UNIT : ANTENNA ARRAYS AND 2 ANTENNA MEASUREMENTS Syllabus ‘Antenna Arrays: Point Sources - Definition, Patterns, arrays of 2 Isotropic Sources - Different Cases, Principle of Pattern Multiplication, Uniform Linear Arrays ~ Broadside Arrays, End fire Arrays, EFA with Increased Directivity, Derivation of their Characteristics and Comparison, BSAs with Non-uniform Amplitude Distributions - General Considerations and Binomial Arrays. Antenna Measurements: Introduction, Concepts - Reciprocity, Near and Far Fields, Coordinate System, Sources of Errors. Patterns to be Measured, Directivity Measurement, Gain Measurements (by Comparison, Absolute and . 3Antenna Methods) LEARNING OBJECTIVES In this unit, you will study the following. Concept of pola source and typeé of antenna patterns Array of 2 itotropie sources wth equal amplitude and eqvel phase, equal amplitude and opposite phase Principle of pattern multiplication cn Concept of broad side array, end fie array, their characteristics Concept of binomial arrays Measurement of pattern, directivity and impedance of an antenna Sources of error in antenna measurement 99999999 Measurement of gain by comparison, absolute and 3-antenna methods. INTRODUCTION 9 slecrcmagnetic waves energy in space In this uni to evaluate ‘An antenna may be used for either transiting or recek the various parameters in antenna design in an eaty way, the pattern of an antenna is regarded to be'formed by an array of point sources. Then itis extended to general case of non-uniform distribution to produce any desired pattern. Accurate measurements are necessary to evaluate the actual performance of antennas. These i Jude gain, pattern, polarization, impedance, bandwidth etc. These properties of antenna are accurate theoretically. However, in practice, the performance of real entennas must be checked by measurement: because of fabricated tolerances and errors. The second port deals with experimental measurements of antennas, typical sources of meaturement errors and different measurement methods of antenna parameters. SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS. ay Wa~ a ROPAGATION [JNTU-HYDERABAn, 23 : ANTENNAS AND WAVE PI S (PART-A) ‘SHORT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTION Q1. Define isotopic source. Ans: Nov Dee-16, (R13), 04(9) A source, which radiates EM waves or radio waves with the same intensity and uniformly in all the directions over a Sphere (ie., centred on the source) is known as isotropic source. Q2. Whats field pattern. Ans: Field pattem for a point source is defined as a pattern at 4 coristant radius r, depicting changes in the intensity of electric _ field asa function of angle 8, 6). The total electric field is given by, = YEE +E Where, E, ~ Amplitude of 8 component E,~$ component's amplitude. Q3. Define antenna array. Ans: The arrangement in which combination of radiations takes place from a group of antennas and the obtained field strength can be raised in a particular direction by suitable excitement of group (or) series of antennas simultaneously. This, type of arrangement is known as antenna array. Q4.” Write the applications of antenna arrays. An: Nove, Set3, a3te) ‘The applications of antenna arrays are given as follows, 1, Array of 22 dipole antennas are used in Yagi antenna for TV reception. 2. Array rhombic antenna’ and Multiple unit steerable antenna are used for recurring in MUSA system, 3.___ Radar applications Q5. Write the principle of pattern multiplication. An: ee-19, (R16), ata) ‘ Patter of multiplication is a simple and fast method used to obtain the same patterns of arrays. 4 Itis defined for field pattem and phase pattem as follows, @® Field Pattern: The total field pattem of non-isotropic but similar sources is the product of pattern of each! isotropic point sources, each of which is located at the phase centre of individual sources and field pattems of all individual sources. qi (i). Phase Pattern: The total phase patter is the ad of pattem of individual isotropic point sources aay and the phase pattern of individual sources. Q6. Whats a uniform linear array? An: Nov8, (R13), 1g) An array in which all the antennas are placed at equal distances from each other ina straight line is referred to as linear array. If all these elements are fed with equal magnitude and progressive phase shif, then these arrays are called &s uniform linear arrays. . WARNINS: Xerox/Photocopying of this book is CRIMINAL act. Anyone found guy linear array. Q7. Draw uniform NowsDee-17, RAM, ax9) = fement of elements in a uniform linear array ‘The arrangt js illustrated in figure below. Direction of maximum radiation Figure: Uniform Linear Array QB. Explain how beam steering is achieved in uniform linear array? Ans: Marcht7 (R13), Otfg) In uniform linear arrays, phase shifters are employed with antenna arrays to steer the main beam electronically. The ‘main beam is scanned in several directions by rapid mechanical motion for beam steering, ‘applications of linear arrays, ‘The applications of linear arrays are mentioned as follows, 1, Tominimize the interference between desired users and interfering signals, adaptive linear arrays are employed in wireless communications. Mobile radar equipment uses planar array antenna 3. Dueto extremely compact size, linear arrays are used in shipboard applications, Q10. Define array factor Array factoris defined as the ratio of total far field to the far feld maximum and is given by, Number of point sources ¥—Total phase difference, — O11. Draw the radiation pattern of an array of four 'sotropic elements spaced by Az, elements spaced by i “SIBLE (face LEGAL paces.ae * NIT-2 (Antenna Arrays & Antenna Measurements) rey Usitpae due G'OUPAEM estat pate due 2 isolated oma of 4-isotropic ‘individual aay elements) Figure iside and End fire (Model Paper, t(b)|Dec-9, (R16), 4) Broadside‘Array 4 Anantenna array which is formed by placing multiple and identical parallel antennas perpendicular to the axis ofthe antenna array. nd Fire Array 4 The array in which a number of identical antennas are spaced equally along a line and individual elements are fed with currents of equal magnitudes and unequal phases ({.e., with a phase shift of 180°) is known as end fire array. Q13, Describe the prin An: je of end-fire array. May-18, (R15), Q1(h) Ivan end-fire array, the maximum radiation direction is along the axis of the array and the phase difference between adjacent element i$ a =-Bd. Q14, A linear broad side array consists of 4 equal isotropic sources with 4/3 spacing (overall length of array = 2). Calculate the beam width. Ans: Nov.-5, (R13), 1h) Given that, + For broad side array, Number of sources = 4 Spacing between sources = 1/3 Total length of the array(L) =? . ‘Beam width =? ‘Then the expression for beam width ofa linear broadside array is obtained as, Beam Width between First = 46 NAS ge Nulls (WEN) = YEE = Sy = 146 Ey ‘And half power beam width 357.3" __GPBW) = arn Q15, Calculate directivity of a given linear uniform “BSA of 10 element with separation of A/4 between the elements. Ans: Given that, Fora lirear uniform BSA, Number of elements, N= 10 Separation between the elements d= 2/4 Directivity, D=? Mareht7, (R13), Oh) SPECTRUM ALLIN-CNE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS) . 2.3 Thed ; Dofalinear uniform BSA is approximately given by, D = 2NUIA) a =2% 10) 4 x 20 . -Bes Des D(AB) = 10log,,5 = 6.98 __E.D=5:D(B)= 6.9808) _ ‘G16. Calculate the directivity of given linear end fire, uniform array of 10 elements with a separation of Nd botween the elements. Ans: ' (Model Paper, (a) | May-18, (R15), 2(a)) Given that, For a linear uniform end fire array, ‘Number of isotropic elements, = 10 Spacing between successive isotropic elements, d= us Diectivity of linear end fire aray, D, = The expression for directivity of an uniform, linear end fire aray is given by, PIS Expression for directivity in decibel is given by, (D)uq= 10log,,(10) = 1008 * rr) FO, ————————— G17. Write the advantages and disadvantages of binomial array. (or) ‘ What is the main disadvantage of- binomial Nov Dee.17, (R13), O19) Ans: . Advantages of Binomtal Array 1. Binomial array reduces the minor lobes (or) secondary Jobes by feeding with current of non-uniform amplitudes, Ingeneral, pascal triangle is used to select the amplitudes of elements. Disadvantages of Blnomial Array 1, Inbinomial array, the directivity decreases with increase in half power beam width (HPBW). 2. ‘To design a large array, the larger amplitude ratios are needed.a ANTENNAS AND WA\ Find tho HPBW of a uniform linoar array Consisting of 16 Isotropic point sourcos with ‘SPacing 2/4 and phase difforenco 5 = -90". May, (R10), 01(0) Ans; Given that, For an uniform linear array, Number of isotropie point sources, = 16 Spacing between point sources, d= Phase d Half power beam width, HPBW = ? Since, the phase difference between the isotropic elements is ~ 90°, the given uniform linear array is end fire Uniform tinear array, Half power beam width for anc ance a= — 90% fire array is given by, HPBW = 57.3 Where, L~ Length of the array L=(n-1)d 15k, =06-) => 2 = HPBW=573 a pa 2 =573 jg ~4185' HPBW = 41.85" Q19. State the source of errors in antenna measure- VE. PROPAGATION [JNTU-HYDERABAD, Misalignment of antent 5, _, Man-made interfacs 6. Atmospheric effects 7. Cables. ; 8, Impedance mismatch, 9, Imperfections of instruments. 7 and far fleld distances for the neat “ SE rsciae ‘antenna with diameter D= 0.5m at 399 GHz. Nows0ve-8, (R15), a4) Ans: Given that, For a reflector antenna, ).5 m f= 300 GHz ‘The distance at which reactive near field of a reflector antenna starts is given by, ae ry $ 0.624) 5- fl) =O 103m 30010? (os? yg $ 062/05 1, $6.93m Q) ‘The distance at which radiating near field starts is given by, 2d* are 2% (0.5)? < SE < 500m 3) 107 G) 7,2 500m @ ment. . Ans: The distance at which far field region starts is given by, ‘The source of errors in antenna measurement are given + 5 oe ® as follows, x ol 1 Finite urement distance between anter 2x (0.5)? nite measurement distance antennas. 3 2205) soy 2. Reflections from surroundings. 10 3, Coupling in the reactive near field, ry 2 500m 6) |. Differentiate linear and binomial arrays. The differences between linear and binomial arrays are tabulated below, May-19, (R16), 19) Linear Array ‘Binomial Array 1. Jin antenna array ifthe individual antennas are Jequally spaced in a straight line, then itis said to be a linear array. ‘The binomial array is one in which all the elements are fed with currents of non-uniform amplitude, 2. [If elements are fed with equal amplitude, then it is 2. | Elements are fed called as uniform linear array. ana, It does not use pascal triangle. 3. | Ituses pascal triangle to select the coefficient or amplitudes of elements, | z Y Table “77 WARNING: Xerox!Photocopying of his books 2 CRIMINAL act; Anyone found quit is ABLE to face LEGAL proceedings. |?E UNIT-2 (Antenna Arrays & Antenna Measurements) 2.5 (PART-B ESSAY QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS 2:4 ANTENNA ARRAYS QAA\Point Sources - Definition, Patterns, f Arrays of 2 Isotropic Sources - Different Cases, Principle of Pattern Multiplication 22. Explain the concept ofp ‘Ans: 4 The concept of point source is used for describing an antenna, Here, the antenna is considered asa volumeless + radiator ie., an antenna that occupies zero volume. Here, the variations of field in far field are only considered and those in near field are neglected. “ — Theidea of point source can be understand by considering volumeless radiator antenna located in an observation circle with centre at point O. . 4 Inorderto analyze the far field, consider an observation field closer to antenna that is near circle having radius Ras shown in figure (1) Vy, it source. (Observation circle Figure (1): Antenna and Observation Circle © From figure (1), the centre ‘O" is common to both antenna and observation circle ie., distance between the centres is zero. % The field pattern can also be measured at a fixed pint Q on the circle and rotating the antenna around the center Oas shown in figure (2). Observation circle &) z Figure (2) % The distance between the centres must be maintained to small value, $0 that it does not effect field pattern. Also the radius of antenna’ should be very less than radius of observation circle Ri.e., R>> a. ‘ As the distance ‘a? increases, the phase of field pattern increases and is minimum at d= 0. ° ‘Q23.° Explain about the followin: Ans: @ ° * ‘SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS) “The far field ofa source ean be described using patterns of orthogonal field components £,(0,6) and £,(0,6) and pattern of phase difference of these fields (6,4). ‘Any point along the observation circle, power flow is radial and all the other measurable fields are perpendicular. Hence, it is assumed that a, wave is originated from point ‘O" and antenna fields are present everywhere even inside the circle and near the antenna. Since, here the sources of waves described interms of far field of antenna, actual field variation near the antenna can be neglected. : ‘Thus, the source can be characterized only with the amount of far field it produ Hence, far field can be measured by ereating the radiation ‘as scalar quantity, ignoring: vector nature of the field ‘and by specifying variation of power density angle or Poynting vector from the antenna (5 (0, 4) (i) Power patterns (ii) Field patterns Phase patterns. Power Patterns Power pattem is also known as power-density pattern. For an isotropic source ie.,a source radiating uniformly in ll the directions, power pattern is defined as a graph ofaradial component S, of Poynting vectors ata constant radius. : In three dimensional plane, power patter for an isotropic source isin the form of sphere while, in two dimensional plane itis in the form of circle. Figures 1(a) and 1(b) shows spherical co-ordinates for ‘a point source of radiation in free space. t raw S (cada component of Poyating vetor or power ensity Wan? at rads)2.6 w Vector S. ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION [JNTI Element of area dat ais =F sind dB 6 Arends subtends a slid angle = sind dep CO ‘ Figure (1k: Radiation of Point Source in Free Space For an isotropic souree, the graph of power pattem is called an relative power pattem, because S, is expressed in terms of some reference direction S|, and the pattem rads taken for relative power is fation of S-- where S,, is the maximum value of S, ic., unity. Such relative power pattem is also known'as normalized pattern. Figures 2(a) and 2(b) shows absolute power pattern and relative power pattern respectively. e-0 * a Power Relative Power s, (2) Power Pattern (b) Relative Power Pattern Figure (2): Relation between Poynting Vector and Field Components Field Patterns: Field pattem for a point source is defined as.a pattem at a constant radius r, depicting variations in the intensity of electric field as a function of angle (8, 6). ‘The total electric field is given by, Where, E,- Amplitude of @ component E,~9 component's amplitude. Figure (3) shows relation of £, and £, with Poynting Figure (3) , YDERABAD, Field patter is of two types, (a) Absolute field pattern (b) , Relative field patter, When field intensity is expressed in volts/meter, it jg called absolute field pattern. When field intensity is expressed in accordance with + reference direction, itis referred as field pattern, 4 Thus, Ejand &; for relative field pattem are given by, Eo 7 an ' nev Eo Een Here, E,,,~ Maximum value of E, E,,~Maximum value of E, +. Though at a far field points F, and F,, magnitude of the electric field components £, and £, is inversely proportional to each other. But, when F, and F, are angular co-ordinates of @ and ¢, then, E= | F (0,6) and 7 £,- 176.0) (iiiy Phase Patterns: Phase patterns for a far field in all the directions can be determined by the following four points, but on the assumption that field varies harmonically with the time known frequency. Phase change between the field components £,(0,6) and E09). F Amplitude of fild component E,(r, 0, 4). Amplitude of field component E,(r, 8, ). ‘A function of, 8 afid showing the phase lag 1, of either E,or Ey, Figures 4a), (b) and (c) show the three pattern of a directional antenna. ial Field Pattern (b) Polar Pattern = ss e WARNING: XeroxiPhotocopying of this bok is @ CRIMINAL act: Anyone found Quilty is IABLE to face LEGAL soe Proceedings.UNIT-2 (Antenna Arrays & Antenna Measurements) 0 + -34B Decibel -10 dB -20 4B +30 dB) 40 dB -180°-120° -160° 0° 60° 120° 180° (c} Field Pattern of Directional Antenna in Decibels igure (4) © From the above figures, it is clear that a null is produced, oe Ans: when magnitude of successive lobes are of opposite polarity. ‘What are the advantages of antenna arrays? Explain the tvpes of antenna arrays. . NowsDec-18, (R18), 846) Antenna Array * ‘Types ‘The arrangement in which combination of radiations takes place from a group of antennas and the obtained field strength can be raised in a particular direction by suitable excitement of group (ot) series of antennas simultaneously. This type of arrangement is known as antenna array. . ‘An antenna array is an arrangement of siniilar antennas so spaced and phased such that the individual radiation pattems are grouped in single direction and remain all directions are cancelled arid this is utilized in increasing the directivity and gain of an antenna. of Antenna Array ‘Antenna arrays are classified into three categories based ‘on beam pointing direction as follows, 1 2 3. 1 a Broad side array End fire array Collinear array. Broad Side Array For answer refer Unit-2, Q36, Topic: Broad Side Array. End Fire Array For answer refer Unit-2, 036, Topi Collinear Array ‘The array in which antennas are arranged end to end in ‘single line is known as collinear array. Figure below shows the arrangement of collinear array, in which one antenna is stacked over another antenna, Similar to that of broadside array, the individual elements of the collinear array are fed with equal in phase currents. A collinear array isa broadside radiator, in which the direc- tion of maximum radiation is perpendicular to the line of antenna. The collinear array is sometimes called as broadcast or omnidirectional arrays because its radiation pattern has circular symmetry with its main to be every ‘where perpendicular to the principal axis. End Fire Array. SPECTRUM ALLJN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS) i 2 -- 2.7 of Mavens radeon Figure 7 Advantages 2 4 5 6. 025. Ans: ° It provides high directivity and can be tuned by adjusting the number of elements. ‘The strength of transmitted creased. It supports electronic beam steering. It offers better signal to noise ratio. ‘The radiation pattern of the array can be changed by applying variable inputs to each element. ‘The performance of the overall antenna is improved. Determine the field of array of two point sources with equal amplitude and phase. al is significantly in- “The two-element array in which two isotropic elements are spaced at a distance ‘dis as shown in figure (1). Figure (1) From figure (1), the field due to “B" source reacha distant point ‘P" earlier than source at A with a path difference of 4'B, AB = A'0 + OB re ts AB= 5 cos0 + 5 cos AB d cos0 meters d Path difference = Xx cosO From principle of optics, Phase angle, = 2n x Path difference Pete s x 5 £050 2 ¥ = x deos0 WV =B.deos0) (+; B=2m/A) (1)a ee ee Field et #88 the field due to source at A and E, as the Pi du to source at B. Let is; isthe fr field at point due to source B. ‘Then, the resultant field ‘Z* at * E=B,ent+ Ben? Assuming, the amplitudes of fields are with equal magnitude ie., y ae E=E,-E, = BRM Ler eg ih | 2 2 B=2E, cos ¥/2] inthe “0° direction is, = @) Since, cos = @) But, y = Bd cos0, So equation (4) can be written as, Bacos® E=2E, om] =A) The total amplitude is 2, and phase shift is we 030 ‘© Equation (4) represents the equation of for field pattern of two isotropic point sources of same amplitude and phase. 3 % Since; the spacing between the point sources is given as eae eee 2n 2 cos@ E= 26,003] 4°" 9 ® a & Onnormalizing the above expression, we get, = cos|F cos0] : ~O This is the field pattern for two sources separated by a distance ‘2/2’ and having same amplitudes and same phase (c= 0°) ‘Maxima direction ‘ From equation (6), the direction of maximum ‘E” is obtained when, => cos (M/2 cos 8) = £1, since, maximum value of cosine function = +1 > Emeacten = 005 0,, =) : 2 capo ti ea WARNING: Xernx/Photocopying of this book is @ CRIMINAL act. Anyone found guilty is LIABLE to face LEGAL proceedings. ANTENNAS AND WA\ VE PROPAGATION [JNTU-HYDERABAD) Minima Direction x Half Power Point Directions (HPPD) ' ° * + for “The £ field is minimum when, cos (r/2.608 0) Min value of eosine function = gy ¢ = Fc08 09 = £(2nt 1/2 : (70s 0 is min for 0= + (2n + 1) 12) = Feo, at} (Putting n = 0) = 6050 4, = #1 and 180") (8) Half power points occurs by taking power, P = > In this case, the current of voltage is 5" its maximum value. It follows that, 1 2) 1 1, cos(/2 cos) = +75 > W2C050 ppp = # (2n + 1) M14, n= 0, 1,2... Forn=0, 605 Opp = 12 On =08'(#4) + Gi (OP and 1205 ‘The field patter is drawn considering 0... 0,4, 4 py, (, The pattern obtained is bidirectional figure of eight is as shown in figure (2). iguro (2): Field Pattern ‘Ifthe figure field pattern is rotated in 360° around x-axis it represents ‘4 3-dimensional doughnut shaped space pattern, It is the simplest type of broadside array aid is also 1 ferred as broad-side couplet since the radiations from two isotropic sources are in phase of two isotropic sources of same amplitude and phase with d= 2/2.UNIT-2 (Antenna Arrays & Antenna Measurements) 026. Determine the f) (b) Id due to, Array of two point sources of sam amplitude and in-phase at a distance 'R". Array of two point sources of same al mplitud and opposite phase ata distance ‘Ans: (): May/June-13, (R09), 03 Array of Two Point Sources of Same Amplitude and In-phase at a Distance ‘R? For answer refer Unit-2, Q25. Replace ‘P* with *R’, Array of Two Point Sources of Same Amplitude and Opposite Phase at a Distance ‘R’: + Inthis case, the source 4 is out of phase by 180° with respect to source B, 4 The maximum of source 4 occurs when source B is 4 The total fixed at far point P is given by, 2B s-BeM +6, ot =) 4 Assuming equal amplitudes at both sources, ie, 2 = Sie, snd = = => B= 2, sinf¥2], @) But, © ¥ = Bd cos® 1d cosd > ayes? | Q) 2 ~. ince, B= 5 and d=", from above expression we get, _ ‘2n i, cos®) => E=YE,sin\ 9 j2,s0( ost) (Ori normalizing the above expression, we get, * E=sin(/2c0s@) => EH = @) Maxima direction The field E is maximum when, E=sin(w/2 cos) = +1 (C+ Maximum value of sine is 1) => wi2cos0=4 (nt1).540=0,1, => n/2c0s0,,, = +12 (For n= 0) => [0,,. = 6° and 180° 2.9 Minima Direction ‘The field is minimum for, E=sin(w/2.cos0) = 0 i => [8,,,= 90° and 270° 0 Half Power Point Directions (HPPD) 4 TheHalfpower point direction is obtained for, = => sin (1/2 cos) =4(2n+ 1)/4,n=0, 1,2, Forn=0, i £09999 k a Forn=0 > 20050 y9p=* 4 1 hero = * 9 2 [Onepn = 60° and 120° ‘The field pattem of two isotropic sources separated by a distance % with equal amplitude and out of phase is obtained as shown in figure Ey 0 = 90° p= 120") HEPD= 60° => c0s0, ° PPD = 240° Figure, | 027. Derive the expression for total far field for the two point sources with currents of unequal magnitudes and with same phast Nov.-10, Set-4, Q3{a) 4 Consider, two point sources P, and P, separated by a distance d as shown in figure (1). 7 + P(Distant point) . P Je ‘SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS > Figure (1)2.10 ANTENNAS Assuming, the two point sources P, and P, fed with ‘currents of same phase of } but unequal amplitudes, Also, consider P, as the reference for the fields due to both P, and P, at'a far away point P. The vector addition of fields due to sources P, and P, is shown in figure (2). * B,=KE, @ is the phase angle Figure (2) From figure (2), £, is the field due o point source P, and E, is the field due to point source P, and E, > E,. ‘Then, the radiations from the two sources has a total phase difference of y at point P and is given as, Seay Where, Phase angle by which Z, leads J, 1,-Current of P, J,—Current of P,. ‘The total resultant field at P is given by, E=EeP+E,e" [+ P, is reference, phase angle is 0} x AND WAVE PROPAGATION [JNTU-HYDERABap, “The array factor for a2 element array with ega amplitude, phases is expressed as, E, =) -Q) Radiation Pattern ‘The field pattern can be obtained by finding the directions of maxima, minima and half power points. Direction of Maxima The direction of total field is maxima when, E, is seriou cs(B4528) ie maximum ono il = co( EE) os For d=Aand B= 3%, we get, 2080) =41 2 cos(ncos6,. ‘xc0s8, 12 Fa Assuming, K: Zand E,>E, i = K nsiny/2 . nBdcos® sin g-i|—_| = | BdeosO, in =) 0 se, d is very small, the term sin de08 0. con be 1d cost 2 approximated to — sin| GBdcos0 5 Pecose ow (@) ‘The far field parameter radiation intensity that is defined ‘as “power radiated per unit solid angle” is calculated by the product of square of the distance and radiation density. on (5) ° TSPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS 2.15 denotes radia sity in watts per unit solid tangle and P,, denotes radiation density in watts/m?, The relation between antenna's far electric field and radiation intensity is piven by, fr 2 0,9) = 95 | Er, 0,9) f 2 oe [6t.0, Oy EG, 0.497 yikes. HE 0.61 a D0, 9) a (ECO, OP + 1E,(0, 6977 (6) Here, £ denotes antennas far zone electric field intensity with components and E, and is free space impedance (120m) Power radiated can be calculated by integrating radiation intensity over the entire solid angle of 41. Pg I Joan P= | fosino dodo 00 Here dQ = sinO a0 ap is the solid angle element, 6 Pya® J faa a 4 , Asis independent of angles 6 and 0, 7 Pag =O— ar Where ©, indicates radiation intensity of an isotropic antenna, ‘To plot the radiation patter for » = 4, intially minor Jobe maxima i.e, (0, Jinx Must be calculated. Which given by the formula, xedenue fs Qv-+ip 2nd Assuming d = 2/2, substituting & = 0 and n= 4 in the above equation, we get, (N+ mcoe'| + ONT, Caden = 5°] 2542/2 i. os ous 4 Consider, N= 1, 3 pain -or(#4) = 414° oft 138.6 Four minor lobe maxima for m= 4 occurs at + 41.4, + 138,6°, ~ 41.4° and -138,6° Ifwe assume Y= 2, minor lobe maxima would not exist 5 sine] 0s Oy,)ay fOr > 1 doesnot exist because cosine function lies below 1. =) awe ie2.16 Subsiuting y=0 in equation (2), the minor lobe maxima is obtained at )0° or 270° ‘Thus, the radiation pattem of broadside array with four + dipoles is shown in figure (2) 90° 138.60" 120° 270° Figure (2: Radiation Pattern _* ; Fr ne G36. Discuss broadside array and endfire array with neat diagrams. , Ans: Broad Side Array Broadside array is one of the most commonly used antenna array in practice. The array in which a number of identical parallel antennas are arranged along a line perpendicular to the line of array axis is known as broadside array, which is shown in figure (1). In this, the individual antennas are equally spaced along a line and each element is fed with current of equal magnitude, all in the same phase. NowsDec.-17, (R13), (a) ANT ANT: A eect | Figure (1) The radiation pattem of broadside array is bidirectional, ‘which radiates equally Wellin ether direction of maximum radia- tion. Thus, broadside array is defined as an arrangement in whieh the principal direction is perpendicular to the array axis and also to the plane containing the array element. End Fire Array The array in which a number of identical antennas are spaced equally along a line and individual elements are fed with currents of equal magnitudes and unequal phases (ie., with a phase shift of 180°) is known as end fire array. This array is similar to that of brdadside array except that individual elements are fed in with a phase shift of 180°. n this, the direction of radiation is coincides with the direction of the array axis, which is shown in figure (2). ™~ ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION [JNTU- HYDERABa, ‘Array > Direction op Maxi ru a, Figure (2) ‘The radiation pattern of end fire array is oan Bu, the end fire array may be bidirectional also, One supe al ample isa two element array, ed with equal current, 1g of phase. Thus end ire arayis defined asthe arrangementin whe, the principal diretion of radiation coincides with the direcgn of the array axis Q37. What is end fire array? Derive expressions fa; the radiation pattern for an end fire array of . identical elements. Ans: End Fire Array For answer refer Unit-2, Q36, Topic: End Fire Array, Expressions for the Radiation Pattern of an End Fire Array with ‘N* Identical Elements Consider general arrangement of end fire array shown in the figure. Novo, Set3, a) “ eng & 1203 4 5 Direction Array axis of radiation 0 5 Figure (2k End Fire Array ‘Here, thcantennas are placed at equal distances along the line and with a phase having a phase shift of 180° (ie, un-equal phase shift) and curtents of equal magnitude Inend fire array, W = Bdcos 6+ 0 y =0, when = 0 => a Ba W = Bd cos O- Bd y =Bd (cos 6-1) @ Direction of Pattern Maxima: The far field at a distant point ois given y, ne si pete) sin@ value is maximum, when @ = ee sin( 2) = sin eran eo Be seven .(l) WARNING: XeroxPhotocopyng ofthis book is @ CRIMINAL act. Anyone found guity is LIABLE to face LEGAL proceedings.UNIT-2 (Antenna Arrays & Antenna Measurements) =Bdcos 0+ a In end fire array, 0=—Bd w = Bd (cos 6-1) Equations (1) and (2) are equal, a (cos0,,.-1y=+ X*DE _ pes GN*De (0028.4 9+ FEF QN+))n tim QN+1)x [ean cos. pueina = 805 a Consider n=4,d= -anda=-n a (20)+)r <8) (Oy. = 005" [38+ 1] =cor'[t3-+1] (.,.)) = cos" =cosfZ, 1] = 005g fi The value of cos (3) > 1, 0 that it does not exist. 1 gau)s= 605" (F 050.25) =75.5° @x2+1)n G58)" mcs [25E-+1] (@,,,)2= 005" [ cose $41 [e+] ~oriffd]- = cos (- 0.25) =— 75.5° Direction of Pattern Minima Bacos 8+. a= +248 Bacos 0.,.- Bd = +75" Bd (cos 0... 1) = + 2¥# 2) 2.17 2, the above equation, the 90°, # 120°, + 180° Substituting, values of 8, are + 60°, Unidirectional Pattern Saya + 9° Figure: Field Pattern of End Fire Array Consisting of 4 Isotropic ‘Sources of Same Amplitude Sarees of Same Ampliti’e __ Q38. Obtain an expression for the BWEN of a broad- side array, and compare the same with that of an End fire array. NovsDee-18, (R15). 0310) (or) Compute the principle beam width for broadside and end fire array. Ans: MaylJune-08, Set, O3(aF ‘The beam width of major lobe is defined as the angle between first nulls, where the fields doesn’t exist or twice the angle between a null and the direction of maximum radiation. ‘The beam width for broadside and end fire arrays is obtained as detailed in the following. Broadside Array: The expression for beam width of the major lobe, BWEN is given by, BWFN=2*7 Where, ‘y— Angle between first null and maximum of major lobe. Y= 90- Ori eon son fade] ‘The equation for direction of minor lobe minima is given by, eoaneelat F-4] But, for a broadside array case, 0=0 ola = afl] f From equation (2), M f+ => oye 22) = () ~-@NA) = cos[90- y= | nd Mh = yet! First null occurs, when, N’ IENA>> nd, the total length of array is given by, L=(n-1)d = nd Then, - Dag BWEN = = radians or (c= 1 radian= 57.3 degrees) in this case, the expression for beam width ‘of major lobes is given by, ‘Beam width = 2 x Angle between first nulls and ‘maximum of major lobes = BW=2*0,, Here, y is not needed, as the beam width of end fire is larger than broadside. ‘Then, the end fire pattern minima occurs at, NA = 6, wan =) , For small 0, sin}, = 8, fan => 6, nd 2 fME) => BW=2/" Vand ANA Ey = 22, BWEN: y a mI ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION LINTU-HYDERABAD, lengt (n= Dd f2NA. L . 2N aa pN= Radi BWEN=22 77 Ratan n=1, 2 2 BWEN= #1146, Degrees hi (cz I radian = $7.3 degrees) es) 39. What is broadside array? Draw the pattern, Obtain the expressions for directions of peaks, nulls, side lobes and BWEN. Ans: ayt6,R15,00 Broadside Array 2, Q36, Topic: Broadside Array, For answer refer Ur “© Consider a broadside array with » identical elements of equal amplitude spaced at a distance of das shown in figure. +P Distant point igure Foran array of n isotropic point sources of equal ampli- tude and spacing, the total field at a distance P is given by, ~(l) ravi ° An is said to be broadside array if the field is maxi- mum in the direction normal to the axis of the array. The condition for maximum field at a point P is given by, ¥ =0 ic, Bdeos p=0 => = 90° or 270° Directions of Pattern Maxima ‘The field Eis maximum when sin n y/2 is maximum with denominator sin /2 #0. ie, sin y2=1 = Peseven Sy 2 ) FN =O; 1,2... — aT warnine: erox}Photocopying of ths book i a CRIMINAL act. Anyone found guity is LIABLE to face LEGAL proceedings. J SsUNIT-2 (Antenna Arrays & Antenna Measurements) N= 0 represents the major lobe maxima, 1 t (2N +1) 2 (62) Bd c08 Ogun + = QN 1) = > Bd C05 8, )gn = N+ 1) e -a nena jada = 605" wie =2| Where, _ ‘ ,,)aia = Minor lobe maxima For broad side array, = 0 readoas = 605" {fe {2 J, (aut vost {fe }st caine = 605" fe exe Direction of Pattern Minima or Nulls (2) =) ‘The directions of minima of minor lobes in the array is obtained when field, E,=0 ie, sin = 0, with sin $ro Bh atWe, N=12,3 500 2Nn CN aoa => Bd (COS O,)ainor * > (C05 Og4) [Lf 2¥8 @nidaine = 605" le tae -al] For broadside array, 7 a=0 ‘Then, (0, )qine = 605" {3S eT aaa (Paane™ 665" [A 6) Equations (3)and (5) represents the directions of peaks and nulls respectively. Side Lobes (Subsidiary Maxima) ‘The directions of the subsidiary maxima or side lobes © canbe obtained when sin “Y= #1 my dn, Se Te aim ean ” MY yk, mate Here, “J = +> isnot considered because ifs x F then sin n a = 1 which is the direction of principal x 2 ny 2 ‘maxima, Hence, we ignore, 2.19 nines 22 + In Since, y = Bd cosh = 2n tos p= ‘Then, a n cos 6 = Dd | gen 0) Equation (7) gives the directions of subsidiary maxima or side lobes. Beamwidth of Broadside Array ado. Ans: 1. * ° For answer refer Unit-2, 038, Topic: Broadside Array Derive exprossions for major lobe, directivity of broadside array and end fire array. Broadside Array Major Lobe The field is maximum at point P when ¥ = 0 for broadside array ie,‘ = 0. => Pdeos >=0 cos g=0 = 90° or 270° ~() 90° and 270° are known as directions of principle maxima. Magnitude of Major Lobe ‘The maximum radiation occurs at ” = 0, So, (sin 2 [Major lobe| = -Q) nn —Number of elements in the array. Direetivity ‘The directivity of bros array is defined as, G ximum radiation inter lon “Average radiation intensity = Pom. Poe ®, ®, Where, = ©, ~ Average radiation intensity. Pa tf ; a-ak Jf fie@ersinead 0) so 020 Let Ei => IE, IE, 1 does not exist because cosine function lies below 1. ‘Substituting = 0 in equation (2), the minor lobe maxim: (@= 90° or 270° is obtained at, 5 ‘Thus, the radiation pattem of broadside array five isotropic radiators is shown in figure. 90° 270° Figure: Radiation Pattorn PECTRUM ALLAN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS)ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION [JNTU-HYDE| jear array? Compare broad side array and ond fire array. 2. 42. What I (or) What is broadside array? Comparo It with ond-fire array, > BABAD, ee a, yi Nove-9,8e5,0, {efor Only Comparison Benseen Broad Sile Array and find Five Array) y (or) Compare broadside array and end fire array, (or) Write the differences between Broadside array and Novet-,Sa4. ay, End-firo array. Dre, oy {efor Only Comporison Benween Brow Side Array and End Fire Array) Ans: Linear Array In antenna array, if the individual ante Broadside Side Array For answer refer Unit-2, Q36, Topic: Broadside Side Array, ‘Comparison between Broad Side Array and End Fire Array s are equally spac ced in a straight line, then it is said to be a Finear array, Broad Side Array. End Fire Array The array in which the radiation direction is perpendicular to axis of array is known as broad side array 2. | In broad side array, phase difference = 0 2 3. | General expression for pattern maxima is, 3. QN+ I)x oro a 4 for pattern minima is, “ya Nr ne nine os {A Half power beam width is given by, Hppw=523, ) Directivity of broad side array is, D = (3) degree x Beam width between frst null BWFN => degree L x (*) In broad side array, all elements are equally spaced along the array axis and fed with curreit of equal ide and same phase, Radiation pattern of broad side array is bidirectional. Consider, y = Bd cos 0 + a In broad side array, a = 0 2. W= Bd cos 0 10, The array in whigh the maximum radiation direct along the axis of the array in known as end fire array. In end fire array, phase difference between adjacent —Bd General expression for pattern maxima is, (QQN+1)t [par] General expression for patter minima is, =| . Half power beam width is given by, element is = 2sin!} Png = 2 [ 2nd 2 () Directivty of end fr aay is, D= 4( HPBW = 57.3, degree x Beam width between first nulls is, BWEN = 114.6 & degree ir ( In end fire array, all elements are equally spaced along the array axis and fed with current of equal ‘magnitude and different phase, Ra unidirectional, Consider, y = fad cos 0 + 01 In end fire array, a = — Ba = W= Bd (cos 01) ion pattem of end fire array is WARNING: Xerox/Photocopying of this book is a CRIMINAL act: ‘Anyone found guity is IABLE.to face LEGAL proceedings.UNIT-2 (Antenna Arrays & Antenna Measurements) Qa3. Show the directi Ans? * y of EFA with Incr directivity is given by 1.789[4(L/A)]. Nov-08, “The maximum radiation ofa uniform end fire aay can ‘be obtained along the axis when the progressive phase shift between elements is given as, 14,0300) a=spd = fad for 0 = 180° =-fid for 0=0 ‘This produces a maximum field in the direction 0 = 0°, However, the directivity is not maximum, End Fire Array with Increased Directivity The dire ity of an end fire array can be further in- creased without affecting other characteristics. ‘This array is referred as Hansen-Woodyard array or end-fire array with increased directivity. ‘The phase shift between closely spaced elements of very long array is given by, - [b+2] 2.94 * = +|Bd+——|, maximum at @ = 7 --@) 1 4 © Theabove conditions are referred as Hansen-Woodyard condition for increased directivity. 4 Bit, it should be kept in mind that these conditions do not necessarily obtain the maximum possible directivity. Eventhough the maximum occurs at @=0° and @ = 180° the maximum value is not unity and the side lobe level is not -13.46 4B. These two parameters are influenced by the number of array elements 7. % Equations (1) and (2) are used for enhanced directivity + % Ingeneral, the con along with the following assumptions for 'Y values as, (For maximum radiation along 0 = 0° x Ivl= ly |=|Bde0s0 +a |g29= > Ga) Wwl=ly1=1Bdcos0+a|5.. .b) (i) For maximum radiation along 0 = 180° IWl= Becos8 +0 | 9. 149 e on (4a) BacosO + |g = % (4b) The condition of |¥| = /n in equations (3) and (4) is satisfied, But the condition of |= x must also be satis- fied for each array. mn |'P| = x can be satisfied for an nd fire array of n elements using equations (1) and (2) for @ = 0° and @ = 180°. The spacing between two.ele- ‘ments is taken as, n-1)h Lt Fe on (5) nti we 6) ° JRSPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS) 2.23 a large element, equation (5) reduces t at (6) 4 Thus, for a large uniform array, the Hansen-woodyard conditions ean achieve an increased directivity for if the spacing between is elements is approximately 1/4, ‘The array factor of m clement array is given by, (Fh), = a (7) in’ (Pdeos0 +a} We know that, Y= id cos0 +a. For small values of, sin->- sin| 5 (Bdeos® +a 2 (AF), sin (8) 7 lfateos O+a) If the progressive phase shift is a = ~pd between the elements, then, « 5 (Beco 0 - pa) Fbeos® - pa) snl Sacpeos0 = al an, J d(Bdcos0 - 7) 7g then, sing(Beos0- p) q(Beos® - p) Letz=q(Bdeos0 -p) Then (4F), = “2 (10) ‘Then, the directivity of the array factor is calculated as, 4n®, : 9) Where, Average radiation intensity Dep : - a { s@sinonan ‘The radiation intensity is given by, 900) = (4F),P =1EP sinz P vo- Sf 2 sinz sin? (1) 40)=WAVE PROPAGATION [JNTU. HYDERABAD ANTENNAS AND. 8 the condi Equation (17) gi vith improved directivit 4 The variation of (0) aso function of ¥ is. a5 sho, figure (1). i 1.50] 2 ane! 2 1.25] 1 {_a6-») | eas sagosese—2)] Pave t 3 2 |sing®-p)| 4 9Bc0s®-P: 2) ign <>" Themaximum directivity can be obtained by simplifying 0.7: the above equation as, 1 P 32) nay % [=] «feeb ssne } 3) on sin. ayers 0-05-10 -15 -20* a a) 1: Variation of glv) as function of igure (1: Varat as w= & Ile case - 202-1 nc 004) Figure (1: Variation of pe 952 function of y sinv “+ The field pattern for an end fire array of 4 isotropic point & Butin ee or improved end-fire array, sources with equal amplitude and spacing of 4 fo the radiation intensity is en by, AE) is as shown in figure 1. ssts| mae) way 5+? x oboe _ 0.878 Bd ‘The above expression can also be written as, 0.878 Qn 0 pd * Oe 0.878*2 x x ~ 2 5, -05s00 [55] 0.5589 bea] (13) 2nd : 1234 referred as the average value of the radiation . Then, the directivity is given by, igure (2: Field Pattern of end Fire Array of 4 Elements with Increased Directivity 1 Q44. Asix element receiving aerial array consists ofa 0.5589 horizontal line of vertical dipoles equally spaced by 2.5 m, the outputs of which are added in phase. What are the significant properties of the pattern? Describe the directional characteristics of this array at 400 MHz and 40 MHz. ‘Ans: (16) | ANS: “Thus, the directivity of an increased end-fie array is Sa improved by a factor of 1.789 times the ordinary end-fire Inan antenna array consisting of a horizontal line ps ‘of equally spaced vertical dipoles, If (vs plotted, its minimum value is occured when, Number of elements, n= 6 Spacing between the elements, d= 2.5m ” pest on a Frequencies, f, = 400 MHz and f, = 40 MHz Also, the outputs of the elements are added in phage. WARNING: XeroxPhotosoPreg ofthis book so CRIMINAL ae. Anyone found ulti UABLE to face LEGAL procedngs —_—<—$—UNIT-2 (Antenna Arrays & Antenna Measurements) _From the given data it is clear that the antenna array a uniform linear broadside array. Also, the currents fel to the clements are of equal magnitude (assume) and phas The arrangement of elements in antenna array isas shown in figure below. rene tytn igure: Uniform Broadside Array of 6 Elements ‘The significant properties of the radiation pattem giving the directional characteristics of the antenna array are given as. “follows, () Direction of Major Lobe Ge = 00s) 0° and 270° Magnitude of Major Lobe | Major lobe | = | Major lobe | = 6 Direction of Minor Lobe MA San = 005" nd ‘Case (1): f= 400 MHz 40 Gi) (ii) N#1,2,3, | Nx3x108 | 6*2,5%400*108 on [ta wow? ,N [Spin = Cos (0.5) ForN=1, Onin = cOS™'(40.05) = 87.13° oF 92.866" ForN=2, ‘cos"\(20.1) = 84,26° or 95.74° and so on. x3 10° 2S | 6%2,5*40 «10' 2 pig = C08" 1(tt 0.5N)|; N= 1,2, 3, For N=, 6, = cos" 0.5) = 60° or 120° : For N=2, 6,,,= cosi(¢ 1)=0° or 180° (lv) Half Power Point Directions 2n. 2 25-608 amp @HONED F x (2N +1. |. = On 2008" |EAxTS | N= Case (1): f= 400 MHz con: ofQN +1) ar ES 3x10°(2N +1) "| * To 40010" %urro = cos pero = 005°"(E 0.075) = 85.69° oF 94.3° Form=1, Sunpo = C05 0.225) = 76.99” or. 103° Sand so on. Case (2): f = 40 MHz | sadaned| Sureo 605"'|* "19 x 40% 10° (+ 0.075 2N + 1)] cs PPD ForN=0 Suny = C0S"(20.75) = 41.4° oF 138.59" Beam Width of Major Lobe: ic., Beam width between first nulls, w) Case (1): f= 400 MHz WEN 114.6x3x10" cap (6%2.5x400*10! Case (2): f= 40 MHz 14. * EWEN Sees 32) 6x2.5x40%10° (vl) Halt Power Beam Width BIEN HPBW=—— Case (1):/= 400 MHz 573° HPBW = ~~ = 2.865° Case (2): [= 40 MHz. 3 HPBW = —— =28.65°. UST SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL’FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTSlation field in a plano containing th lino of array showing directions of maxima and null, Ans: Novd0ee-t7 (R19), 031) Given that, For a broadside array with isotropic radiators, ‘Number of radiators n = 8 A ‘Spacing between radiators, d= z Then, Direction of maxima and nulls = ? Major Lobe For broadside array, the direction of major lobe or ‘maxima is traverse to its axis, ie., along y-direct = 0=90% and 270° Magnitude of Major Lobe ‘The magnitude of major lobe is given as, major lobe] = Nulls ‘The direction of nulls is determined as follows, 84, = 00s: | Me) m3 Since a=, andn=8 wehave, {: F]=75° and 10449" ForN=2, 0... ~cos'[s3]- 60° and 120° Fort=3,0.4, =cor[e3 ]oatarand ine Sidelobes/Subarray Maxima ‘Similarly, the direction if sidelobes for N= 1,2;and.3 is determined as follows, ‘The direction of sidelobes is given by, . AQN+1) | @=cos-1 [geen 5 For N= 1, F123 nee [23] aero as For: 0; = cor 2 $]- 51.31% and 28.68% 7 For N= 3,0, =cos-![ |= 28.95° and 151° Thus, the radiation pattern of broadside array with eight ity in dB for the broadsigg clones onli array consisting 8 isotrosse elements separated by A/4 distance, Ans: Given that, Number of elements, n = 8 a Distance, d= = m Directivity, D =? For Broadside: The expression for directivity is given by, orf] 8xA/4 =3 a “Daa pag = 10 tog,(4) = 6.021 dB 6.021 4B For End Fire: The expression for directivity is given by, oof 8xA/4 = gf SXAU4 as a DeB (Qa 10 tog,.(8) = 9.031 identical isotropic radiators is as depicted in figure below, “2S [PF WARNING: XeroxiPhotocopyng of tis book s& CRIMINAL set. ‘Anyone found guy is LIABLE to face LEGAL \L proceedingsUNIT-2 (Antenna Arrays & Antenna Measurements) 47. Find the length and BWEN for broad-side and end-fire array if the directive gain is 15. An: Given that, Directive gain, G,, = 15 Length, Z Bandwidth between first nulls, BWEN =? ase 1: For broadside array, wy But, : 2 L=3.75hm]_ ‘The bandwidih between the first nulls is given by, 2 « BWFN = 114.6° (77a) deeree «(= = 1146 Y375K/2) G48, An end fire array consisting of several half wave length long isotropic radiators having directive gain of 30. Find the length of array for broad side antenna? Ans: Given that, For an isotropic radiator in end fire array, Directive gain, G,=30 ‘Then, length of broadside antenna, Le The relation between directive gain and length of broadside array or antenna is as, Da oz)" oo) D-Directivity From equation (1), we get, pa Dash _ 30% 2 2 152 ength of array, L=15% NoviDec-47, (R13), 9(¢) Here ‘SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS : ‘2.07 49, A uniform linear array consisting of Isotropic fadiators spaced half wavelength apart has 10 elements, each element carries 0.5 amperes. Calculate the width of principle beam and maximum power radiated if operated as, (i) Broadside array (ii) End fire array. Ans: Given that, For a uniform linear array, Number of isotropic radiators, n= 10 Spacing between successive isotropic radiators, d= 2/2 Current éatried by cach element, = 0.5 amps (i) array is operated as broadside array, Then, Width of principle beam, BWFN =? Maximum radiated power, P,,,=? (ii) Iarray is operated as-endfire array, Then, ‘Width of principle beam, BWFN =? Maximum radiated power, P,,=? ) Broadside Array: The expression for first null beamwidth is given by, sym Ae (Lr) Where, length of array, L = (n= I}d =(10-1)N2 =. BWEN= 2547 ‘The maximum power radiated is given by, Py =nFR, For M/2 dipale, R, = 73 2 Pig = 10x (0.5) x 73 Q= 182.5 7 Pug =1825 WANTENNAS Al 2.28 (End Fire Array null is given by, lth first Fhe expression for be BWEN = 1146 Since, = = = 2 nAlld6x 5 = BWEN= 764° : The expression for power radiated is obtained as, + The directivity of end-firearay is twice that of broadside, ie, D,=2D, But, D= ‘ea Prey 3 Pen P47 2S a o125w Peay = 91-25 W . 21:3 'BSASs with Non-Uniform Amplitude "Distributions - General Consideration and Binomial Arrays Q50. What is the binomial array antenna. What its basic principle of working? Mention the advan- tages and disadvantages. March, (R19), 080) (or) Write short notes on binomial array. Ans: Binomial Array + An array which is formed by arranging the amplitudes: of antenna elements in the array as the coefficients of the binomial expansion, then this type of array is referred as binomial array. —Abinomia array is constructed by using N=1 complex plane nulls, which all are in the same Z-plane location In binomial array if the element spacing in array is 4 (or) less, then no side lobes are produced, % The far field pattern of a 2-identical in-phase point sourced arrays that are spaced 2/2 is given by, £=cos{Zcose] WARNING: XeroxiPhotocopying of this book is a CRIMINAL ac Ni * ° ID WAVE PROPAGATION [JNTU- HYDERag, AD) Wd it is has a figure of eight —~t Pate, Ttlins no side lobes: fas shown in figure. Figure ‘The sides lobes can be avoided when the amplitude, of the current in the radiating sources are aligney symmetrical tothe coefficients of binomial series, ‘The coefficients of binomial series can be obtained seiey can be obtained using Pascals triangle as shown in table = 1 5 1 1 1 2 1 rp 3 Bea! a=s|" 1 4 6 4 1 n-6{ 1 5 10 1 5 4 a-7{1_ 6 1S Sb ° ‘The far field pattern for the binomial ray is, E =cos"" [7/2 cos0] Number of point sources. Generally, in binomial arrays, the sidelobes are produced 2 , for element spacing greater than *=>". Binomial array exhibits special characteristics under the wavelength less than * The amplitude pattern (or) radiation pattern of a binomial array has only single null, which means thatthe directivity of antenna increases very slowly as function of antenna number (element number). Therefore, it is clear that element number weakly affects the radiation pattern of the array. On the contrary the phase pattern is Strongly affected by element number, Second one is the excitation. of binomial array is always symmetrical and rea, ifthe phase shift is not considered. Therefore, an end fire array radiation pattern due to & binomial array can be implemented without any tunable phase shifter, The reasons behind the Usage of binomial arrays ate illustrated as follows, To reduce the secondary lobes or minor lobes or sidé {bes in uniform linear array, by increasing the length, the directivity increases and it also produces secondary side lobes, For certain applications it is necessary to eliminate the side lobes to achieve highly desirable ‘performances. Anyone found guty is LIABLE to face LEGAL Proceedings." UNIT-2 (Antenna Arrays & Antenna Measurements) 2.29 Advantages of Binomial Array “The relative amplitude for arrays having 3 to 6 sources, 4 Binomial array reduces the minor lobes (or) secondary | #8 #iven inthe ible belmw. lobes by feeding with current of non-uniform amplitudes. Number of Relative Amplitudes 4 Ingeneral, pascal triangle is used to select the amplitudes, sources [aT of elements. ; ee 4 Inderivation of pattem, principle of pattern shultiplieation F 1 4 6 4 41 ees 6 flames nee ONNN 10MIN Rta 4 Minor lobes does not appears in the radiation pattern. Table Disadvantages of Binomial Array ‘4 When an edge distribution is applied to 5 isotropic points 4 nbinomial aay, the disivity decrees fr increase spaced 1/2 apart, will produce an edge field pattern. It in i a beam width (HPBW). is because, among the 5 points only two end points are & arra rger amplitude ratios are ‘ A i 4 Toda lage any, te lager amp tose | ga maining te intive Main lobe beam width is larg 4+ ‘Thus the distance between two active points will be 22. fore, the pattern will have 15° beam width between 51. Describe about the general consideration eS etn in linear broadside arrays with non-uniform | er owe Pa oe amplitude distribution. 4 Figure (2) shows pattem of edge distribution Ans: 3,02 di directivity 4 There are four considerations to be taken in account er ea for linear broadside arrays with non-uniform amplitude distribution. They are uniform, binomial, edge and optimum. ‘+ Forthis purpose, consider an array of five isotropic point, a sources spaced apart . we &_ Ifall the five isotropic point sources have same phase Ueere| a 10001 equal amplitude} then the fnaximum directivity i Sn as eae Real Figure (2k: Edge Distribution Applied ta 5 Isotropic Pr gain can be achieved by uniform distribution. Similarly, when binomial distribution is applied to five Figure (1) shows field pattem of a broadside array for é a : uniform distribution. . isotropic points spaced = apart, then sources are with 6.98 dBi relative amplitudes of 1, 4, 6:4, 1 12.48 + Fora binomial distribution, field pattern having spacing. 2 a of 5 or less than 3 does not have any minor lobes + By increasing beam width to 31° minor lobes can be achieved, but which can also become a disadvantage in large acrays. Figure (3) shows field pattern for binomial distribution, Tn “ wna Figure (1): Field Pattern for Uniform Distribution + For uniform distribution, the half power bandwidth of the pattern is 23°, but the side lobes are unusually large, which can be reduced by using the below equation, G (2-DR=2) ins (at brim art + (n= haere + SES arnt tn + “Binomial Where, aids ‘n—Number of sources. nee Above equation is called Stone’s binomial distribution. Figure (3}: Binomial Pattern & PECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS)‘ x ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION [JNT! HY DERA| width is reduced below 31% then a practical combination or by Dolph and this type of istbay on BAD) Tobe level is not reduced t0 zero and b possible. and binomial distribution can be ma is called Dolph-Tschebyscheif distribution “© — Prof.C.L Dolph suggested that for a ecified lobe level. lobe and viceversa fora specified lols He ree that ifthe side-lobe level is specified, the beamwidth of first nulls is minimized, inphase roadside arrays, its posible to minimize the Beam Wid ofp in “The current distribution that produce such pattern is referred as the Dolph-tchebyschefT or optimum distribution, So, the Tehebyschef istrbution is trade off between beam width and side lobe levels, itis an optimum condition ‘Thus when Dolph-TshebyschefT distibution is aplied to 5 isotropic points spaced 7/2 apart, then the fl patrn is wig sidelobes having relative amplitude levels of 1,16, 1.9, 1.6, 1 and beam width is 27° Hence this pattern is designate y imum, Figure (4) shows optimum pattern. optimum, Figure (4) sl pt onda 2048 NZ. Optimum atlas : 1191 16 16 Figur (4): Optimum Pattern in in detail about the binomial array and differentiate it with a linear array. "Nov.A46, (R13), @3fa) {or) Distinguish between binomial arrays and linear arrays. MayiJune-12, Set-4, 02/0) (or) . Compare the performance and properties of n element linear arrays and binomial arrays of n elements. . Doe-tt, Set, aa) O52. Exp . (or) What are the various differences between binomial and linear arrays? An: Feb -08, Set, a3(a)|Nov-04, Set, a3 Binomial Array For answer refer Unit-2, Q43, Topic: Binomial Array. Binomial Array Linear Array 1. | The binomial array is one in which all the 1. | Imantenna array ifthe individual antennas elements are fed with currents of non-uniform are equally spaced in a straight line, then it amplitude. is said to be a linear array. 2. | Elements are fed with unequal amplitude. 2. | Ielements are fed with equal amplitude, then itis called as uniform linear array. 3. ] Ituses pascal triangle to select the coefficient 3. | Itdoes not use pascal triangle. ‘or amplitudes of elements. 4. | Principle of multiplication of patter is used for | 4. | Principle of multiplication of pattern is used derivation of pattern, , for derivation of patter. 5. | Secondary lobes does not appear in the 5. | Secondary lobes appear in the radiation radiation pattern, pattern, 6. | HPBW increases and directivity decreases. 6. | HPBWis less compared to binomial array. 7. | Design is complex for large array due to large 7. | Design is simple for large array due to amplitude ratio. uniform amplitude, Table WARNING: xeroxPhotocopyng ofthis book i @ CRIMINAL act. Anyone ound guilty is LABLE to fee LEGAL proceedings.UNIT:-2 (Antenna Araye &Antenna Measurements) ____________2.3 Q53. Explain the need for not iform amplitude distribution in a linear array, and hence sketch the pattern of a4 element binomial array. Ans: orto, (9,08) 4 Dolph-Tehebyscheff arrays are used to produce high directivity (.c., low beam width) for a given side-lobe level and vice ‘versa, Ifd< N/2, the Dolph-Tehebyscheff current amplitude is optimum. Dolph used Tehebyscheff polynomial in the design of linear arrays, The Tehebyscheff polynomial is given by, T,@) _ feos(mcos'n), [x|c#1 6 lcosh(n.cosh"'x), |x >I 4 Considering the linear broadside arrays of even and odd number of sources. 4 The sources are spaced at d distance and is fed in phase with amplitudes ay. dy dy. @ a8 shown in figure (I), jo=0 A 8 4 mA A Neeven numberof sources (Odd number of sources Figure (1) For even number of sources, the-field is given by, . y 7 nl E, nas +20jom 2 sain E arto > WY ‘e a Where, 2n yes ac ¥ Fasind From figure (1), AC=d sin) Here, > . = 2, 4, 6, WRF |00,1,2.3000 = (n-I=2 41-1241 me-l _ 2k+1 = deh F = 18, = 25, cos 254]4 “@ " ‘Similarly, for odd number of sources, ky (2) le 2% acos(25") ® i Steps to be followed to obtain amplitude distribution are given as follows, 1, The value of ris determined using the relation, “Main lobe maximum Side lobe level s\[Sidelobe level below main lobe= 20 logo 7 + SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS,ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION [JNTU-HYDERg, ial must be chosen. 2 2) Then, the Tehebysehelf polynomial of sa C4 TG )=" Here, the value of x, is given bys [eT] choosing array polynomial £, from equations (1) or (2) the field intensity must be determined, BAD) sme degree as array polynoi al ae? 3. Then, ie, B= ag + [4232] + a[16— 202+ 52] +. (or) . Eye ata, (22 1] +4824 ~ 82+ 1] +. Where = cos '¥/2=cos5 Ac . 4. Finally, equating T,_(x) with aray polynomial £, selected from previous step, The coefficients and the ratios of relative amplitudes are calculated. ‘ Thus, the amplitude distribution of linear broadside arrays using Dolph-Tchebyscheff analysis is attained. Pattern of 4-Elément Binomial Array : ‘The patter of four element binomial array is attained as shown in figure (2). ats ia Aangement % Spain (Pater ofZalument Arey (Pater of ¢alements with element Arey - Figur 2) : ‘G54. Obtain the array factor of a binomial array of 6 isotropic radiators An: , Given that, ‘Number of isotropic radiators, N= 6 For even number of isotropic radiators, they are placed along Z-axis as shown in figure. $e . ae ee eee aeNIT-2 (Antenna Arrays & Antenna Measurements) The array factor for a nonuniform amplitude broadside array is defined by, \ 3 5 Scpkdesio Seid =)4coso =e AP pg 2 Qe Page Tete Page BD abet ne 2.33 AP ay = 23 a,cos| 25 1 padcos0 ‘Where, ‘d= Spacing between two elements B-2n2 ‘© —Angle with Z-axis. By riormalizing the above equation, we get, GP),,= Lac? ) sdcoso| For N= 6 isotropic. ‘aision, GP), = Y acos| OY, ) pitcosa] t= N=2ml an, v2 1 pacose| + a,cos|22}=1 dcos0] + cos = UA, 5c05[ BA + ae 05 | 2842080 | + aos] § [-teos0] Where a,,a,, a, are binomial coefficients obtained from Pascal’ triangle for N= 6. 1——————>n=1 Ocosfu] + ScosBu] + cos[5i] G55. 64 isotropic elements are to be arranged in a binomial array form. Determine the. current ratios and find polar plot of the array. Given that, Fora binomial array arrangement, ‘Total number of isotropic elements, k= 64 Current ratios ofthe array = ? Polar plot of the array =? Ae ‘The given 64 isotropié elements can be arranged into a binomial array by finding the relative amplitudes with respect to ‘number of radiating sources. This arrangement can be done using Pascals triangle. PECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTSne HYDER, in Sources and relative amp ee he ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION [JNTI 34 SP 1,6, 15,20, 15,6, 1 (= 64) Then, the respective binomial arrangement for 64 isotropic elements is given by, ee Figure (1l: Binomial Array of 64 Elements Consider a, 15, 6,1 respective ies “eare relative amplitudes ofthe radiating sources with the values or magnitudes 1,6,15,20, ‘Then, the current amplitude ratios Of aray ie. yx, ahd x, can be obtained as, Assume, x, =2.25 (Since not given) Then, 2.25 = 135 5 «2.25 = 33.75 0x 2.25 = 45 ‘Thus, the current amplitudes for the given 64 isotropic elements are, 2.25, 13.5, 33.75, 45, 33.75, 13.5,2.95 ft a a Relative Amplitude: rile }—} tf 1S 20 15 6 1 BS 3375 45 3375 43. 5 225 Figure (2k: Polar Plot "Y WARNING: Xerox/Photocopying ofthis book is CRIMINAL act. Anyone ‘ound guity is ABLE to face LEGAL procedings. J EES Current Aniplitudes : 2 95: INIT-2 (Antenna Arrays & Antenna Measurements) 2.35 a ee 2.2 AnTENNA MeasuREMENT 3.2.4 Introduction, Concepts - Reciprocity, Near and Far Fields, Coordinate System, Sources of Errors Q56. What is the need of antenna measurements? Explain in brief the basic concept of antenna measurements. Ans The need of antenna measurements are described as follows 1, Measurements are required to determine the performance characteristics including gain, radiation pattern, directivity, efficiency, bandwidth and polarization of antenna 2, Compare and store-the data for different types of antennas, 3, For testing the design of particular antenna, To change or replace the critical components and dimensions. ‘To maintain the quality For determining the analytical and statistical errors Specify the actual performance of antennas. TTestify the validity of the assumptions made in the analytical measurements. : 9, Make the another approach for analytical, numerical design and analysis methods. Basic Concept of an Antenna Measurement ‘The main antenna measurement parameters are antenna sain, directivity, radiation pattern etc. ‘The arrangement for the measurement of radiation properties is shown in figure. ‘Antenna under test (AUT) Figura: Typical Setup for the Measurement of Radiation Propertios: 4 Here, an antenna under test is placed at the origin and the source antenna which can be either transmitting or receiving is placed at different locations with respect 10 the antenna under test. By rotating the Antenna Under Test (AUT), number of samples of the patterns are determined at different locations. ‘ These help in establishing a direct signal path between the AUT and source antenna for the sharp sample of pattern, 5 This measurement must be carried out in a free space or in a reflectiontess environment. ‘SPECTRU ° G57. Explain the significance of the reciprocal relationship between transmitting and receiving mode. ‘Theantenna under test (AUT) in the antenna measurement setup is either transmitter or receiver. . The media must be linear, passive and isotropic. —» The power must be equal only for matched impedances. + The reciprocity principle can also be applied to {he other antenna characteristics except for current distribution. 7 G56. Explain about Near and Far field measurements of an antenna. ee-19, (R18), 80) pi (or) What is near field and far field region? Why is the condition 2D*/x chosen for far field region. Ans: Mareb-7, (R13, 09) Near Field and Far Field of an Antenna ‘The radiated field of an antenna is classified into three regions as shown in figure. The region which is close to the antenna is called reactive near field region ot radian sphere, next to that is radiating near field region of Fresnel region and the last one is far field or Fraunhofer region. ‘Antenna $ Field pane, Main lobe Side lobe ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS! =~> ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION LINTU-HYDERAR, The angle measured from the z-axis is caleg da angle, denoted by @ and azimuth angle jg aay 2.36 From the Huygen’s principle, sampling can be taken around the AUT when ; : be Sea ape Pairs measure rom the projection ofthe radius yess ma ie information on that sur! . ‘measuring methods depends on the distance between the horizontal or x-y plane, denoted by pas shown in fing ‘surface and the AUT. ‘ _ ene Among the three regions, the far-field radiation properties is vector ‘are considered mostly because, > The effect of coupling and multiple reflect very less, > Powerpattems can be obtained easily by the power measurements, > Field pattem can be measured at any point in the far field region. > Change in the phase centre of the antenna docs not effect the result. Hence, measurement errors that cause due to the AUT rotation decreases. ms are int toe main beg onde * The disadvantage of farsfeld region measurement is | (itany) “ that, itneeds long distance between the transmitting and 0 = 90° nda receiving antennas. Due to this large distance antennas, $= 270° Great atmospheric attenuation may occurs. * Coming to the reactive near field, as it is located very ear to the antenna there exists mutual impedance winch causes due to the reactive coupling between | 4, the transmitting and receiving antennas. Hence, the ‘eactive near field region is not suitable for the antenna measurements. Thus, the radiative near field region is best suitable for the antenna measurements. 1a Measurements wowing Conical, Great Circle and Principal Plane Cuts The co-ordinate system of antenna is generally chosen based on the structure of antenna with its maximus radiation along x-direction. * With constant § or constant 0, the 6 cuts (or) cones! cuts are obtained by rotating along the constant @ and constant lines. Similarly when 9 is constant, the great In far field region, the following three conditions must ite cuts or @ cuts are obtained, But at 0= 7/2 aca een belongs to either 9 cuts or @ cuts regions. i * Twomore cuts are defined based on the characterises of p> 2 zy antenna called principle plane cuts. These ae orthogonal % great circle cuts, through the axis of the main lobe. 2 R>>D ~@) | * With linearly polarized antennas these cuts can be nes a selected in the required direction of E and H fields in the main lobe and they can also be known as E-plane Where, and H-plane cuts, R~ Radiative far field region List different sources of errors In antenna ee ‘measurements. P—Maximum linear dimension of an antenna Ans: May, (R16), 050) 2.— Wavelength of Em wave, ‘* Basically erors occur in every measured parameter ofan ‘The equations (1) and (2) ensure that the powerradiated | °° antenna, For instance, consider the total value for the gain + ina given dlrecion fiom diferent areas of anteom, ea Gran antenna as 15 dB 0.5 dB, Here 0.5 dB indicates a ji parallel It allows the fields in the far field region nets foaanainty decibel, in order to reduce this uncertainty as plane waves toan acceptable level, th fF e \¢ Critical sources of errors have | G59 Expaintho co tobe recogni | Q59. Explain the coordinate system used forantonma Ce I ‘measurement with a neat diagram, Generallyan anienna measurement in fat field region suites plane wave With uniform phase and amplitude Ans: heal test fixed. But, practically it does not happet > The IEEE spherical coordinate system is prefered for because, the phase includes many deviations and i faeces eee s Amplitude tapers until it ‘teaches the destination. | ie Grceeeeee ee famed Asaresult these parameters effect the main lobe andals0 due to the presence of ripples in. ‘amplitude and phase, it also effects the side lobe. WARNING: Xeror/Photocopying ofthis book is @ CRIMINAL act, ‘Anyone found guity is LIA AUT is placed at the origin. BLE tof LEGAL proceedings. |x. Based on above discus n, few sources of errors ‘antenna measurement are mentioned fs follows, Errors due to Finife Measurement Distance between ‘Antennas: ‘The errors occurred due to the finite distance between souree antenna and AUT are phase and amplitude taper ice., the phase and amplitude goes on reducing until it reaches its destination. , Incase of small distance between the souree antenna and Antenna Under Test (AUT), the wave fields received by AUT are not in phase and results in quadratic phase error, Due to this phase error, the gain of antenna is reduced and side lobes are increased when compared to ideal plane wave. By doubling the distance between source antenna and AUT, the phase error is reduced by 1/2. In the same case of small distances between antennas, the amplitude also gets affected. These errors are of two types, transverse amplitude error and longitudinal amplitude error. In transverse amplitude error, the amplitude of the received field is small at the edges ‘of AUT and slightly larger away from the edges. The longitudinal amplitude tapers causes errors in case of Jong end fire antennas, Reflections from Surroundings Refiections from, surroundings also a major source of 9. 7 sads to the amplitude errors. tive index cause multipath ‘and scintillations. These are mostly ge distance measurements, propagations observed in lar Errors due to Cables At high frequencies, the attenuation of atmosphere is high resulting in significant amplitude variations. Further, unbalanced transmission line may radiate due to current flow on the outer surface of the cables. Ifthe ebles without proper shielding are used for connection, they may leak and acts are used for results in errors. Errors due to Impedance Mismatch - Impedance mismatching between the antenna and the ‘AUT results error in gain measurement, Errors due to Imperfection of Instruments Imperfections in the equipment such as transmitter, *eceiyer, positon leads to measurement errors. However, these instrumentation errors are mostly negligible. 2.212 Patterns to be Measured, Directivity Measurement, Gain Measurements (By .Comparison, Absolute and 3-Antenna Methods) ae which causes ripples in phase and amplitude. The | 264+ Discuss about the Measurement of larttenns ripples are due to the interference between the direct patterns in deta wave and reflected wave. So even for small reflections . 1ec-19, (R16), OS) also, large measurement error occurs, because of addition” (or) of field ofthe waves. These reflections are also a major problems in the With a neat sketch explain the procedure of measurement of side lobes, because these reflections radiation pattern measurement. couples the side lobes with the main lobe. sarc, (29,.090) (On outdoor ranges, some of the wave reflections from the ground, trees, towers, buildings, hills are significant. (or) ee OS aia cobeeeots With a neat diagram explain the procedure for ore BSE) measurement of radiation pattern of antenna. Errors due to Coupling near Far Field Also derive the expression for minimum Errors also results in coupling to the reactive near field, ae ed to obtain accurate field itis more significant at lower frequencies and negligible re at larger distances ie. of 102’. (or) Errors due to Misalignment of Antenna Explain in detail about the measurement of ‘The antenna measurements are three-dimensional | __radiation pattern with neat diagram. vector theasurement, Improper alignment of antenna | ang: ee results in amplitude error, which makes the illumination eee Epmmetrcal AUTshould be properly alignedto obtain |. ‘The antenna pattem is also termed as radiation pattem desired cuts patter. of an antenna. The radiation pattern is the plot of the - intensity of radiation taken at different points that are Errors du ade Inter! SE ee aed at equal distance from the antenna. It is also defined ‘At outdoor range, when the man-made interface get as plot of power density with respect to the direction. coupled to the receiver at the frequency same as The radiation pattern needs intensity of radiation ‘the measurement frequency or any other frequency, ‘measurement over the spatial angles, since itis three harmonic distortion occurs. ~~ Where, d— Length of receiving antenna aperture. ‘The minimum distance interms of phase difference error Pattern Measurement (B)is given by, r= 185 2. + The primary antenna must produce a plane wave of uniform amplitude and phase to reduce phase error, Anechoic chambers should be used to avoid external EML : 4, AUT should be uniformly illuminated, ‘Q62. Define directivity of an antenna. Derive various expressions for directivity and explain method for directivity measurement. Ans: Direetivity of an Antenna The ratio of maximum power density to the average ated per arca is known as directivity of an antenna. power D = Fromes. me = “Pee , nr? “Iisa dimensionless quantity. ‘The directivity in terms of electric field intensity is given by, - 4 E D=G,.= ptt Ba Py WARNING: Xerox/Photocopying ofthis bookis CRIMINAL act. Anyone found guilty is LIABLE to face LEGAL proceedir ceedings.UNIT-2 (Antenna Arrays & Antenna Measurements) a an ee JJ redysinodoay Here, the relative radiation intensity /(0,6) is given by, £0, 9)= zeae 5 radiated by antenna (0, $) in a directivity can be determined directly. 4 The directivity ean be obtained from the field pattern 6f the antenn 4 Themeasured patterns and their beam wiih in priniple patter of AUT are used to measure directivity. 4 The principle patterns are B-plane and H-plane. Initially, the E and H-plane patterns are obtained and their half power beam widths are calculated. Then the directivity of AUT is computed as, 5 _ 41253 72815 = (or) 9x0, 05+ 0%, = G) Where, 0,,~ HPBW in E-plane (degrees) 6,; - HPBW in H-plane (degrees) ‘This method is accurate when the pattern consists of only ‘one major lobe. 4 © For an antenna with complex radiation or field pattern, the average intensity can be determined using graphical, numerical methods. Commonly used two methods are, ‘Orange Slice Method 4 For discrete value of @, the patterns are attained by measuring field intensity for different values of 0. ‘Then, the 0 radiation intensity (0, 6) is multiplied by a weighting factor sin® and integrated over elevation angle, 8, Further, the patterns obtained for different values of are added to get average field intensity. 7 Conical Cut Method 4 For discrete values of ¢,'the patterns are attained by measuring the radiation intensity with respect to azimuth ‘angle 6. Each patter is integrated and then multiplied by-a weighting factor sin. The above obtained yalues are then added to get average radiation intensity. + ‘Therefore, the directivity of antenna is then calculated using the formula given in equation (1). In which * maximum radiation intensity of total power radiated by antenna is acquited by multiplying average field intensity by 4r. Q63, Calculate the directivity of an antenna, which has half power beam width of 60° and 75° in vertical and horizontal planes respectively. Thus by knowing the radiation intensity or power specific direction, the a Ans: + antenna(under test) 2.39 Given that, ‘or an antenna, Half power beam width HMaltpower beam width in horizontal direction, 0,,= 75° Directivity, D =? ‘on for directivity for radiation pattern an- vertical direction, 0, = 60? 41,253 (deg"), 060 41253 = (@on7s) =9.167 ., D= 9.167 (D)qy= 10logD = 1010g(9.167) .62 dB ' 164. With a neat block diagrat xplain the measur ment method of the gain of a horn antenna by absolute method. (or) Draw the neat setup for measuring gain of an antenna. 2, 28(a)) (Nov.10, Set-1, Q4(a) | Dec.-11, Absolute gain method is measured for two identical antennas. They are arranged at a distance ‘r’ from each other as shown in figure, ‘Transmitting antenna Receiving Precision, calibrated variable attenuator ‘Signal te i source “Aenwaior PAD. Receiver Detector [Modus Detector Tadicator Power * © 2) SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS} o Bridge Figure: Absolute Method of Gain Measurement. For a maximum signal, antennas direction are oriented. ‘Then the input tothe transmitting antenna is adjusted to a specified level and the corresponding receiver reading, is recorded, ic., the attenuator dial setting and power bridge readings are recorded as IV, and P, respectively. ‘Then by using through pads the transmitter is converted to the receiver. The attenuator dial is adjusted until the receiver shows the same level that is observed in previous case. Then, the attenuator dial setting and the power bridge readings are recorded as W, and P,,OPAGATION [JNTU-HYDERABAn, Re ANTENNAS AND WAVE PI Sivan 2.40 (Arbitrary wanstnitting > Primary antenna __aatenna) ee under test 1-28 power, Pan re Ca a Also, their Effective apertures A, Ay Preision = Where, G, = Gain Sariable ioe User ‘5 ; S\/' standard gain attenuator [css Ising Feis’s equation, en antainal i Fixed attenuator Detector->C Receiver Power detector bridge Indicator a jon is not required due to IEP, = Py then conne transmitter levels fluctuation. The gain is determined using ‘equation (1) in which IV; and JV, refers tothe relative transmitted and received powers correspondingly. Precat When gain ofan antenna is measured using comparison method, the subject antenna under test and standard antenna have to be placed ata considerable distance in ‘order to avoid coupling or interaction between them. ‘diometer ‘or width of the aperture and ‘2, is the free space type of method. ‘The values must be taken without any alignment error. *% Thecaleulation should be based on probable error which is 67.5% of rm —— er ee Q65. With neat sketch explain how gain measurement is carried out using direct comparison method. Ans: Nov.-10, Set-3, 26(b) * Gainmeasurement by direct comparison method is used 1 high frequencies. In this method, the gain is measured by comparing the transmitted of received power of the antenna under test with power received from known reference or standard gain antenna, + An electromagnetic horn antenna is mostly used as standard gain antenna 4 This measurementean be performed ether in fee space (cr) ground reflection range. This method js also known as “gain transfer method", The block diagram representation of this method is as shown in figure, WARRING: Xerox/Photocopying of this béok is & CRIMINAL act. ‘Anyong found guity is LIABLE to face LEGAL proceeding: _——— Figure ‘As shown in figure, this method uses two antennas in Which the primary antenna has two antennas one being the AUT while the other is a standard gain antenna placed at a significant distance, With this arrangement again the coupling and interference is avoided. The secondary antenna is an arbitrary transinitting antenna whose gain is not necessarily known. ‘To achieve matched load conditions, an attenuator pad is attached to the receiver input. ‘The power bridge device is used to monitor the stability of the transmitter, since the frequency of secondary antenna and the corresponding transmitter should be stable, Itshould be ensured that the frequency of radiated power in the direction of primary antenna throughout the gain measurement must be constant. ‘The gain measurement of an antenna in this method follows two steps. > The switch $ is closed to connect the receiver to the standard antenna. The antenna is aimed at in the direction of maximum signal. intensity of secondary antenna.’The input to secondary (transmitting) antenna is tuned to an adequate level and the reading observed is recorded atthe receiver (primary) antenna, > Theassociated attenuator dal setting 77, and power bridge readings, P are recorded. > In step 2, the antenna under test is connected to the receiver using switch. The attenuator dial is tuned to get the same residing at the receiver as previous reading that is obtained with the standard gain antenna. Then the attenuator dial setting and Power bridge readings are recorded as IW, and P; respectively, Here, two cases occur, Case 1: If P, = P., the correction is not required to be applied and the gain of AUT with respect to standard sain antenna is given by, aw Power sin. Gy= FE 0) Where, WY, V, ~ Relative power levels Glia dB) = 10togH¥, ~ 1010817, Ga) = W,(4B)~ W,(aB)