a family where people ‘were sure that Heschel take part
that everything hinted at something transcendent’. in the negotiations
God was a continual presence and all of life was holy. between Jewish groups
Heschel later enrolled to study at a secular school and the Catholic
in Vilna (modern-day Lithuania) and graduated in Church during the
1927. He went on to study Semitics and Philosophy period of the Second
and was awarded a doctorate for a dissertation on Vatican Council (1962–
prophetic consciousness. Heschel was deported 65). He was asked to
from Germany in 1938 by the Nazi regime and went submit suggestions
to live in America. There he joined the faculty of the to the Council to
Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati and lectured improve Catholic–
on Philosophy and Rabbinics. From 1945 he taught Jewish relations.
at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America as a Heschel (along with
Professor of Ethics and Mysticism. his colleagues at
Heschel wrote books and studies on medieval the American Jewish FIG. 14.2 Abraham Joshua Heschel
Jewish philosophy, Kabbalah and Chassidism Committee) made three
and became one of the most influential modern suggestions: first, that
philosophers of religion in the United States. the Church ‘reject and condemn those who assert
Through his works, Heschel wanted to disseminate that the Jews as a people are responsible for the
his love for the Chassidic life and his profound crucifixion’; second, that the Council acknowledge
moral and ethical concern for the entire world. the integrity and permanent preciousness of the
Jews and Judaism; and third, that the Church set
Social and religious concerns up programs to fight prejudice and derogatory
Heschel became a close friend of Dr Martin Luther stereotypes. The final statement issued by the
King Jr and was active in the American Civil Rights Council on 28 October 1965 was a compromise
movement and vocal in his opposition to the war in document, but Heschel believed it to be a landmark
Vietnam. He stated: in Jewish–Catholic relations that opened a new era
of better understanding and mutual respect.
To meet a human being is a major challenge of
the heart and mind. I must recall what I normally The first and most important prerequisite of
forget. A person is not just a specimen of the species interfaith is faith.
called homo sapiens. He is all of humanity in one, (Abraham Heschel)
and whenever one man is hurt we are all injured.
The human is a disclosure of the Divine, and all
men are one in God’s care for man. Many things on activities
earth are precious, some are holy, humanity is the
1. Outline the early life of Heschel.
holy of holies.
(Abraham Heschel) 2. Explain the work of Heschel with the Second
Vatican Council and its importance to Jewish–
Everything that Heschel did reflected his Catholic relations.
morality. He wanted people to partner God in the
work of Tikkun Olam, ‘repairing the world’. He
took an active role in social justice issues—after
he walked with Dr King in Selma, Alabama, he
reflected, ‘My feet were praying.’

Career as a teacher and writer A person must fully engage with God. Through
Much of Heschel’s career was devoted to study and prayer and study we can become closer to God, and
writing. He established a reputation as a scholar and if we lead our lives in the name of God, we will
thinker and attempted to synthesise the Chassidic develop a moral existence.
world of his youth in Poland with that of modern For Herschel, the Holocaust represented the
life in America. moral failure of humanity. We can learn from this
and be more aware that we are all responsible for
I came with great hunger to the University of Berlin to each other. However, unless we all become more
study philosophy. I looked for a system of thought, for aware of God and live our lives according to his
the depth of the spirit, for the meaning of existence … ways, human violence will end in destruction. We
Erudite and profound scholars gave courses in logic, must learn from the past in order to prepare for the
epistemology, esthetics, ethics and metaphysics … Yet challenges of the future. Jewish people should apply
in spite of the intellectual power and honesty which Jewish values to every encounter that they have—
I was privileged to witness, I became increasingly universal, social, ethical and spiritual.
aware of the gulf that separated my views from those
held at the university … To them, religion was a Interaction with God
feeling. God was an idea, a postulate of reason. They Heschel believed that faith is engagement with
granted Him the status of being a logical possibility. God’s demands. God continually seeks intimacy
But to assume that He had existence would have been with humanity. Heschel called this the ‘Divine
a crime against epistemology. pathos’—God is capable of emotion and is more
(Abraham Heschel, quoted in J. Neusner (ed.), emotionally sensitive than human beings. In
Understanding Jewish Theology, 1943, pp. 94–5) Heschel’s words, ‘He is moved and affected by what
happens in the world, and reacts accordingly.’
As a result of this clash in ideologies, Heschel The relationship that God has with humanity
attempted to identify the relevance of the classical is a dynamic one and God’s actions are influenced
documents of Judaism for the modern world. He by humanity. God is not merely an object. God
wanted to offer contemporary society an authentic cares for and is interested in all creations (‘Man
theology and for people to be inspired and able to is the partner of the Holy One, blessed be He’). If
use the ancient teachings in order to find solutions we truly live according to the commandments,
to modern problems and issues. we can become partners in creation and fulfil the
commandment of Tikkun Olam. ‘To meet a human
activity being is an opportunity to sense the image of
God, the presence of God. According to a rabbinic
Research the work of Heschel, identifying the way
interpretation, the Lord said to Moses: “Wherever
that his time in America influenced his theology to
you see the trace of man there I stand before you.” ’
handle problems confronting humanity at that time.
Heschel did not try to reduce God to the level
of human beings. Humanity is said to be made in
Philosophy the image of God and must therefore approach
Heschel developed an original philosophy of Judaism. all relationships with compassion and sympathy.
Religion, he believed, should be able to answer Not only must humans keep the laws (mitzvot)
humanity’s ultimate questions. Although we cannot of the Torah, they must also respond individually
prove the existence of God, he claimed there were three and spontaneously to the demands of God in each
ways by which we can become more aware of God: new, concrete situation. Judaism requires a ‘leap
1. by going through the wonder of nature with of action’, the willingness to learn from our own
its intricacies to an awareness of the grandeur actions and try to enrich our lives beyond what we
and mystery of reality already know. By doing this we become partners in
redemption and inspire a moral society.
2. through the disclosure given to humanity in
the Torah’s revelation
3. through our deeds, by which we link our own
life to the life of the world.

activities
1. Explain the three ways that Heschel said we can become closer to God.
2. Heschel was strongly influenced by the Holocaust. What did he see the
Holocaust teaching humanity?
3. What does Heschel mean by ‘Divine pathos’?
4. Explain the implications of Divine pathos on God’s relationship with
people.
5. What did Heschel mean when he wrote that Judaism requires a ‘leap of
action’?
Heschel’s contribution to the development of Judaism

Heschel is remembered today for his political activism during the 1960s
‘
and 1970s. He believed all racism was a public humiliation and the
denial of human dignity: ‘Every man must be treated with the honour (Heschel) believed
due to a likeness representing the King of kings.’ His earlier writings were
primarily concerned with the relation between God and humans and
all racism was a
how it is experienced daily. This theory was developed in his work God in public humiliation
Search of Man, written in 1955.
and the denial of
’
Heschel’s greatest contribution extended to his influence on
the relationship between the Jewish people and the Vatican. His human dignity.
participation in the Second Vatican Council and influence on the writing
of the document Nostra Aetate (1965), which gave absolution for the
previously believed Jewish guilt over the crucifixion of Jesus, ensured the
development of a greater understanding between the Catholic Church
and the Jewish people. In her book Cries in the Night: Women Who
Challenged the Holocaust, Catholic theologian Dr Eva Fleischner described
Heschel’s contribution as follows: ‘We have here the extraordinary
phenomenon of a religious Jewish thinker, utterly, profoundly Jewish,
from a long Chassidic line, who not only reached out to and touched
the lives of Christian theologians and two popes, but who influenced the
outcome of the Roman Church’s relationship to the Jews through Vatican
II’s declaration Nostra Aetate.’
Heschel continually reaffirmed the Divine origin of creation and
revelation. God created the world, and humanity remains God’s concern.
activities
For Heschel, Judaism was not only a religion of behaviour, of mitzvot
alone, but also a theology as well. 1. Discuss the following: ‘Heschel
Heschel wrote more than a dozen books on philosophy, prayer and was most notably a political
symbolism, and he directly inspired generations of students until his activist.’
death at the age of 65. His ability to synthesise his Eastern European, 2. How was Heschel
Chassidic roots and modern Western philosophy, and his interest in instrumental in establishing
Jewish–Christian relations, are examples for anyone wanting to pursue connections with the Vatican?
a theology that is open to a broad diversity of interests. He remained a 3. Explain Heschel’s contribution
leader for whom faith and morality were inseparable. Still today he is to the development of
thought of as a hero of modern Jewish theologians, an activist for civil Judaism.
rights and peace, and a spokesman for all those devoted to Tikkun Olam.

Nechama Leibowitz (1905–1997) of women who had taken a sabbatical from their
work on a kibbutz. After the course, at the women’s
Nechama Leibowitz was born in Riga, Latvia, in request Leibowitz began to mail them worksheets
1905. She was raised in a family that valued both (known as gilyonot), which they completed and
Jewish and secular culture. The family moved to returned for her assessment. The following year
Berlin in 1919, and Leibowitz went on to graduate she had 50 requests for the worksheets and
from the University of Berlin in 1930 with a subscriptions continued to grow. Eventually they
doctorate focusing on translation techniques used numbered in the thousands. She went on creating
in German-Jewish Bible translations of the 15th and correcting worksheets for another 29 years,
and 16th centuries. After marrying an uncle, she without payment.
immigrated to Israel (then Palestine) in 1931. In 1955, Leibowitz began to publish Iyunim
Leibowitz quickly became busy in her new (‘Studies’), a series of insights into the weekly Torah
homeland, teaching around the country at portion accompanied by the commentaries of
academic and religious institutions and informal various scholars. These were translated into many
gatherings. Early in her life (in her twenties) she languages and were read by Jewish communities
became involved in teacher development and all over the world. The study of the weekly Torah
education and published several pedagogical works. portion has become an institution throughout
She taught Biblical Commentaries at the teacher Judaism. Leibowitz also commented on the Torah
seminary at Tel Aviv University. on the Voice of Israel radio station.
She was appointed a professor there in 1968, In 1956, Nechama Leibowitz received the Israel
but Leibowitz, known simply as ‘Nechama’ by her Prize—the most highly regarded award recognising
students, preferred the title ‘teacher’. She lived simply significant contributions to Israeli life. She died in
and was unaffected by her renown, declining all press 1997, with the stipulation that her gravestone read
interviews. She refused to let people attend her classes simply ‘Nechama Leibowitz: Teacher’.
simply because of her reputation, often declaring,
‘I am not a museum.’ Not much has been written Leibowitz’s contribution to the development
about her life due to her humility and modesty. of Judaism
Leibowitz compared the ideas of various Bible
An active approach to studying Torah commentators in a unique manner, even
In order to encourage her students to be active introducing students to non-Orthodox thinkers
learners, Leibowitz approached all Torah study such as Martin Buber and non-Jewish thinkers
by asking thought-provoking questions. She such as Thomas Mann. This open attitude to
demanded that her students adopt an active role people outside the Orthodox community offended
towards text study. some scholars. She used modern literary analysis
Unusual at the time for being a women to study biblical texts, looking at vocabulary and
involved in religious study, Leibowitz became a literary forms to determine the meaning of the
phenomenon in the world of education and Torah ancient writings. Leibowitz became known for
study, and extended a profound influence on Torah methodologies such as comparing texts and using
teaching worldwide. Leibowitz taught a dynamic texts to gain insights into the world of the writers
understanding; students were inspired to question and the characters they portrayed. In this she was
and this in turn led them to further discovery. a pioneer and many of her methods were adopted
Leibowitz drew meanings from the text that were by later scholars. Her methods legitimised the idea
more relevant to the modern world. She managed that texts could have multiple interpretations and
to explain the meanings of the ancient sources in a hidden moral dimensions.
language and style appropriate to each learner.
The most important thing is that the students
Involvement in adult education should study Torah from all angles; search it out,
In 1938, Leibowitz became involved in adult and choose or reject interpretations. All providing
education and developed an understanding that they engage in Torah out of love.
there needed to be more opportunities for adults (Nechama Leibowitz)
to study. In 1942, she was asked to teach a group

Through Leibowitz’s work, attention was refocused on Bible commentaries
(as opposed to the study of the Talmud). She considered the setting in
which the text had been written to be largely irrelevant and believed that
the important task for teachers was to make the text relevant to those they
were teaching. The essence of the text was the ethical lessons that could be
drawn from it irrespective of the circumstances of its composition. Leibowitz
was a deeply spiritual and observant Jewish woman who emphasised the
responsibilities inherent in the religion rather than mystical faith.
Nechama Leibowitz motivated Jews around the world to take a renewed
interest in the study of Jewish texts and their commentaries. She was the
teachers’ teacher, and her insights on methodology have been utilised by
educators throughout the world. She also became a role model for Jewish
women and inspired a generation of Orthodox Jewish feminists.
activities
1. Outline Leibowitz’s family background and where she moved to complete
her education.
2. Leibowitz preferred to be known as ‘the teacher’. Why was this appropriate?
3. Leibowitz finally had no way of staying out of the public eye. Explain the work
she did in publishing and the media that helped earn her the Israel Prize.
4. What was different about her comments on the Bible?
5. Did Leibowitz balance the written word with scientific, historical or
geographic perspectives? Why or why not?
6. Nechama Leibowitz promoted and taught the methodology of ‘active
learning’. She believed that students should engage with any material that
was being taught so as to fully understand the text. Using the book of
Genesis Chapter 37 (the story of Joseph and his brothers), read the text and
take note of the following:
a. What was the economic context in which the story took place?
b. What was the attitude of the writer towards the characters mentioned?
c. Examine all quotations from all sides—from that of the speaker (what
they were trying to say) to that of the listeners (what they listened to
and what they heard).
d. As a class, discuss the attitude of each character to the others.
Class discussion: Examine the cause of the rift between Joseph and his brothers.
Chabad-Lubavitch
The word ‘Chabad’ is an acronym of the Hebrew words chochmah (wisdom),
binah (understanding) and da’at (knowledge). Chabad is both a philosophy
and a movement. It seeks to guide people to refine their lives and grow in
wisdom, understanding and knowledge. Chochmah can be described as the
birth of an idea, binah as its contemplation and da’at as its actualisation.
Chabad began approximately 250 years ago in the Russian town of
Lyubavichi (Russian for ‘city of brotherly love’). The philosophy spread
rapidly into surrounding countries and today has over 200 000 adherents,
with many more people attending Chabad services all over the world.

The Chabad movement was founded by Rabbi Chabad’s contribution to the development
Shneur Zalman of Liadi (a town in Imperial of Judaism
Russia) and has been guided by the teachings of The Chabad movement pioneered outreach to the
seven successive leaders (rebbes). The philosophy Jewish community and spread the awareness of
developed by these leaders relates to Jewish Judaism to assimilated Jewish people throughout
mysticism (Kabbalah) and is concerned with every the world. They pioneered the use of technology to
part of Jewish life, both spiritual and physical. Every educate and reach distant communities and in so
aspect of the world exists through the intervention doing brought about an educational revolution in
of God. A person can gain control over their evil the Jewish world.
inclinations through an intellectual approach The aim of Chabad is to attract participants and
and meditation. In contrast to other branches to give them a connection to Jewish life. Today it
of Chassidism, Chabad emphasises mind over is the largest Jewish organisation in the world with
emotions. the widest influence. It offers vital services to Jews
across the religious spectrum who have nowhere
Origins of Chabad-Lubavitch else to turn.
The origins of today’s Chabad-Lubavitch
organisation lie in the early 1940s after the sixth
Rebbe, Rabbi Yosef Yitzchak Schneerson, was
granted asylum in the United States following years
of harassment by the Soviet regime. Under his
leadership, the movement became a powerful force
in Jewish life.
Chabad institutions have been established in
over 900 cities worldwide (in 2007 these institutions
numbered more than 3000). In these, people
dedicate their lives to Jewish awareness, Jewish
outreach and charity. (Judaism is not a missionary
religion and Chabad is involved only in reaching
out to other Jews). Emissaries (ambassadors) are sent
out to various locations around the world with the
mission of persuading non-observant Jewish people
to pursue a more observant life. These emissaries
typically open a ‘Chabad House’, where all the
activities of the community are centred and where
they exercise hospitality to the wider community.
The Chabad leadership calls Jews everywhere
to adopt more Orthodox practices in the belief
that this will bring about the coming of the Jewish
Messiah. ‘Even if you are not fully committed to
Torah life, do something. Begin with a mitzvah—
any mitzvah—its value will not be diminished FIG 14.3 The Chabad House on Wheels is a ‘travelling synagogue’
by the fact that there are others that you are that provides outreach, education and social services to the Jewish
community of Miami Beach, Florida.
not prepared to do’ (the seventh Rebbe, Rabbi
Menachem Mendel Schneerson).
All Jews are encouraged to perform the activities
following—lighting the Sabbath candles, putting on
1. What is Chabad?
the phylacteries (tefillin), putting a mezuzah on the
doorpost of their home, studying the Torah, giving 2. How does it influence people’s lives?
charity, purchasing Jewish books, observing dietary 3. Undertake your own research to find out how the
laws (kashrut), being kind, being committed to Jewish movement has grown.
education and keeping the laws of family purity.

Jewish ethics
Judaism’s mitzvot are standards of behaviour that

lead people to live lives of kindness, decency, justice activities
and compassion. They elevate human relationships 1. What are Judaism’s mitzvot?
and inspire people to strive for the highest good. 2. Research the Jewish mitzvot and identify some of
The Jewish ethical code is based on the Torah and the commandments.
is a type of ethical monotheism. The standard of
3. Define ‘ethical monotheism’. How does it relate to
behaviour comes from God who created humankind.
the Jewish ethical code?
According to Orthodox Judaism, God gave Moses
the whole Torah (written and oral) at Mount Sinai. 4. What is the importance of the Torah to Jewish
The Torah contains 613 mitzvot that are binding ethics?
upon Jews. Modern Orthodox Jews strictly observe
halacha (Jewish law) but still integrate into modern Bioethics
society—to them the commandments are not affected
by time or place and are eternal and universal. Jewish bioethics emerge from the traditional
Progressive Judaism views revelation as a practice of applying principles of Jewish law to
continuous process. The people of Israel, through ethical dilemmas. Deliberations are based on the
their prophets and sages, achieved unique insight Torah and the Talmud. Interpretation of these
in the realm of religious truth, and the Torah, both texts attempts to identify the duties of physicians,
written and oral, enshrines the Jewish people’s ever- patients and families who are faced with difficult
growing consciousness of God and of the moral health decisions.
law. Because we are products of historical processes, Although discussions on medical ethics can be
certain of its laws have lost their binding force with found in the writings from ancient times, modern
the passing of the conditions that brought them technologies have created new challenges for
about. But as a depository of permanent spiritual the interpreters of Jewish tradition. Decisions on
ideals, the Torah remains the dynamic source of bioethics are generally based on three principles:
the life of the Jewish people. Each age has the 1. human life has infinite value
obligation to adapt the teachings of the Torah to
2. ageing, illness and death are a natural part of
its basic needs in consonance with the genius of
life
Judaism.
Judaism offers both ethics to live by and the 3. improvement of the patient’s quality of life is
ritual by which to pass those ethics on, and the a constant commitment.
Torah gives no indication which is the most The overriding commandment is that of
important. Ethical and ritual commandments pikuach nefesh—the obligation to save a life in
ensure that the mitzvot are both observed and jeopardy even to the extent of violating other
perpetuated. Jewish ritual becomes a way to connect commandments.
with God and the instrument through which
Jewish ethics are learned and observed. The halacha
does not legislate for every situation (although it
does provide extensive and detailed laws covering
many areas). Certain choices are left to a person’s
moral sense of what is right and wrong. The
‘ The overriding commandment
is that of pikuach nefesh—the
obligation to save a life in
relationship between Jewish law and morality is
jeopardy even to the extent of
’
thus dynamic and flexible, and is intended to raise
the consciousness of the people. violating other commandments.

Abortion another because it is considered as though they are
In most cases, the foetus is treated as a human being pursuing each other.
in Jewish ethics. Generally, one may not deliberately Judaism recognises psychiatric as well as physical
harm a foetus. More insight into the Jewish view of factors in evaluating the potential threat that the
abortion is gained from the sacred text. foetus poses to the mother. The danger presented by
the foetus must be both probable and substantial in
And if men strive together and hurt a woman with order to justify abortion.
child, so that her fruit depart and yet no harm follow, Because Jewish law does not attempt to assign
he shall surely be fined, according as the woman’s values to different lives, a foetal abnormality is not
husband shall lay upon him; and he shall pay as the viewed as a justification for an abortion. It is not for
judges determine. human beings to determine if the life of a person
(Exodus 21:22) with a congenital abnormality has less value than
another’s. If value were assigned to these cases, the
The fact that the Torah here requires a monetary natural development may lead to assigning value to
payment for causing a miscarriage is interpreted by the life of people who are ill or aged.
some rabbis to indicate that abortion is not a capital
crime. Others say it merely indicates that one is not Euthanasia
executed for performing an abortion, even though Judaism affirms the sanctity of life without
it is a type of murder. qualification. However, sometimes this commitment
As a general rule, abortion in Judaism is permitted comes into conflict with other principles of halacha,
only if there is a direct threat to the life of the raising questions that need to be resolved.
mother by her carrying the foetus to term or in the There are a number of important principles to
act of childbirth. In such a circumstance, the baby consider in regard to euthanasia.
is considered a rodef, a pursuer, chasing after the 1. One is only permitted to take another life if
mother with the intent to kill her. The appropriate one’s own life is at risk. The potential murderer
action in this case is self-defence. The reason this is the is considered a rodef. Killing someone whose
deciding factor is that the foetus represents a potential existence does not pose a threat to the life of
life whereas the mother is an existing life. The foetus another is considered to be murder.
is subordinate to the mother because it is threatening
2. God has given each person a body and a soul for
the life of the mother. Despite this classification,
a particular amount of time. After this period,
however, once the baby’s head or most of its body
both the body and the soul are returned to God.
has been delivered, the baby’s life is considered equal
As we are holding the body ‘in trust’, we have no
to the mother’s. Then one life cannot be chosen over
right to tamper with it in any way.
FIG. 14.4 Jewish protesters rally in New York, discontent with the Republican Party’s stance regarding abortion.

3. Any life is of infinite value. The quality of the Genetic screening
life does not alter the value of a particular life. In Judaism, life is paramount and all must be done
The halacha is quite clear that we may take no to ensure the saving of a life. Genetic testing, gene
active role in hastening the death of a patient. therapy and other applications of genetic engineering
Passive euthanasia is more complicated. One is are permissible in Judaism when they are used for
permitted to pray for the death of a patient who is cure, prevention of disease or treatment. This is not
suffering (although one must simultaneously do considered to be a violation of God’s natural law
all that is in one’s power to save the patient). The and is viewed as a legitimate implementation of the
principles that guide all decisions regarding passive biblical mandate to heal the sick.
euthanasia are as follows: Genetic manipulation is not permitted for the
1. All patients must be given food and drink and alteration of physical characteristics such as eye
what is necessary to sustain life. colour and height. It is, however, acceptable to
manipulate organs and organisms when this will
2. A patient whose death is not anticipated to
lead to the production of insulin and other agents
be imminent must be treated like any other
intended to benefit humankind and treat disease.
patient, and all resuscitative measures must
In the Jewish sacred writings, evidence is found
be carried out even if this only prolongs his or
of knowledge and understanding of genetics.
her life for a short time.
Genesis 1:27 states, ‘And God created man in his
3. In the case where a patient with a terminal image, in the image of God he created him; male
illness develops a complication that involves and female’—from which we can understand that
major treatment, if the complication is due human beings are fashioned as creators just as God
to the terminal illness, resuscitation is not is a creator. In Genesis 30:32, Jacob makes reference
necessary. If the complication is unexpected to genetics when separating sheep of different
and is from a cause unrelated to the underlying colours. In the Talmud we find the understanding
illness, full treatment must be given. that certain illnesses are transmitted through
the parents to the child. In the 12th century,
Maimonides prescribed a regimen for good health
and guaranteed that all those who followed it would
remain healthy except for those who were born
with hereditary or genetic illnesses.
There is general agreement from most rabbis
that genetic research is permissible for the sake of
finding cures for human illnesses. From Genesis
1:28 (‘God blessed them and God said to them, “Be
fertile and increase, fill the earth and master it; and
rule the fish of the sea, the birds of the sky, and
all the living things that creep on earth.” ’) they
understand that all living things on the earth can
be used for the benefit of humankind. However,
this brings with it a responsibility. While human
beings have dominion over the earth, they must
also protect it. Humanity is given permission to use
the world’s resources but is barred from wasting and
harming them. Whatever is good for humankind
can thus be considered good and praiseworthy.
King David’s words in Psalm 115:16, ‘The
heavens belong to the LORD but the earth he
gave over to man’, further support the position
that genetic engineering, gene therapy and the
knowledge gained from them do not undermine
FIG. 14.5 The halacha helps Jewish people in decision making. God’s creation.

The use of any knowledge that can benefit Environmental ethics
humankind is biblically mandated. The use of
premarital genetic screening to eliminate genetic Judaism believes that although humanity is a part of
illnesses is also encouraged in Judaism. nature, numerous restrictions are placed on humans
in order to ensure the preservation of the world,
activities and they cannot simply dominate nature for their
own benefit. There is a strong environmental ethic
1. What are the three principles that Jewish people
expressed in the Jewish sacred writings. The Jewish
would use to determine their view on a bioethical
attitude towards nature is a complex one in that
situation?
humanity has moral claims on nature and nature
2. What is ‘pikuach nefesh’? has moral claims on humanity. The natural world
3. Describe the Jewish ethics regarding abortion and must be respected, and there must be a balance
the scripture they use to support their view. between the values and needs of humans and the
4. Do Jewish people support euthanasia? Why or claims of nature—between nature as a source of life
why not? and nature as a threat to man and social values.
Genesis 2:15 suggests a concept of human
5. Genetic testing, gene therapy and other
stewardship of creation: ‘The LORD God took the
applications of genetic engineering are permissible
man and placed him in the garden of Eden, to till
in Judaism on one condition. What is it?
it and tend it.’ A rabbinic midrash (a story created
6. Outline Jewish ethics in regard to genetic for pedagogical reasons) suggests that after God
manipulation and research and quote scripture created Adam, he led him past all the trees that he
passages that support their view. had created and told him, ‘See how beautiful and
excellent are all my works. Beware lest you spoil
them and ruin my world. For if you spoil it there is
nobody to repair it for you.’
If you have a sapling in your hand, There are several themes in the Torah that
have been understood to have implications for
and someone should say to you environmental ethics.
that the Messiah has come, stay
When in your war against a city you have to besiege
and complete the planting, and it a long time in order to capture it, you must not
then go to greet the Messiah. destroy its trees, wielding the axe against them. You
may eat of them, but you must not cut them down.
(Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai)
Are trees of the field human to withdraw before you
into the besieged city? Only trees that you know do
not yield food may be destroyed; you may cut them
down for constructing siege works against the city
that is waging war on you, until it has been reduced.
(Deuteronomy 20:19–20)
One interpretation of this passage is that it speaks

about sustainable development: because our lives
are dependent on the fruit-bearing trees, we should
not cut them down. However, Rashi, a medieval
Jewish commentator, had a different interpretation.
He suggested that as part of God’s creation the trees
were to be respected, and that they did not only exist
to fulfil the needs of humans—they had an intrinsic
value independent of humanity. To say that nature
only exists to fulfil the needs of human beings is to
refuse to acknowledge all of God’s creation.

FIG. 14.6 God has commanded Jewish people not to destroy
anything that creates young.
living creatures). A farmer is forbidden to plough

If, along the road, you chance upon a bird’s nest, with an ox and a donkey yoked together as this
in any tree or on the ground, with fledglings or eggs places undue strain on the donkey. An ox is not
and the mother sitting over the fledglings or on permitted to be muzzled during the threshing
the eggs, do not take the mother together with her period to stop it eating the grain. The Jewish dietary
young. Let the mother go, and take only the young, laws seek to minimise the pain of the animal being
in order that you may fare well and have a long life. killed, and the basis for the separation between
(Deuteronomy 22:6–7) eating milk and meat together is a biblical passage
that speaks of compassion for animals: ‘You shall
Jews understand that God has commanded us not boil a kid in its mother’s milk’ (Exodus 23:19).
not to destroy anything that generates young. It is There are, however, incidences in the Torah that
good for humankind when creation is perpetuated show that human life does take precedence over
so that one can use it in the future (again, the that of animals. Abraham substitutes the sacrifice of
concept of sustainable development). his son Isaac with that of a ram in order that his son
The Sabbath is another important theme for may live (Genesis 22:9–13).
the environment. Talmudic interpretations of the The principle of ba’al tashchit (do not destroy
Genesis creation story say that ‘Man was created wantonly) is applied to both products of nature
on the eve of the Sabbath so that in case his heart and products of humans. ‘Whoever breaks vessels,
grew proud, one may say to him: Even the gnat or tears garments, or destroys a building, or clogs a
was in creation before you were there.’ The Jewish fountain, or does away with foods in a destructive
observance of the Sabbath as the day of rest applies manner, violates the prohibition of ba’al tashchit’
to nature as well as people. From Exodus 20:10 (Talmud). The Shulchan Aruch, a major code of
(‘the seventh day is a Sabbath of the Lord your Jewish law, states: ‘It is forbidden to destroy or
God; you shall not do any work—you, your son or injure anything capable of being useful to men.’
daughter, your male or female slave, or your cattle’) By using nature productively, humans join with
we understand that productive manipulation of God in creation. In the Ethics of the Fathers, a book
the environment is not an absolute right. This is a of the Mishnah, we are reminded of this: ‘You are
reaffirmation of God’s ownership of the land. not required to complete the task, yet you are not
free to withdraw from it’ (Chapter 2:21).
It should not be believed that all the beings exist for
the sake of existence of humanity. On the contrary, activities
all the other beings too have been intended for their
1. Explain the complex Jewish attitude towards
own sakes, and not for the sake of something else.
nature. What is behind this complexity?
(Maimonides)
2. What does the Torah say to support the Jewish
There is much to be found in rabbinic literature view of nature and the environment?
concerning the treatment of animals. An important 3. How does the principle of ba’al tashchit apply to
concept is tsa’ar ba’alei chayim (the suffering of protecting nature’s animals?

Sexual ethics From every human being there rises a light that
reaches straight to heaven. And when two souls
who are destined to be together find each other, their
General attitude to sex streams of light flow together, and a single, brighter
Judaism does not consider sex to be shameful. Sex light goes forth from their united being.
is a sanctified act when performed under the correct (Ba’al Shem Tov)
circumstances and according to the guidelines for
a proper sexual relationship. Genesis 2:18 states: Judaism teaches that within a marriage, sex
‘It is not good for man to be alone; I will make a binds the husband and wife together because it
fitting helper for him’, from which Jews understand teaches them to focus beyond themselves. Outside
that marriage and companionship are essential and of marriage, oneness and completeness can never be
that the act of marriage completes a person. Sex is a achieved through the sexual act.
means of strengthening the marital bond.
The sacred book ‘The Song of Songs’, written Contraception
by King Solomon, is called the ‘Holy of Holies’ in The first commandment in the Torah is ‘Be fertile
the Talmud. This book details the love between and increase’ (Genesis 1:28). It is said that for
a man and a woman as a metaphor for the love Judaism, a home without children is a home
between God and his people. Sexual intercourse is a without blessing.
metaphorical expression of the unity between God In Jewish law, birth control is acceptable as long
and the Jewish people. as the couple are committed to eventually fulfilling
Sex is not just an act of momentary pleasure; this commandment and having children. There are
it is an act of immense significance that requires many interpretations as to how many children this
commitment and responsibility from those refers to, but the commonly understood principle
involved. The act of sex should be an experience of is to have at least two children. The idea is that the
joy, and sex without regard for the partner’s feelings man and woman have then replaced themselves.
is considered evil. The method of contraception is the issue of
concern in Judaism. The commandment to be
Premarital sex fertile and multiply is a commandment primarily
In Judaism, marriage is considered to be the highest directed to the male. Therefore the methods
form of existence. Jewish law prohibits sex outside of contraception that destroy the seed or the
the context of marriage. The marriage ceremony is passage of the seed (for example, condoms) are
called Kiddushin, a name derived from the Hebrew not permitted. The law prohibiting the improper
word kadosh, holy. The sexual act is thus considered emission of seed (Genesis 38:8–10) also prohibits
to be holy when performed within the context of coitus interruptus.
marriage. The contraceptive pill, however, is acceptable
The primary purpose of the sexual act is to as the sperm can still reach its destination. The
reinforce the bonds of love and companionship oral contraceptive is the method preferred by
within marriage. A secondary purpose is most rabbis because it does not interfere with
procreation. In the Torah, the Hebrew word ‘to natural intercourse. Permanent sterilisation as a
know’ (yadah) is used to signify sex: ‘Now the man means of birth control is also not permitted and is
knew his wife Eve, and she conceived’ (Genesis considered to be a mutilation. Sterilisation of the
4:1). From this it is understood that the sexual act male is absolutely prohibited, although the tying of
is not merely a physical act, but one that involves a woman’s fallopian tubes is sometimes permitted
an emotional and physical element. Marriage is as it is reversible. Condoms are further rejected
described in the Bible as basar echad, being of ‘one because they interfere with becoming ‘one flesh’
flesh’—totally united. Marriage unites a couple, and (Genesis 2:24: ‘And he shall cleave unto his wife
when they share the sexual act they are sharing a and they shall become one flesh’).
part of themselves for eternity.

Homosexuality
The Torah forbids male homosexuality although nothing is said of
such female acts. In the book of Leviticus there are two verses that are
frequently cited in relation to the Jewish attitude to male homosexuality:
‘Do not lie with a male as one lies with a woman; it is an abhorrence’
(18:22) and ‘If a man lies with a male as one lies with a woman, the
two of them have done an abhorrent thing, they shall be put to death’
(20:13). Some believe that the reason for the use of such strong language
in the Torah is because the homosexual lifestyle is one in which
procreation cannot occur, and thus it is not considered to be natural. In
the Talmud a hint of an explanation is given when it says that a man
leaving his wife and family to pursue a relationship with another man
undermines the Jewish ideal of family life that is articulated in the Torah.
Jewish law does not teach that it is forbidden to be a homosexual; it is
concerned with the homosexual act. Judaism is concerned with explicit
acts of homosexuality and not simply homosexual tendencies.
Although only homosexual acts between two men are expressly
mentioned in the Torah, homosexual acts between two women are also
subject to a rabbinic prohibition, though it is considered less severe.
The Orthodox Jewish community believes that non-practising
homosexuals have an important contribution to make to Jewish life and
that a Jew is judged by his actions and not his orientation. Only actions
are prohibited, not proclivities. Controlling behaviour, though difficult, is
what the Torah calls for. The Progressive Jewish community, for the most
part, views the traditional prohibitions against homosexuality as mores
from a bygone age—mores now replaced with clearer understandings
of the reality of gender orientation as something that is beyond simple
individual preference.
activities
1. What is the Jewish view of sexual intercourse?
2. Why is the ‘Song of Songs’ important for establishing a correct sexual
relationship for Jewish people?
3. Write a detailed position statement for Jewish people in regard to sexual
behaviours other than marital sex. How are sexual practices linked to
Jewish beliefs?

the life of Jews
Death and mourning
Death
A good name is better than fragrant oil, and the day of death better than the
day of birth.
(Ecclesiastes 7:1)
The Midrash describes this world as the lobby of the ‘world to come’, and in
the Talmud the ‘world to come’ is further described as the Sabbath and this
world as the eve of the Sabbath. In Judaism, death is not considered to be a
tragedy and is seen as a natural process. Death, like living, is all part of God’s
plan. Judaism is a religion that is life-focused and emphasises how to live life
on this earth.
Many of the traditions and customs concerning death and mourning
FIG. 14.7 Jewish cemeteries concern kavod hamet (honouring the dead person) and nichum aveilim
are usually separate from other (comforting the mourner).
religions, unless in smaller cities,
where a separate Jewish section
may exist. Treatment of the dying
According to Jewish tradition, people can atone for their sins as long as they
are alive. Repentance in Hebrew is teshuvah (to return). The dying person
is encouraged to say the final viddui (confession): ‘I acknowledge before
you, God and God of my fathers, that my recovery or my death are in your
hands. May it be your will to heal me with a full healing. Yet, if I should die,
let my death be an atonement for all my sins and transgressions and evil
deeds that I have committed before you. Allow me to share in the Garden of
Eden, and make me worthy of a place in the world to come that is reserved
for the righteous.’
If the person who is approaching death is able, he or she is encouraged
to say the words of the Shema (the prayer that encapsulates the beliefs of
Judaism): ‘Shema Yisrael, Adonai Eloheinu, Adonai echad (“Hear, O Israel: the
Lord is our God, the Lord is One”).’ If the dying person is unconscious, those
present should recite those verses for him or her.
It is considered to be a showing of respect and courtesy to remain in the
room as the person is dying. This is of utmost importance to give comfort
and reassurance to the ill person.
Treatment of the body

It is important to preserve the dignity of the individual, and it is customary
to allow the burial to occur as soon after death as possible. During this in-
between period, the soul remains lingering in this world with no body. The
body’s ‘returning to the earth’ is directly commensurate with the soul’s

ability to return to the Source from which it was son, daughter). On hearing of the death of a person,
drawn. It is considered to be a humiliation of the it is customary to recite the phrase Baruch dayan
dead to prolong the period before burial. Most Jews ha’emet—‘Blessed be the true judge’.
are buried within 24 hours of death. The funeral service is very simple. Psalms are
Once death has occurred, the family will call one chanted, a eulogy is recited and the memorial prayer
of the synagogue functionaries, who will call on El Maleh Rachamim (‘God, full of mercy’) is recited.
the Jewish burial association, the Chevra Kadisha The coffin is then carried to the gravesite with the
(the Sacred Burial Society). The job of the men and mourners following. This fulfils the important
women of this society is to care for the dead in mitzvah of halvayat hamet—escorting the deceased to
accordance with halacha. Once the person has died, their place of burial. As a final act, all those who are
the body is not left alone until burial. present assist in the filling of the grave.
The task of staying with the body (shemira) is a At this point a series of verses acknowledging
ritual that has grown out of the principle of kavod God’s ways are recited. The mourning prayer
hamet, and the shomerim pass the time until the (Kaddish) is then recited by the male mourners
funeral reciting psalms. Out of respect they neither (Orthodox) and by both male and female mourners
eat nor drink in the presence of the dead person. (Progressive). This prayer does not deal directly with
The ritual of purification (teharah) is performed by death but speaks of the majesty and power of God.
the Chevra Kadisha. The body is prepared for burial After the burial service, it is customary for the non-
according to ancient traditions with the ritual use of family members at the funeral to form two lines
water, which is believed to be a source of nourishment. and the mourners pass between them to leave the
After this purification process, the deceased is cemetery. All the others recite the traditional words
dressed in a simple white linen or cotton shroud ‘May God comfort you among the mourners of Zion
(tachrichim), signifying purity and holiness. Men and Jerusalem’.
are buried wrapped in their prayer shawls (tallit) Before leaving the cemetery, each person washes
with the fringes cut off (as these signify the 613 their hands as a symbolic cleansing. It is also custom-
mitzvot and they can no longer be performed). The ary to give a few coins to charity before one leaves.
simplicity of this process is important as it does not Orthodox Judaism does not permit the practice
allow distinguishing between rich or poor—all are of cremation. The sacred texts and the sages have
equal in the eyes of God. determined that the body should return ‘to dust’
Following the above procedure, the body is in the most natural way possible. The Progressive
placed in a plain, wooden coffin to await the community, although discouraging of the practice
burial. Once the body is placed in the casket it of cremation, would permit such a service if it is the
remains closed. The customs of viewing the body or expressed wish of the deceased.
embalming it are forbidden in Jewish law. Autopsies
are discouraged as they are considered to be a Mourning practices
desecration of the body. When autopsies must be The mourning process in the Jewish tradition is broken
performed, they should be minimally intrusive. into definite periods of time. These periods allow the
mourners to express their grief, be comforted by the
Funeral community and slowly return to normal life.
The period between the death and the burial service is Immediately following the funeral, the family
known as aninut. During this time, mourners should goes home to begin the period known as shiva
prepare for the funeral and the bereaved family is left (seven days). It is customary for the family to
alone in order to come to terms with their loss. partake in a meal of condolence (se’udat havra’ah)
Immediately before the funeral, kriah (making prepared by community members. This meal is
a tear in the clothing of the mourner) takes place. traditionally made up of foods that are round in
This is a symbol of loss and mourning as described shape, symbolising the cycle of life, and marks
in the Torah: ‘And Jacob rent his clothes, put the beginning of the first period of mourning.
sackcloth on his loins, and observed mourning for Condolence calls are now made by community
his son for many days’ (Genesis 37:34). This practice members. It is considered to be a sacred obligation
is carried out by the seven immediate relatives of to comfort the mourners. In Judaism, exercising
the deceased (spouse, mother, father, sister, brother, compassion by paying a condolence call is a

mitzvah, considered by some of Judaism’s greatest Because there is not much written in the sacred
scholars to be biblically ordained. The Torah records writings about the afterlife and judgment, Judaism
that God visited Isaac: ‘And it came to pass after the challenges each individual to focus on the journey
death of Abraham, that God blessed Isaac, his son’ of life and to live a life of value.
(Genesis 25:11). From this it is understood that God The fact that the funeral is held as quickly as
himself was comforting the bereaved Isaac. possible emphasises the belief that the soul returns
During the shiva period, prayer services are to God. Since the body is merely the vessel and not
conducted at the mourner’s house, and this allows life itself, the process of burial and mourning does
the mourners to say the mourner’s prayer. Mourners not venerate the body.
do not allow themselves any physical comfort, sit on When a death occurs, the Jewish rituals give
low stools, do not wear leather shoes (a sign of luxury) the mourner a process to follow that provides an
or cosmetics (a sign of vanity), and do not work. The embracing structure during a time of turmoil. The
Kaddish can only be intoned in the presence of a Kaddish blessing that is recited by the mourner is
minyan. A yahrzeit candle (memorial candle) is lit. It a reaffirmation of faith in God even in the midst
is customary for the mourning period to be suspended of tragedy and grief. It is at such a time that one
over the Sabbath and the family will go to the is most likely to deny the existence of God, and
synagogue to say the necessary prayers at this time. yet Jewish people express this reaffirmation of
The second period of mourning is known as faith in the hope that God will fill the vacuum
sheloshim (thirty days) and this is a period of less that has been created through the death. Kaddish
intense mourning. The mourner returns to his is said in the presence of a minyan to ensure that
daily routine but does not attend parties or musical the mourners do not grieve in isolation. The ritual
events. This period is followed by a period known associated with mourning helps the mourner slowly
as aveilut. This is a period that is observed only accept the reality of death and to heal.
for one’s parents—the mourning period for other Living in a community, one has an opportunity
relatives (including spouses) concludes after the to give and receive help. When touched by death, a
sheloshim. The mourner’s Kaddish is recited every person is reminded of the gift of life. Awareness of
day in the presence of a minyan. death allows people to enrich their lives by binding
After the aveilut period is complete, the family more closely together in a continuum of past and
of the deceased is not permitted to continue formal future. The community offers solidarity with the
mourning. Every year, on the anniversary of the mourners as seen in the many customs associated
death, a yahrzeit candle is lit by family members with the minyan and the shiva ritual. Through the
to observe the anniversary of the deceased. On contact with the community, many mourners feel
the yahrzeit, Kaddish is recited in synagogue. In a deepened appreciation for their Judaism and an
addition, there are opportunities on certain festivals increased sense of wholeness in their lives.
to attend memorial services. It is through the contact with the community
that the memory of the deceased is honoured.
The significance of death and mourning for
the Jewish community and individuals activities
Judaism’s main emphasis is on life, not death. The
1. Death is not considered a tragedy in Judaism.
Torah implies an eternity of the soul. When talking
Why not?
to Abraham, God says, ‘As for you, you shall go
to your fathers in peace; you shall be buried at a 2. Describe the practices followed in the treatment
ripe old age’ (Genesis 15:15); when he does die, of people who are dying.
Abraham’s death is described in these words: ‘And 3. What happens to the body after death?
Abraham breathed his last, dying at a good ripe age, 4. Describe a Jewish funeral.
old and contented; and he was gathered to his kin’
5. Outline the stages of mourning that take place.
(Genesis 25:8). The Torah thus implies that death
means the end of physical existence but not a total 6. What is the significance of death and mourning
cessation of being. There is an eternity of the soul, for individuals and for the Jewish community?
which will be reunited with the souls of ancestors
who have previously died.

FIG. 14.8 A rabbi blesses the bride and groom at a traditional Jewish wedding in Ojai, California, USA.
Marriage During the Brit Milah and often at Bar Mitzvahs

and Bat Mitzvahs, a blessing will be recited for a life
Within the Jewish tradition, a person who does not of Torah (study and Jewish tradition), chuppah and
marry is considered an incomplete person. Genesis good deeds. The implication is that the definition of
2:18 says, ‘The LORD God said “It is not good for an ideal life in Judaism is one that includes all three
man to be alone; I will make a fitting helper for of these elements.
him.” ’ The Talmud states, ‘When a man is without In the Jewish marriage, the value of shalom bayit
a wife, he lives without joy, without blessing and (‘peace in the home’) is upheld. In the Talmud it
without good’ (Babylonian Talmud, Yevamot 62b). is written that ‘No man should live with a serpent’
The Hebrew word for marriage is kiddushin, (Babylonian Talmud, Ketubot 72a), and the
‘sanctification’. One partner is consecrated to relationship between husband and wife should be
the other. Marriage is seen as a spiritual bond characterised by peace and happiness. Certain laws
between two people and as a fulfilment of God’s can be suspended in order to preserve harmony
commandment to populate the world. It is the between husband and wife. For example, the
ideal human state established by God at the time of Talmud says that a vow that cannot be rescinded
creation. A successful marriage is the most perfect can be taken back in order to preserve harmony
symbol of a meaningful relationship and is the within the home (Rema, Yoreh Deah 228:21).
closest approximation of the idealised relationship When Sarah was told that she and her husband,
between God and the Jewish people. Abraham, would be blessed by God with a son,
In the Torah woman is seen to be taken from Sarah expressed surprise that Abraham would be
man’s side. Woman and man are thus seen as equal able to have a child at his advanced age. In relaying
and part of the same entity. There is an underlying Sarah’s sentiments to Abraham, God omitted this
natural connection between man and woman. portion of her response. From this episode it can
be understood that there are times when one can
So the Lord God cast a deep sleep upon the man; even alter the substance of a person’s words in order
and, while he slept, He took one of his ribs and to ensure shalom bayit (see Babylonian Talmud,
closed up the flesh at that spot. And the Lord God Yevamot 65b; Vayikra Rabba 9:9).
fashioned the rib that He had taken from the man The Talmud and Judaism’s sages of wisdom have
into a woman; and He brought her to the man. many words of advice to achieve such happiness.
Then the man said, ‘This one at last is bone of my For example: ‘A man must love his wife at least as
bones and flesh of my flesh. This one shall be called much as himself but honour her more than himself’
Woman, for from man was she taken.’ (Babylonian Talmud, Yevamot 62b, Sanhedrin 76b).
(Genesis 2:21–24) The laws and customs of the marriage ceremony
take as their goal the glorification of marriage

and the maintenance of a successful relationship. the ketubah being complete, the marriage is not
According to rabbinic law, a Jewish marriage permitted to proceed.
consists of two separate acts: It is customary for the groom to place the veil over
1. Kiddushin. This is a legal act of acquiring the the bride’s face. This is called the bedeken (‘cover’)
bride by the groom. It is done by handing ceremony. The origin of this is the biblical story of the
over an object of value (the ring) to the bride deceiving of Jacob, who expected to marry Rachel but
in the presence of two witnesses and the was given Leah as a bride instead (Genesis 29:16). The
reciting of the following words: ‘Behold you veil symbolises the idea of modesty.
are consecrated to me according to the law of The wedding ceremony takes place under the
Moses and of Israel.’ chuppah (canopy), a symbol of the home that the
new couple will build together. It is open on all
2. Nissuin. The ceremony in which the bride is
sides, just as Abraham and Sarah had their tent
led under a canopy (chuppah), symbolic of the
open all sides to welcome people in hospitality.
first house the couple will share together, and
The chatan (groom) and the kallah (bride) are
benedictions are recited.
escorted to the wedding canopy by their parents.
On the Shabbat preceding the wedding, the The kallah proceeds to circle the groom seven
groom (Orthodox) and the bride and groom times. By doing this she is symbolically weaving
(Conservative and Progressive) are called to a protective web around the groom. There is also
read from the Torah and receive a blessing on a belief that there are seven levels to a man’s soul,
their upcoming wedding and marriage. In some and as the bride circles the groom, she is entering
communities, it is customary to shower the couple into the very core of his soul.
with sweets, symbolically wishing them a sweet and The betrothal blessing (birkat erusin) is then
good life together. recited by the rabbi. This blessing praises God who
On the day of the wedding, the bride and permits proper marriage and sanctifies the Jewish
groom fast until after the ceremony is over. This people by means of marriage. This is recited over a
is an opportunity for the kallah (bride) and chatan cup of wine. Both bride and groom drink from the
(groom) to atone for their sins and enter into the cup. Wine is a symbol of joy in the Jewish tradition.
marriage in a state of ritual purity, sinlessness and The marriage becomes official once the groom
absolution. This also reminds them that they are on has given the bride an object (the ring). The ring
the threshold of a new life. should be simple and not adorned with stones. It
Traditionally, the bride and groom spend should not have a great monetary value as it should
the week preceding the wedding apart. The first be clear to onlookers that the bride is not marrying
time that they see in other is at the ceremony to the groom for his financial assets. The plainness of
welcome guests (kabbalat panim), which is held the ring also serves to ensure that all people can
immediately prior to the wedding itself. get married, not only the rich. The groom takes the
Immediately before the ceremony, the ketubah wedding ring in his hand and says, ‘Behold, you are
is signed by two qualified witnesses who attest to consecrated unto me with this ring, according to
the promises made by the groom to the bride. This
is a legal transaction where authority is required
from the groom to formalise a contract. The groom
is asked to validate the contract by holding onto a
handkerchief that is extended to him (kinyan). The
ketubah spells out the responsibilities of the bride
and groom to each other: the groom is to provide
food, clothing and shelter to the bride and she
in turn accepts to love, honour and care for him.
The ketubah also sets aside a certain amount of
money as the wife’s separate property. It allows the
wife to have financial security should the husband
divorce her. The ketubah acts as an ‘insurance FIG. 14.9 A Jewish marriage is official when the groom has given
policy’ protecting the rights of the wife. Without a ring to the bride.

the law of Moses and Israel.’ The ring is then placed on the bride’s right
forefinger. The marriage ceremony is now complete.
The ketubah is then read out to the community, symbolic of the fact
that the community, which has gathered to witness the marriage, has a
stake in the union and the new couple has become part of the community.
The Seven Blessings (Sheva Brachot) are now recited. These blessings are
for the wine, the bridal couple and the community, as well as blessing God
himself. They are recited by the rabbi or others chosen by the families.
The groom then breaks a glass that has been placed on the floor. At all activities
moments of joy, Jewish people are told to remember that there are people
1. How important is marriage
who are not as fortunate as they are. The breaking of the glass also serves as
to Jewish people and why
a reminder of the destruction of the first and second Temples in Jerusalem.
is this so?
The breaking of the glass signifies the end of the marriage ceremony, and
the congregation shouts ‘Mazal tov!’ (good luck) to the couple. 2. According to rabbinic law, a
The new husband and wife now break their fast in private in a Jewish marriage consists of
ceremony known as yichud. This marks their first meal together as what two separate acts?
husband and wife. 3. Research the steps or
Members of the community will invite the couple to their homes for a components of a Jewish
week of festive meals where the Sheva Brachot will again be intoned. marriage ceremony.
4. Why is marriage also
The significance of marriage for the Jewish community and socially significant to the
individuals community as distinct from
The marriage ceremony can only take place if there is the presence of a the people involved?
minyan (the ten people required for certain Jewish rituals to be observed).
5. Research and explain the
The rabbi Maimonides said that there were three kinds of marriage:
various symbols and parts
1. A couple who need to be together—when the need disappears, so of the Jewish marriage
does the love. ceremony listed below:
2. A marriage born out of the necessity to have someone to share • bedeken
moments of sorrow and joy with—this serves to help each other
• ketubah
deal with the troubles and difficulties of life.
• kinyan
3. A couple who remain married because they have shared goals
and purposes and are prepared to go through sacrifices in order to • chuppah
achieve those goals. • ring
If the couple are truly suited and happy, they form a community of • wine
commitment together. • yichud
Marriage is an integral part of the Jewish community, and many
• Sheva Brachot.
of the rituals and traditions of Judaism occur in a home and family
environment. The words used by the groom as he places the ring on the
finger of the bride, ‘You are hereby sanctified unto me’, link the couple to
the community, tradition, history and all of the Jewish people.
It is believed that God is present in each marriage (the third member
of each partnership). ‘When husband and wife are worthy, the Divine
Presence abides with them’ (Babylonian Talmud, Sotah 17a). The couple
should build a ‘small tabernacle’ in their home where the spirit of
Judaism, love of God and tranquillity reign.

Synagogue services
To pray is to take notice of the wonder, to regain a sense of mystery that

animates all being, the Divine margin in all attainments. Prayer is our
humble answer to the inconceivable surprise of living.
(Abraham Joshua Heschel)
Jewish worship (davening), in the context of a prayer service, is a chance

to connect to God, and to be fully engaged in communicating with God.
The synagogue (often called the shul) is considered to be a house of
prayer (beit tefillah), a meeting house (beit knesset) and a house of learning
(beit midrash).
It is acceptable to pray by yourself. However, it is also very important
for Jewish people to pray within a community. To this end, certain
prayers can only be intoned in the presence of a minyan. Jews do not
have to attend a synagogue to pray. They can satisfy the obligations of
daily prayer anywhere.
Synagogue services can be led by a rabbi, a cantor or a member of the
congregation. Orthodox services are traditionally held in Hebrew and
Progressive services contain more English in the service.
FIG. 14.10 The Star of David is a Prayer services are held three times a day: morning, afternoon
symbol seen in nearly all, if not all, and evening. The morning service (Shacharit) follows the tradition
synagogues.
of Abraham (‘Abraham arose early in the morning’, Genesis 22:3);
rhe afternoon service (Mincha) follows that of Isaac (‘Isaac went out
meditating in the field toward evening’, Genesis 24:63); and the evening
service follows the tradition of Jacob (‘He came upon a certain place and
stopped there for the night’, Genesis 28:11). The prayer services are also
substitutes for the sacrifices made in the Temple in Jerusalem prior to
its destruction in 69/70 CE. The most important day of the week is the
Sabbath (Shabbat) and there are additional services for festivals and the
like.
There are two basic synagogue traditions—Ashkenazi (referring to
practices of Jews from central, eastern and western Europe and their
descendants) and Sephardi (referring to practices followed by Spanish
Jews and communities around the Mediterranean coast and their
descendants). The services may have different tunes and pronunciations
of certain words although the prayers are generally the same. Prayers
with instructions and commentary are found in the siddur, the traditional
Jewish prayer book.
Orthodox Judaism requires men to pray three times daily and four
times on the Sabbath and most Jewish holidays. Orthodox women are
required to pray daily with no specific time requirement. Progressive
communities regard prayer times as a matter of personal spiritual
decision. Proper concentration and kavanah (devotional intent) are
considered essential for prayer. ‘All my bones shall say, LORD, who is like
You?’ (Psalm 35:10).
All synagogues would contain the following basic items:
• Aron Kodesh (holy ark): a cabinet or wall recess in which the Torah
scrolls are kept. This is generally set to face in the direction of
FIG. 14.11 The Aron Kodesh, where the Jerusalem.
Torah scrolls are kept

The central prayer of this service is the
Shema, an affirmation of Judaism and a
declaration of faith in one God. A Jew is
required to recite the Shema both morning
and night, separate from the duty of prayer.
The afternoon service, Mincha, is
the shortest service and takes place just
before sunset. It consists of Psalm 145,
the Silent Meditation (Amidah) and the
Aleinu prayer that concludes all services.
The evening service, Maariv (from Hebrew
erev, ‘evening’) takes place at night, after
sunset. Because the Jewish day begins and
ends at sunset, this is really the first service
of the Jewish day. It is much shorter than
Shacharit, but nevertheless includes again
the basic Shema and Amidah prayers. (For
practical reasons, the Mincha and Maariv
services are often recited one following the
other, Mincha just before sunset and Maariv
just after.)
The centrepiece of the service is the
reading of the Torah. The Torah is divided
into 54 separate portions, each one being
FIG. 14.12 Inside a synagogue assigned to a week of the year. The whole
Torah is thus read from beginning to end
• Ner Tamid (eternal light): a lamp placed directly
every 12 months, with the completion of the
above the holy ark. It burns continually and is
reading and the immediate beginning of a new
symbolic of the biblical directive to ‘cause a lamp
cycle taking place on the festival of Simchat Torah.
to burn continually in the tabernacle outside of
The Torah is thus always in the process of being
the parakhet [curtain] which is before the ark of
read. The Torah is read four times each week, with
the testimony’ (Exodus 27:20–21).
the first part of the portion being read on Saturday
• Bimah: a platform from which the Torah is read afternoon (the Sabbath), then repeated on Mondays
and the prayers are led.
The morning service, Shacharit (‘dawn’), is
the longest of the three daily prayer services and
contains within it the basic affirmations of Judaism:
the Shema (‘Hear, O Israel’), the Amidah (silent
meditation) and the ideas of repentance, self-
improvement and loyalty to God and Israel. The
morning service consists of the following: Birkhot
Ha Shachar (the preliminary morning blessings),
P’Sukei D’Zimra (biblical verses of praise recognising
God’s creative force and love for his people) and
the formal morning service. The first two sections
are to prepare the worshipper, both physically
and spiritually, for the formal service that is to
follow. During the service the adherents sing, chant
together and answer the chazzan (prayer leader)
responsively.
FIG. 14.13 An ancient Torah scroll

and Thursdays in the Shacharit service, and the entire portion is then
read at the Shabbat morning service. During the reading of the Torah,
members of the congregation are given the honour of being called to
recite a blessing. This is called an aliya—literally to ‘go up’ as you are
going up to a higher spiritual plain, signified by stepping onto the bimah.
It is customary for Jewish men to cover their heads with a kippah
(skullcap) when entering a synagogue as a sign of respect.
The significance of the synagogue service for the Jewish

community and individuals
Prayer is a pathway to God for the Jewish people. It is a way to encounter
God and has the power to transform an individual.
FIG. 14.14 Outside of the synagogue The synagogue service is also a chance for adherents to connect with
Jewish people use the Torah in book their history and community. By following the traditional services that
format.
have been followed by countless generations, the Jewish people place
themselves on the continuum of Jewish life. The collective voice of
communal prayer denotes a larger sense of desire, a sense of commitment
and a greater chance of reality. Praying in community and in the
presence of a minyan also brings with it a responsibility—it confirms the
mandate in the Talmud, ‘All Israel is responsible, one for the other.’ There
is more gratification in sharing a collective obligation than in standing
alone.
activities
1. What is the purpose of a Jewish prayer service and where is it held?
2. Who leads the service? What training do they have?
3. Create a visual and oral presentation which explains what happens in
the service.
4. How often are services held?
5. Using the text and photos in this book and researching the Internet,
describe the layout of a synagogue. Draw a plan to help your
description.
6. Why is the synagogue service important for Jewish individuals and also
for their community?
7. Discuss how this service differs from, or is similar to, the prayer services
of other religious traditions.
8. There are three names for a synagogue in Hebrew: Beit Knesset (House
of Gathering), Beit Tefillah (House of Prayer) and Beit Midrash (House
of Learning). Research the history of each of these names and how a
synagogue is used for each specific purpose.

Review and assess
Review
1. How would Martin Buber have related to the following story?
The Rabbi of Kotzk asked his disciples: ‘Where is the dwelling of God?’
They laughed at him: ‘What a thing to ask! Is not the whole world full of
God’s glory?
Then he answered his own question; ‘God dwells wherever a person lets
God in.’
(Martin Buber, The Way of Man)
2. Research the work of Heschel and the Second Vatican Council. How
has this influenced interfaith dialogue today?
3. Contact the Chabad House in the city where you live. Research the
different range of activities available through this organisation and the
various stages in life that they would appeal to.
4. According to the mitzvah of pikuach nefesh, life is paramount and

all must be done to save a life. How does the Jewish response to the
issues of abortion, euthanasia and genetic counselling reflect the
mitzvah of pikuach nefesh?
5. How does the following text, written by Nachmanides (Rabbi Moshen

ben Nachman) (1194–1270 CE), reflect the Jewish attitude to sexuality?
Know that this union is a holy and pure thing, when it is properly
conducted in the proper time, and with the proper intention. A person
should not think that in this proper union there is something ugly or
degrading … God, may He be praised, has created everything according
to His wisdom, and has not created things to be ugly or shameful … He
created man and woman, and created each and every organ and their
functions, and there is nothing degrading in this.
(Nachmanides, Igeret HaKadosh [Holy Letter])
6. Compare the Jewish viddui confession below with that of another

religious tradition that you have studied.
I acknowledge before You, O Lord my God and God of my fathers, that my
life and death are in Your hands. May it be Your will to heal me. But if
death is my lot, then I accept it from Your hand with love. May my death
be an atonement for whatever sins and errors and wrong doings I have
committed before You. In Your mercy grant me the goodness that is waiting
for the righteous and bring me to eternal life. Father of orphans, Protector
of widows, protect my loved ones with whom my soul is bound. Into Your
hands I return my spirit. You will redeem me, O ever faithful God. Hear O
Israel, the Lord is God, the Lord is One’.
(Prayerbook)

7. ‘The LORD God formed man from the dust of the 14. Explain Jewish ethical teachings on one of:
earth. He blew into his nostrils the breath of life, • bioethics
and man became a living being’ (Genesis 2:7).
What implication does this verse have and how
does it explain the Jewish approach to death? • sexual ethics
8. Research synagogue services to find out: 15 Analyse the significance of one of the following
practices of the individual Jewish adherent.
a. What are the different synagogue services and
at what times do they occur? • death and mourning
b. Who leads a Jewish service of prayer? • marriage
c. What are the central prayers in Judaism and are • synagogue services
there specific requirements for these to be said?
16. Describe the contribution of ONE significant
person or school of thought, other than Abraham
Exam style questions or Moses, to the development of Judaism
Extended response (15 marks) 17. Describe one significant practice within Judaism
drawn from:
9. a. Link one significant Jewish practice to two
Jewish beliefs.
• marriage
b. Explain the significance of one of the following • synagogue services
practices for the Jewish community:
18. Demonstrate how the practice you have chosen
in part 1b above expresses the beliefs of Judaism.
• marriage
• synagogue service
c. Explain the impact on Judaism of one
significant person or school of thought, other 19. Discuss Jewish ethical teachings in ONE area.
than Abraham or Moses. Choose from: bioethics; environmental ethics;
(Studies of Religion II HSC Examination Paper © Board of Studies NSW for sexual ethics.
10. Outline TWO contributions to Judaism made by
ONE significant person or school of thought, other 20. Analyse the impact of ONE significant person or
than Abraham or Moses. school of thought, other than Abraham or Moses,
on both the development and expression of
11. Describe the effect on Judaism of ONE person or Judaism.
school of thought, other than Abraham or Moses.
21. Explain Jewish ethical teachings on bioethics OR
12. Explain how Jewish ethical teachings influence environmental ethics OR sexual ethics.
the lives of adherents. Choose an aspect from
ONE of the following areas: 22. Explain how the beliefs of Judaism are expressed in:
• bioethics • death and mourning
• environmental ethics • marriage
• sexual ethics • synagogue services
13. Discuss the contribution of ONE significant person

or school of thought, other than Abraham or
Moses, on the expression of Judaism.

15_KIN_OSR_RePea.indd 384 11/09/09 12:22 PM
Religion and
peace
The focus of this study is the distinctive response of religious
traditions to the issue of peace. The whole study is to be completed
within the same two religious traditions.
Outcomes Content
H1 explains aspects of religion and belief systems The understanding of peace in TWO religious
traditions
and belief systems on individuals and society • peace expressed through sacred texts for two
religious traditions drawn from:
the life of adherents • Buddhism—Sutta Pitaka, Dhammapada
H6 organises, analyses and synthesises relevant • Christianity—the New Testament

information about religion from a variety of • Hinduism—Bhagavad Gita
sources, considering usefulness, validity and bias • Islam—Qur’an and Hadith
H7 conducts effective research about religion and • Judaism—the Prophetic Vision of peace on
evaluates the findings from the research Earth
H8 applies appropriate terminology and concepts • the principal teachings about peace in two
related to religion and belief systems religious traditions
H9 coherently and effectively communicates • the contribution of two religious traditions to
complex information, ideas and issues using peace in the context of:
appropriate written, oral and graphic forms.
• the individual—means of achieving inner peace
• the world—means of achieving world peace

HSC | Chapter 15 Religion and peace 385

Glossary
AHIMSA the essence of non-violence, forbids the MIDRASH rabbinic commentary on the Jewish
harm of any living creature. scriptures, often in the form of a story.
AQIDA the Islamic creed, or six articles of faith. MOKSHA liberation from samsara, the cycle of
BASILEA Greek for ‘kingdom’, used in reference rebirths.
to God’s value system of justice and MUTAR those actions which are permissible.
peace. NEW TESTAMENT Christian canon containing the
BEATITUDES sayings of Jesus which provide the basis Gospels, Acts of the Apostle, letters to
for ethical relationships and building of varying Christian communities and the
the basilea. Book of Revelation.
COVENANT in Judaism, the relationship between NICENE CREED the statement of faith that is most
God and his people that came through widely used in Christian liturgy.
Abraham and Moses, carrying with it NIRVANA the teaching of the ultimate destiny for
special rights and responsibilities. all sentient life forms in Buddhism.
DHAMMAPADA a collection of 423 verses taken from NOBLE EIGHTFOLD in Buddhism, a means for attaining the
the Sutta Pitaka that are regarded PATH end of suffering.
as the most succinct expression of
PILGRIMAGE a journey to a sacred place.
the Buddha’s teachings and provide
significant insight into the Buddhist PUJA Buddhist private or public ritual;
understanding of peace. worship involving offerings to a deity.
DHARMA a set of values that supports and QUR’AN the book revealed to Muhammad, the
sustains normal life in the world. prime foundation text of Islam.
A person’s religious duty. REVELATION the message of God to all humanity,
EIRENE from the Greek, meaning ‘to be in fully expressed in the person of Christ.
harmony with one another’. SALVATION the redemption of humanity achieved
FIVE PILLARS OF the five fundamental duties that are the through Jesus Christ’s death and
ISLAM essence of Islamic practice: a declaration resurrection.
of faith in God; five daily prayers; SHALOM Jewish word for ‘peace’.
fasting; almsgiving; and pilgrimage to SUFISM the mystical path of Islam which
Mecca. promotes a direct and personal
FIVE PRECEPTS the most commonly held set of ethical encounter with God.
rules in Buddhism. SUTTA PITAKA the collections of sayings of the Lord
FOUR NOBLE Buddhist teachings that examine the Buddha and stories about his life.
TRUTHS nature of suffering. TALMUD the collective name for certain
HADITH report of an utterance or act of, or rabbinical writings composed from the
a decision made by, Muhammad. first century BCE to around 500 CE.
(Hadith as a generic term is a name TANAKH an acronym from the three sections of
for the foundation text of Islam that the Hebrew Bible: Torah, also known
complements the Qur’an.) as the Pentateuch; Nevi’im, meaning
HALACHA the word halachah is usually translated the prophets; and Ketubim, meaning
as ‘Jewish law’, although a more literal ‘scriptures’, writings’ or ‘wisdom books’.
(and appropriate) translation might be TAWHID the declaration that God is One.
‘the path that one walks’.
THREE JEWELS the Buddha, dhamma and sangha.
INCARNATION God become human in the Divine
TIKKUN OLAM the rebuilding or repair of the world.
person of Jesus Christ.
TRINITY the triune God who is Father (Creator),
JIHAD BIL NAFS the greater jihad which is the struggle to
Son (Redeemer) and Spirit (Sanctifier).
control evil within oneself.
YOGA Hindu spiritual and physical practices
KARMA the consequence of all good or bad
aimed at integrating the body, mind
actions done willingly during a person’s
and spirit.
lifetime.

Approaching the study of
religion and peace
In preparation for your study of Religion and Peace, that is more ‘correct’ than another. For some
and to successfully prepare for the HSC examination, individuals, peace may be the attainment of freedom
you should approach this study in an integrated from the tensions of everyday life. For others it may
manner. Figure 15.1 provides a summary of how the simply be the inner strength to cope with a particular
sections of this topic inform and support each other. time of suffering or loss. For most people, peace is
not a static achievement but rather a part of the
What is ‘peace for the individual’? integrated ebb and flow of everyday life.
How do particular religious traditions assist
The concept of peace for the individual is open to adherents in this journey? What evidence do they
many interpretations. There is no one interpretation provide?
Sacred texts
• Authoritative and esteemed writings that define the origins
and characteristics of a religious tradition. They provide the
foundation for all religious interpretations of peace.
Inner peace Significant concepts Principal teachings

• How sacred texts, • Peace goes beyond an Authoritative reflections
principal teachings and absence of war. on sacred texts that
particular structures • Justice is integral to provide:
assist the quest for establishing peace. • guidelines for ethical
inner peace for the • Harmony involves living
individual. acknowledgment and • support for adherents
• Specific examples of acceptance of differences. in their personal and
the means provided • Within each religious communal lives
by religious traditions tradition there are often • norms for the
to enhance personal differing interpretations of contribution of
peace. the applications of belief to religious traditions to
particular issues of peace. local and global peace.
World peace
• How the teachings of religious traditions, founded in sacred texts, provide guidance for adherents
to contribute to world peace.
• Specific examples of how the application of the principal teachings of religious traditions are
contributing to peace in the global arena. This may also apply to significant local initiatives as
not all traditions have equal impact on particular international issues.
FIG. 15.1 Visual overview of the integrated nature of Religion and Peace

Understanding ‘peace’ means understanding Issues of communal peace are often related to
peace within the traditions and it includes support structural inequalities that result in injustice and
from areas shown below: disenfranchisement. History continues to show that
• texts these are often the foundation for violence.
International organisations such as the World
• principal beliefs
Conference of Religions for Peace (WCRP) have
• specific examples of individuals within the current initiatives listed on their websites.
tradition, the practices and rituals of the tradition The WCRP’s mission statement provides a useful
and specific programs provided by organisations summary of the contribution that religious
within the tradition. traditions have to make to world peace:
activities Respecting religious differences while celebrating

1. In small groups identify as many examples as you our common humanity, Religions for Peace is
can of what peace might mean to the individual. active on every continent and in some of the most
2. Distribute these examples between members of troubled areas of the world, creating multi-religious
the group to find examples from the religious partnerships to confront our most dire issues: stopping
traditions you are studying as to how they support war, ending poverty, and protecting the earth.
the individual in achieving peace. (World Conference of Religions for Peace)
It is also important to acknowledge the

Religious traditions and ‘world peace’ association between individual peace and world
peace. In many instances, those who identify
While the major traditions all promote the concept the need for inner peace based on their personal
of world peace, each does so according to its faith will also be strident advocates for peace at
particular sphere of influence. As a result no one the communal and international level. Examples
religion will have total global influence in this area, include religious leaders such as Archbishop
and advocacy or actions will often be limited to a Desmond Tutu, who opposed apartheid and works
particular initiative or region. for reconciliation in South Africa, and the exiled
Within traditions there will also be various head of Tibetan Buddhism, the Dalai Lama.
interpretations of right action in regard to particular
situations. For example, during the Vietnam War the activity
Christian movement Pax Christi was a vocal opponent
Examine Figure 15.2 and the quotes from the main
of sending foreign troops to fight in what they viewed
religious traditions below. What are the underlying
as an unjust military engagement. In contrast, many
principles that you consider these traditions share?
Christians of all denominations disagreed with the
Extrapolate how these principles relate to the study of
stance this group took and supported the war.
Religion and Peace.
Buddhism: A state that is not pleasing to or delightful
to me, how could I inflict that upon another? (Samyutta
Nikaya v. 353).
Christianity: Love your neighbour as yourself
(Mark 12:31).
Hinduism: This is the sum of duty: do not do to others what
would cause pain if done to you (Mahabharata 5: 1517).
Islam: Not one of you truly believes until you wish for
others what you wish for yourself (Prophet Muhammad,
13th of the Forty Hadith of Nawawi).
Judaism: And what does the Lord require of you? To act
justly and to love mercy and to walk humbly with your
God (Micah 6:8).
FIG. 15.2 Bumper sticker

Buddhism
Sacred text: Sutta Pitaka

The Sutta Pitaka is one of the three collections that together
make up the central Buddhist text, the Tripitaka (‘Three Baskets’).
The Sutta Pitaka is known as the ‘Basket of Discourses’. This is a
‘ The Dhammapada
collection of over 10 000 discourses that the Buddha and his close
companions delivered to both the Sangha and the laity. They
provide guidance for ethical living, the foundations of mindfulness provides significant
and the foundations of contemplation. insight into the Buddhist
’
Central to an understanding of peace in Buddhism is the
concept of Dharma. This refers to the teachings of the Buddha
understanding of peace …
that inform adherents in respect to the precepts of the eternal law
and guide them on the path to enlightenment. The Dhammapada
is a collection of 423 verses taken from the Sutta Pitaka that are
regarded as the most succinct expression of the Buddha’s teachings.
The Dhammapada provides significant insight into the Buddhist
understanding of peace as seen in the following extracts. Links to
principal beliefs are provided in the commentary.
TABLE 15.1 Buddhist understanding of peace
VERSES FROM THE DHAMMAPADA LINK TO PRINCIPAL BELIEFS

Hatred is never appeased by hatred. An expression of the Buddhist doctrine of
Hatred is only appeased by non-enmity. ahimsa, which holds that all forms of life are
This is an eternal law. sacred. Consequently, peace and non-violence are
(verse 5) foundational principles of all facets of Buddhist
practice.
It is you who must make the effort. Mara was the demon who tried to seduce the Buddha.
The Great of the past only show the way. He represents the temptations that lead people away
Those who think and follow the path from the spiritual path. The Buddha taught that only
become free from the bondage of Mara. those who stay faithful to the way of Dharma will be
(verse 20) free of negative forces and as such achieve peace and
ultimately nirvana.
Just as a deep lake is clear and still, The analogy of this verse is that just as deep water
even so, on hearing the teachings is calm and free of agitation, so it is only through
and realising them, the wise become following the precepts expressed by the Buddha
exceedingly peaceful. that a person can obtain deep understanding and
(verse 82) tranquillity.
Who offends the inoffensive, The Buddha taught that those who through
the innocent and blameless one, ignorance or cruelty inflict harm on another person
upon that fool does evil fall will be punished in return—as dust returns to the
as fine dust flung against the wind. thrower. This text illustrates the Buddhist belief in
(verse 125) karma whereby all actions are rewarded or punished
and impact on the state of a person’s reincarnation.

A full version of the Dhammapada can be • not to sexually exploit others
accessed online. The Oxford Studies • not to lie
of Religion website will link you to an easily
• not to take alcohol or other intoxicating drugs.
understood translation that will assist you in
finding further references to inform your study of • Ahimsa. The pivotal doctrine that explains the
peace within the Buddhist context. sacredness of all forms of life and forbids any act
of violence against a living organism. This belief
directs all aspects of human relationships and is
activity
therefore central to the Buddhist understanding
Using at least three examples, demonstrate how the of peace. It directs all Buddhist responses to issues
Buddhist understanding of peace is informed and of personal and communal peace.
expressed through its sacred texts. (Hint: Prior to
completing this task, clarify your understanding of
The concept of ‘ignorance’ and the Buddhist
‘informed’ and ‘expressed’.)
understanding of peace
Buddhism has determined that ignorance is a
Principal teachings about peace foundational cause of greed, hatred and violence.
One of the principal effects of ignorance is self-
The above examples from the Dhammapada absorption and a lack of connection between people
highlight the connections to principal beliefs that that subsequently leads to harm in thought, word
are integral to an understanding of peace within or deed. The Dhammapada explains that the path
Buddhism. These teachings include: to peace is only achieved when people move away
• The Four Noble Truths. These examine the from this inappropriate focus on themselves: ‘Cut
nature of suffering. Suffering and its ramifications off your affection as though it were an autumn lily,
for individuals and communities is a critical with the hand. Cultivate the very path of peace’
issue when coming to an understanding of many (verse 285).
aspects of peace.
• The Fourth Noble Truth provides the means for activities
attaining the end of suffering. This is known to 1. Give examples of religious traditions that strive
Buddhists as the Noble Eightfold Path. for inner peace as well as peace at the
• Karma. Contrary to some popular interpretations, international level.
the Buddhist understanding of karma does not 2. What is the Sutta Pitaka?
refer to any type of preordained fate. Karma refers 3. How does the Dhammapada help the Buddhist
to good or bad actions that people take during understanding of peace?
their lifetime. Good actions, which involve either
4. Explain how or why the Four Noble Truths are
the absence of bad actions or actual positive acts
critical to the understanding of peace.
such as generosity, righteousness and meditation,
bring about happiness in the long run. Bad 5. How do you think living the Five Precepts helps
actions, such as lying, stealing or killing, bring develop peaceful relationships?
about unhappiness. 6. Why is the ahimsa critical for Buddhists to
• The Five Precepts. Living the Precepts is essential understand peace?
for peace in all relationships, including peace 7. Review the extracts from the Dhammapada
with oneself, as explained in the sacred text: provided in this chapter. What insights do
‘Follow the law of virtue; do not follow that they provide concerning the manner in which
of sin. The virtuous rests in bliss in this world Buddhism assists adherents to attain peace?
and in the next’ (Dhammapada 169). The Five 8. Explain how the Noble Eightfold Path provides
Precepts are: the means for Buddhist adherents to be at peace
• not to harm living beings within themselves and with others.
• not to steal

Buddhism and peace for the individual
Meditation
Meditation has great significance across the tradition Vipassana meditation, it has a further purpose
of Buddhism. It was during meditation that the in that it leads practitioners into a state of
Buddha himself attained enlightenment, and his mindfulness as they attempt to understand
example provides inspiration for adherents to pursue the meaning of the object that is the focus of
and persevere with a form of religious encounter the meditation. A simplified understanding of
that requires patience, practice and dedication to Vipassana is that it is the vehicle ‘to see things
achieve its goals. Meditation is also esteemed as a as they really are’ and to enter into a state of
core practice of the faith as it provides the medium peace that brings an end to suffering. In some
for the believer to enter into a state of mindfulness, instances, students of this form of meditation
concentration and tranquillity. All of these undertake intense training in order to enter
characteristics are deemed necessary in Buddhism to fully into the benefits it is believed to impart.
achieve insight and subsequently peace. These include a sense of personal well-being and
Principal forms of Buddhist meditation include: physical and emotional health, and subsequently
• Samatha, meaning ‘peace’ or ‘tranquillity’. The the attainment of a peaceful state.
purpose of this form of meditation is to train • Metta Bhavana (metta meaning ‘loving
the mind by entering into deep concentration. kindness’, bhavana meaning ‘cultivation’). This
Samatha meditation requires a complete form of meditation, which is often identified
detachment from the world, and to achieve this with Mahayana Buddhism, represents the
Buddhism provides a guide to 40 meditation development of the Buddhist ideal of compassion
subjects known as kammatthanas. These include and is therefore deeply connected to the
methods such as the ten kasina exercises, which development of peace within the individual.
involve focusing on an external object (for In particular, this form of meditation urges the
example, a patch of earth or a distant landform). individual to overcome any sense of anger, hurt
The ultimate goal of this concentration is to or resentment that may block the possibility of
achieve a state of suspending all sensory activity achieving peace. Metta Bhavana commences with
to achieve deep tranquillity. gently moving towards an acknowledgment of
• Vipassana, meaning ‘insight’. While personal feelings and works through a series of
concentration is a necessity for entering into stages leading to healing and peace.
By Dharma should one lead one’s life and not embrace corrupted means.
For one who lives the Dharma life dwells in peace here and thereafter.
(Dhammapada 13)

The diversity of Buddhist expression results in as ‘communal karma’ is becoming more evident in
there being many forms of meditation. While they recent times.
may differ in aspects of technique and specific
application, all have as their goal the attainment of activity
a peaceful nature in order to reach the ultimate goal
With reference to the Four Noble Truths and the
of nirvana. In contrast to the sitting meditations
principle of karma, provide a range of examples
described above, walking meditation, as the name
of how a Buddhist might respond to an issue of
implies, is a physically active form of meditation.
communal suffering or injustice.
In its purest form it is very controlled and requires
discipline and deep concentration.
Protests led by Burma’s Buddhist monks
activities
1. Research the kammatthanas and how they are
used as a vehicle for Samatha meditation within
Buddhism. Choose two or three specific examples
of these meditation subjects and examine how
they could assist the individual in respect to
inner peace.
2. Investigate the origins of Vipassana in India and its
resurgence as a result of the practice of the Buddha.
Find examples of centres that assist Buddhists and
others interested in the practice—there are many in
Australia. Increase your understanding of Vipassana FIG. 15.3 Monks protesting against the Burmese government
by reading testimonials and other information in Rangoon
relating to its method and benefits.
3. Use the Internet to research a more detailed In September 2007, hundreds of Buddhist monks
description of Metta Bhavana. Explain its took to the streets of Rangoon to protest against
relationship to the sacred texts and principal the totalitarian regime of the Burmese government.
beliefs of Buddhism in relation to peace. In undertaking this peaceful protest, the monks
defied the military junta’s rule against any form of
protest. In the weeks that followed, many of the
Buddhism and world peace monks were injured and killed by the military. Their
actions gave hope to the local people, who revere
Buddhism is in many respects an individualistic the monks, and drew the world’s attention to the
tradition as a result of the centrality of the belief in atrocities that occur in this nation that refuses to
karma. Buddhists believe this law of cause and effect implement basic human rights for its inhabitants.
determines people’s future reincarnations based on
the manner in which they have lived their current activities
life. Karma also decides when people will be released
1. Research the context of the Buddhist monks’
from this cycle of rebirth and attain nirvana. As
protest in Burma.
such, classical Buddhism was not overtly concerned
with the concept of communal justice or the 2. In what ways do such actions relate to Buddhist
righting of structural injustices to create peace, teachings on peace?
although there are notable examples such as Asoka’s 3. Explain the significance of engaging the
leadership based on the Five Precepts. international community in the process of advocacy
In the contemporary era, the insights that for human rights for the people of Burma.
Buddhism offers in relation to compassion and 4. Consider how you could integrate this
peace makes its teachings particularly applicable to information into a response on Buddhism and
the tensions that exist in many parts of the world. world peace.
The development of what has been labelled by some

The Buddhist Peace Fellowship The BPF website incorporated this sacred text
The website of the Buddhist Peace Fellowship into a response that illustrates contemporary
describes its purpose as follows: Buddhism’s challenge to adherents to take personal
responsibility for ‘communal karma’. It stated in
The mission of the Buddhist Peace Fellowship (BPF), part: ‘The essential work of peace will begin in
founded in 1978, is to serve as a catalyst for socially Israel, Gaza, and the West Bank. But each of us,
engaged Buddhism. Our purpose is to help beings and our governments, must help rather than toy
liberate themselves from the suffering that manifests with them for our own geo-political purposes. We
in individuals, relationships, institutions, and social cannot close our eyes or turn away.’ In addition to
systems. BPF’s programs, publications, and practice providing philosophical statements in relation to
groups link Buddhist teachings of wisdom and particular instances of peace and justice, the BPF
compassion with progressive social change. also offers suggestions for practical actions that
(Buddhist Peace Fellowship) individuals may undertake to promote peace.
The BPF is an example of an organisation that activities

brings together the principal beliefs and practices
1. Explore the website of the Buddhist Peace
of Buddhism in order to support individuals in
Fellowship. Gather examples of current
the search for peace and to contribute to local and
initiatives being undertaken by BPF.
global action in respect to restoring peace to areas
of unresolved conflict. While the organisation has 2. Align these activities with the principal beliefs of
its headquarters in America, it also has chapters Buddhism.
around the world, including Australia. An example 3. Develop a plan of how you could integrate this
of BPFs involvement in critical world issues includes material into a ‘Religion and peace’ response.
its response to the increased violence in the Middle
East in early 2009. This response was based on
‘
reflections on the Dhammapada.
The Buddhist Peace
All tremble at violence, all fear death. Comparing Fellowship brings together
oneself with others, one should neither kill nor cause
the principal beliefs and
others to kill.
All tremble at violence, life is dear to all. Comparing practices of Buddhism in order
others with oneself, one should neither kill nor cause
to support individuals in the
’
others to kill.
(Dhammapada 129–130) search for peace ...
Peace comes from within.

Do not seek it without.

Christianity
Sacred texts: The New Testament activities

The Great Commandment 1. Discuss the practical implications of this teaching
You have heard that it was said, ‘You shall love your for Christians in the contemporary world. Use
neighbour and hate your enemy.’ But I say to you, specific examples to illustrate instances where
Love your enemies and pray for those who persecute Christians have upheld this teaching to promote
you, so that you may be children of your Father in peace.
heaven; for he makes his sun rise on the evil and 2. Based on the meaning of the term eirene and
on the good, and sends rain on the righteous and the frequency with which it occurs in the New
on the unrighteous. For if you love those who love Testament, what conclusions can be drawn about
you, what reward do you have? Do not even the tax the essential meaning of peace in Christianity?
collectors do the same? And if you greet only your
3. The version of the Beatitudes found in Luke’s
brothers and sisters, what more are you doing than
Gospel is the most confronting as it contains a
others? Do not even the Gentiles do the same? Be
series of ‘woes’, including: ‘But woe to you who
perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect.
are rich, for you have already received your
(Matthew 5:43–48)
comfort. Woe to you who are well fed now, for
you will go hungry. Woe to you who laugh now,
The Greek word for peace used in the New
for you will mourn and weep.’ (Luke 6:24–25)
Testament is eirene, which means ‘to be in harmony
with another’. This word is found in every book of a. Research the context of Luke’s version of the
the New Testament with the exception of the First Beatitudes.
Letter of John. b. How would this context have influenced the
Christians believe that through teachings such as addition of the ‘woes’?
the Beatitudes (Matthew 5:3–10; Luke 6:20–26) and c. Explain the implications of this teaching for
the Commandment to Love (Matthew 22:37–40), contemporary Christians in relation to issues
Jesus sought to redefine the implications for daily of personal and world peace. Use specific
life of Hebrew texts such as the Ten Commandments examples to support your explanation.
(Exodus 20:2–17). In so doing he challenged many
of the norms of his social context. For example,
Matthew 5:9 states: ‘Blessed are the peacemakers, for
they will be called children of God.’
To fully appreciate the depth of this teaching it is
necessary to understand the Jewish word for peace,
shalom. Shalom refers to the concept of a peace that
engulfs all parts of an individual’s life. It is a form of
harmony that occurs within a person and translates
to a commitment to share this harmony with
others. It is the ultimate expression of peace.
FIG. 15.4 Pastor James and Imam Ashafa are co-founders of the
interfaith Mediation Centre established in Kaduna, Nigeria. They
used the common teachings of peace found in the Bible and Qur’an
to counter misunderstanding and violence in the region.

Principal teachings about peace
Further New Testament texts highlight some of the principal teachings of
Christianity in relation to peace. These include the values of justice, mercy,
compassion and respect for the dignity of the human person.
TABLE 15.2 Christian understanding of peace
FOUNDATIONAL EXAMPLE FROM THE NEW LINK TO PRINCIPAL BELIEFS

PRINCIPLES TESTAMENT
Peace was established by For God is not a God of disorder but Christians acknowledge that they
God as the instigator of of peace. are called to be stewards of creation
creation (1 Corinthians 14:33) (Genesis 1) and that this demands
respect and care for all aspects of life.
The teachings of Jesus Aim for perfection, listen to my Christians are required to be people
emphasise respect, unity and appeal, be of one mind, live in peace. who seek reconciliation over
reconciliation And the God of love and peace will retaliation. The death of Jesus was the
be with you. ultimate symbol of this belief.
The peace of God is beyond I have told you these things, so that Christians believe that salvation was
the peace of this world in me you may have peace. In this achieved as a result of the death and
world you will have trouble. But take resurrection of Jesus. As a result they
heart! I have overcome the world. have gained access to eternal life with
(John 16:33) God where they will live in perfect
peace.
Jesus provided a new and You have heard it said, ‘You shall The ultimate teaching in respect to
radical interpretation of the love your neighbour and hate your peace for Christians. It reflects the
Mosaic Law enemy.’ But I say to you, Love your Christian belief in the equality of all
enemies and pray for those who people created in God’s image and
persecute you … for [God] makes his evidenced in the life and teachings of
sun rise on the evil and on the good, Jesus.
and sends rain on the righteous and
on the unrighteous.
(Matthew 5:43–45)
activities
Discuss the deeper meanings and implications of the following beliefs of Christianity. Research specific examples
of Christian actions to illustrate your understanding:
1. Jesus Christ as the ‘Prince of Peace’ provides the model for all Christians of a life based on the ideals of peace,
justice and compassion: ‘Lead a life worthy of the calling to which you have been called, with all humility and
gentleness, with patience, bearing with one another in love.’ (Ephesians 4:1–2)
2. The ‘fall’ of humankind described in the Genesis narrative of Adam and Eve signifies the misuse of free will and
the entry of sin into the world. Suffering is often the result of an individual or community’s choice of a negative
or ‘evil’ course of action. Christians are challenged to rise above evil and fulfil their obligation to live in peace:
‘Do not repay anyone evil for evil, but take thought for what is noble in the sight of all.’ (Romans 12:17)
3. The Gospel of John recounts that prior to being taken to his trial and execution Jesus said to his followers:
‘Peace is what I leave with you; it is my own peace I give to you. I do not give it as the world does. Do not be
worried and upset; do not be afraid.’ (John 14:27)

• The use of ‘aids’ to prayer has an important place
Christianity and peace for
in some Christian traditions. Examples of this
the individual include reflection on icons to focus attention on
the sacred, a practice that is particularly evident
But whenever you pray, go into your room and shut
in the Orthodox churches. Rosary beads in
the door and pray to your Father who is in secret;
Catholicism are a further example of an aid to
and your Father who sees in secret will reward you.
prayer. This is sometimes referred to as a mantra
(Matthew 6:6)
in reference to the repetition of prayers as the
beads move through the hands to accompany the
Prayer in either a communal or personal setting
saying of the prayers of the Rosary.
provides the means for Christian adherents to
reflect on the nature of peace in their lives. There
is no universal form of prayer for Christians; activity
however, the teaching of Jesus in the reference from Research further details of the forms of prayer
Matthew’s Gospel above indicates the necessity of described here. Develop statements relating to each
right intention in prayer. that could be incorporated into a response describing
how prayer assists Christians to achieve peace in their
lives or to sustain them through times of adversity.
Other means of achieving personal peace

Many Christians find commitment to a particular
church community assists their quest for personal
peace. A community can offer both spiritual
and practical support, especially during times of
difficulty such as illness and bereavement.
Meditation is an ancient practice within the
Christian tradition. It has undergone a revival
in recent years with many people attesting to its
benefits in assisting them to cope with the pressures
of contemporary lifestyles.
Taizé is an international, ecumenical movement
that promotes personal and communal peace
through prayer and meditation. There are Taizé
communities throughout the world, including all
FIG. 15.5 Prayer helps Christians seek peace — even in the most states of Australia. Visit its website to gain more
difficult situations. information on this unique form of prayer and to
analyse how it assists in providing peace for the
It is through this genuine engagement in prayer individual.
that Christians seek peace in their lives. This may be
through petition in times of need or thanksgiving activities
for God’s perceived blessings in the events of life.
1. Research a range of church communities in your
• The use of scripture in both personal and group local area to gather examples of the spiritual and
settings is a pivotal form of prayer for Christians. social activities they provide. Evaluate how these
Lectio Divina is a structured form of Bible study would assist adherents in attaining personal peace.
based on an ancient method of patient reading
2. Visit the website of the Australian Christian
and re-reading of a passage of scripture to discern
Meditation Community to gain more information
its message for the believer’s life situation.
on this practice and view information concerning
• Spontaneous prayer such as that encountered in the organisation’s current activities. Develop a
charismatic communities is an expressive form of summary of how this practice may be of assistance
prayer based on beliefs relating to the action of to individuals in attaining personal peace.
the Holy Spirit in the lives of Christians.

Christianity and world peace
The author G. K. Chesterton (1874–1936), who was

a convert to Christianity, said: ‘The Christian ideal
has not been tried and found wanting; it has been
found difficult and left untried.’
While it is possible to cite instances where
Christians have been the instigators of conflict,
Chesterton was commenting on the need to search
for the essential requirement of Christianity in
relation to eirene as expressed in the New Testament
and the principal beliefs of the tradition.
Many Christians and their affiliated
organisations are working towards justice and
peace today. This changes over time, as does the
exact nature of the peace issues they pursue. For
example, the World Day of Peace is celebrated on
1 January each year. The Pope as the leader of the
Catholic Church issues a statement on a theme that
is relevant to global issues at this time. In 2009 this FIG. 15.7 The Act for Peace Campaign helps reduce poverty, and
statement was entitled ‘Fighting Poverty to Build prevent and resolve conflicts.
Peace’, its emphasis being on the interconnection

• Pax Christi (‘Peace of Christ’) is an organisation
between issues of justice and peace. Other
that started at the end of the Second World War
organisations include:
to promote the harmonious rebuilding of Europe.
• National Council of Churches in Australia Today it works internationally on a wide variety
(NCCA). The NCCA’s ‘Act for Peace Campaign’ of human rights issues including disarmament,
is an ecumenical initiative that aims to reduce a just world order, and religion and violent
poverty, protect refugees, prevent conflicts and conflict. Explore its international website.
empower communities. Visit the NCCA website
• The Orthodox Peace Fellowship is an association
and go to the ‘Act for Peace Campaign’ menu to
of Orthodox Christians belonging to different
gain current information on projects.
nations and jurisdictions who attempt to live the
peace of Christ in day-to-day life. This includes
in situations of division and conflict such as that
which occurred between Georgia and Russia in
2008. The movement is based on the following
text from Matthew’s Gospel: ‘Therefore, if you are
offering your gift at the altar and there remember
that your brother has something against you,
leave your gift there in front of the altar. First go
and be reconciled to your brother; then come
and offer your gift.’(Matthew 5:23–24). More
information can be found at the Fellowship’s
website.
• The Society of Friends (Quakers) came into
existence in 17th-century England during a time
of revolution and civil war. Within this context
the founders of this expression of Christianity
sought to promote peace through a life of non-
violence and prayer that patiently and quietly
FIG. 15.6 The Act for Peace Campaign helps protect refugees.

waited on God’s response. The first Quaker Peace Testimony, issued in
a declaration to King Charles II in 1660, read:
All bloody principles and practices, we … do utterly deny, with all outward
wars and strife and fightings with outward weapons, for any end or under
any pretence whatsoever. And this is our testimony to the whole world …
the spirit of Christ, by which we are guided, is not changeable, so as once
to command us from a thing as evil and again to move unto it; and we do
certainly know, and so testify to the world, that the spirit of Christ, which
leads us into all Truth, will never move us to fight and war against any
man with outward weapons, neither for the kingdom of Christ, nor for the
kingdoms of this world.
(Quaker Peace Testimony, 1660)
In the current era Quakers endeavour to live this

same ideal as a means to personal peace and to promote
it to the global community through the application of You just need to look
their ‘Six Principles of Nonviolence’. at what the gospel asks
1. Nonviolence is a way of life for courageous people.
and what war does.
2. Nonviolence seeks to win friendship and
understanding. The gospel asks that we
3. Nonviolence seeks to defeat injustice, not people. feed the hungry, give
4. Nonviolence holds that suffering can educate and drink to the thirsty,
transform.
clothe the naked,
5. Nonviolence chooses love instead of hate.
6. Nonviolence believes that the universe is on the
welcome the homeless,
side of justice. visit the prisoner
and perform acts of
activities
1. The Society of Friends works to promote justice and
mercy. War does all
peace at both national and international levels. Visit the opposite. It makes
the Australian site of the Quakers. Investigate
my neighbour hungry,
their application of Christian beliefs to issues of
peace and justice. Gather information that could be thirsty, homeless, a
incorporated into a response on ‘Religion and peace’
prisoner and sick. The
in relation to current initiatives both within Australia
and by international branches of the Society gospel asks us to take
2. Group research: In small groups, find two additional up our cross. War asks
examples of Christian individuals and organisations
that are advocates for peace. Ensure you understand
us to lay the cross
the root causes of the problems being addressed by on others.
these groups or individuals and how they are using
the teachings of Christianity in their work for peace. (Dorothy Day, peace
campaigner and
founder of the Catholic
Worker Movement)

Islam
‘Assalamu alaikum’ (peace be with you) activity

The greeting of ‘Salaam’ (peace) is universal in Islam and highlights the Research the different forms and
importance of peace in the everyday lives of adherents. The hadith of the significance of the greeting of
Bukhari narrated from Abd-Allaah ibn ‘Umar states: ‘A man asked the peace for Muslims. What insights
Messenger of Allah [the Prophet Muhammad], “What is the best thing can be gained concerning the
in Islam?” He said, “Feeding others and giving the greeting of salaam to understanding and role of peace in
those whom you know and those whom you do not know.” ’ Islam?
Sacred texts: Qur’an and hadith

The Qur’an as the literal word of Allah is the principal source of belief for Muslims. The hadith are secondary
sources that provide authenticated recorded examples of the Prophet Muhammad’s words and actions to
further inform all aspects of Muslim belief and practice. The following examples from sacred texts provide
some insight into the centrality of peace to every aspect of Muslim life.
TABLE 15.3 Islamic understanding of peace
SACRED TEXTS COMMENTARY AND CONNECTION TO PRINCIPAL BELIEFS

O mankind! We created you from a This text combines two points that are essential to an understanding
single pair of a male and a female, of peace within Islam:
and made you into nations and tribes, • Allah is the one and only Creator who made all humankind.
so that you may know each other. • As a result of a common origin in Adam and Eve, all people
Verily the most honoured of you in share an inherent unity. This unity is to be expressed in
the sight of Allah is one who is the harmonious and respectful relationships.
most righteous of you.
(Qur’an 49:13)
Which of two parties has more right This is a text in two parts that emphasises the centrality of personal
to security and peace? Tell me if you unity with God’s will for Muslims. In the first section, Allah asks
know. It is those who believe and who will find true peace. He provides the answer in explaining that
do not pollute their faith with zulm only belief in Allah and a life of faithful submission will provide
[cruelty, oppression] that are truly in inner peace and happiness. It is for this reason that living according
security and are rightly guided. to the Five Pillars is so essential for the Muslim adherent.
(Qur’an 6:81–82)
If anyone harms others, God will This hadith emphasises the priority of peace within Islam. God
harm him, and if anyone shows will punish those who undertake any form of unlawful hostility or
hostility to others, God will show force against others. This refers to both personal relationships and
hostility to him. communal interactions.
(Sunan of Abu-Dawood, Hadith 1625)
None of you truly believes until he The ethic of reciprocity is central to this text. A Muslim cannot be
wishes for his brother what he wishes faithful to Allah without taking into consideration the needs of
for himself. others. Only when each cares for the other can be peace be attained.
(Imam Al-Nawawi’s Forty Hadiths, The Pillar of Zakat highlights the centrality of this teaching as it is a
No. 13) requirement to provide just assistance to those in need.

On 20 January 2009 the Affinity Intercultural Foundation issued a press
release in response to hostilities occurring at the time between Israel
and the Palestinian movement Hamas. The essence of this document is
contained in the following extract:
The Qur’an proclaims, ‘If anyone slew a person unjustly it would be as if

he slew a whole people’ (5:32). Every act of Muslims should be rightful and
lawful. Muslims should not enter into wrong in the name of truth and justice.
(Affinity Intercultural Foundation, 2009)
This statement is also a summation of the principal teachings of

Islam in regard to peace. God’s commands in respect to justice and right
relationship must be observed in all situations.
In accordance with the Qur’an, Muslims must consistently strive to
live in submission to the will of God by living a ‘rightful and lawful’
life: ‘O you who believe! Come, all of you, into submission and follow
not in the footsteps of the devil’ (Qur’an 2:208). Integral to achieving
this submission is Jihadun-Nafs, which is the struggle of the individual
to live a pure and holy life. An essential aspect of this personal jihad
is upholding the principles of justice and the rejection of violence in
word, thought and actions. It is recorded in the hadith that the Prophet
Muhammad stressed this belief when asked the following question:
‘What kind of jihad is better?’ Muhammad replied, ‘A word of truth in FIG. 15.8 Fatuma Abdulkadir (far right) is
front of an oppressive ruler’ (Sunan Al-Nasa’i, No. 4209). a young Muslim woman and lawyer who
is using football to promote non-violent
Islam’s Five Pillars provide the structure for adherents to achieve conflict resolution among the Borana and
submission through the greater, or personal, jihad. The following table Gabra communities in Northern Kenya.
provides one example for each of the Pillars of how it contributes to the
understanding of peace within Islam.
TABLE 15.4 The Five Pillars and their contribution to the understanding of peace
FIVE PILLARS HOW THIS EXPRESSES BELIEF IN REGARD TO PEACE

Shahada The expression of faith is a constant reminder to Muslims of the requirement to honour
(profession of God’s commands in all aspects of life, particularly with respect to relationships with others
faith) and care for all of creation.
Salat Daily prayer provides a structure or rhythm that directs all aspects of life to God. This
(daily prayer) ritual encourages both a sense of personal peace and a commitment to peace with others.
Zakat The obligation to give 2.5% of earnings to support those in need is a reminder to Muslims
(the poor tax) of their responsibility to create communities of justice where the weak are supported. This
emphasis on justice is an essential component of peace.
Sawm The fast during Ramadan challenges believers to review how faithfully they are living
(fasting during the requirements of their faith. In addition they are required to read the entire Qur’an to
Ramadan) increase their understanding of what Islam requires of them in relation to living in right
relationship and consequently in regard to peace.
Hajj The pilgrimage to Mecca is the ultimate symbol of the ummah. It emphasises the equality
(pilgrimage to of all people and challenges participants to practise the inherent qualities of peace in their
Mecca) lives.

Islam and peace for the individual Beyond this they offer a sense of belonging and
community that assists adherents in their daily lives
According to the hadith, the Prophet Muhammad and during times of personal crisis.
said: ‘The best Islam is to greet everyone you come
across, whether or not you are acquainted with the activity
person’ (Fathul-Bari 1/103). The greeting of peace
Research several mosques to gather examples
that is offered on a regular basis, Assalamu alaikum,
of the support they provide for members of their
is a constant reminder to Muslims of their call to
communities. A listing of all mosques in Sydney
personal peace. This identifies that the purpose of
is available on the Muslim Village website under
life for Muslim adherents is to live in full submission
the heading ‘Directory’. Summarise this
to the will of God. The manner in which this is
information in a format that can be readily
achieved is by faithfully fulfilling the requirements of
integrated into an extended response on this
the Five Pillars. It is through basing all aspects of life
section of the syllabus.
on this mutual relationship between submission and
the Five Pillars that Muslims achieve peace.
The pursuit of personal peace is necessary in
order to ensure that the order of God’s creation is The basis of Sufism is consideration of the hearts
maintained. The Qur’an states: ‘And do not corrupt and feelings of others. If you haven’t the will to
the land after it has been set in order’ (sura 7:85). gladden someone’s heart, then at least beware lest
Just as God has established harmony in all aspects you hurt someone’s heart, for on our path, no sin
of creation, Muslims must ensure that this harmony exists but this.
is maintained in all aspects of their personal and (Dr Javad Nurbakhsh)
social dealings. This inherent understanding of peace
within Islam is expressed in patient acceptance of Sufism
events in life, inshallah (‘God willing’). The Qur’an While it is a minority expression within Islam,
assures believers that this patient and peaceful Sufism provides a way of life and a means to peace
approach to life will be rewarded: ‘the patient man is for some members of the faith. Sufism is unique
the helper of God’ (sura 61:14). within Islam because it is the path of mysticism that
draws the believer into an intimate relationship
activities with God.
The Australian Centre for Sufism and Irfanic
1. Allocate each Pillar of Faith to a small group.
Studies explains Sufism in part as follows:
Work in these groups to develop an explanation
of how the particular pillar contributes to the
Sufism is the path of knowing God and journeying to
understanding and application of peace in Islam.
God, where the purpose of life is realised and lived. It
2. With reference to both the Aqida and the Five is about the struggle with the false self or ego (nafs)
Pillars, explain the principal teachings about peace to reach the essential self, which is a reflection of the
in Islam. Divine Reality. Irfan (gnosis) is about realising the
3. Explain how the Five Pillars provide Muslim Divine Unity and the Divine Reality.
adherents with the means of achieving inner (Australian Centre for Sufism and Irfanic Studies)
peace.
Support of the community activity

The local mosque provides many Muslims with Explore more about Sufism as a means of both
additional support in their quest to fulfil the individual and communal peace. Start by visiting
requirements of the faith and consequently to the websites of the Australian Centre for Sufism
achieve personal peace. Mosques provide many and Irfanic Studies, the International Association of
services such as religious studies, programs for Sufism, and the Nimatullahi Sufi Order.
young people, counselling and welfare services.

Islam and world peace
A Common Word between Us and You

In the Name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful
Muslims and Christians together make up well over
half of the world’s population. Without peace and
justice between these two religious communities,
there can be no meaningful peace in the world.
The future of the world depends on peace between
Muslims and Christians.
The basis for this peace and understanding already
exists. It is part of the very foundational principles
of both faiths: love of the One God, and love of the
neighbour … The Unity of God, the necessity of love for
Him, and the necessity of love of the neighbour is thus
the common ground between Islam and Christianity.
(Royal Aalal-Bayt Institute for Islamic
Thought 2007)
The above extract is from an open letter written on

13 October 2007 by 138 leading Muslim scholars
to the leaders of the international Christian
community. The letter was issued by Jordan’s Royal
Aalal-Bayt Institute for Islamic Thought and was a
call to harmony based on the principle of peace that
each faith proclaims. This letter and the responses
that have occurred as a result are an excellent
example of Islam’s contribution to world peace in
the current era.
Islamic Relief Worldwide is an international relief
and development charity founded in the United
Kingdom in 1984. It describes its work in this way: FIG. 15.9 ‘God’ in English and ‘Allah’ in Arabic. These are the works
‘As well as responding to disasters and emergencies, of New York artist Hafeez Shaikh, who uses his art to promote peace.
Islamic Relief promotes sustainable economic
and social development by working with local activities
communities—regardless of race, religion or gender.’
1. Study the text of ‘A Common Word’.
Summarise some of the responses and initiatives
that have occurred following this letter. Discuss
how you could incorporate this material into a
response on Islam and world peace.
2. Visit the website of Islamic Relief to gain current
examples of the work they undertake as an
expression of Muslim faith. This site also
provides a Muslim perspective on the justice
issues that are critical to promoting peace, such
as care for refugees and empowering the poor
through education and development.

Judaism
Sacred texts: The Prophetic Vision of

The LORD bless you and keep you;
peace on earth
The LORD make his face to shine upon you, and be
gracious to you;
An understanding of Shalom The LORD lift up his countenance upon you, and give
Central to any discussion of peace within Judaism you peace [shalom].
is an understanding of the concept of shalom. (Numbers 6:24–26)
The Great Synagogue of Sydney describes it in the
following terms: To appreciate the teachings of the prophets it
is critical to understand that they were messengers
The Jewish greeting, shalom, means ‘peace’, not of the Lord who called their communities to
just the absence of war but a state of contentment repentance and right living in accordance with the
and security. Peace is so important that the Bible commandments of the Torah. In no sense were they
commands, ‘Seek peace and pursue it’; the Jewish ‘fortune tellers’; rather, they possessed a particular
sages say, ‘Seek it in your own place and pursue it in insight or ‘vision’ that enabled them to proclaim the
other places.’ Concessions and compromises are divine message. During periods when the people had
acceptable ‘in the interests of peace’. If peace begins failed to fulfil their religious obligations, or in times
with oneself and one’s own family, it can radiate of exile and suffering, the prophets were the voices
into one’s community and throughout the world. that proclaimed what was required in relation to
(Great Synagogue of Sydney) the Covenant. They reminded their communities of
what was promised to them if they maintained the
The greatest blessing that God can bestow is that commandments, and also of the punishments that
of shalom, as expressed in the priestly benediction: would result if the commandments were ignored.
FIG. 15.10 Studying sacred texts is a key part of understanding the concept of peace in Judaism.

TABLE 15.5 Aspects of the Prophetic Vision
SACRED TEXT CONTEXT AND RELATIONSHIP TO AN

UNDERSTANDING OF PEACE
The wolf shall dwell with the lamb, Prior to this text Isaiah has criticised the unjust
And the leopard shall lie down with the kid; treatment of the poor. He has then established that
And the calf and the young lion and the fatling a descendant of King David will install a reign of
together ... integrity, illustrated here by the pairings (wolf and
They shall not hurt nor destroy lamb etc.). Under this all people will live in harmony.
In all my holy mountain; The reference to the ‘holy mountain’ is understood
For the earth shall be full of the knowledge of by many commentators to mean the place from
the Lord, which God views the universal kingdom. For the
As the waters cover the sea. world to be in right relationship, people are required
(Isaiah 11:6, 9) to live according to ‘the knowledge of the Lord’, the
requirement for peace and justice.
I will … gather you from all the countries, and bring Ezekiel had warned the people of Judah that if
you into your own land. I will sprinkle clean water they did not return to the faithful practice of their
upon you, and you shall be clean from all your faith, they would be judged severely by God. When
uncleannesses … A new heart I will give you, and a Babylon overthrew Jerusalem, his message changed
new spirit I will put within you … Then you shall to one of hope as exemplified in this passage.
live in the land that I gave to your ancestors; and Ezekiel’s message was that the people would only
you shall be my people, and I will be your God. be saved if they repented and accepted God’s ‘new
(Ezekiel 36:24–28) heart’ of justice and compassion. Only then would
they be restored and live in peace.
Let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness Amos was a shepherd who prophesied during the
like an everflowing stream. eighth century BCE, a time of great prosperity in
(Amos 5:24) Israel. His message affirmed that the neglect of
the poor and the divisions that had occurred in
society would result in punishment. God required
commitment to universal justice and peace from
each person.
He shall judge between many peoples, and shall Micah’s message was delivered at a time when
arbitrate between strong nations far away; they religious practice was superficial and the poor were
shall beat their swords into ploughshares, and their neglected. He warned that continued injustice
spears into pruning-hooks; nation shall not lift up to the most needy would be displeasing to God.
sword against nation, neither shall they learn war Beyond this, however, he spoke of God’s mercy and
any more. proclaimed a vision of universal peace that would
(Micah 4:3) occur when the people adhered faithfully to the
commandments of the Torah.
activities Principal teachings about peace

1. In small groups choose one of the texts quoted in
the table.
Shalom
2. Research the prophet referred to and the historical While the common translation of this word is
context in which the prophecy was delivered. ‘peace’, the concept of shalom within Judaism
3. Develop a short presentation for the class to enhance is far more complex. It also has meanings such
their understanding of the message for both the as ‘wholeness’, ‘recompense’ and ‘perfection’. It
original audience and the contemporary era. alludes to a sense of perfection and well-being
that goes beyond the mere absence of conflict.

The Hebrew greeting ‘Ma shlomcha?’ means ‘How The Rabbinic teachings of the Talmud offer
is your peace?’—a reference to the importance of further insights into the sanctity of life that are
individuals and communities being at peace in their central to the Jewish understanding of peace:
everyday lives.
For this reason the first human being was created
activity alone to teach that whoever destroys a single life
is as though he had destroyed an entire universe,
Explore further interpretations of shalom and
and whoever saves a single life is as if he had saved
consider how you could integrate this material into a
an entire universe. Furthermore the first man was
response on Jewish beliefs in respect to peace.
created alone for the sake of peace among men, so
that no one could say to another, ‘My ancestor was
greater than yours.’
(Mishnah, Sanhedrin 4:5)
TABLE 15.6 Peace in Judaism
BELIEFS (AS DEFINED THE UNDERSTANDING OF PEACE IN RELATION TO PRINCIPAL BELIEFS OF

IN THE PRELIMINARY JUDAISM
COURSE)
Belief in a single God The Covenant established by God with Abraham confirmed that there was one God
who is the Creator alone whom the people of Israel were to serve. This belief was ratified when God
and ruler of the reaffirmed the Covenant with Moses saying, ‘I am the Lord your God, who brought
universe you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery; you shall have no other
gods before me.’ (Exodus 20:2–3)
The Jewish understanding of peace lies in the belief that human beings are created
in the image of God: ‘God created man in his own image, in the image of God he
created him; male and female he created them.’ (Genesis 1:27)
Jewish adherents are consequently committed to enhancing God’s creation and
ensuring its repair. This is expressed in the call to justice and compassion found in
the concept of tikkun olam.
The concept of a While halachaic interpretations are numerous within Judaism, the 613 mitzvot of
moral law prescribed the Torah inform all beliefs in relation to fulfilling the moral law required by God in
by God accordance with the Covenant.
In relation to the issue of peace, the NSW Board of Jewish Education states:
‘Hillel’s Golden Rule of Jewish ethics, “what is hateful to you, do not do to others”,
complements the law, “you shall love your neighbour as yourself” (Leviticus 19:18).
This law is almost unanimously seen as the basic pillar upon which the entire Torah
is built ... Following from this, we learn of the prohibition against taking revenge:
“You shall not take vengeance nor bear any grudge against the children of your
people” (Leviticus 19:18). The Torah forbids us to bear a grudge or to desire revenge
even though it is part of human nature to seek revenge, as both these attitudes are
conducive to vindictiveness and malice.’
The idea of the The Covenant with Moses defines the relationship that was to exist between God
Covenant and the people of Israel: ‘I will take you as my people, and I will be your God. You
shall know that I am the Lord your God, who has freed you from the burdens of the
Egyptians.’ (Exodus 6:7)
In return for deliverance from slavery and entry into the Promised Land, the people
were to live in accordance with God’s commandments. The Covenant, therefore,
is one of reciprocity, where each party is required to be faithful to their promise in
order for its parameters to be maintained.

Prayer
activity
Prayer within Judaism begins with praising God.
Investigate the understandings of halacha that are The purpose of this is to remind believers of the
evident within contemporary Judaism in relation to many blessings that God has bestowed on their
the various issues surrounding peace. Consider how lives. For example, the prayer upon waking found in
the information you gather could be incorporated the Siddur states: ‘I give thanks before You, Living
into a response on principal beliefs concerning peace and Eternal King, that You have returned within me
in Judaism. my soul with compassion; how abundant is Your
faithfulness!’ This recognition of God’s presence,
Judaism and peace for the individual and its resultant call to live with compassion, is
both a reminder of personal obligations and a
You shall love your neighbour as yourself. means to peace for the individual. Prayer provides
(Leviticus 19:18) a structure and a connection to the local and
universal Jewish communities that may enhance a
Home and family sense of peace for the individual.
The command to pursue right relationship with
neighbour is central to understanding peace for Further areas for exploration
the individual within Judaism. The family and The means of supporting individuals in their quest
home are particular avenues for expressing faith for peace are as diverse within Judaism as in any
and pursuing personal peace. This is evidenced in other tradition. You could investigate particular
the importance placed on observance of Shabbat ways of life such as that of the Chassidim or paths
by many Jewish adherents (although this can vary to understanding and knowing God, for example,
according to the personal expression of Judaism). the study of authentic Kabbalah (be careful to
The rituals of Shabbat call for a halt to everyday avoid popular psychology that often misuses this
activities for prayer, rest and time given to personal Jewish expression). Whatever examples are used, it
reflection and family interaction. is imperative that you show a comprehensive link
between them and peace for the individual.
Observing halacha
Orthodox Jews are encouraged to pursue peace activities
by faithfully observing halacha, the reasoning
1. Review the study of Shabbat in Chapter 5. Discuss
being that by keeping the commandments a just
how Shabbat might assist Jewish adherents in
and righteous life will be assured, resulting in the
respect to peace for the individual.
attainment of personal peace. The means to observe
halacha include keeping a kosher home, praying 2. Research some aspects of halacha such as
at regular intervals of the day and ensuring proper requirements for maintaining a kosher home.
observance of rituals such as Shabbat. Using the examples you find, extrapolate how
these may assist the individual in understanding
and experiencing peace.
3. Explore various forms of personal and communal
prayer available to Jewish adherents. Explain how
they may contribute to personal peace.
FIG. 15.11 The Western Wall in Jerusalem is the holiest of Jewish

sacred sites. This ‘Wailing Wall’ was once part of the wall enclosing
the Second Temple.

Judaism and world peace
Rabban Shimon ben Gamaliel said: On three things the world is
sustained: on truth, on judgment, and on peace, as it is it says (Zechariah
8:16): ‘Speak the truth to one another, render in your gates judgments
that are true and make for peace.’
(Mishnah, Pirkei Avot 1:18)
The concept of discerning the ‘truth’ of any issue in relation to the

commandments of the Torah is central to any discussion of Judaism
and peace. As a result of the vast differences in interpretation that
occur across the tradition, there will often be no common response
to a particular situation. While there may be contrasting opinions,
there is unity in respect to peace being a requirement of God and
consequently a mandated action for adherents.
The Psalmist says that believers must ‘Depart from evil, and do
good; seek peace, and pursue it’ (Psalm 34:14), and the prayers of
the Siddur state, ‘May the One who makes peace in the heavens Open my eyes
help to bring peace on earth.’ There are many instances of
that I may behold
individuals and movements within Judaism that actively apply
these beliefs and work for peace in the contemporary world. wondrous things out
• Neve Shalom/Wahat al-Salam (Hebrew and Arabic for ‘Oasis of Peace’ of thy Torah.
[Isaiah 32:18]). This is a village jointly established by Jewish and
Palestinian Arab citizens of Israel that is engaged in educational (Psalm 119:18)
work for peace, equality and understanding between the two
peoples. Visit its website for current projects and explorations of
religious interpretations of peace-related issues.
• The Australian group Jewish Voices for Peace and Justice was
established in 2007. In January 2009 this group, along with the
Palestinian and Jewish Dialogue Group, the Australian Arabic
Palestinian Support Association and a number of concerned
individuals, released a statement entitled Australian Jews and
Palestinians United for Peace. This is a local example of a grassroots
movement using dialogue and education as a means of exploring
and promoting peace within complex circumstances.
activities
1. Judaism puts strict limits on wars, which are categorised as either
milchemet chova or milchemet mitzvah. Investigate what is meant
by each of these terms and explain how the value of truth and the
quest for peace is integral to each.
2. An Internet search of ‘Jewish Voices for Peace and Justice’ will
provide various links to statements and activities being promoted
by this group. Choose current initiatives and explain how these
could be incorporated into a response on the contribution of
Judaism and world peace.
3. Find two further examples of individuals and/or organisations that
are working to promote an understanding of world peace from
the Jewish perspective.

Hinduism
Sacred text: The Bhagavad Gita

The Bhagavad Gita is one of Hinduism’s holiest texts and forms part
of the Mahabharata. It contains Krishna’s sermon on the rules of right
living. It also contains teachings in respect to karma yoga, samkhya
yoga and bhakti yoga.
TABLE 15.7 Hindu understanding of peace
TEXT FROM BHAGAVAD GITA RELATIONSHIP TO THE

UNDERSTANDING OF PEACE
Real peace and happiness Reliance on external gratification
are achieved, not by sense through the senses will not
gratification, but by sense bring peace to the adherent. It is
control. All sorrows are destroyed only through detachment from
upon attainment of tranquillity. the material and a consistent
The intellect of such a tranquil focusing on tranquil acceptance
person soon becomes completely in the midst of all circumstances
steady and united with the of life that the individual can
Supreme. attain peace in the present and
(Bhagavad Gita 2:65) ultimately reach nirvana.
One who has faith in God, is Yoga is linked to the essential

sincere in yogic practice and belief of moksha—the release from
has control over the mind and eternal bondage. To achieve this
senses gains this transcendental release the adherent must be in
knowledge. Having gained this harmony with the Brahman within
knowledge, one quickly attains them. This harmony can only be
supreme peace or liberation. obtained through a disciplined
(Bhagavad Gita 4:39) process of contemplation that
helps to remove ignorance. It
is only then that peace can be
achieved.
FIG. 15.12 A Hindu holy man (sadhu)
prays inside a temple.
activity
The International Gita Society provides a comprehensive exploration of
the Bhagavad Gita including links to aspects of Hinduism. Use this
website to find further extracts from the Gita that are applicable to the
study of Hinduism and peace.

• Ahimsa, the essence of non-violence, forbids the harming of
any living creature.
• Hindu beliefs relating to karma and samsara influence the
understanding of peace across the tradition. While variances
occur, there is a universal appreciation that acts of unprovoked
violence undertaken in a current life will impact on the state
of reincarnation that is attained in future lives. In one sense,
harming another person is harming oneself, as ultimately you
could be in the same position as the person you attack in words,
activity thought or actions.
Research examples from across the • An attitude of peace is a reflection of the state of spiritual
Hindu tradition that illustrate beliefs consciousness that an adherent has attained. As such it is
in relation to the role of peace in believed that one should continually be striving for peace in
attaining nirvana. order to attain nirvana.
• The majority of Hindus believe in Brahman, the three-in-one
God incorporating Brahma (the Creator), Vishnu (the Preserver)
and Shiva (the Destroyer). They believe that Brahman resides in
all living creatures and the goal of enlightenment is to achieve
knowledge of the Brahman within the self. Only then is reaching
nirvana possible. Moksha, the release from the wheel of life,
demands the pursuit of knowledge and peace.
Hinduism and peace for the individual

Meditation
The Bhagavad Gita highlights the centrality of meditation in
assisting the adherent to achieve peace.
When you abandon every desire that rises up within you, and when
you become content with things as they are,
then you experience inner peace.
When your mind is untroubled by misfortune, when you desire no
pleasures, when your emotions are tranquil,
and when you are free from fear and anger, then you experience
inner calm.
When you are free from all attachments, when you are indifferent to
success and failure,
then you experience inner serenity.
When you can withdraw your senses from pleasures of the senses, just
as a tortoise withdraws its limbs,
then you experience inner wisdom.
When no pleasure and no desire can touch the soul, then you
experience the highest state of consciousness.
Yet even those who are close to this state can suddenly be carried
away by a sudden surge of desire.
Thus you must learn to meditate, controlling your senses, and FIG. 15.13 Meditation helps the person
focusing yourself entirely on me. achieve ‘peace’.
(Bhagavad Gita 2:55–61)

FIG. 15.14 The annual wari pilgrimage involves over one million people each year in western parts of India.
There are varying forms of yoga meditation, each one bringing with
it unique spiritual benefits. The principal forms are:
• karma yoga: yoga of selfless action
• jñana yoga: knowledge and wisdom gained through seclusion
• bhakti yoga: the path of devotional service
• Ashtanga/Raja Yoga: a system of physical exercise and meditation.
Pilgrimage
When possible, many Hindus undertake religious pilgrimages to sacred
sites. They do this as an act faith, often fulfilling many requirements
in relation to ritual purity and fasting throughout the journey. They
believe the pilgrimage will increase their inner peace and assist them in
moving closer to moksha. Sacred sites such as mountains, the joining
of rivers and sites associated with holy people of the past and present
often have particular associations. Significant places of pilgrimage
include:
• Varanasi, on the banks of the River Ganga
• Mathura, where Krishna was born
• Vrindavan, where Krishna lived
• Puri, which in addition to historical connections is the venue for the
annual Ratha Yatra festival.

Hinduism and world peace
activities
Hinduism shares commonalities with Buddhism 1. Gather further information on each of the forms
in that the individual quest to seek release from of meditation that are predominant in Hinduism.
moksha and attain nirvana is its central goal. For each form of yoga explain how it may assist
Intrinsically linked to this, however, is the primacy the individual in attaining peace.
of ahimsa, which determines that adherents must 2. Either as a group or individual task, research a
cause no harm to others. As a result, Hinduism place of significant Hindu pilgrimage and present
designates that harmony and peace are to be the it to the class in a creative visual format. This
goal of all communal engagements. could include using software such as iMovie to
In investigating the impact of Hinduism on create a video presentation or producing hard
world peace, it should be noted that the most copy images to develop a gallery-style display
significant impact is often localised within India, of the festival you are presenting. As a class,
which is home to the majority of Hindu adherents. discuss how participation in the festivals you have
This does not mean that Hindu representatives do presented may enhance peace for the individual.
not engage at an international level, for example,
3. With reference to the following statement, discuss
membership of the World Conference of Religions
the contribution of Hinduism to world peace:
for Peace.
The following links provide current information
on a couple of organisations working in Hinduism ‘According to Hindu philosophy, the goal of human
and world peace. life is the realisation of the state of peace. Dharma,
• Hinduism Today is a free online journal that loosely translated as “religion”, is the source by which
provides stories relating Hindu engagement in a peace can be fully realised. This peace is not the
range of social issues. stillness of death; it is a dynamic harmony among
all the diverse facets of life. Humanity, as part of the
• The Hindu Council of Australia actively promotes
natural world, can contribute through dharma to this
Hindu practice and provides a unified voice for the
natural harmony.’
Hindu community to respond to emerging social
(Shrivatsa Goswami)
issues.
Be the change you wish

to see in the world …
(Gandhi)

Review and Assess
Review
Complete the following tasks for each of the TWO religious traditions you
are studying.
1. Sacred texts
a. Using at least three references from the sacred texts prescribed in
the syllabus, outline how each reference relates to the principal
beliefs of the religious tradition from which it comes. (Ensure that
you can write each reference from memory in order to readily
incorporate them into your extended response.)
b. Explain how each reference may inform the individual’s quest for
inner peace and the tradition’s contribution to world peace.
2. Principal beliefs
a. Outline how the principal beliefs studied in the preliminary
component of Studies of Religion are reflected in each tradition’s
understanding of peace.
b. Provide examples of how variants within each religious tradition
interpret principal beliefs in relation to peace.
c. Explain how principal beliefs guide the individual’s quest for inner
peace and the tradition’s contribution to world peace.
3. Peace for the individual

a. Explain the differing interpretations of what ‘inner peace’ for
the individual may mean within the religious traditions you are
studying.
b. Using specific examples, outline how each religious tradition may
assist individual adherents in attaining inner peace.
c. Provide one example of a significant individual who illustrates how
the teachings and practices of the religious tradition support the
quest for inner peace.

4. World peace
a. Explain how geographic, political and any
other relevant factors shape the sphere of
influence of each religious tradition in relation
to world peace.
b. Describe two specific initiatives in relation to
world peace. Where necessary, explain their
‘global’ nature even though they may be
confined to a specific location (for example,
peace movements in the Middle East).
c. Analyse the extent to which each of these
initiatives has achieved the ideals contained
in the sacred texts and principal beliefs of the
tradition.

5. Explain how the understanding of peace is
expressed through sacred texts in TWO religious
traditions.
6. Illustrate how TWO religious traditions apply

their understanding of peace, as found in their
sacred texts and explained through their principal
beliefs, to situations of world peace.
7. Evaluate the influence of TWO religious traditions

in the lives of adherents in respect to their
understanding and attainment of inner peace.
8. Analyse the influence of TWO religious traditions

on society in respect to issues of world peace.
9. With reference to sacred texts, demonstrate

how TWO religious traditions assist the individual
adherent to attain inner peace.
10. Discuss how TWO religious traditions draw upon

their principal beliefs in responding to issues of
world peace.

16_KIN_OSR_ReNon.indd 414 11/09/09 12:06 PM
Religion and
non-religion
The focus of this study is the human search for
meaning through religion and non-religion.
Outcomes
A student: New religious expression
H1 explains aspects of religion and belief systems • the rise of new religious expression and
H2 describes and analyses the influence of religion spiritualities
and belief systems on individuals and society • the influences on the growth of new religious
H6 organises, analyses and synthesises relevant expressions and spiritualities
sources, considering usefulness, validity and Non-religious worldviews
bias • the human search for personal fulfilment
H7 conducts effective research about religion and through non-religious practices:
evaluates the findings from the research agnosticism
H8 uses appropriate terminology and concepts atheism
related to religion and belief systems humanism
complex information, ideas and issues using The difference between religious and non-
appropriate written, oral and graphic forms. religious worldviews
• the response of one religious and one non-
religious belief system to:
Content
the concept of the transcendent
Students learn about: the human person
social responsibility
The religious dimension in human history
• the expression of the religious dimension in (Studies of Religion Stage 6 Syllabus © Board of Studies NSW for and on
human history
• the significance of the religious dimension in
human history
• the global distribution of the five major religious
traditions
HSC | Chapter 16 Religion and non-religion 415

AGNOSTICISM the belief that the existence of God is MYSTICAL spiritually symbolic.
not provable. POLYTHEISM a belief that there are many gods and
ANIMISM a system of belief which teaches that goddesses.
there are active spiritual forces at work RATIONAL the position that the proper focus of
in nature. HUMANISM human concerns is the human, with
ATHEISM the belief that there is no divine power an emphasis on human reason to
either within the universe or outside of it. determine what a person should think
COSMOLOGY the science or theory of the universe. and do.
DESTINY a particular person’s or group of RITUAL the prescribed order of a religious

people’s fate. ceremony or action.
DIVINE from or like God or a god. SCIENTIFIC the belief that the proper study of
HUMANISM humans is the human, using scientific
ECOLOGICAL concerning the relationship of
research and methods.
organisms to one another and to their
surrounding environment. SOCIAL COHESION the way a society works together to
remain harmonious.
ECUMENISM seeking worldwide Christian unity.
SOCIAL the way a society changes and develops
EMPOWERMENT the authorising or giving of power to
TRANSFORMATION over time.
someone else.
SPIRITUAL of or concerning the spirit as opposed
MATERIALISM a worldview that shows more interest
to matter—divine, inspired.
in physical and monetary possessions
than spiritual values. STEWARDSHIP supervision of a function, a group of
people or the environment.
MEDITATION exercises that serve as a support for
prayer and contemplation. SUPERSTITION belief in the supernatural.
MONOTHEISM belief in a single God: Judaism, Islam TRANSCENDENT beyond human experience.
and Christianity are monotheistic faiths.

The religious dimension
in human history
Religions have taken many forms throughout human history. Many
people believe that there is a spiritual dimension that is not a part
of the material universe. Many hold that the universe came into
being and is maintained through divine agents (gods) or a God. For
many religions the universe gives clear evidence of the existence of
these divine beings or being.
Expressions of the religious dimension

in human history
Animism is a system of belief that teaches that
there are active spiritual forces at work in nature.
Many natural forces are seen to be created by spirits
who dwell in the world. These spirits cause the
wind, control the flow of streams and rivers, and
live in woods and trees. Adherents of animism
believe that these spirits need to be revered and kept
happy in order to avoid natural disasters. Shrines
are built and votive offerings and prayers are made
to these spirits.
An example of animism is the Japanese religion
of Shinto. This ancient religion believes in kami
(deities) that created the universe. The principal
goddess is Amaterasu Omikami (the sun goddess)
who created the islands of Japan. There are many
gods and goddesses who are related to certain
creatures and who are guardians of certain places.
Because all humans are created by the kami,
Shinto holds all human life as sacred. This belief in
a common divine origin places emphasis on family
and social relationships.
To enter a Shinto shrine an adherent passes
through a torii (gateway). Before attending the
shrine the believer ensures that his hands are clean
and that his intentions are pure. At the shrine
prayers and votive offerings are made.
Polytheism is a belief that there are many gods and
goddesses. Each god or goddess has individual powers
which control certain aspects of the universe or the
destiny of humans. Often there is a hierarchy among
these gods and goddesses that has the strongest god
(and his consort) as ruler over all the other gods. FIG. 16.1 Heian-Jingu Shrine, Kyoto, Japan

Each god or group of gods has its own shrines Religion also gives identity to a person. The way
and temples. Prayers and votive offerings are made, individuals answer those fundamental questions places
and in some cases animal sacrifices may also be them within a religious tradition—for example, if their
offered. It is believed that the gods control human answer involves belief in Allah, then they are Muslim;
happiness and prosperity and need either to be if it involves belief in the Lord Buddha, then they are
reminded of their duty or made responsive to Buddhist. This identity also gives people a community
the needs of believers. A modern-day example of that will support, guide and comfort them.
polytheism is Hinduism. Religious traditions also provide a person’s
Monotheism is the belief that there is only one ethical expectations and duties. They teach the
God. This God is the creator of the universe and of individual about the roles of each gender and point
all humans. This God relates to human beings in out correct sexual behaviour. They may also indicate
a special way, either by seeking submission from what careers can be accepted by the individual—in
them or entering into an agreement (covenant) that Buddhism, for example, any career that involves
describes the obligations of human beings toward killing of sentient life is not appropriate. Religions
this God and the resulting protection by the God. also instruct individuals about their relationship to
God may also be seen as directly intervening in the the environment and their place in a global society.
natural world through miracles, as well as through Religion also defines for individuals their
destruction brought about by the failure of human place within society. For example, in Hinduism
beings to act morally. Monotheists believe that a person knows which caste he or she belongs
God has revealed who he is and what the purpose to and what the expectations of that position
of human life is. Examples of monotheism are are. Religions create for humans places of beauty
Christianity, Judaism and Islam. through paintings, sculpture and other enriching
cultural pursuits such as music. Religions offer some
activities individuals access to higher understanding and
mystical experience.
1. Carefully outline the differences and similarities
Most importantly, religions give people a purpose
between animism, polytheism and monotheism.
in life. This may be seen as a reward for acting well
2. What is the one main ingredient of all the religions or a punishment for living immorally (for example,
in this book? heaven and hell in Islam). The purpose may be to be
3. Discuss the need for ‘spirituality’ or ‘God’ or ‘divine reborn into a better life after living well in this one, as
beings’ in human beings. in Hinduism and Buddhism. Religions also celebrate
important stages in people’s lives (birth, puberty
and death) by offering them and their families an
The significance of the religious understanding that these stages are important for a
person’s spiritual journey. Examples of these rituals
dimension in human history
are baptism in Christianity, ordination into the
Sangha in Buddhism, the bar mitzvah in Judaism.
Providing meaning and purpose for the Other rituals offer believers the means of fulfilling
individual their faith, for example the Hajj in Islam.
A person’s belief in a religious tradition affects all
dimensions of the adherent’s life. Religion answers
the four fundamental questions about life:
• Who am I?
• Why is there a universe?
• Why is there suffering?
• What happens after a person dies?
The answers will affect all aspects of a person’s
life—the emotional, the intellectual, the relational
and the social.
FIG. 16.2 A Christian baptism

Providing social cohesion support the unemployed, the homeless, the poor,
Social cohesion is how a society remains the lonely and the dying.
harmonious. It is the way in which a society Religions determine how people relate
maintains peace and provides structures to support within a society. They teach what are acceptable
its members. Social cohesion not only gives identity relationships (for example, family, friendship)
to a society but also defines who does not belong to and what are not (for example, homosexual
that community. relations in Christianity). Religions contribute most
significantly to how men and women understand
the roles that are suitable for their genders. In many
religions the role of women is less powerful than
that of men.
Religions connect the members of society to a
common past. They provide traditions and customs
for a society and therefore strengthen the identity
of that society. They give a society rituals and
ceremonies to celebrate key moments in its life,
such as coronations and public funerals. They also
give a society a system of education, a tradition
of classic literature and arts, and institutions that
provide greater development of the spiritual life (for
example, the priesthood in Christianity, the Sangha
in Buddhism and the rabbinical schools of Judaism).
The religious dimension offers people support
FIG. 16.3 The Blue Mosque, Istanbul through counselling and spiritual direction. It may
also determine the yearly calendar and important
Religions are closely connected to cultures and days of celebration, such as Christmas, the Sabbath,
societies. The religious dimension forms many of Lent, Wesak, Divali and Ramadan.
a culture’s key aspects—its laws (for example, the
Westminster system of law based on a Christian Providing social transformation
ethical understanding), its significant buildings Social transformation means how a society
(for example, Angkor Wat and the Blue Mosque), changes and develops. The religious dimension
its dietary observances (kosher and halal rules), has often acted as a means of change, but also
its music, its dress codes and so on. In forming sometimes as a system that has prevented change.
these signs of social identity, religions also clearly
define who does not belong to a particular culture
or society. Religions have been a source of social
disharmony, as seen in struggles between Christians
in Northern Ireland, tension and violence in the
Middle East and civil strife in Sri Lanka.
Religions offer laws of behaviour and teachings
which assist the individual in society. They bring
about social cohesion by presenting to individuals
the way they should act, dress, relate and, in
particular, think about significant issues (for example,
the creation of the world, the destiny of humankind
and the reasons behind suffering and death).
Religions may provide a system of government
(for example, the Ayatollahs of Iran) and systems
to help members of society who are less fortunate.
These social welfare activities (for example, Oxfam) FIG. 16.4 An Indian couple colouring idols made for the Hindu
Divali festival

Change is brought about through education and example, cloning, IVF and HIV/AIDS). Religious
instruction. Religions have often offered education ideas and concepts have been used to aid people in
and have either supported the changes in thinking responding to natural and human-made disasters.
(for example, Maimonides, Nargajuna in Buddhism)
or condemned advances in learning (for example, activities
the work of Galileo). Religions have been great
1. What are the four questions in life that religion
patrons of the arts and have often supported artists
answers for human beings?
and new styles (for example, during the Renaissance
in Europe and the Gupta period in Indian art). 2. How do the answers to these questions affect
Religions have supported national expansion how people live their lives? Or do they?
through wars and colonisation (for example, the 3. Religions also provide a guide to the behaviour of
European conquest of South American cultures and people as individuals. Why do you think people
the spread of the Ottoman Empire). But they have also need this? How does religion help in this regard?
been the protectors of the innocent and the defenders 4. Religion and the functioning of community
of the environment. Their institutes for social welfare have always been linked together. How has this
have often opposed prevailing political and economic developed and why?
ideas that failed to support those in need.
5. Create in dot form a list of the contributions of
Religions have also admitted past errors and
religion to social cohesion. Give examples.
injustices. They have striven to bring about common
understandings and acceptance of differences (for 6. ‘Religions have been principally opposed to
example, ecumenism in Christianity and interfaith advancements in human thinking and cultural
dialogue). Religions have developed ideas to change achievement.’ Discuss with examples.
society’s attitudes towards minority groups (for 7. Use the map on this page to explain the
example, African-American liberation) and attempted distribution of different religious traditions around
to right past oppressions (for example, feminist the world. In your response include the following
theology and Queer Dharma). factors: immigration, historical conquests, the
Religions also attempt to bring about correct changing global economy, conflicts, missionary
understanding when new ethical issues arise (for activity, and natural and human-made disasters.
ARCTIC OCEAN
Arctic Circle
EUROPE
NORTH
ASIA AMERICA
PA C I F I C O C E A N
ATLANTIC
Tropic of Cancer
OCEAN
AFRICA
Equator
ATLANTIC SOUTH
INDIAN AMERICA
OCEAN
OCEAN
Tropic of Capricorn
AUSTRALIA
0 2000 4000 6000 km
KEY
Christianity Islam Other major religion
Mostly Roman Catholic Sunni Hinduism Chinese religions Tribal and Christian
Mostly Protestant Shi’a Judaism Shinto and Buddhism Tribal, Christian and Muslim
Mostly Eastern Orthodox Buddhism Traditional and tribal
FIG. 16.5 The global distribution of the major religious traditions

New religious expressions
The rise of new religious expressions traditions (for example, Westerners practising yoga
or tai chi). People may be dissatisfied with how
a religion deals with contemporary sexuality (for
The search for personal fulfilment example, the rise of churches for gays and lesbians)
In contemporary society, individuals attempt to find or how it deals with the human relationship to the
personal fulfilment. For many, traditional religions environment.
do not provide a way of contentment or peace. The traditional ways of seeking support and
Modern society, they feel, is too quickly changing guidance from pastors and monks may now
and many of the past ‘truths and certainties’ have be understood to lack the expertise of modern
been called into question. Traditional religions may psychology and psychiatry. People seek new ways of
no longer provide the answers for many people and healing (for example, acupuncture) and find practices
appear to be outdated and irrelevant. in new religious expressions that heal emotional
People seek personal fulfilment in all aspects distress and bring about peace (for example, Buddhist
of their lives. Many wish to seek improvement of meditation). People may also judge traditional
their bodies and minds through practising forms of religions’ explanations about life and the universe
spirituality that are not a part of their own religious as outdated and irrelevant when compared with the
advances of science and technology.
The search for ethical guidance

People in modern society face new ethical issues
such as cloning and global warming, and traditional
religious responses may not appear to be relevant.
The application of past thinking does not provide
for some people sufficient clarity for how people
should act in response to these new ethical
dilemmas. Pre-scientific responses can appear
inadequate in dealing with modern scientific and
ethical issues.
People may also feel that traditional religions do
not allow individuals sufficient independence and
initiative. They may feel that simply being obedient
to authorities does not permit self-determination
and legitimate freedom.
‘ In contemporary society,
individuals attempt to find
personal fulfilment. For many,
traditional religions do not provide
FIG. 16.6 Yoga class

a way of contentment or peace.
’

In the modern consumerist and global society,
there is often an attitude of ‘shopping around’
for the right answer, taking ideas and behaviours
from various religions and systems of thinking.
There is also the means of comparing one idea or
ethical response with other different approaches.
The rejection of past feelings of guilt, childhood
inhibitions and the fear of punishment which some
forms of traditional religions may have taught can
also be reasons why people choose new forms of
spirituality and religions. FIG. 16.7 Tools used in some wiccan rituals—a new
religious expression
Clarification of people’s relationship

with society Other means by which an individual seeks
People may no longer feel that traditional religions clearer relationships in new religions are more
give them a supportive community, or may think appropriate rituals, empowerment within a
that traditional religions cause oppression (for religious community based on equality and
example, oppression of women or minority racial distribution of talents, simplicity of life and
groups). They may also feel that new religions and teachings, and an emphasis on the emotions rather
spiritualities offer closer relationships and more than on the intellect. Many of the new religions
meaningful celebrations of the stages in life through may appear to have a stronger sense of the unity of
rituals and ceremonies. nature or offer a person ways to participate in the
Many aspects of modern society may cause mystical forces of nature.
a person to seek answers and meaning outside
it. The political system or the pursuit of wealth activities
and possessions in a consumerist culture may
1. Why are people searching for something other
force people to find comfort in less traditional
than what life gives them?
religions and spiritualities. Advances in science
and technology (for example, industrial growth, 2. Have psychologists replaced religious leaders?
electronic communications and the creation of How, and why or why not?
virtual realities) may produce fear and anxiety 3. ‘Modern scientific and medical discoveries, as well
and be understood as threatening the planet as environmental understanding, have left people
with destruction. feeling that religion doesn’t have answers for
At another level, a person’s acceptance of a new them about how to think or act.’
religion may be due to the desire to gain closer and a Do you think this statement is true? Why or
more meaningful personal relationships and more why not?
appropriate ways of expressing their individualism.
b Are some religions more able to handle these
Certain contemporary schools of thinking may also
developments than others? Does that mean
reduce a person’s allegiance to traditional faiths (for
they are more relevant and therefore should be
example, postmodernism and Gaia theory).
followed? Does this mean the end of religion?
The fact that there are many religions with
opposing understandings of life and its purpose 4. People are also said to be looking for closer
may indicate to a person that no single religion relationships with others as a society. How does
has the answers. Comparisons may suggest that this statement compare with what religions say
traditional religions deal less with reality than with they offer? Discuss why these two concepts may
superstition. The fact that some believers, through be contradictory to each other.
a misinterpretation of the religious traditions have 5. Debate: Divide into two groups and present
brought about disharmony and oppression in both arguments for and against the proposition:
the past and the present is also a reason for seeking ‘Traditional religions cannot meet the demands of
better relationships within new religions. the modern world.’ Present to class.

Influences on the growth of new religious
expressions and spiritualities
The rise of materialism

The growth of materialism (the idea that what is important in
life is the accumulation of possessions and finance) is a significant
influence on the rise of new religions. Materialism seems to offer
little acknowledgement of the spiritual dimension in a human
person, and many of the traditional religions seem also to be
caught up in accumulating wealth and possessions. A person
may be in search of the traditional values of dignity, respect and
freedom, and may find in new religions ways to live more fully.
There is also the modern fear
that humans are wasting and
depleting irreplaceable resources in
‘
the environment in order to build
Poverty,
wealth and power. Many people
unemployment and believe that these resources should
exploitation can be the common property of all
people rather than belonging to the
be reasons to seek very few. Poverty, unemployment
’
newer religions. and exploitation can be reasons
to seek newer religions in order
to solve these ecological and
economic problems.
The influence of scientific progress

For many people, science and technology are moving too fast
for careful consideration of their consequences to humankind. It
seems that they are inaccessible to the ordinary person and that
understanding of them requires specialised learning and education.
They are also seen as possibly dangerous to life on earth (for
example, global warming and nuclear power).
As objective bodies of knowledge and application, the sciences
do not address the spiritual side of the human person and may
even call it into question. Certain developments in science, such as
cloning and in vitro fertilisation, may seem to be diverting humans
from their natural purpose and destiny. The misuse of science
technology has caused disruption to traditional lifestyles (for
example, television and communication technologies disrupting
the family), or has reduced society to mindless conformity and
trivial entertainments (for example, mass media). FIG. 16.8 Some people seek answers to global
In order to take a stance against the progress of science problems such as poverty in newer religions.
and technology, some people may turn to new religions and

spiritualities that offer a return to a more simple life—one in tune
with nature and not dependent on the machines and tools of the
sciences. They may also join new religions to support opposition to
the advancement of the sciences.

The growth of ecological awareness
In recent years the scientific investigation of the state of the environment
has caused many people to support movements for reducing harmful
substances from entering the atmosphere and oceans. They are seeking
ways of ensuring that human beings can sustain a healthy environment.
Some people find these issues addressed by new religions.
People may conclude that these new religions offer an active
stewardship of the planet and are more closely connected with nature.
Some new religions present a more simple way of living, often shared
among all members of the community. The use of environmentally
friendly produce and the recycling of wastes responsibly by these
communities are further reasons for choosing them. Some traditional
religions may be seen to have done little to bring about the change
needed to protect the environment.
Disenchantment with traditional religious practices

and guidance
There are other reasons why people no longer belong to traditional
religions. They may find that hierarchical structures of power do not
allow them sufficient say in the nature and direction of these religions.
They may also object to the male dominance and apparent female
oppression in traditional religions. For others, some traditional religions
are communities of an ageing population. For some of the young, in
particular, they seem to offer no suitable expressions or practices that
celebrate being young and modern.
The traditional rituals are seen as not providing individuals with
significant involvement in the religion’s important customs and activity
practices. These rituals may be perceived as archaic and no longer ‘New Age religions are means of
addressing the needs of modern life in a meaningful way. They may be avoiding the problems faced by
thought to be boring and impersonal. the modern age.’ Discuss using
With the advance of the sciences and technologies, and in the examples.
light of new ethical problems facing the world, traditional religions
may appear to be institutions of the past, giving past solutions to
modern problems. Many of their ethical systems were developed in
pre-scientific times and may be seen as unable to address either the
advances of science or the global problems facing humanity. The
traditional religions present ancient understandings about the nature
and cause of the universe, which can be interpreted as opposing the
new thinking in astrophysics and cosmology.
Traditional religions have been a means for seeking guidance and
direction. In the modern world, newer sciences have arisen that appear
better to address the anxieties and fears of individuals (for example,
psychology and psychiatry). Traditional religions’ approach to health
and medicine may also be seen as pre-scientific and superstitious.
The responses of traditional religions to modern health problems and
concerns may appear to be out of date and ignorant of the needs of
the individual.

Non-religious
worldviews
Atheism
Atheism is the belief that there is no divine power
either within the universe or outside it. It holds
that there are no reasons to believe in any reward or
punishment after death. It argues that many aspects
of religion are superstitious.
Though acknowledging that some contributions
by religions have benefited humankind, atheists
argue that these same benefits can be achieved
without a person adopting a religion. Good ethical
behaviour, including compassion towards others, is
significant for people without a religious faith.
Some forms of atheism find religions dangerous
(for example, Marxism and communism) for
they divert people away from the real concerns
of society. Such atheists argue that what is most
important is the ‘here and now’ rather than what is
beyond a person’s life. FIG. 16.9 Moscow monument to Karl Marx, whose writings are the
basis of communism
Agnosticism
Agnosticism is the belief that there is insufficient
proof for either God’s existence or non-existence. It
therefore argues that a person should live life without
worrying about a spiritual or divine dimension.
Like atheists, agnostics would argue that humans
are capable of goodness and can contribute to the
benefit of human society.
One form of agnosticism proposed by 17th-
century French philosopher Blaise Pascal teaches
that even if we do not know whether there is a God
or not, it is better to live a life believing in a God
and carrying out his wishes. For if there is a God,
then on death humans who have lived a religious
life will be rewarded. If there is no God, then on
death the person will still have lived a good life for
himself and others.
‘ Agnosticism is the belief that there

is insufficient proof for either God’s
FIG. 16.10 Blaise Pascal

existence or non-existence.
’

The position of rational humanism
The position of rational humanism is that the proper focus of all
human concerns and endeavours is the human. This belief emphasises
the use of human reason to determine what a person should think
and do. The mind can discover what it is to be a human. Rational
humanism uses logic and study to make these discoveries, is open to
discussion and intellectual criticism, and attempts to avoid prejudices
and presumptions.
Rational humanism accepts the study of the sciences (such as
physics and chemistry) and the humanities (such as literature, fine arts
‘
and music) as legitimate and believes that these fields of endeavour
bring about a deeper understanding of the nature and purpose of Scientific
the human. It also recognises the exploration of the emotional and humanism believes
psychological aspects of the human through research and experiment
as significant in helping a person live. that the proper
Rational humanism accepts that some forms and teachings of the study of humans is
traditional religions are based on reasoning and sound argument. To be
a rational humanist does not necessarily mean that the person does not the human [using
possess a religious belief system. scientific research
The position of scientific humanism
Like rational humanism, scientific humanism believes that the proper
study of humans is the human. It places emphasis on the sciences and
their discoveries to explain what it is to be human and what humans
and methods].
’
should do.
This study must use legitimate methods of research and experiment.
All results should be made public for them to be tested and discussed.
The study must be logical, open to examination, broad-based and
without presumptions.
FIG. 16.11 Scientist

undertaking research

Scientific humanism argues that any idea that Like agnostics, atheists argue that education
is unable to be tested by the sciences cannot be is essential for humans to realise their aspirations
accepted as truth. It therefore argues that religious and to learn appropriate behaviour. Access to basic
traditions are based essentially on ideas that cannot human rights is a further means by which a person
be proven by science (for example, God’s creation of achieves his or her hopes and is able to live a life of
the universe and human survival after death). dignity and common respect. Atheists see that the
This does not mean that all scientists are use of just laws and legitimate governments also
sceptical about religions. Many who carry out provides ways to achieve human aspirations and an
scientific investigation are people who have faith ethical life.
and belong to a religious tradition.
Humanism and the aspirations and
Agnosticism and the aspirations and behaviours of individuals
behaviour of individuals For both rational humanism and scientific
Having pointed out that there is no proof that humanism, the ways by which atheists and
God exists, agnosticism argues that all human agnostics determine the individual’s aspirations and
aspirations, like living a meaningful and purposeful behaviour are also legitimate. This is not to argue
life, can be achieved through the use of human that humanists are necessarily atheists or agnostics.
reason. It argues that all behaviour that brings For a humanist it is human reason that enables
about benefit for the individual and society can be an individual to find out what is to be done
discovered through human reason. and how a good life can be achieved. Through
In fact, without a belief in God’s existence, investigation, research and study, people can
more attention can be given to self-determination, determine for themselves what it means to be
that is, to being wholly responsible for the life a human and what the appropriate ways are to live a
human lives and working out what is best for the human life.
individual. Moreover, there is more focus on how to Humanists also offer advice, guidance and
solve the needs and problems of the world by using direction to individuals about what is right and what
modern systems of thought and discovery, rather is to be avoided. Since human reason has developed
than on obedience to divine revelation, which may the sciences, humanists use these as ways of bringing
be seen as irrelevant to the contemporary world. about happiness for the person and for society.
Agnosticism sees that it is important for humans
to act ethically for they belong to a species that activities
survives best when the group lives harmoniously
1. Define the following in your own words:
and morally. Ethics also provide a basis for people
agnosticism, atheism, humanism.
to determine how they relate to one another, what
their duties and responsibilities are to each other 2. Explain the difference between rational and
and to the world, and how nations can coexist scientific humanism.
without violence and war. 3. Explain how all three non-religious practices in
question 1 influence the aspirations and behaviour
Atheism and the aspirations and behaviours of individuals.
of individuals
Similar to agnosticism, atheism argues for self-
determination, human freedom and ethical
behaviour as beneficial to the human individual
and to society. Without religion, atheists turn to
other means for deciding what is good for humans
and how people should relate to other people.
The sciences (for example, the study of history,
anthropology, sociology) can offer appropriate
strategies for achieving human aspirations and for
acting ethically.

The difference between religious
and non-religious worldviews
A worldview is how a person makes sense of his or her life and creates
a consistent and meaningful understanding of the world. It is the
way a person integrates new information and experiences into this
understanding. Every society and culture also has its worldviews. In
fact, to belong to a particular culture is to share with other humans in
that culture an understanding of how the world works.
The response of Christianity and

modern science as belief systems
Their response to the concept of the transcendent

One religious belief system (Christianity) believes that to
understand the origins of the universe and its continued
existence, a person needs to believe in the existence of a
transcendent being (God)—that is, a being independent
of the universe and responsible for it. This creation is
seen as an act of God who creates the universe out of
nothing. The universe shows God’s purpose and plan
for all humans. Human beings can discover things
about God by studying the universe, but they can never
discover everything about God unless God reveals those
things to them. Therefore, it is important to worship God
and obey his commandments in order for humans to be
happy in this life and after death. The purpose for human
life can be found in sacred texts, celebrated in rituals and
explained by clerics.
For one non-religious belief system (modern science),
since there is no scientific evidence that God exists, there
is no transcendent being. The universe is everything
and there is nothing outside the universe. For some
scientists, the universe came into being through a
singularity, the Big Bang, and acts in accordance with
the laws of physics. The universe does not require God
in order to explain its existence and its purpose.
activity
It has been argued that a system of thought, like
science and mathematics, cannot ultimately explain
itself. It needs something outside of it in order for
it to demonstrate the truth (for example, science’s
FIG. 16.12 For modern science, the universe acts in accordance
application in technology and medicine). If this is so, with the laws of physics and does not require God to explain
can the universe as a system understood by human its existence and purpose.
thought really explain itself? Discuss in groups.

Their response to the human person Science sees that humans are able to discover,
Christianity teaches that the human person is made through study and reason, how best to live in
up of body, mind and spirit. Since the human is made society. The sciences demonstrate that humans need
in the image of God, all humans must be shown each other and that relationships are important for
dignity and given respect and authentic freedom. the development and growth of the individual. The
Every human deserves the basic rights of shelter, food, political and economic sciences investigate how
clothing, gainful employment and leisure. people relate, and these sciences show the laws on
All humans are loved by God and have been which society functions.
saved by his Son. They receive eternal life by In order for the individual to live life well,
acknowledging that Jesus Christ died for their sins science shows that societies have created systems
and accepting God’s forgiveness by faith as a gift of welfare and care that provide support for the
of grace. They then have a responsibility to live an members of the society. There is a need for humans
ethical life and behave according to the revealed to work together harmoniously for the benefit of all.
truths given by God. Anthropology, history and sociology show that
Science understands the human as a complex, there is great variety in how societies are structured.
living animal comprised of interacting organs. The The nuclear family (father, mother and children) is
human is a biological animal constructed out of the not the only way societies understand the essential
material of the universe and acts according to the relationships among humans.
laws of the universe. Human beings are members of a There has also been increasing research and
species which has evolved a rational mind which can study of the impact of humans on the environment.
discover how to live as a good person. The sciences point out the damage that pollution
Science would see one of the principal aims of and global warming brings and inform people about
scientific research and experiments is to develop what it is necessary for humans to do to prevent
ways to help humans understand who they are and further damage. Science shows that all life is
to advance human society. interconnected and that humans have a significant
responsibility to ensure that all life is cared for.
Their response to social responsibility
Christianity sees all humans as created in the activity
image of God, and therefore a human is bound
Complete the table below.
to treat others according to that belief. There is
a responsibility for people to build a just society
in which everyone is provided with the means of KEY IDEAS RELIGIOUS NON-RELIGIOUS
living with dignity and respect. Since all humans RESPONSE RESPONSE
have free will, they must be allowed freedom and
self-determination in line with the will of God.
TRANSCENDENT
The family is regarded as the basic unit of
society. Christianity teaches that this set of
relationships is essential for the preservation of HUMAN PERSON
society. A person needs relationships in order to live
fully, and marriage is one of the most important
of these relationships. It is also the legitimate SOCIAL
means of bringing new children into the world and RESPONSIBILITY
supporting them.
Since God loves all humans, those people
who are poor and in need must be looked after.
Social welfare and personal acts of charity are
obligations that all Christians have towards others.
The environment too is created and sustained by
God and Christians must act as stewards of God’s
creation. Humans must protect the environment
and use its resources justly.

Review and assess
Review
1. List the features of each of the following: animism, polytheism and

monotheism.
2. Create a mind map to show the role of religions in bringing about

change in a society.
3. Discuss this statement: ‘There is no significant difference in the

aspirations of an atheist and a humanist.’
4. Outline the principal practices of ‘traditional religions’ which have

contributed to the rise of new religious expressions.
5. Discuss this statement: ‘People join new religious expressions to avoid

the ethical responsibility expected from the more traditional religions.’
6. Demonstrate the differences between rational humanism and

scientific humanism.
7. Give reasons why scientific progress causes people to choose new

religious expressions.
Multiple choice
8. Which statement best expresses animism?
a. There is no god.
b. There are many gods.
c. All natural objects have a spirit.
d. There is a single divine personal being.
9. Which statement best defines agnosticism?
a. There is no divine or transcendent reality.
b. There is some divine or transcendent reality.
c. It is highly likely there is no divine or transcendent reality.
d. It is uncertain whether there is a divine or transcendent reality.

10. For individuals with a non-religious worldview, 14. An example of polytheism is found in:
which of the following best describes the
concept of social responsibility? a. Judaism
a. reading sacred texts and living a good life b. Buddhism
b. attending ceremonies and actively caring for c. Hinduism

the environment
d. Christianity.
c. living a moral life and caring for your family
15. New religions and spiritualities offer people:
d. working for the common good by following
a. dependency on tools of science and
established ethical guidelines
technology
11. Which factor would distinguish a religious funeral
b. the same answers to questions as traditional
from a non-religious funeral?
religions
a. the use of candles in the ceremony
c. return to a simpler lifestyle
b. the celebration of the life of the deceased
d. an atheistic approach to life.
c. the reference to a transcendent dimension
16. Scientific humanism argues that:
d. the inclusion of popular music in the
a. any idea that cannot be tested scientifically
ceremony
cannot be accepted as truth
12. Which of the following best outlines the position
b. a scientist cannot believe in God
of a Rational Humanist?
c. there is insufficient evidence for the
a. Human enquiry and practice should be
existence of God
guided by belief in a deity.
d. there is no divine presence either in the
b. Human enquiry and practice should not be
universe or outside it.
guided by belief in a deity.
17. Agnosticism and atheism both argue for:
c. Human enquiry and practice should be
guided by rigorous experimental testing. a. a divine presence outside the universe
d. Human enquiry and practice should not b. self-determination, human freedom and
be guided by superstitions and unthinking ethical behaviour as beneficial to the human
tradition. person and to society
13. New religious expressions accept one of the c. human reason and devine revelation, which
following: enables an individual to find out what is to be
done and how a good life can be achieved
a. the promotion of materialism
d. the idea that the proper focus of all human
b. the rejection of Eastern religions
concerns and endeavours is the human.
c. the search for personal fulfilment
Short response (5 marks)
d. disenchantment with scientific progress.
18. With reference to your own knowledge, explain
two reasons why an individual may explore new
religious expressions and spiritualities.

Timeline | Buddhism
486 BCE 451 406 Late fifth century

Birth of Siddhartha Enlightenment of Death of Siddhartha. The First Council settles
Guatama. Siddhartha. on the teachings of the
Buddha and composes
a monastic code of
discipline.
First century CE 150 372 Fifth century

King Kanisha convokes Nagarhuna founds the Buddhism spreads to Buddhism spreads to
the Fourth Council, Madhyamika school. Korea. Myanmar.
which commits
to writing the
commentaries on the
Scriptures.
Twelfth century 1222–82 Fourteenth century 1361

Buddhism spreads to Nichiren Daishonen, Buddhism spreads to Theravada Buddhism
Cambodia. reformer of Japanese Laos. spreads to Thailand.
Buddhism, proclaims the
superiority of the Lotus
Sutra.
1952 1953 1970s 1991

Sister Dhammadinna The Buddhist Society of Indo-Chinese refugees The fourteenth Dalai
arrives in Sydney. New South Wales formed increase the Buddhist lama visits Australia.
in Sydney—the oldest population in Australia.
Buddhist organisation
currently in operation in
Australia.
KIN_OSR_Timelines.indd 432 11/9/09 12:29:36 PM

306 273–32 Second century First century
The Second Council Reign of Asoka. Tripitaka committed to Buddha images
meets and the Buddhism spreads to Sri writing in Sri Lanka. modelled on the god
sangha splits into the Lanka. Asoka convokes Apollo, first appear in
Theravadins and the the Third Council. India. Buddhism spreads
Mahasanghikas. to China.
520 538 Eighth century Eleventh century

Bodhidharma arrives in Buddhism spreads to Vajrayana tradition Atisa reforms Tibetan
China. Japan. established in Tibet. Buddhism.
Muslim invasions of
India.
1617–82 1882 1897 1938

The fifth Dalai lama. 16 November, Sri Lankan Furore over an article The Buddhist Study
In 1653 he meets with Buddhists arrive in on Buddhism in the Group formed in
the Chinese emperor in Mackay, Queensland. Victorian newspaper the Melbourne—the first
Peking as an equal head Healesville Guardian. Australian Buddhist
of state. organisation.
1994 1996 2007, 2008 & 2009

Opening of the Nan Tien The fourteenth Dalai The fourteenth Dalai
Temple in Wollongong. lama visits Australia lama visits Australia.
again, performs the
kalachakra initiation
before 3000 people in
Sydney.
Timeline | Buddhism 433

Timeline | Christianity
6–4 BCE 30 CE 46–48 49 62

Birth of Jesus. Death of Jesus. First missionary Council of Martyrdom
journey of Paul. Jerusalem. of James in
Jerusalem.
325 391 400 451 800

Council of Nicaea. Theodosius Canon of Scripture Decree of Charlemagne
prohibits all determined. Chalcedon. crowned Holy
religions other than Roman Emperor.
Christianity.
1388–1417 1517 1520 1534 1545–63

The Western Luther posts his Luther Henry VIII Council of Trent.
Schism. Ninety-five Theses excommunicated proclaimed
in Wittenberg. by Pope Leo X. Supreme Head
of the Church of
England.
1945 1947 1948 1949 1962–65

Nag Hammadi Dead Sea Scrolls World Council of Billy Graham’s Second Vatican
Library of early discovered. Churches begun. Los Angeles Council.
Christian texts Crusade.
discovered.

64 65 75 100 313
Martyrdom of Peter Gospel of Mark. Gospels of Gospel of John. Edict of Milan ends
in Rome. Matthew and Luke. persecution of
Christians.
989 1054 1099 1204 1229

Vladimir of Schism between First crusade Crusaders attack Jerusalem lost to
Kiev baptised, the Latin Western regains Jerusalem. Constantinople. Islam.
inaugurating Church and the
Russian Orthodoxy. Greek Eastern
Church.
1622 1743 1869–70 1910 1914

Catholic John Wesley First Vatican World Missionary Assemblies of God
missionary activity writes rules for Council. Conference in begun.
begins. Methodists. Edinburgh.
1999
Joint Declaration
on the Doctrine
of Justification
(Lutherans and
Catholics).
Timeline | Christianity 435

Timeline | Hinduism
3000–1700 BCE 1600 900 400 100 CE 300–500

Indus valley Migration of The great war Panini Systematic The Gupta
civilisation. tribes of Aryan depicted in composes a development of Empire, covering
people into the epic poem descriptive various schools all of northern
India from the Mahabharata. grammar of the of classical India, ushers
north–west. spoken Sanskrit Hindu thought. in the classical
language. period of Hindu
civilisation,
which lasts until
about 650.
1000 1000–1100 1017–1137 1192 1238–1317 1311

The height of The philosopher The religious Defeat of the The religious The Muslim
Hindu cultural Abhinavagupta teacher Hindu ruler teacher Madva general Malik
influence in composes Ramanuja Prithivi Raja by in southern Kafur raids
South-East Asia. many works in establishes a Muhammad India. southern India.
Kashmir. philosophy Ghuri.
based upon Commencement
devotion to of Muslim rule in
Vishnu. northern India.
1598–1650 1757 1824–83 1835 1836–86 1863–1902

Tukaram, British control Swami English system Ramakrishna Swami
devotional poet of Bengal— Dayananda of education famous mystic Vivekananda,
of western India. beginning founds Arya officially of Bengal. disciple of
of British Samaj, reviving introduced in Ramakrishna,
domination of the Vedic India. spreads
India. tradition. Hinduism in
Europe and
America. Founds
Ramakrishna
Mission.
1977 1981 1985 1996

The first Hindu Temple 12 256 Hindus living in Saiva Manram Society 62 270 Hindus living in
to be built in Australia— NSW of a total 41 730 in formed to build a temple Australia.
Sri Mandir Temple. A Australia. for Lord Murukan.
house in Auburn was
converted to a temple.

300–888 750 788–820 800 850 907–1310
Pallava rulers in Kumarila Shankara, the Nammalvar Minikka Vacakar The Chola
Kanci. Beginning Bhatta revives teacher of writes some composes Empire in
of classical the ancient Advaita (non- of the great some of the southern India.
period in Vedic rituals duality). devotional great devotional The height of
southern India. and critiques poetry poetry classical culture
Buddhist addressed to addressed to in the south.
philosophy. Vishnu. Shiva.
1336–1565 1400–1518 1479–1531 1485–1533 1503–73 1532–1623

The empire of Kabir composes Vallabha, Chaitanya Mira Bai, Tulsidas
Vijayanagara in devotional religious teacher spreads the renowned popularises
southern India. poetry that who helps movement devotional poet. devotion
appeals both popularise of ecstatic to Rama in
to Hindus and devotion to devotion to northern India
Muslims. Krishna in Krishna in through his
northern India. Bengal and retelling of the
eastern India. Ramayana in
Hindi.
1869–1948 1872–1950 1879–1950 1896–1977 1916–1993 1969

Mahatma Sri Aurobindo, Ramana Swami Swami Hare Krishna
Gandhi. mystic and Maharshi, Prabhupanda Chinmayananda movement
writer. famous saint in from Bengal brings the spreads to
the tradition of brings ecstatic teachings of Australia.
Advaita. devotion to Shankara to
Krishna to the modern India
West. Founds and to the West.
the Hare Krishna
movement.
1999 2001 2006

The Sydney Murugan temple 95 128 Hindus living in 148 119 Hindus living in
at Mays Hill opened. It is Australia. Australia.
dedicated to Lord Muruga
and is operated by the Saiva
Manram Incorporation.
It includes the Tamil
Educational and Cultural Hall.
Timeline | Hinduism 437

Timeline | Islam
570 CE 622 624 630 632 632 – 61

Birth of Migration of Battle of Badr. Muhammad Death of Period of the
Muhammad. Muhammad Muhammad returns Muhammad. Rightly Guided
from Mecca to defeats a victorious to Caliphs.
Madina. Muslim Meccan army Mecca.
era deemed to sent against
begin. him.
712 750 756 874 977 1058 - 1111

Arab armies Beginning of Building of Death of Hasan First major Al- Ghazali,
reach the Indus translations of Baghdad. al-‘Askari, Muslim ‘renewer’ of
Delta via Iraq. Greek learning eleventh imam. incursions Islam, famed
into Arabic. Regarded as into the Indian as achieving
taken into sub- continent integration of
hiding until the through the mysticism and
coming of the Khyber pass. faithfulness to
twelvth imam. legal obligation.
1517 1579 – 1858 1683 1798 1805 1806

The Ottomans Period of the Final Ottoman Napoleon Muhammad Beginning of
conquer Egypt. Moghul dynasty. siege of Vienna. invades Egypt. ‘Ali becomes translation of
governor of seminal works
Egypt, nominally of European
as deputy of the thought into
Ottoman sultan. Arabic under
the patronage of
Muhammad ‘Ali.
1928 1952 1968 1978 1989

Founding of the Egyptian First group of Iranian Death of
radical Islamic revolution Turkish migrants Revolution. Khomeini.
organisation, abolishes the lands in Sydney. Ayatullah
the Muslim monarchy. King Lakemba Khomeini
Brotherhood. Farouk exiled. mosque built. establishes the
Islamic Republic
of Iran.

638 641 661 - 750 680 691 711
Arab conquest Arab conquest Period of the Death of Construction Arab armies
of Jerusalem. of Egypt. Umayyad Husayn. of the Dome of enter Spain.
caliphate. the Rock on the
Temple Mount
in Jerusalem by
the caliph ‘Abd
al-Malik
1206 1281 – 1922 1297 1453 1492 1503

Establishment Period of the Tombstone of The Ottomans Final expulsion Imami
of the first Delhi Ottoman sultan Malik capture of Muslims from Shi’a Islam
sultanates. dynasty. al-Saleh in Constantinople. Spain. established as
Pasai, northern state religion of
Sumatra. Earliest Persia.
evidence of a
Muslim state in
South-East Asia.
1821 – 29 1867 1876 1890 1891 1926

Greece gains First Afghan Bosnia and Adelaide First Mosque ‘Abdl al’Aziz
independence camel drivers Herzgovina Mosque built. in New South establishes
from Ottoman come to revolt against Wales at Broken himself as king
rule. Australia. Ottoman rule. Hill. of Saudi Arabia.
Timeline | Islam 439

Timeline | Judaism
1700 BCE 1200 1000 725 722

Abraham, Isaac and Exodus from Egypt. Davidic Kingdom. Isaiah’s prophecies. Assyrians take
Jacob. Samaria.
70 CE 200 400 500 1040

Second Temple Mishnah completed. Jerusalem Talmud Babylonian Talmud Birth of Rashi.
Destroyed. completed. completed.
1555 1655 1808 1817 1850s

First ghetto in Jews admitted into Jews gain Chevra Kadisha Significant Jewish
Europe (Venice). England. citizenship in established in migration to
France. Sydney. Australia.
1948 1967 1979 1994 1994

State of Israel Israel victorious Egypt–Israel Peace Israel–PLO Peace Israel–Jordan
created. over Egyptian, Treaty. Accord. Declaration.
Jordanian, Syrian
and Iraqi forces in
the Six Day War.

597–39 515 165 63 35
Babylonian Second Temple Maccabees revolt. Romans under School of Hillel.
captivity. Completed. Pompey’s
command take
Jerusalem.
1096 1138 1290 1347–50 1492

Jews massacred in Birth of Jews expelled from Black Death; Jews Jews expelled from
Europe. Maimonides. England and France. massacred. Spain.
1870 1879 1917 1942–45 1945

Ghettos abolished Zionist movement Balfour Declaration. The Shoah. Many Jews migrate
in Italy. established. to Australia at the
end of the Second
World War.
1995 2005 2007

Yitchak Rabin (Israel Disengagement Israel/Hizbollah War.
Prime Minister) from Gaza.
assassinated.
Timeline | Judaism 441

Timeline | Christianity in Australia
1788 CE 1793 1803 1810 1813 1815

First Christian First church built First Catholic First Sunday School Samuel Leigh
Service, in Sydney. Mass. Congregationalist begins in arrives to
3 February. service. Parramatta. minister to
Methodists.
1838 1844 1857 1865 1866 1872

Lutherans First Roman Good Samaritan New South Sisters of St Anglican
arrive in South Catholic Sisters founded. Wales Joseph founded General Synod
Australia. provincial Presbyterians in South established.
council. unite. Australia.
1902 1912 1919 1924 1937 1946

Federal Union Establishment Australian Constitution Assemblies of Australian
of Methodists of the Australian Bush Church of the Greek God organised. Council for the
(Wesleyans, Inland Mission. Aid Society Orthodox World Council
Bible Christians established. Church of Churches
and Primitive approved. established.
Methodists).
1970 1977 1986 1986 1991 1992

Pope Paul VI Uniting Church Youth Alive Pope John Paul World Council of Women
visits. formed. ministry to II visits. Churches meets ordained
Publication of Australian teens in Canberra. to Anglican
The Australian developed in priesthood.
Hymn Book. June.

1820 1823 1825 1831 1835 1836
Connolly and John Dunmore Archdeacon First Baptist John Polding Caroline
Therry arrive Lang arrives. Scott arrives. service in arrives as Chisholm begins
to minister Sydney. Catholic Bishop her work. William
to Roman of Sydney. Broughton
Catholics. consecrated as
Anglican Bishop
of Australia.
Governor
Bourke’s Church
Act extends state
aid.
1880 1881 1891 1896 1898 1901

Salvation Army St Vincent de Grubb Mission— Student First Greek Federal Union
arrives in South Paul Society an important Christian Orthodox of Presbyterians.
Australia. founded. influence Movement church in First Greek
on Sydney established. Sydney. Orthodox
Christians. church in
Melbourne.
1957 1959 1962 1966 1968 1969

Formation of First Billy Catholic schools Lutherans unite. World Vision Second Billy
the Democratic Graham Goulburn closed Australia Graham
Labour party. Crusade. in protest to the founded. Crusade.
Government.
1994 2008
National Council Pope Benedict
of Churches XVI visits.
formed.
Timeline | Christianity in Australia 443

Glossary
ABSOLUTE BEING the transcendent divine reality (Ultimate ASHRAMAS traditional stages of Hindu life, not followed
Reality), also known as Brahman or the Supreme Being. closely by the modern Hindu.
ABSOLUTISTS those who believe that certain ethical teachings ASSIMILATION Government Policy adopted in 1951 that
are always to be applied. required all Aboriginal and part-Aboriginal people to live as
ADHERENT person who follows or upholds a religion or members of a single Australian community.
doctrine. ATHEISM the belief that there is no divine power either within
ADVAITA Shankara’s teaching that everything, in its innermost the universe or outside of it.
essence, is Brahman. ATMAN the innermost self, that which is divine.
ADVOCACY actions by churches or Christian groups on behalf AVATAR an incarnation of a god, e.g. Vishnu.
of minorities disregarded by those in authority. AVEILUT mourning.
AGNOSTIC person who holds the view that you can neither AYODHYA the birthplace of Rama.
prove nor disprove the existence of God and that the essential
BA’AL TASHCHIT ‘do not be destructive or wasteful’: the
nature of things is unknowable.
principle of not destroying anything needlessly (the foundation
AGNOSTICISM the belief that the existence of God is not of the Jewish attitude to the environment).
provable.
BANU HASHIM the poorer branch of the Quraysh tribe.
AHIMSA the teaching that no sentient life form is to be
BARDO the Tibetan word Bardo means literally ‘intermediate
harmed.
state’ — also translated as ‘transitional state’ or ‘in-between
AL-AMIN the trustworthy (term used to refer to Muhammad state’ or ‘liminal state’.
even before his prophetic call).
BASILEA Greek for ‘kingdom’, used in reference to God’s value
AL-FATIHA the opening chapter of the Qur’an. system of justice and peace.
ALVARS twelve poets and saints from South India, followers of BAT MITZVAH coming of age ceremony for Jewish girls.
Vishnu. The forerunners of the Bhakti Movement.
BEATITUDES sayings of Jesus which provide the basis for
ANATMA the human condition of possessing no permanent ethical relationships and building of the basilea.
self.
BHAGAVAD GITA the ‘Song of the Lord’, a part of the
ANATTA the teaching that there is no soul. Mahabharata. Based on the teachings of the Upanishads, it is
ANICCA the teaching that everything changes and is the best known of Hindu scriptures. It is a dialogue between
impermanent. Arjuna representing the human and Krishna representing the
ANIMISM a system of belief which teaches that there are active divine.
spiritual forces at work in nature. BHAJAN/KIRTAN devotional songs.
ANINUT the mourning status given to the close relatives of the BHAKTI loving devotional worship of a personal god, an
deceased between that person’s death and the burial. important expression of Hinduism.
ANSAR helpers—those in Madina who threw in their lot with BIBLICAL EXEGESIS analysis and interpretation of scriptural
Muhammad and his fellow migrants when they arrived from texts.
Mecca. BIMAH elevated platform from which prayers are led in the
ANTHROPOMORPHIC human like. synagogue.
ANTI-SEMITISM opposition to and persecution of the Jewish BIOETHICS ethics concerned with health care and scientific
people and their religious beliefs and practice. research.
AQIDA the Islamic creed, or six articles of faith. BISHOP a priest appointed to a position of leadership to
ARAHATS holy men in Theravada Buddhism. oversee a diocese (from Greek episkopos (‘supervisor’).
ARANYAKAS Vedic texts written for the forest hermits. BODHISATTVA a being who has achieved ultimate perfection
and aids all sentient beings in achieving nirvana.
ARON KODESH the ark (cabinet) used to house the Torah
scrolls in the synagogue. BRAHMA the Creator.
ARYANS nomadic pastoralists from central Europe who BRAHMAN Absolute Being or Supreme Being, the transcendent
entered into the north-west of India about 1600 BCE. divine reality.
ASCETICISM the practice of disciplining the body to achieve BRAHMANAS a text from the Vedas, outlining how the
spiritual perfection. Brahmin priests must perform rituals.
ASCETICS people who practise rigorous self-discipline and self- BRAHMINS people of the highest class of Indian society, the
denial in the quest to draw closer to their god. priestly class.
ASHRAMA DHARMA duty appropriate to a person’s stage of life. BRIT MILAH circumcision ceremony.
KIN_OSR_Ends.indd 444 11/9/09 12:30:47 PM

BUDDHA the Enlightened One, born as Siddhartha Gautama. DARSHANA the viewing of the image of the deity in the inner
BUDDHA NATURE the teaching that all things have the same sanctuary.
reality or basis of existence. DA‘WA preaching, calling to the acceptance and practice of Islam.
BULLROARER a flat piece of wood or stone that is swung DECALOGUE the Ten Commandments given to Moses on
around on a thong. Used in Australian Aboriginal communities Mount Sinai outlining a code of behaviour for the Israelites
to call people to ceremonies or to imitate the voice of an during the Exodus.
Ancestral Being. DEIST person who believes, on the basis of reason rather than
BUSH BROTHERHOOD men in the Church of England who revelation, in the existence of a God who created the earth but
travelled in pairs through the Australian outback, conducting is not involved in it.
church services, weddings, baptisms and funerals in places DENOMINATION group of religious congregations with their
where people may not have seen a clergyman for months or own organisation and distinctive faith.
even years.
DESTINY a particular person’s or group of people’s fate.
CATECHISM summary of Christian doctrine.
DEVOTEES religious followers.
CATHOLIC EPISTLES letters written to the new Christian
DHAMMAPADA a collection of 423 verses taken from the Sutta
communities that were general in nature.
Pitaka that are regarded as the most succinct expression of the
CENSUS the official numbering of a population. Buddha’s teachings and provide significant insight into the
CEREMONIALISM the use of dance, song and symbolism to Buddhist understanding of peace.
ritualise the connections between totemism and ceremony. DHARMA the teachings of the Lord Buddha and the laws of
CHARISM a gift of the Holy Spirit; an understanding of the universe; a person’s religious duty.
Christianity taken on by a particular community (for example, DHARMASHASTRA books containing specific ethics addressing
Franciscan charism focuses on the teachings of St Francis). specific religious duties.
CHARISMATIC those Christians possessing God’s spiritual gift DHIKR the spiritual exercise of ‘mindfulness’, (group)
of the ability to speak in tongues (glossolalia). recitation or singing of devotional phrases and prayers from the
CHASSIDISM school of thought originating from the teachings Qur’an.
of Ba’al Shem Tov intending to awaken adherents to the inner DHU’L-HIJJA 12th month of the Muslim year, so called
dimension of the Torah. because it is the month in which the rituals of the Hajj are
CHEVRA KADISHA a Jewish organisation that attends to the performed.
purification of bodies in preparation for burial and assists in DIASPORA the spread of Jewish communities around the
funeral preparations. known world.
CHINAMPA floating platform of reed mats on which farming DIOCESE a region administered by a bishop.
land was created.
DISCIPLE a follower, particularly a follower of Jesus of Nazareth.
CHRIST the Messiah, the ‘anointed one’; from the Greek
DISCIPLESHIP the fellowship offered by the Christian
Christos.
community.
CHUPPAH traditional Jewish wedding canopy.
DISSENTERS Protestants who left the Church of England
CLERGY people, such as ministers or priests, who are trained after 1662, either because they disagreed with the church’s
or ordained for religious duties. practices and theology or because they believed that the
COADJUTOR assistant to a bishop. legal establishment of one church was wrong. Also known as
CONDITIONED ARISING the Buddhist teaching on cause and ‘nonconformists’.
effect. DIVINATION the use of the magical or the supernatural to
CONFUCIANISM a Chinese school of philosophy and ethics. foretell the future.
CONSCIENCE our individual sense of what is right and wrong. DIVINE from or like God or a god.
CONSERVATIVE JUDAISM combines a positive attitude toward DOCTRINE moral or religious principles taught by a particular
modern culture, acceptance of critical secular scholarship group.
regarding Judaism’s sacred texts and commitment to Jewish DREAMING a European term that refers to the essence of truth
observance. Conservative Judaism believes that scholarly study in Aboriginal religious beliefs.
of Jewish texts indicates that Judaism has constantly been DUALITY holding two things together.
evolving to meet the needs of the Jewish people in varying
DUKKHA the teaching that every aspect of ordinary life has
circumstances, and that a central halachic authority can
some aspect of suffering or incompleteness.
continue the evolution.
ECLECTIC choosing certain aspects of a system of thought
CONSTITUTION the way in which a state is organised,
without accepting the whole of the system.
the body of legal principles regulating the relation of state
authorities to each other. ECOLOGICAL concerning the relationship of organisms to one
another and to their surrounding environment.
COSMOLOGY the science or theory of the universe.
ECUMENISM seeking worldwide Christian unity.
COVENANT the relationship between God and his people that
came through Abraham and Moses, carrying with it special EDDAS collections of folk tales of the Vikings.
rights and responsibilities. EGALITARIAN person or society committed to the equality
DANA generosity. of all people regardless of their social, economic or political
situation.
Glossary 445

EGALITARIANISM a commitment to the equality of all people GURU a spiritual guide who dispels darkness and is known for
regardless of their social, economic or political situation. the quality of his teaching.
EIRENE the word for ‘peace’ in the New Testament. HADITH used for individual sayings of the Prophet, and as a
EKKLESIA a church or congregation in the early Hellenic collective term to refer to the entire corpus of such sayings. As
Christian communities. a collective term it is a name for the second foundation text of
Islam, the first being the Qur’an.
EMA BOARDS a five-sided wooden board on which prayers
have been written (Shinto). HAIDEN a Shinto prayer hall.
EMPOWERMENT the authorising or giving of power to HAJJ the annual pilgrimage to Mecca and the attendant
someone else. ceremonies held between the seventh and tenth day of dhu’l-
hijja, the twelfth month of the Muslim year.
ENLIGHTENMENT a blessed state in which the individual
transcends desire and suffering and attains Nirvana. HALACHA commandments—the way of Jewish law given
to Moses on Mount Sinai and transmitted throughout the
EPICS the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
generations by rabbis and sages.
EPISTLE a letter with teaching or instruction contained within it.
HARIJANS Untouchables or ‘God’s people’.
EPISTEMOLOGY the theory of knowledge.
HEBREW BIBLE a modern term, also known as the Tanakh.
ESTABLISHED CHURCH a state church, controlled by the
HEDONISM the belief that pleasure is the chief good.
government, that enjoys a higher status than other Christian
denominations (for example, the Church of England as it is in HELLENIC emanating from the Greek world.
England). HERMENEUTICS the science of analysing and interpreting texts.
ETHICS a set of practices based on moral beliefs, clarifying HIGH CHURCH a term used to describe the Anglo-Catholic
what is right and wrong. worship tradition in the Anglican Church.
EUCHARIST Christian sacrament that commemorates the HIJRA ‘migration’. The Hijra was Muhammad’s migration
Last Supper of Jesus Christ. Also known as communion, holy from Mecca to Madina in 622 CE. ‘Hijra year’ is the Muslim
communion or the Lord’s Supper. calendrical year, based on a lunar month calendar dating from
EUTHANASIA the act of bringing about a person’s death out of the year of the migration.
a desire to relieve the person of suffering. HODEN the kami’s prayer hall, situated behind the haiden.
EVANGELICAL a theology that places a high priority on personal This is a sacred space which only the priests can enter.
conversion, the authority of the Bible and missionary outreach. HOMILY explanation of the Gospel given by the celebrant of
EVANGELISM the preaching of the gospel to non-Christians. the service.
EVANGELISTIC relating to or promoting the ardent preaching HOMOSEXUALITY sexual attraction to or activity among
of the Christian gospel. members of the same sex.
FAJR first light, dawn. HUACA the Incan nature spirits.
FAST abstention from food, drink, smoking and sex. ‘IBADAT acts of devotion, religious observances.
FEMINIST THEOLOGY the movement to reconsider tradition IHRAM ritual consecrated state of one making the pilgrimage;
and scripture from a feminist perspective, recovering new clothing indicating an individual is in this consecrated state.
interpretations and new inclusive understandings of Christianity. IJMA’ consensus of the ‘ulama (and community) on an issue of
FIQH Islamic jurisprudence. Islamic law.
FIVE PILLARS the five basic religious duties of every Muslim: IMMANENT RELIGION a religion that holds that gods, goddesses
profession of faith in God and his Prophet, praying five times a or divine spirits live within nature and that the universe was
day, paying a poor tax, fasting during Ramadan and making a created by these spirits and is maintained by their power.
pilgrimage to Mecca. INCARNATION God become human in the Divine person of
FIVE PRECEPTS a commonly held set of ethical rules in Jesus Christ.
Buddhism: to abstain from killing sentient life forms; never to INDULGENCES a remission of punishment for sins granted for
take what is not given; never to harm anyone through sensual good works done.
pleasures; to avoid harming anyone through speech; to avoid INJIL the revealed book given to Jesus (not to be confused
all mind-changing substances. with the Christian narrative Gospels about Jesus).
FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS Buddhist teachings that examine the IRWONSANG the symbol of ultimate reality adopted by Won
nature of suffering. Buddhists.
GEMARA collection of commentaries containing ancient ISLAM the religion revealed to and preached by Muhammad;
rabbinic discussion of the Mishnah. act of acceptance of this religion.
GENTILE a person who is not of the Jewish faith. ISNAD line of transmitters of a saying of the Prophet (hadith);
GNOSTIC WRITINGS writings containing secret wisdom about hadith.
Jesus’ ministry and teachings that were not included in the New JATI caste.
Testament.
JESUS MOVEMENT the group of early Christians who set out
GOMPA meditation hall in Vajrayana (Tibetan) Buddhism. to spread the good news about Jesus.
GOSPELS the first four books of the New Testament, attributed JEW a member of the Israelite people.
to Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, that tell the story and
JHANAS levels of meditation practice in Buddhism.
teachings of Jesus of Nazareth.

JIHAD effort, struggle (moral or physical). LITURGY official public worship, the set order for communal
JIHAD BIL NAFS the greater jihad which is the struggle to worship.
control evil within oneself. LOW CHURCH evangelical reformed Protestant Churches that
JINGA a small, house-like shrine constructed for Shinto’s kami. rely on the Bible.
JIVA soul or individual self that experiences death and rebirth. MAARIV evening prayer service.
JUDAISM a term first used about 2000 years ago to explain the MAHATMA a title given to a person of outstanding character
Jewish religion to non-Jewish people. and spirituality, translated as ‘great soul’. A person who is great
in spirit.
JUMU‘A Friday. Day of congregational prayer, from which it
takes its name. MAHAYANA the School of the Great Wheel in Buddhism found
in northern countries of Asia.
JUZ’ a 30th part of the Qur’an.
MALAS Tibetan prayer beads.
KA’BA cube-shaped structure in the Sacred Mosque in Mecca,
the ‘house of God’. MANDAP the wedding altar as prepared by the bride’s family.
KABBALAH a mystical strand of Judaism. MANDELAS spiritual maps of the various realms of the
Buddhas.
KADDISH a central prayer, blessing and sanctifying the name
of God. MANDIR a Hindu temple.
KADI a judge in an Islamic court or tribunal. MANTRA a short saying or verse from the Vedas uttered to
invoke the power of a deity, a spiritual formula containing a
KAHIN a shaman or soothsayer in pre-Islamic Arabia.
name of God.
KAMA sexual or sensual pleasure.
MASJID mosque.
KAMI the Shinto spirits that are associated with a particular
MASS the commemoration of the Last Supper in a formal
place.
ceremony.
KARMA the consequence of all acts that are done willingly.
MATERIALISM a worldview that shows more interest in
KASHRUTH the Jewish food laws that determine what is clean physical and monetary possessions than spiritual values.
and unclean.
MATSURI any ritual occasion where the offering of thanks and
KETUBAH a marriage contract between husband and wife that praise is made to the kami at a shrine.
is signed before the wedding.
MEDITATION exercises that serve as a support for prayer and
KIBBUTZ a communal agricultural settlement. contemplation of God.
KIDDUSHIN the first stage of the Torah-mandated marriage MESSIAH the anointed one who would save the Jews and
process. Kiddushin is accomplished beneath the chuppah. usher in the reign of God.
(canopy) when the groom gives the bride the ring. MEZUZAH a box attached to a doorpost. God’s name is
KINSHIP highly sophisticated networks of relationships engraved inside. The Shema is written on a scroll and placed
governing interactions between members of Aboriginal language inside this box.
groups. MIDDLE WAY OR PATH at some point Buddha came to a
KINSHIP SYSTEM highly sophisticated networks of conclusion that the right path of extremism and non-extremism
relationships governing interactions between members of was somewhere in the middle and he called it the ‘middle path’.
Aboriginal language groups. MIDRASH rabbinic commentary on the scriptures, often in the
KRISHNA one of the ten incarnations or avatars of Vishnu. form of a story.
KSHATRIYAS the warrior class (varna) of Hindu society. MIMIS Aboriginal spirits or spirit figures.
KUMBH MELA a Hindu festival held every four years, MINCHA afternoon prayer service.
culminating in the Maha (‘Great’) Kumbh Mela held once every MINYAN a group of ten adults over the age of 13 necessary for
twelve years at Prayaga. certain prayers to be said in Judaism.
KUSALA a good act. MISHNAH part of the Talmudic literature, compiled over a
LAITY all the people in a religious organisation who are not clergy. period of 400 years. It is legal material written down since the
LAND RIGHTS the inherent rights of Aboriginals to their time of Torah. It aims to clarify matters through repetition and
land, forming the basis of a movement designed to ensure the discussion.
preservation of Aboriginal spirituality and culture. MISSIONARIES men and women who travel outside their
LAST SUPPER the last meal shared by Jesus with his apostles homeland to spread the teachings of their religious faith.
that instituted the Eucharist. MISSIONISATION the policy of forcing Aboriginal people to
LAWS OF MANU (MANUSMRITI) contains guidelines on reject their own religion and to accept Christianity.
dharma. A model of how the Brahmin priests thought society MITZVOT commandments in Judaism.
ought to be. MOKSHA liberation from samsara, the cycle of rebirths, and
LIBERAL JUDAISM a form of Judaism that takes a more liberal the discovery of the true self.
approach to the interpretation of the Law than other streams. MONASTICISM a style of Christian life that emphasises
LINGA a symbol or sign indicating the Absolute Being, community, often of priests, brothers, nuns or lay believers.
originally thought to be a phallic symbol, a symbol of potency MONOTHEISM belief in a single God: Judaism, Islam and
associated with the god Shiva. Christianity are monotheistic faiths.
Glossary 447

MORALITY the decisions people make based on their ethical PANCASILAM the ethical precepts of Buddhism.
system. PANTHEISM the belief that God and the universe are one—
MOSAIC LAW law given to the community of believers. It is there is no divine power outside of the universe, but everything
covenantal, a contract with God. that makes up the universe is God.
MU’AMALA’ human affairs and relationships. PANTHEON a collection of gods.
MUDRAS body postures. PAPACY the leadership of the Pope and Cardinals based in Rome.
MUEZZIN a male Muslim who utters the call to each of the five PARADIGM the core belief of a particular religious tradition
daily prayers from the minaret. that is the basis for all other beliefs held by believers of that
MUHAJIR(UN) migrant(s)—those who accompanied or tradition.
followed Muhammad from Mecca to Madina. PARADISE another term for heaven or the afterlife.
MURTI an image, often a sculpture, that represents a deity. PARANIRVANA the departure of the Lord Buddha from this
MUTAR those actions which are permissible. world into nirvana.
MUSLIM one who professes faith in Islam. PARISH a geographical region in which worshippers centre on
a particular Christian church.
MYSTICAL spiritually symbolic.
PAROCHIAL related to or located in a parish.
NABI prophet.
PATRIARCHY a society where males have primary
NAI-SHOTEN the name given to Shinto’s female clergy.
responsibility and control.
NATIVE TITLE the exclusive title, rights and interests that
PENTECOSTAL a group within Christianity that is
Aboriginal people have in regard to land. Extinguishment of
characterised by enthusiastic prayer, contemporary music, large
native title requires compensation.
stadium style events and informal liturgy.
NATIVE TITLE ACT 1993 Australian federal legislation that
PHARISEES a first-century Jewish group who valued the oral law
recognises the existence of Aboriginal native title in Australian
of Moses and the Torah as guidance for how to live life as a Jew.
federal law and the native title rights of Aboriginal people.
These rights are limited, however, to Aboriginals who can show PIKUACH NEFESH Jewish law requiring its adherents to violate
a connection with a parcel of vacant crown land. The Act came almost all prohibitions in order to preserve human life.
into force on 1 January 1994. PILGRIMAGE a journey to a sacred place.
NATIVE TITLE (MABO) JUDGMENT judgment of the High PILGRIMS people who journey to a sacred shrine for spiritual
Court of Australia, delivered on 3 June 1992, declaring that development.
the Meriam people were entitled to the Murray Islands as POGROM an organised massacre or persecution of a particular
owners, possessors and occupiers. The judgment recognised the ethnic or religious group.
existence of Aboriginal native title.
POLYTHEISM belief in many gods and goddesses: Hinduism is
NATURAL LAW the order that governs the natural universe. an example of a polytheistic religion
NAYANARS a group of poets and saints from South India who PRAJNA wisdom and insight into what reality truly is.
were devotees of Shiva.
PRASADA gifts offered to the deity.
NEO-PAGANS those who have revived the old forms of
PRAYER forms of address to achieve a moment of interaction
paganism that rejected organised religion, male domination and
with God.
the abuse of nature.
PROCURATOR Roman official appointed to govern Roman
NER TAMID eternal light found above the ark in the
provinces.
synagogue.
PROGRESSIVE JUDAISM a stream of Judaism that believes that
NICENE CREED the statement of faith that is most widely used
while the Torah came from God, it is up to people to apply it to
in Christian liturgy.
modern-day situations. It sees Jewish law as dynamic rather that
NIRVANA the teaching of the ultimate destiny for all sentient a static set of rules from the past.
life forms.
PROTECTORATE SYSTEM British policy enacted to ‘protect’ the
NISSUIN marriage, the wedding ceremony. ‘natives’. It became a mechanism of control over Aboriginal people.
NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH in Buddhism, a means for attaining PROTESTANT REFORMATION a 16th-century movement to
the end of suffering. reform the Catholic Church that led to the formation of the
NON-CONFORMISTS Protestants outside the Church of Protestant Churches.
England, often from the Baptist, Methodist, Presbyterian or PUJA private or public ritual; worship involving offerings to a
Congregationalist denominations. deity.
OCCULATION ‘hidden’ state of the twelfth Imam, who is to PURANAS a collection of sacred Hindu texts.
return to inaugurate the millennium at a time of God’s choosing.
QIYAS the use of analogy to determine an issue according to
OLMEC an early race of people, thought to have inhabited the Islamic law.
same region as the Aztecs, c. 1400–400 BCE.
QUR’AN the book revealed to Muhammad, the prime
OMEN a sign that foretells of good or evil. foundation text of Islam.
ORTHODOX JUDAISM traditional Judaism. A term first used in QURAYSH the custodian tribe of the Mecca shrine; the tribe
1795 to distinguish between traditional and progressive Jews. into which Muhammad was born.
Orthodox believe that both the written and oral law were given
RABBI a Jewish scholar or teacher.
to God on Mount Sinai; therefore, the law cannot be changed.

RABBINICAL JUDAISM the rabbi as teacher became the central SAKYAMUNI the historic Buddha.
focus rather than the priest. The synagogue replaced the SALAT ritual prayer (used of the five obligatory daily prayers,
Temple. Study of the Torah replaced sacrifice. No new material collectively or individually).
was introduced to the Bible.
SALVATION deliverance from sin gained through the death
RAK‘A a cycle of postures and recitations comprising a unit in and resurrection of Jesus.
the ritual prayer.
SAMADHI the practice of meditation in Buddhism.
RAMA one of the ten incarnations or avatars of Vishnu.
SAMHITA a collection of hymns addressed to a variety of
RAMADAN ninth month of the Muslim year—the month of deities. The most ancient of the four Vedas.
fasting from the first sign of dawn to sunset.
SAMSARA the cycle of rebirths; the teaching that at death a
RATIONAL HUMANISM the position that the proper focus of person’s karma will find a new life form.
human concerns is the human, with an emphasis on human
SANATANA DHARMA the ‘immemorial way of right living’—
reason to determine what a person should think and do.
an expression used to refer to the way of life of a Hindu.
RECONSTRUCTIONIST JUDAISM founded in the United States ‘Immemorial’ refers to the belief that the Hindu religion has
in the 1920s by Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan, this form of Judaism always been there, that it had no founder. It has always been
rejects the concept of a supernatural God and asserts that passed down from one generation to the next. Also known as
Judaism is a people, a culture and a faith community. the eternal law or dharma. The term comes from Sanskrit.
REFORMATION a 16th-century movement for renewal of the SANGHA the community of Buddhist believers and, more
church, led by Luther, Zwingli, Knox and Calvin. specifically, Buddhist monks and nuns.
REFORMED TRADITION those religious groups whose SANHEDRIN the assembly of judges in Jerusalem, the High
formation was the result of the 16th-century Protestant Court of the Jews.
Reformation.
SANNYASI renunciates, wondering holy men.
RENUNCIATES sannyasi, wandering holy men.
SANSKRIT language of the Vedas.
REVELATION the message of God to all humanity, fully
SATYAGRAHA persistence in the truth.
expressed in the person of Christ.
SCIENTIFIC HUMANISM the belief that the proper study of
RISHIS ancient sages.
humans is the human, using scientific research and methods.
RITE the detailed description of a particular ritual, such as the
SECRET-SACRED certain aspects of Aboriginal religion and
Rite of Marriage.
spirituality that are reserved for initiated Aboriginal persons.
RITUALS these can be both religious and secular in nature, and
SECTARIANISM excessive devotion to a particular religious
can be described as a patterned series of activities that are capable
denomination.
of being repeated. A clear example in the religious sphere is
worship. SECULARIST person who believes that government and
education should not be connected to religion.
RODEF ‘pursue’ (Hebrew). Din rodef (‘law of the pursuer’) holds
that a person can defend themselves against someone pursuing SEGREGATION/PROTECTION government practices and policies
them to kill them. that set Aboriginals physically apart from white settlements.
RRARK cross hatching—an Aboriginal artistic style SENTIENT all creatures that possess senses and respond to the
characteristic of Arnhem Land. environment in which they live.
RUSUL messengers (of God). Singular rasul. SERMON teaching about Christianity given usually by the
celebrant during worship services.
SABBATARIANISM the conviction that the Fourth
Commandment was part of God’s moral law and that Sunday SHABBAT the Sabbath or seventh day of the week when Jews
should therefore be kept with the same strictness as the Jewish abstain from work. The Sabbath begins on Friday evening and
Sabbath. Civil courts enforced observance in Britain, its colonies concludes one hour after sunset on Saturday.
and the United States. SHACHARIT morning prayer service.
SABBATH the day of rest established by the Jewish tradition. SHAIVAS devotees of Shiva. Also known as Shaivites.
SACRAMENTS sacred rites or ceremonies involving change for SHAKTI the name given to the wife of Shiva when she is
the individual. regarded in her own right rather that as the wife of Shiva.
SACRED SITES natural land formations where Aboriginal SHALOM Jewish word for ‘peace’.
Ancestral Spirits interacted with creation. SHAMAN a medicine man.
SADDUCEES a priestly class of the Jewish people at the time of SHAMANISTIC having the character of a shaman—one who can
Jesus. fall into a trance-like state and have knowledge of the spirit world.
SADHU an ascetic or holy man. SHAPE-SHIFTER a person or animal that takes on the features
SAGAS stories of the Vikings. of another person or animal by physically changing appearance.
SAHABA companions of Muhammad during his life. SHARI‘A the party of ‘Ali. The wing of Islam that believes
SAHIFA the covenant made between Muhammad and that guidance of the community resided in ‘Ali and the Imams
his community with the communities of Madina after the descended from him. The twelfth Imam was taken into occultation
migration from Mecca. in 873–4 CE, and will return to introduce the millennium.
SAKAKI TREE a Japanese tree, branches of which are used to SHELOSHIM the period of 30 days following the shiva. Less
sprinkle holy water on worshippers. intense period of mourning.
Glossary 449

SHEMA the prayer that states the oneness of God: ‘Hear, O SUFI one who lives an unostentatious life in an attempt to
Israel: the Lord is our God, the Lord alone’ (Deuteronomy 6:4). experience the presence of God in the heart.
SHI‘A the wing of Islam that believes the authority and SUFISM the mystical path of Islam which promotes a direct
guidance of the community after the death of Muhammad and personal encounter with God.
resides in ‘Ali and his line. SUNNI the wing of Islam that believes that the authority and
SHIN TAO the way of the spirits (Shinto). guidance of the community is decided by the community itself.
SHIVA one of two principal gods. Sometimes spelt ‘Siva’. SUNS the five stages of creation of the Aztec world.
Known in the Vedas as Rudra, a god of passion. SUNYATA void, emptiness as the basis of all reality.
SHOMERIM people who sit with a body until the funeral takes SUPERSTITION belief in the supernatural.
place.
SUPREME BEING another term for the Ultimate Reality or
SHOTEN the name given to Shinto’s male clergy. Brahman.
SHRADDHA rites or offerings for departed relatives given at puja. SURA a chapter of the Qur’an.
SHRAMANAS holy men and women. SUTTA PITAKA the collections of sayings of the Lord Buddha
SHRINE a place where people come to worship. and stories about his life.
SHRUTI ‘that which was heard’, for example, the Vedas. SYNOD a group of church delegates convened to discuss and
Revealed wisdom. decide on church affairs.
SHUDRA artisan class (varna) of Hindu society. TALISMAN an object which is believed to hold special powers.
SHUL Yiddish for ‘synagogue’. TALLIT a fringed prayer shawl used during certain Jewish rituals.
SHULCHAN ARUCH a practical guide to Jewish observance TALMUD the collective name for rabbinical writings composed
written by Joseph Caro (1488–1575). from the first century BCE to around 500 CE.
SILA! the ethical system within Buddhism. TANAKH an acronym from the three sections of the Hebrew
SITUATION ETHICS making the right choice according to the Bible: Torah, also known as the Pentateuch; Nevi’im, meaning
situation, often called the ‘love ethic’, popularised by Joseph the prophets; and Ketubim, meaning ‘scriptures’, ‘writings’ or
Fletcher in 1966. ‘wisdom books’.
SKANDRAS five combinations of energy which make up the TAOISM ancient system of religion and philosophy originating
ever-changing human being. in China.
SKINLINE bloodline of Aboriginal people. TASBIH type of rosary consisting of 99 beads for counting the
recitation of the 99 most beautiful names of God.
SMRITI literature remembered by humans and handed down by
word of mouth. It is preserved by tradition. Everything after the TAWHID declaration that God is One.
Vedas. TAWRAH the revealed book given to Moses (not to be confused
SOCIAL COHESION the way a society works together to remain with the Torah).
harmonious. TEFILLIN phylacteries—small boxes containing a small piece
SOCIAL DARWINISM a theory assigning a hierarchy of the of parchment on which is written the Shema. These boxes are
human race according to skin colour. strapped on the arm and forehead at morning prayers.
SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION the way a society changes and TEMPERANCE abstinence from alcohol.
develops over time. TEMPLE OF JERUSALEM central place of worship for Jewish
SOLA FIDE the doctrine of justification which states that we adherents.
are saved by faith alone. TEPPAM a joyous Hindu festival held in January or February
SOLA SCRIPTURA the doctrine that the Bible is the only each year.
authority for Christian faith. TERRA NULLIUS Latin words literally meaning ‘land belonging
SOODAR the mark made with red paste on the bride’s hair to no one’. An erroneous British concept according to which
parting. the continent of Australia was not inhabited by Indigenous
peoples, and therefore was available for claim and colonisation.
SOVEREIGNTY supreme controlling power, or the power by
which a people is self-governing. TESHUVA the accountability of each person for their own
deeds and personal introspection.
SPRITUAL of or concerning the spirit as opposed to matter—
divine, inspired. THANGKAS Tibetan spiritual images.
STEREOTYPES conforming to a widely held belief. THEOLOGY the study of religion and religious beliefs.
STEWARDSHIP the responsibility given to humanity to care for THERAVADA the School of Elders in Buddhism found in South-
the earth as outlined in Genesis. East Asia.
STOLEN GENERATIONS the taking of Aboriginal children THESES arguments or ideas.

from their parents by the authorities and the placing of these THREE JEWELS the Buddha, dhamma and sangha.
children in institutions far removed from their families. THREE REFUGES the principal teachings of Buddhism on the
STREAM-ENTERER a person who realises that everything is an Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha; also known as the Three
illusion, and there is nothing but nirvana. Jewels.
STUPAS monuments that house relics of holy men and TIKKUN OLAM the rebuilding or repair of the world.
women, in particular, relics of the Lord Buddha.

TOLTEC the empire preceding the Aztecs. VEDA means sacred knowledge. The Vedas are regarded as
TORAH the first five books of the Hebrew Bible. sacred scripture, a part of the wisdom that God naturally
possesses. They are revealed knowledge or ‘shruti’.
TORII gateways, made of timber or stone, which define the
sacred space of Shinto shrines. VIHARA shrine room in Theravada Buddhism.
TOTEMISM the word ‘totem’ comes from the Algonquin VINAYA the first collection of the Tripitaka (sacred texts) in
(native North American) language. It refers to an entity—plant, Buddhism indicating the laws for monks.
animal or natural object—that has become the token or VISHESHA DHARMA the religious duties of the four classes of
emblem of an individual or a language group. The entity cannot Indian society.
be gathered, hunted or even painted by those who have it as VISHNU the one who pervades all. One of two principal Hindu
their totem since it is believed to link them to the spiritual force gods. Known in the Vedas and concerned with the order of the
responsible for their existence. world. Said to have ten incarnations or avatars.
TRANSCENDENT beyond human experience. VIVAHA marriage.
TRANSCENDENT RELIGION a religion that holds that there VOTIVE OFFERING offering given in fulfilment of a vow or to
are beings that exist beyond the known universe that are not gain favour.
subject to the laws of nature; polytheism and monotheism are
WALI a saintly person, close to God thanks to outstanding
the two principal types of transcendent religion.
virtue; friend, protector; sometimes ‘friend of God’.
TRIMURTI the three divine manifestations of Brahman—
WESAK an annual festival celebrating Gautama Buddha’s birth,
Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu.
enlightenment and paranirvana.
TRINITY the triune God who is Father (Creator), Son
‘WHITE AUSTRALIA’ POLICY the government policies that
(Redeemer) and Spirit (Sanctifier).
restricted the immigration of non-whites to Australia from 1901
TRIPITAKA the Buddhist sacred texts (the ‘three baskets’) made to 1973.
up of the Sutta Pitaka, the Vinaya Pitaka and the Abhidharma
WORLDVIEW a general philosophy or view of life.
Pitaka.
WOWSERISM a common view among Protestants from the 1890s,
TSA’AR BA’ALEI CHAYIM ‘suffering of living creatures’: the
one that openly disapproved of consumption of alcohol, gambling,
principle of not causing unnecessary pain to animals.
dancing and Sunday leisure time activities in general. (‘Wowser’ is
‘ULAMA Islamic faith leaders especially learned in the Law and an acronym for ‘We Only Want Social Evils Remedied’.)
its application.
XIALBA a Mayan term for the underworld.
ULTIMATE REALITY another term for the Supreme Being or
YAHRZEIT a time of remembering the dead commemorated
Brahman.
every year on the anniversary of the death.
UMAYYA the wealthier branch of the Quraysh tribe.
YATHRIB the former name of the city to which Muhammad
‘UMRA the lesser pilgrimage to Mecca. migrated from Mecca in 622 CE, now known as Madina.
UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE the right of all adult citizens to vote. YATRA pilgrimage.
UNTOUCHABLES outcastes, people who lived on the fringes YHWH the ‘unutterable name’ of God, revealed to Moses at the
of settlements. They were the garbage collectors, the leather burning bush (Exodus 3:14). It is often translated ‘I am who I am’.
tanners, the carriers of corpses. ‘Untouchability’ is now
YIDDISH the language used by Ashkenazi Jews. It is written in
outlawed in India. The term in common usage today is ‘dalit’.
the Hebrew script and has many Hebrew and German words.
UPANISHADS the last section of Vedic literature; the word
YOGA a spiritual activity through which a person seeks union
means ‘to sit down beside’.
with the absolute.
UTILITARIANS those who believe that circumstances are
ZABUR the revealed book (of psalms) given to David (not to be
important in deciding the rightness of an act.
confused with the book of Psalms in the Tanakh).
VAISHNAVAS followers or devotees of the god Vishnu. Also
ZAKAT the poor tax.
known as Vaishnavites.
ZAMZAM miraculous spring of plentiful pure water next to the
VAISHYA merchant class (varna) of Hindu society.
Sacred Mosque.
VAJRAYANA the school of Buddhism found in Tibet and Nepal.
ZAPOTEC a Mesoamerican tribal group thought to have been
VARANASI the most sacred place of pilgrimage, situated on the present c. 500 BCE–1000 CE.
River Ganga (Ganges).
ZEALOTS a first-century Jewish group looking for a Messiah
VARNAS the four major classes of society. who would lead a revolt against the Roman authorities.
Glossary 451

Index
’Abduh see Muhammad ’Abduh agnostics, 180, 181 ashramas, 76, 93–4
Abhidharma Pitaka, 43, 244 ahimsa, 11, 240, 242, 250, 253, 254, Asoka, 241–5
Aboriginal people 302, 309, 386 and development of Buddhism,
art, 18, 22–3 Buddhism, and peace, 390 242–5
religious function, 22–3 defined, 240, 386 expression, 244–5
beliefs and spirituality, 17–28 Hinduism, and peace, 409 and ethical teachings, 244
connection to the land, 19, 25–7, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, 336 pilgrimages, 255
204, 213 ’A’isha bint Abu Bakr, 105, 109, 332–3 significance, 245
deaths, 208 Al-Amin, 100, 103 Assalamu alaikum, 399, 401
dispossession, 207 Al-Fatiha, 100 assimilation, 202, 209, 211–12
initiation ceremonies, 205–6 Al-Ghazali, 340–2 atheism, 416, 425
land boundaries, 26 teaching on contraception, 345 and human aspirations and
land and economics, 27 alcohol, 195 behaviour, 427
names of objects, 26–7 ’Ali, 104–5, 108 atman
obligations to people, 205–7 appointed Caliph, 109 Buddhism, 32, 33
oral tradition, 22 as first Imam, 111–12 Hinduism, 76, 83, 89
sacred sites, 19, 24 murdered, 110 Australia
spirituality, 203–19 alvars, 302, 306 Christianity
and land, 204, 207–12 anatma, 32, 37, 41 arrival, 181–8
and religious traditions, 232–5 anatta, 240, 251 contribution, 192, 193–5
story-telling theology, 234 angels, 114–15 as dominant faith, 182–3
symbolism, 22–3 Angkor Wat, 15 ecumenical movement, 228–30
theology, 233–5 Anglicanism, 63–4 current religious landscape, 222–6
value systems, 204 in Australia, 182–3, 191, 222 Hindu temples, 325
Women’s Business, 24 marriage ceremony, 293, 295 interfaith dialogue, 231
worldview, 19–20 preservation of life, 283 multi-faith religious dialogue,
Aboriginal Tent Embassy, 214 rite of baptism, 290 228–35
abortion worship service, 296 religion
Buddhist ethics, 250–1 anicca, 32, 37, 41, 240 modern developments, 226–7
Christian ethics, 282 animism, 416, 417 post-1945, 202–35
Hindu ethics, 311–12 aninut, 356 pre-1945, 180–97
Islamist ethics, 345 ansar, 100, 109 religious expression, post-1945,
Jewish ethics, 148, 367 anthropomorphism, 156 219–27
Abraham, 131–2 anti-Semitism, 180 Australian Aboriginals see Aboriginal
descendants in Egypt, 132 Aqida, 100, 114–15, 386 people
absolute beings, 76 Arabia before Islam, 101–3 avatars, 76, 79
absolutists, Buddhism, 240 Arahats, 32 aveilut, 356, 375
Abu Bakr, 105, 107, 108 meetings, 36 Ayodhya, 302, 321, 323
contribution, 108, 109 Aranyakas, 76, 88, 89 Aztecs, 157–63
Abu Hanifa, 336 Arjuna, 311 decline of empire, 162
Abu Sufyan, 109 Aron Kodesh, 356, 379 deities, 160, 161
Abu Talib, 105 Aryans, 76, 77–8 influence of religion on society, 160
Abu’l-Qasim see Muhammad asceticism on origin of the universe, 158
advaita, 302, 303–4 Buddhism, 32 principal beliefs, 159
agnosticism, 416, 425 Christianity, 76 rituals, 160, 162
and human aspirations and Ashkenazic synagogue tradition, 379 temple life, 162
behaviour, 427 ashrama dharma, 76, 93–4 ba’al tashchit, 356, 370

Banu Hashim, 100 teaching of Shankara, 303–4 views on marriage, 294
baptism, 289–92 Brahmana, 76, 88, 89 worship service, 296
as expression of Christian belief, 291 brahmins, 32, 76 censorship, 195
significance, 292 Buddhism, 33 ceremonialism, 202
bar mitzvah, 356 brit milah, 356 ceremonies, 13
blessing, 376 blessing, 376 Aboriginal people, 205–7
bardo, 32 Broughton, William, 183 Chabad-Lubavitch, 364–5
basilea, 386 Buber, Martin, 357–9 charismatic churches, 202, 226, 396
bat mitzvah, 130, 137 contribution to Judaism, 359 charisms, 52, 63
blessing, 376 Buddha, 32, 34–5, 240 Chassidism, 130, 356, 357, 359
Beatitudes, 70, 386 one of Three Jewels, 39 Chevra Kadisha, 356, 374
belief systems, Australia post-1945, Buddha nature, 240, 247 chinampas, 156, 157
202–35 Buddhism, 240–67 Chisholm, Caroline, 184
beliefs in Australia, 189 Christ, 52, 270
Aztecs, 159 post-war, 221, 224 see also Jesus Christ
Buddhism, 39–42 bodhisattvas, 9 Christian feminist theology see
Christianity, 65–7 cultural differences, 9–10 feminist theology
Hinduism, 83–6 ethical teachings, 45–6, 244, 250–4 Christianity, 52–73, 270–99
Incas, 166 historical and cultural context, 33 arrival in Australia, 181–8
Islam, 114–15 origins, 33–8 in Australia
Judaism, 140–1 and peace, 389–93 contribution to social welfare, 192
Maya people, 164 concept of ignorance, 390 dominance, 182–3
Nordic religion, 174 for individuals, 391–2 general contribution, 193–5
Shinto, 171 world peace, 392 compared with modern science as
Benares see Varanasi personal devotion, 47 belief system, 428–9
BFP see Buddhist Peace Fellowship pilgrimage, 255–9 response to human person, 431
Bhagavad Gita, 76, 79, 92 principal beliefs, 39–42 response to social responsibility,
abortion, 311 relationship with Shinto, 168 431
on peace, 408, 409 sacred texts and writings, 43–4 response to the transcendent, 428
Bhajan Kirtan, 302 schools, 37–8 early history, 61–3
bhakti, 302, 305 significant practices, 255–65 ethical teachings, 69–70, 282–8
Bhakti Movement, 306–7 Three Refuges, 9 historical and cultural context, 54–5
Bible, 68 Buddhist Peace Fellowship (BFP), 393 impact on Aboriginal society, 232
Luther’s translation, 276, 277 bullroarers, 4, 23, 202 nominal Christianity, 232–3
scholarship, burial, Islamic practices, 349 official establishment in Australia, 182
contribution of Schüssler Fiorenza, bush brotherhoods, 180, 193 origins, 53–64
280 Bush Church Aid Society, 193 and peace, 394–8
see also Gospels; New Testament business ethics, Islam, 347–8 for individuals, 396
Biblical exegesis, 270 Caliphs, 108–9 principal teachings, 395
bimah, 356, 380 contribution, 108–9 world peace, 397–8
bioethics Calvin, John, 278 personal devotion, 71
Buddhism, 250–2 influence of St Paul, 275 in post-war Australia, 221, 222–3
Christianity, 282–3 castes principal beliefs, 65–7
defined, 270 India, 33, 35, 93, 311, 418 religious practices, 289–97
Hinduism, 311–12 and marriage, 314, 316 benefits, 289
Islam, 345–6 catechisms, 270, 277 sacred texts and writings, 68
Judaism, 366–9 Catholic Earthcare, 286 New testament, 394
bishops, 180 Catholic epistles, 270 significant people and ideas, 271–82
Blue Mosque, Istanbul, 419 Catholicism, 64 chuppah, 356, 377
bodhisattvas, 9, 32, 37, 240 in Australia, 184–6, 191–2, 222 Church of England see Anglicanism
Brady, Don, 234 marriage ceremony, 293, 294 climate change, 285–7
Brahma, 76, 83 preservation of life, 282–3 cloning, Buddhist ethics, 251
Brahman, 32, 76, 83, 88, 302 rite of baptism, 290 colonisation, 209
Index 453

commandment of love, 70 of Jesus Christ, 57, 61 Buddhism, 45–6, 244, 250–4
concept of ignorance, and Buddhist discipleship, 270 Christianity, 69–70, 282–8
understanding of peace, 390 of equals, 279 in Paul’s epistles, 275
conditioned arising, 240 dissenters, 180 Hinduism, 93–4, 311–14
Confucianism, 240, 246 divination, 156 Islam, 120–1, 345–8
Congregationalists, 186 divine, 416 Judaism, 148–9, 366–72
conscience, 270 divorce, 195 role of religions, 418, 420
conservative Judaism, 130, 137 Dixon, Fr James, 181, 184 search for guidance, 421–2
Constitution, 202 doctrines, 180 Won Buddhism, 248–9
contraception Dodson, Patrick, 235 see also situation ethics
Hinduism, 311 Dreaming, 4, 17–21, 202 Eucharist, 270
Islam, 345 in Aboriginal art, 18 euthanasia
Judaism, 371 its importance, 18–20 Buddhist ethics, 252
cosmology, 416 spirituality, 203 Christian ethics, 282–3
Council of Nicaea, 62, 65, 275 stories, 20–1 defined, 240, 270
Covenant, 52, 130, 386 and women, 24 Islamist ethics, 346
and peace, 405 Dreamtime Spirit cooking of the Jewish ethics, 367–8
cows, in Hinduism, 313 damper (story), 20 evangelical, 180
dana, 240, 261, 262 duality, 156 exegesis see Biblical exegesis
darshan, 76 dukkha, 32, 240, 250 Exodus from Egypt, 132, 133–5
darshana, 302 mark of existence, 41 fajr, 100
da’wa, 330 one of Four Noble truths, 41 Fatima al-Zahra (Fatima the Radiant),
death Theravada School, 37 104, 111, 333–4
Islamic practices, 349 Durga, 83–4 Federation, 211–12
Judaic practices, 373–4 eclectic, 240 female initiation, Aboriginal people, 206
Decalogue, 52 ecological awareness, 424 feminist theology, 270, 279, 280
see also Ten Commandments ecology defined, 416 Fiorenza, Elisabeth Schüssler see
decree, 115 ecumenism, 416 Schüssler Fiorenza, Elisabeth
Deists, 180, 181 in Australia, 228–30 fiqh, 100, 120, 330
denominational schools, 194 influence of Schüssler Fiorenza, 281 fire ceremony, 318
denominations, 180 Eddas, 156 Five Pillars of Islam, 122–5, 386
switching between, 226 egalitarianism, 4, 202, 211 and understanding of peace, 400
destiny, 416 Eightfold Path to Perfection see Noble Five Precepts (Buddhism), 45, 386
Devarim see Ten Commandments Eightfold Path and peace, 390
Devil’s Marbles, 19 eirene, 386 and world peace, 392
devotees, 302 ekklesia, 270 Flynn, John, 193
devotion (Buddhism) see puja ema boards, 156 Foster, Tom, 233
Dhammapada, 386 empowerment, 416 Four Noble Truths (Buddhism), 34,
and peace, 389–90 enlightenment, 32 41–2, 386
dharma Buddha, 34 and peace, 390
Buddhism, 32, 35, 36, 240, 244, 389 environmental ethics and sexual ethics, 253
one of Three Jewels, 39 Buddhism, 253–4 Friday congregational prayer, Islam, 350
defined, 386 Christianity, 284–7 funeral ceremonies, Aboriginal people,
Hinduism, 76, 85, 302 teaching sources, 284 206–7
recognition by pilgrimage, 257 Hinduism, 312–13 Gabriel (angel), 104–5, 114
Dharmashastra, 76, 90, 302 Islam, 346 gambling, 195
and abortion, 311 Judaism, 369–70 Ganesha, 83, 84
dhikr, 330 epics, 76, 90–2 Garrawurra, Dhalanganda, 235
Dhu’l-Hijja, 100 epistemology, 330 Garuda, 79
diaspora, 52 Epistles, 61–2, 270, 272 Gautma, Suddhartha see Sakyamuni
dioceses, 180 Established Church, 180 Geiger, Abraham, 138
disciples ethical monotheism, 366 Gemara, 147, 356
defined, 52, 302 ethics, 4, 11, 52, 270 genetic screening, 368–9

gentiles, 130, 270 in post-war Australia, 221 inner peace, 387
Ghandi, Mohandas Karamchand, principal beliefs, 83–6 interfaith dialogue, 231
309–10 religious practices, 315–19 Irwonsang, 240
Gilbert, Kevin, 235 sacred texts and writings, 87–92 Islam, 100–27, 330–53
Gnostic writings, 52 significant people and ideas, 303–10 in Australia, 189
Gompa, 240 Hinduism Today, 411 defined, 100
Gondarra, Djiniyini, 233 Hirsch, Samson Raphael, 136 ethical teachings, 120–1, 345–8
Gospels, 52, 57, 58, 60 hodens, 156 Four Rightly Guided Caliphs, 108–10
Grant, Cecil, 233 Holocaust, 361 individualism, 331
Greek Orthodox Church, homain, 318 modest clothing, 121
in Australia, 188 homilies, 270 origins, 101–13
gurus, 76 homosexuality, 270 civil war, 109–10
hadith, 100, 105, 118–19, 330, 386 Buddhist ethics, 253 and peace, 399–402
on peace, 399 Christian ethics, 287–8 for individuals, 401
haidens, 156 Judaism, 372 principal teachings, 400
Hajj, 100, 124, 330, 351 Howard, John, 216, 217 world peace, 402
Rabi’a al-Adawiyya, 339 huacas, 156 pilgrimage, 351
halacha, 130, 356, 386, 406 human history, in post-war Australia, 221
Harappan civilisation, 77–8 religious dimension, 417–20 principal beliefs, 114–15
Hari see Vishnu expressions, 417–18 religious practices, 349–51
harijans, 302, 310 meaning and purpose for sacred texts and writings, 116–19
see also untouchables individuals, 418–19 schools of thought and law, 334–7
Harris, Charles, 235 significance, 418–20 significant people and ideas, 331–44
Hasan (Muhammad’s grandson), 108, social cohesion, 419 Islam five pillars, 122–5
111, 112 social transformation, 420 Islamic banking, 347–8
Hassidic groups, 136 humanism Islamic jurisprudence, 120–1
hatha yoga, 86 and human aspirations and Islamic Relief Worldwide, 402
Hebrew Bible, 130, 132, 142–6 behaviour, 427 Ismailis, 112
Hebrew scriptures, 142–6 see also rational humanism; scientific Isnad, 100
hedonism, 202 humanism Istanbul, Blue Mosque, 419
Hellenic, 52, 270 Husayn (Muhammad’s grandson), jatis, 76
hermeneutics, 270, 279, 280 108, 111 Jerusalem, Wailing Wall, 136
Heschel, Abraham Joshua, 360–2 as Imam, 112 Jesus Christ
contribution to Judaism, 362 ’ibadat, 330, 345 birth and early life, 56
philosophy, 361 ignorance see concept of ignorance as challenge to authority, 58
interaction with God, 361 ihram, 330 commandment of love, 70
social and religious concerns, 360–1 ijma’, 121, 330, 334–5 death and resurrection, 65–6
high church, 180, 270 Ikara (story), 21 divinity, 53, 65
hijab, 121 Imami, 113 historical figure, 65
Hijaz, 102 immanent religions, 4 as Messiah, 53, 54
Hijra, 100, 105 worldview, 7–8 miracle worker, 58
Hindu Council of Australia, 411 incarnation, 386 model for Christian life, 60
Hinduism, 33, 76–97, 302–27 Incas, 166–7 as teacher, 57
in Australia, 190 India as viewed by other religions, 60
ethical systems, 93–4 6th century, 33 Jesus Movement, 52, 61, 270
ethical teachings, 311–14 castes, 33 discipleship of equals, 279
gods and goddesses, 79–2, 83–4 Indigenous Australians see Aboriginal Jewish Voices for Peace and Justice, 407
origins, 77–82 people Jews, 130, 132
and peace, 408–11 indulgences, 270, 276 jhanas, 32, 42
principal teachings, 409 Indus Valley, 77–8 jihad, 100, 330, 348
world peace, 411 initiation ceremonies, Aboriginal jihad bil nafs, 386
personal devotion, 94–5 people, 205–6 jingas, 156
pilgrimage, 320–4 Injil, 100 Jinja Shinto, 169
Index 455

jiva, 302 Koshitsu Shinto, 169 marks of existence, 41
John the Baptist, 53, 56 Krishna, 76, 79, 86, 307–8 marriage
Johnson, Richard, 181, 182–3 and abortion, 311 Christian ceremony, 292–5
Judaism, 130–53, 356–83 ten avatars, 80 as expression of Christian belief,
in Australia, 190, 225 kshatriyas, 302 293–4
defined, 130 Kumbh Mela, 302, 320, 322 significance of ceremony, 294
ethical teachings, 148–9, 366–72 kusalas, 32, 240 Hindu ethics, 314
origin of the term, 132 laity, 180 Hindu practices, 315–19
origins, 131–5 land rights, 4, 202, 213–16 ceremony, 316–19
and peace, 403–7 Lang, John Dunmore, 187 Judaism, 376
for individuals, 406 Last Supper, 270 significance, 378
principal teachings, 404–5 Laws of Manu, 76, 93, 94 Marsden, Samuel, 183
world peace, 407 legitimists, 109 Marx, Karl, 425
peace on earth, Leibowitz, Nechama, 363–4 masjids, 100
prophetic vision, 403–4 liberal Judaism, 130 Mass, 270
principal beliefs, 140–1 lingas, 76, 81, 302 masturbation, Buddhist ethics, 253
religious practices, 373–81 liturgy, 52 materialism, 416, 423
sacred texts and writings, 142–7 Lotus of the Good Law, The, 43 matsuris, 156
significant people and ideas, 357–66 low church, 270 Mauryas, 241
jumu’a, 330 Luther, Martin, 276–8 Maya people, 164–5
Juz’, 100 contribution to Christianity, 277 on origin of the universe, 164
Ka’ba, 100, 103, 124, 125, 330, 351 emphasis on the Bible, 277 temple, 164
Kabbalah, 130, 356 impact on Christianity, 278 Mecca, 124–5
Kaddish, 356 influence of St Paul, 275 Medina see Yathrib
at funeral services, 374 Lutherans, 182, 188 meditation, 416
in periods of mourning, 375 Maariv, 356, 380 Buddhism, 32
kadi, 330 Mabo et al. v Queensland see Native Title and peace for individuals, 391
kahins, 100, 102 (Mabo) Judgment and personal fulfilment, 421
Kali, 84 MacKillop, Mary, 185 in temple puja, 261
kama, 302, 313 Madina, 106–7 Christianity, 52, 71
kami, 156, 168, 170 see also Yathrib and peace for individuals, 396
Karlu Karlu, 19 Mahabharata, 90, 91 Hinduism, 409–10
karma see also Bhagavad Gita Messiah
Buddhism, 32, 41, 42, 240 Mahaparinirvana Sutta, 255 Christianity, 52, 53, 54
effect of pilgrimage, 256, 257, 258 Mahatma, 302, 309 Judaism, 130, 141
and peace, 390 Mahayana School of Buddhism, 32, prophesies, 54
and world peace, 392 37–8, 240, 247 Methodists, 186–7
defined, 386 origins, 36 metta bhavana, 391
Hinduism, 33, 76, 85 Mahisa, 83 Mezuzah, 130, 150, 356
Kashruth, 270 malas, 240 Middle Path (Buddhism), 32, 35
Kata Tjuta, 204 Malcolm, Arthur, 233 Midrash, 356, 386
Keating, Paul, 217 male initiation, Aboriginal people, and death, 373
ketubah, 356, 377 205–6 mimis, 4
Ketubim, 146 Malik ibn Anas, 335–6 Mincha, 356, 380
Khadijah, 103–4 mandalas, 32, 38 minyan, 356
Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, 332 mandaps, 302, 316 Minzoku Shinto, 169
Kharijites, 110 mandirs, 302, 320 Mira Bai, 307–8
kibbutz, 356 mantras Mishnah, 130, 147, 356
Kiddushin, 356, 377 Buddhism, 32, 38 missionaries, 240
kinship, 4 Hinduism, 302 Buddhism, 243
Aboriginal people, 205 Shinto, 156 missionisation, 202, 209, 232–3
kinship system, 202 Manu, 94 Mitzvot, 356, 366
Koran see Qur’an manusmriti see Laws of Manu modern Judaism, 136–9

modern science NCCA see National Council of pantheism, 4, 8
compared with Christianity as belief Churches in Australia pantheons
system, 428–9 neo-pagans, 202 Aztecs, 157
response to human person, 431 ner tamid, 356, 380 defined, 156
response to social responsibility, 431 Neve Shalom/Wahat al-Salaam, 407 papacy, 270, 276
response to transcendent, 428 Nevi’im, 144 parables, 57
see also scientific humanism New Age religions, 226–7, 421–4 paradigms, 4, 9
moksha, 302, 386 factors influencing rise, 423–4 Paradise, 156
Buddhism, 32 new religious expressions see New Age Aztec beliefs, 159
Hinduism, 76, 86 religions paranirvana, 32, 36
monastic communities, 63 New Testament, 386, 394 parishes, 180
monasticism, 52 see also Epostles parochialism, 180
monotheism, 4, 6, 7, 52, 416, 418 Nguthanunga Mai Ambatanha (story), ‘Parusha Sukta’, 87
see also ethical monotheism 20 Parvati see Shakti
morality, 270 Nicene Creed, 68, 386 Pascal, Blaise, 425
Mosaic law, 130 Nicholls, Doug, 233 Passi, Fr Dave, 235
Moses, 132, 133–5 nirvana, 32, 42, 240, 386 Passover, 134
Mount Sinai, 134 Mahayana School, 37–8 Patanjali, 86
mu’amala’, 330, 345 one of Four Noble Truths, 41 patriarchy, 270, 279
Mu’awiya, 109, 110, 112 nissuin, 356, 377 Paul of Tarsus, 271–5
mudras, 32 Noble Eightfold Path, 41, 386, 390 central ideas, 273
muezzins, 100 non-conformists, 180 and Christianity as a world religion,
muhajirun, 100 non-religious worldviews, 425–7 271, 273
Muhammad, 103–7 Nordic religion, 174–5 contribution to Christianity, 274
appointment as God’s messenger, Norse mythology, 174 impact on Christianity, 274–5
104–5 NSW Ecumenical Council, 230 journeys, 272
death, 107 occultation, 113 letters, 61–2, 272
fight against Mecca, 106–7 Oesberg ship, 175 mission, 272
life in Madina, 106–7 Olmec, 156 Pax Christi, 397
preaching and opposition, 105 omens, 156 peace
Muhammad ’Abduh, 343–4 organ transplants, Buddhist ethics, for individuals, 387–8
Muhammad al-Shafi’i, 336 251 and religion, 386–413
murti, 76 origin of the universe peace on earth, prophetic vision,
Muslims, 100, 330 Aztec beliefs, 158 403–4
mutar, 386 Inca beliefs, 166 Pentecostalism, 64, 202
mystical, 416 Mayan beliefs, 164 in Australia, 223
nabis, 100 Shinto beliefs, 169–70 personal devotion
Nai-Shoten, 156 origins Buddhism, 47
names, given in the Dreaming, 26–7 Buddhism, 33–8 Christianity, 71
Narayan see Vishnu Christianity, 53–64 Hinduism, 94–5
Nataraja, 81 Hinduism, 77–82 Judaism, 150–1
National Council of Churches in Islam, 101–13 personal fulfilment, 421
Australia (NCCA), 229–30 Judaism, 131–5 Pharisees, 52, 55, 270
Aboriginal and Islander Commission, Orthodox churches, 64 philosophy of dialogue, 358, 359
235 marriage ceremony, 293, 294 Pikuach Nefesh, 356
‘Act for Peace’ campaign, 397 rite of baptism, 290 pilgrimage
statement on environment, 285 views on marriage, 294 Buddhism, 255–9
native title, 202, 213–16 worship service, 296 beliefs and practices, 257
Native Title Act, 1993 (Cwlth), 202, see also Greek Orthodox Church motivation, 256
215–16 Orthodox Judaism, 130, 136 significance to Buddhist
Native Title (Mabo) Judgment, 202, Orthodox Peace Fellowship, 397 community, 259
215 Palestine, 54, 56 significance for individual, 258
natural law, 270 under the Romans, 55 stages, 256
nayanars, 302 Pancasilam, 32, 240, 252 defined, 386
Index 457

Hinduism, 320–4 Quraysh, 100, 105, 109 Rudra see Shiva
and peace, 410 Qutb see Sayyid Qutb rusul, 115
sites, 321 rabbinical Judaism, 130 sabbatarianism, 180, 195
Islam, 351 rabbis, 130, 136 Sabbath
see also Hajj Rabi’a al-Adawiyya, 338–40 Christianity, 270
pilgrims, defined, 240 rak’a, 330 Judaism see Shabbat
pogroms, 180 Rama, 76, 79, 86 sacraments, 52, 180, 270
Polding, John Bede, 183, 184, 185, 194 Ramadan, 100, 123–4 Luther’s beliefs, 278
polytheism, 4, 6, 416, 417–18 Ramanuja, 305 sacred sites, 4, 202
poor tax, Islam, 123 Ramayana, 90–1 Aboriginal people, 19, 24
prajna, 32, 42, 240, 257 rasul, 100 Incas, 167
inter-relatedness with sila and rational humanism, 416, 426 Maya people, 164
samadhi, 250, 253 reconstructionist Judaism, 130 Nordic religion, 174
prasada, 76 reductionism, 202 protective rules, 204
prayer, 52 Reform Judaism, 137 sacred texts and writings, 10, 387
Christianity, 71 Reformation, 52, 63, 270 Buddhism, 43–4
and peace for individuals, 396 influence of Luther, 276, 278 Christianity, 68
Islam, 122–3, 350 reformed tradition, 202 Hinduism, 87–92
Judaism, and peace for individuals, religion Islam, 116–19
406 Australia Judaism, 142–7
premarital sex impact of immigration, 223–5 Sadducees, 52, 55
Buddhism, 252 post-1945, 202–35 sadhus, 302
Judaism, 371 pre-1945, 180–97 Sagas, 156
Presbyterians, 187 characteristics, 1, 8–13 sahabas, 100
preservation of life contribution to sahifa, 100, 106
Christian teaching, 282–3 individuals, 14 Sakaki tree, 156
see also abortion; euthanasia society and culture, 15–16 Sakyamuni, 32, 34–5
procurators, 52 nature, 5–16 salat, 100, 330
profession of faith, Islam, 122 and peace, 386–413 salvation, 52, 67, 270, 386
progressive Judaism, 130, 138–9 religions of ancient origin, 156–77 emphasis by Luther, 278
Prophetic Vision, 149 religious calendars, 12 for non-believers, 67
Prophets, 144–5 religious expression samadhi, 32, 35, 240, 257
protectorate system, 202 post-war Australia, 219–27 inter-relatedness with sila and
Protestant Reformation see census data, 219–21 prajna, 250, 253
Reformation renunciates, 76 Samanya Dharma, 85
Protestantism, 64 revelation, 52, 66–7, 386 samatha, 391
see also Anglicanism rishis, 76, 78 Samhita, 76, 87, 89
public rituals, 12 rites, 270 samsara, 32, 42, 76, 240
puja rites of passage, 12 San, Soe-tae see Won Buddhism
Buddhism, 32, 47, 240 rituals, 4, 12–13, 202, 416 Sanatana Dharma, 76, 77, 78
defined, 386 Aztecs, 160, 162 Sangha, 32, 35
Hinduism, 76, 94–5, 302 defined, 156, 270 formation, 36
see also temple puja; Wesak puja Hinduism, 88 move outside, 254
Puranas, 76, 90 Incas, 167 one of Three Jewels, 39–40
qiyas, 121, 330, 334, 335 Maya people, 165 in shrine rooms, 260
Quakers see Society of Friends Nordic religion, 174–5 significance for pilgrims, 257, 258
Quetzalcoatl, 158, 161 Shinto, 172 under Asoka, 242, 243, 244, 245
Qur’an, 100, 116–19, 330, 386 road to Jerusalem, 58 in Wesak festivals, 263, 264
on the Ka’ba, 103 rodef, 356 Sanhedrin, 52, 55
on the last day, 115 Rosedale, George, 233 sannyasin/sannyasi, 76, 302
on Muhammad’s life, 104 Royal Aalal-Bayt Institute for Islamic Sanskrit, 76
origins, 105 Thought, 402 Santamaria, B.A., 192
on peace, 399, 400 rrark, 4 Saraswati, 83
on revealed books, 115 Rudd, Kevin, 218 Saturday/Sunday worship

Christianity, 295–7 spiritual position of Fatima, 333–4 social transformation, 416, 419
as expression of Christian beliefs, Shin Tao, 156 Society of Friends
296 Shinto, 168–73 preservation of life, 283
significance, 297 example of animism, 417 and world peace, 397–8
satyagraha, 302 festivals, 172, 173 worship service, 296
Saul see Paul of Tarsus principal beliefs, 171 Soe-tae San see Won Buddhism
Sayyid Qutb, 344 rituals, 172 sola fide, 270
School of the Elders see Theravada shrines, 168, 169, 172 sola scriptura, 270
School of Buddhism texts, 170 soodar, 302
Schüssler Fiorenza, Elisabeth, 279–81 types, 169 sovereignty, 202
contribution to Christianity, 280 Shiva (Hindu god), 76, 81–2, 86 spiritual, 416
impact on Christianity, 281 pilgrimage sites, 322–3 stereotypes, 416
scientific humanism, 416, 426–7 shiva (Jewish mourning period), 356, Stern, Sigmund, 138
scientific progress, 423 374–5 stewardship, 270, 416
search for meaning shomerim, 356 Stolen Generation, 202
Incas, 167 Shoten, 156 stone of Tizoc, 162
Maya people, 165 shraddha, 302 stream-enterers, 32, 42
Nordic religion, 175 shramanas, 32, 33 stupas, 240, 242, 244, 259
Shinto, 173 shrines Bhopal, 242
secret-sacred, 4, 17 defined, 156 Subramanya, 83
sectarianism, 180, 181, 191–2 Shinto, 168, 169, 172 Sufism, 330, 337–44, 386
secularism, 227 shruti, 76 and peace, 401
secularists, 180 shudra, 302 Sunnis, 100, 330
segregation/protection, 202, 209, 210 shul, 356 emergence, 111
self-determination, 212 Shulchan Aruch, 356, 370 spiritual position of Fatima, 334
sentient beings, defined, 32 shuma Shinto, 169 sunyata, 240
separation, 210–11 significant people and ideas superstition, 416
Sephardic synagogue tradition, 379 Buddhism, 241–9 Supreme Being, 76
Sermon on the Mount, 57 Christianity, 271–82 Sura, 100, 330
sermons, 270 Hinduism, 303–10 sutta, 32
seveners, 112 Islam, 331–44 Sutta Pitaka, 43, 386, 389–90
sexual ethics Judaism, 357–66 synagogue services, 379–81
Buddhism, 252–3 sila, 35, 39, 42 significance, 381
Christianity, 286–8 defined, 32, 240 synods, 180
sources of teaching, 286 effect of generosity, 262 tafsir, 120
Hinduism, 313 effect of meditation, 261 talismans, 156
Islam, 347 effect of Wesak, 264 tallit, 356
Judaism, 371–2 Eightfold Path to Perfection, 41 Talmud, 130, 137, 147, 356, 386
Shabbat, 130, 150–1 inter-relatedness with prajna and Tanakh, 100, 130, 132, 386
Shacharit, 130, 140, 356, 380 samdhi, 250, 253 Taoism, 240, 246, 247–8
Shaivas, 76, 82, 302, 306–7 in Mahayana school, 38 tasbih, 330
Shakti, 76, 82, 83 need for clarity of mind, 45 Tawhid, 100, 114, 386
shalom, 386, 394, 403, 404–5 observation on pilgrimage, 256, 257 Tawrah, 100
shamans, 156, 168 and opportunity to become human, tefillin, 130, 140
Shankara, 303–4 251 temperance, 180
shape-shifters, 156 in Theravada School of Buddhism, 37 Temple of Jerusalem, 52
Shari’a law, 120–1, 330, 334 situation ethics, 270, 282 temple puja, 255, 259–63
Sheloshim, 356, 375 skandras, 32 beliefs and practices, 261
Shema, 130, 140, 356 skinline, 202 significance, 262–3
and dying, 373 Slaughterhouse Creek Masaacre (1838), temple worship,
in synagogue services, 380 208 Hinduism, 324–5
shemira, 374 smriti, 76 Ten Commandments, 69, 134, 148
Shi’a, 100, 330 social cohesion, 416, 419 Tenochtitlan, 157, 159
emergence, 111–13 social Darwinism, 202, 209 Teppam festival, 302, 323
Index 459

terra nullius, 202, 207, 215 Untouchables, 76, 302 Wilpena Pound (story), 21
teshuva, 130 Upanishads, 33, 76 women, and the Dreaming, 24
Tezcatlipoca, 158, 161 on creation of the world, 312 Won Buddhism, 246–9
thangkas, 240 Hinduism, 83, 88–9 and development of Buddhism, 247
theology, 270 ’Uthman, 108 contribution to expression of
Theravada School of Buddhism, 32, contribution, 109 Buddhism, 248–9
37, 240 utilitarians, 240, 250 ethical teachings, 248–9
origins, 36 views on abortion, 251 impact on Buddhism, 249
theses, 270 Vaishnavas, 76, 82, 302, 307 World Conference of Religions for
Luther, 276 vaishya, 302 Peace (WCRP), 388
Three Jewels (Buddhism), 39–40, 386 Vajrayana School of Buddhism, 32, world peace, 387, 388
Three Refuges, 240 38, 240 Buddhism, 392
acknowledgment by pilgrims, 260, origins, 36 Christianity, 397–8
261 Valhalla, 174 Hinduism, 411
celebration by Wesak, 264 Varanasi, 302, 320, 322 Islam, 402
Tibetan Book of the Dead, 43 varnas, 76, 93–4, 302 Judaism, 407
tikkun olam, 130, 138, 149, 356, 360, Vaughan, Roger Bede, 184, 185 worldviews, 5
386, 405 Vedas, 32, 33, 76, 78, 83, 87–9 Aboriginal people, 19–20
Toltec civilisation, 156, 157 Venkateshwara, 79 immanent religions, 7–8
Torah, 52, 54, 356 Vihara, 240 religious and non-religious
commandments, 148–9 Vinaya, 32, 36 compared, 428–9
Judaism, 130, 143 Vinaya Pitaka, 43, 46 transcendent religions, 6–7
Leibowitz’s approach, 363 vipassana, 391 see also non-religious worldviews
Progressive Jews, 139 vishesha dharma, 76 wowserism, 180
torii, 156 Vishishtadvaita, 305 Xialba, 156
totemism, 4, 19, 25, 202, 204 Vishnu, 76, 79, 82, 86 Yahrzeit, 356, 375
transcendent religions, 4, 202, 416 pilgrimage sites, 323–4 Yasukuni shrine, 172
worldview, 6–7 teaching of Ramanuja, 305 Yathrib, 100, 105
trimurti, 76 vivaha, 302 yatras, 302, 320–4
Trinity, 66, 386 votive offerings, 240 Yazid, 112
Tripitaka, 32, 43, 240, 244 Wahat al-Salaam see Neve Shalom/ Yemenis, 101–2
Theravada School, 37 Wahat al-Salaam Yhwh, 54, 130, 133
tsa’ar ba’alei chayim, 356 Wailing Wall (Jerusalem), 136 Yiddish, 130, 136
Twelvers, 113 wali, 330 yoga, 86, 386
’Ulama’, 330 Waraqa, 104 Zabur, 100
Ultimate Reality, 76 WCRP see World Conference of zakat, 100
Uluru, 26 Religions for Peace Zalman, Shneur, 365
’Umar, 107, 108 Wesak, 240, 263–5 Zamzam, 100, 103
Umayya, 100, 105 beliefs, 264 Zapotec, 156
Umayyad dynasty, 110 significance, 264–5 Zealots, 52, 55
’Umra, 330 Wesak puja, 263 Zwingli, Ulrich, 278
Uniting Church, 222–3 White Australia Policy, 202
universal suffrage, 180, 184 Wik Peoples v Queensland, 216

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In Oxford Studies of Religion, the emphasis is on Included in this comprehensive text are features such as:

Oxford Studies of Religion

ROSEMARY KING HELEN SMITH ANNE PATTEL-GRAY

KIN_OSR_CVR_SI.indd 1 16/9/09 11:45:31 AM

P2 identifies the influence of religion and belief • religion as a worldview that:

Australian Aboriginal beliefs and spiritualities—

(Studies of Religion Stage 6 Syllabus © Board of Studies NSW for and on

Prelim | Chapter 1 The nature of religion 3

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Prelim | Chapter 1 The nature of religion 5

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The immanent religious worldview

Immanent religions hold that gods, goddesses or

Prelim | Chapter 1 The nature of religion 7

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6. Create five columns with these headings:

The characteristics of religion

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Prelim | Chapter 1 The nature of religion 9

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Sacred texts and writings

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Prelim | Chapter 1 The nature of religion 11

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Prelim | Chapter 1 The nature of religion 13

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The contribution of religion goal of their religious tradition. Religious traditions

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FIG. 1.14 Arabic calligraphy in a mosque. Mosques are decorated with

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The nature of the Dreaming

The Dreaming (also referred to as ‘Dreamtime’ or ‘Dream Time’) holds

Prelim | Chapter 1 The nature of religion 17

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The whole story goes right back

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Prelim | Chapter 1 The nature of religion 19

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There was a woman who had two children. They went

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The story of Ikara (Wilpena Pound)

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24 Oxford Studies of Religion

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FIG. 1.21 Through Aboriginal ceremonial dance, aspects of