What is a foundation type in construction?

The foundation of structure is base level of the building and serves two primary
functions: to keep moisture and groundwater out of the structure and to evenly
distribute the weight among load-bearing walls to the ground beneath. Choosing the
right foundation is of the utmost importance in construction, as the wrong foundation
type can result in an unsturdy structure that can be unreliable and even dangerous.

There are several factors to consider when choosing the most appropriate foundation
for a building. These factors include the size of the structure, the type of construction
being performed, and the geology, topography and pedology of the construction site as
a whole. Additional factors that affect the type of foundation that should be used
include accessibility, the presence of water and the space availability on the
construction site.

Construction professionals typically categorize foundations as either deep foundations

or shallow foundations. The difference between these two categories includes:

 Shallow foundations: Construction workers often use this type of

foundation when the structure load is relatively low in comparison to
the capacity of bearing of the surface soil.
 Deep foundations: Deep foundations are used when the surface soil's
bearing capacity is not enough to support the structure's loads. This
type of foundation allows the loads to transfer to deeper layers of soil
that allow for a larger bearing capacity.

7 primary foundation types in construction

The following are the primary foundations as divided by the two categories of
construction foundation types:

Shallow foundation types

The most commonly used shallow foundation types include:

1. Strip foundations

This type of foundation offers an extended piece of support to a linear structure like a
wall. Sometimes referred to as strip footings, this foundation type can be utilized in
most types of subsoil’s but does best in soil that has a larger bearing capacity. They
work best with light structural loads such as those seen in low-rise or medium-rise
structures.

2. Individual footings

This is one of the most common foundation types seen in construction and is used when
the overall building load is supported by columns. When using individual footings,
contractors typically give each column its own individual footing, which is simply a
piece of rectangular or square concrete pad that the column sits on. Each footing is
connected to the other footings with a horizontal or plinth beam that sits at or below
ground level.

3. Mat foundations

A mat foundation, sometimes referred to as a raft foundation, is most frequently used

when constructing basements. This foundation type utilizes the basement as the
foundation and ensures that the weight of the structure is spread consistently
throughout the building's entirety. Mat foundations are most often utilized when the
soil has a low bearing capacity and the loads need to be spread evenly over a large
area.

Related: 12 Jobs in Construction That Pay Well

Deep foundation types

The following are the most common deep foundation types used by construction
professionals:

1. Pile foundations

A pile foundation consists of a long cylinder created from concrete or another type of
strong material. The cylinder is placed into the ground and supports the structure that
sits on top of it. This type of foundation is most commonly used when the surface soil
has a low bearing capacity or when a structure has concentrated loads in particular
areas rather than evenly distributed throughout the building.

2. Drilled shafts

Drilled shafts, sometimes referred to as caissons, are deep foundations that work
similarly to pile foundations but offer a higher level of load capacity. Construction
professionals use an auger to drill the shafts up to 100 feet into the ground. These
shafts can then help transfer loads of columns evenly throughout the structure. There
are several types of shafts or caissons, with the most commonly used ones being sump
caissons, pneumatic caissons, open caissons, box caissons and monolithic caissons.

Foundation types for homes

In addition to general construction foundations, there are also specific foundation types
used when building homes. The most common foundations used for houses include:

 Concrete slab foundation: This type of foundation is the most commonly

used home foundation. Concrete slab foundations consist of a slab or
block of concrete on which the home is built. Most concrete slab
foundations are between four and eight inches thick, and construction
professionals use drainage pipes or steel rods to reinforce the
foundation.
 Crawl space foundation: This is another commonly used home
foundation and is when a home is built upon a small crawl space. This
type of foundation is used when the soil can be dug through and is
reinforced by concrete pillars.
 Basement foundation: Basement foundations are home foundations
that consist of pillar perimeters built with concrete to support the
home's above-ground load.
 Pier foundation: A pier foundation is a type of foundation constructed
from square or circular concrete pads that are placed strategically
around the perimeter of a house. This is often one of the sturdiest types
of foundations and offers significant support with little downsides
compared to other forms of home foundations.

Substructure
The purpose of the substructure of a building is to transfer loads of the
superstructure to the soil that is underneath. This is why the
substructure is right against the soil that supports it. Now, it is important
that you spend time working with structural engineers to ensure that all
support beams, columns, and foundations are incorporated properly to
ensure that nothing will collapse within the substructure.

Most of the time, the substructure is made from plain cement concrete
or reinforced cement concrete. Once that is in place, stones, bricks, or
additional concrete is added until it all reaches the plinth level. It is
necessary for a damp-proof course to be laid on top, so that moisture
doesn’t penetrate any part of the substructure.

Superstructure
The superstructure of a building is where people will spend most of their
time. This area includes the first and second floors inside a home and
any number of floors in larger buildings. The superstructure includes
beams, columns, finishes, windows, doors, the roof, floors, and anything
else.

The parts of the superstructure are much lengthier than the parts of the
substructure. This shouldn’t be surprising since the superstructure is
much larger than the substructure.

Parts of the Superstructure

The Floor
The floors of the superstructure are what separates the different levels
of a building. Of course, it is also the area where you walk around, place
furniture on, and store numerous items.

The Roof
A roof is necessary on every building because it keeps the floors, and
the rest of the superstructure, out of the elements. There is not a one
roof fits all solution when it comes to roofing options, so depending on
where you are constructing a building, you can choose from different
types of roofs. Flat roofs are often used within the plains, while sloped
roofs are best near the mountains or where there is a lot of snow.
The Lintel
The lintel is the area over any doors and windows, and it is there to
support the wall over the larger openings. A lintel beam is normally made
from reinforced cement concrete, but it can also be made from concrete
and bricks. The width of the lintel is usually the same as the width of the
wall. When it comes to the thickness though, the lintel should never be
thinner than four and a half inches. However, it should also never be
thicker than its width.

The Parapet
The external walls that extend past the roof slab are called
parapets. The purpose of this part of the superstructure is to keep water
from pouring over to the entrance of the building, while also offering a
safe spot for those who are up on the roof.

The Sun Shade

The sunshade is put in place with the lintel and it protects both doors
and windows from the sun and the rain.

The Beams
Beams are horizontal elements that withstand all vertical loads. All the
weight from those vertical loads are supported at the endpoints of the
beams and that weight is then transferred to the columns or the beam
supports.

The Columns
Columns are vertical structures that can hold a lot of weight. Any
columns that are not put in place properly will collapse once additional
weight is put on top of them. Of course, all that weight goes from the
columns down to the foundation.
The Walls
Without walls inside a building or a home, we would all have large wide-
open spaces. However, since none of us wants our bedroom right next
to the kitchen, walls are always installed to enclose specific areas of
buildings. Most walls are made from concrete or masonry and they hold
the weight from the roof, slabs, and even the beams.

The Doors, Windows, and Other Openings

All the doors, windows, and other openings in a house or building are
also considered part of the superstructure. The number of doors,
windows, and other openings will be dependent on how large the
building or house is.

Stairs, Ramps, Lifts, and Other Vertical Transportation

Structures
All those vertical transportation structures that you see in buildings and
homes are part of the superstructure. While stairs and ramps are often
the only things seen in homes, buildings will also usually have escalators
and elevators.

All the Finishing Touches

Most people forget that all the finishing touches inside a building or a
home are part of the superstructure. This includes trim, flooring
materials, curtains, blinds, and even heating and cooling units.

Differences between the Substructure

and Superstructure of a Building
You can probably see the difference between the substructure and
superstructure of buildings now, but to make sure, we have created a
handy recap below.
Substructure
 The structure that is below the damp proof course that includes the
ground floor and foundation
 The structure that is below the plinth
 This structure transfers the loads that are received from the
superstructure and transfers it to the foundation
 Includes the foundation, pier, and abutment
Superstructure
 The internal and external elements of a building that is over the
substructure
 The structure from the top of the plinth to the top of the building
 This structure transfers the loads from the upper part of the
building to the substructure
 The structures above the baring and the wearing surface
 Includes walls, beams, columns, windows, doors

As you can see, both the substructure and the superstructure are
important parts of buildings and you cannot successfully have a building,
or a home, without both of them in place. If you try to build just a
superstructure without a substructure underneath, the entire
superstructure will eventually collapse under the weight of the very top.

Therefore, make sure that your substructure is always very stable before
you add an even sturdier superstructure on top. That is the only way
that you will have a home, or a building, withstand the elements and
everything else that Mother Nature and humans bring their way.

Chapter 2
What Is a Footing?
The bottom part of a foundation is called the footing. Footings in construction are critical, as
the footing distributes the weight of the building evenly across the entire structure so that it
doesn’t sink into the ground.

A good footing will also help to prevent water and moisture from seeping into the
foundation, which can cause cracks and other damage.
Footings are usually made of concrete, but they can also be made of stone, brick, or even
wood. The type of footing you use will depend on the type of soil you have and the size and
weight of the building.

The 4 Different Types of Footings

Most building contractors will decide between four different types of footings in construction:
individual footings, combined footings, strip footings, and raft or mat foundation. Their
choice depends on the soil, the weight of the building, and what type of build they’re doing.

1. Individual Footings
Individual footings are the most common type of footing. They are usually used for small
structures such as sheds or porches. Individual footings are also used for all four walls of a
building if the soil is very soft or there is a high water table.

2. Combined Footings
Combined footings are used when two or more foundation walls are close together and they
share the load. Combined footings are also used when one of the foundation walls is much
taller or longer than the others.

3. Strip Footings
Strip footings are used to support a long foundation wall, such as the side of a house. They
are also used to support load-bearing walls that run parallel to each other.

4. Raft or Mat Foundation

A raft or mat foundation is one big slab of concrete that supports an entire building. Raft
foundations are used when the soil is too weak to support individual footings or when the
building is very large.

What is inverted arch footing? Their advantages, disadvantages, where is

used

Inverted arch footing

The inverted arch footing is used in places where the bearing capacity of
the soil is very poor and the load of the structure is concentrated over the walls
and dep excavations are not possible. This is not a common type of
foundation. Arched constructed between the two walls of the base. The Walls
must be sufficiently thick and strong to withstand the outward horizontal
thrust caused by the arch action.

Inverted arch construction

They constructed between two walls of the base. When the walls must be
sufficiently thick. When it makes a strong withstand the outward horizontal
thrust caused by the arch action.

In an arch making parts shown in the diagram

 End pier
 Piers
 Openings

Inverted arch footing

End pier

The end pier has to be especially strength end by buttresses to avoid the arch
trusted trading the rupture the pier junction. It is an endpoint of Arch.

Where are uses it

They are also used in places where the bearing capacity of the soil is very poor.
When a load of the structure concentrate over the walls and deep excavations
are not possible.
Advantages
Inverted arch construction is that in soft soils the depth of foundation
generally reduces.

Chapter 3

Flexible Pavements are constructed from bituminous or unbound material and the
stress is transmitted to the sub-grade through the lateral distribution of the applied load
with depth.

Flexible pavement is composed of a bituminous material surface course and underlying

base and subbase courses. The bituminous material is more often asphalt whose
viscous nature allows significant plastic deformation. Most asphalt surfaces are built on
a gravel base, although some 'full depth' asphalt surfaces are built directly on
the subgrade. Depending on the temperature at which it is applied, asphalt is
categorized as hot mix asphalt (HMA), warm mix asphalt, or cold mix asphalt. Flexible
Pavement is so named as the pavement surface reflects the total deflection of all
subsequent layers due to the traffic load acting upon it. The flexible pavement design is
based on the load distributing characteristics of a layered system.

It transmits load to the subgrade through a combination of layers. Flexible pavement

distributes load over a relatively smaller area of the subgrade beneath. The initial
installation cost of a flexible pavement is quite low which is why this type of pavement is
more commonly seen universally. However, the flexible pavement requires
maintenance and routine repairs every few years. In addition flexible pavement
deteriorates rapidly; cracks and potholes are likely to appear due to poor drainage and
heavy vehicular traffic. Also See: Road Distresses

Stress Distribution in Flexible Pavement

A valuable advantage of flexible pavement is that it can be opened for traffic within 24
hrs after completion. Also the repair and maintenance of flexible pavement is easy and
cost effective.
Today 96% of all paved roads and streets in Pakistan are surfaced with asphalt. Almost
all paving asphalt used today is obtained by processing crude oils. Man-made asphalt
consists of compounds of hydrogen and carbon with minor proportions of nitrogen,
sulfur and oxygen.

What is Asphalt
Asphalt is a mixture of aggregates, binder and filler, used for constructing
and maintaining roads, parking areas, railway tracks, ports, airport runways,
bicycle lanes, sidewalks and also play- and sport areas.
Aggregates used for asphalt mixtures could be crushed rock, sand, gravel or
slags. Nowadays, certain waste and by-products, such as construction and
demolition debris, are being used as aggregates, which increases the
sustainability of asphalt.
In order to bind the aggregates into a cohesive mixture a binder is used.
Most commonly, bitumen is used as a binder, although nowadays, a series of
bio-based binders are also under development with the aim of minimising the
environmental impact of the roads.
An average asphalt pavement consists of the road structure above the
formation level which includes unbound and bituminous -bound materials.
This gives the pavement the ability to distribute the loads of the traffic before
it arrives at the formation level. Normally, pavements are made of different
layers:

What Is Bitumen?
The term bitumen refers to a substance produced through the distillation
of crude oil. Bitumen is known for its waterproofing and adhesive properties
and is commonly used in the construction industry, notably for roads and
highways. Production occurs through distillation, which removes lighter crude
oil components like gasoline and diesel, leaving the heavier bitumen behind.
Deposits can also occur naturally at the bottom of ancient lakes, where
prehistoric organisms have decayed and been subjected to heat and
pressure.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Bitumen is produced through the distillation of crude oil and also occurs
naturally.
 Bitumen is known for its waterproofing and adhesive properties.
 It is composed of complex hydrocarbons and contains elements like
calcium, iron, sulfur, and hydrogen.
  Bitumen prices are determined by the state of the global economy and
the supply and demand for crude oil.
 The world's first bitumen futures contracts debuted on the Shanghai
Futures Exchange in October 2013.

Understanding Bitumen
Bitumen is a byproduct of crude oil. it is composed of
complex hydrocarbons and contains elements like calcium, iron, sulfur, and
oxygen. The quality of material and ease of production depends on the
source and type of crude oil from which it is derived. It was first used for its
natural adhesive and waterproofing characteristics, helping to bind building
materials together, as well as to line ship bottoms.

Bitumen can deform permanently under heavy loads. Continued stress on the
material can result in cracking. It oxidizes, which can leave the asphalt brittle.
The way its shape is affected depends on a few things, including the
composition of the asphalt mixture and the ambient temperature.

As noted above, bitumen isn't just produced by distilling crude oil, it's also a
naturally-occurring product. The term is also used to refer to oil
sands or partially consolidated sandstone containing a naturally occurring
mixture of sand, clay, and water that is saturated with a dense and extremely
viscous form of petroleum.

Bitumen Uses
The product has several modern uses. It's generally meant for industrial use
and is commonly found in road paving. The majority of U.S. roads are made
of either bitumen or a combination of bitumen and aggregates, such as
concrete.

Another key use for bitumen is waterproofing. For instance, it was commonly
used to waterproof boats and other marine vessels, as well as the sides of
buildings. It was used in ancient times as mortar in building construction.

Along with being used as a waterproofing agent and acting as an adhesive,

engineers who replace asphalt roads can reuse the material for other road
projects. Bitumen is also commonly used by companies that create
and manufacture roofing products.
Another early use of bitumen was in photography and medicine. When
bitumen was applied to plates and exposed to light, early photographers
were able to produce static black and white images. This process, though,
was long and drawn out.1 And some cultures—notably Persian—used
bitumen to treat certain illnesses, such as gastrointestinal and bone
disorders.2

Ancient civilizations traded the material and Herodotus, a fifth-century BC

Greek historian, claimed that the walls of ancient Babylon contained bitumen.

What’s the difference between Asphalt and

Bitumen? Should I use Bitumen or Asphalt?
Bitumen is actually the liquid binder that holds asphalt together. The term bitumen is
often mistakenly used to describe asphalt.

A bitumen-sealed road has a layer of bitumen sprayed and then covered with an
aggregate. This is then repeated to give a two-coat seal.

Asphalt is produced in a plant that heats, dries and mixes aggregate, bitumen and sand
into a composite mix. It is then applied through a paving machine on site as a solid
material at a nominated or required thickness, relative to the end use. Asphalt results in
a smoother and more durable asphalt road surface than a bitumen-sealed road.

What is Bitumen?
Bitumen is a binding agent produced from petroleum. Bitumen is known for being
strongly adhesive and resistant to damage from water and oil spills. This makes
bitumen the ideal binder for asphalt because asphalt is commonly used as a surface for
roads, car parks and driveways.

Bitumen can be produced to different specifications depending on how it’s going to be

used but in all cases, bitumen is created by distilling crude oil. This process removes
the lighter liquid and leaves a thick sticky substance that, in the case of asphalt, will hold
heavy aggregate like stones and gravel with sand.
Bitumen can also be confused with tar, which is another binding agent that when mixed
with aggregate, makes tarmac.

What is the Difference Between Asphalt and

Bitumen?
Bitumen is often misused as a term when describing asphalt and can be confusing for
many people. In the UK, most people will say bitumen when describing an aggregate
mixture of bitumen, stones or gravel and sand. In Australia, we call the mixture asphalt.

While bitumen is mostly used in a mixture, it can also be used as a binder for roads. So
you may sometimes hear the term “bitumen road”. This refers to a layer or layers of
bitumen that is used in the road to adhere or seal other layers.

Bitumen vs Asphalt, Which to Use?

If you’re looking to surface or resurface a driveway, car
park, hardstand or commercial area, you need asphalt. Asphalt is a composite
mixture that provides a durable and flexible surface for cars, heavy vehicles and
machinery.

Bitumen is only used by commercial suppliers as a binder or sealant for other products.

Flat roof
flat roof is a roof which is almost level in contrast to the many types of sloped roofs. The slope of a
roof is properly known as its pitch and flat roofs have up to approximately 10°.[1] Flat roofs are an
ancient form mostly used in arid climates and allow the roof space to be used as a living space or
a living roof. Flat roofs, or "low-slope" roofs, are also commonly found on commercial buildings
throughout the world. The U.S.-based National Roofing Contractors Association defines a low-slope
roof as having a slope of 3 in 12 (1:4) or less.[2]
Flat roofs exist all over the world, and each area has its own tradition or preference for materials
used. In warmer climates, where there is less rainfall and freezing is unlikely to occur, many flat
roofs are simply built of masonry or concrete and this is good at keeping out the heat of the sun and
cheap and easy to build where timber is not readily available. In areas where the roof could become
saturated by rain and leak, or where water soaked into the brickwork could freeze to ice and thus
lead to 'blowing' (breaking up of the mortar/brickwork/concrete by the expansion of ice as it forms)
 these roofs are not suitable. Flat roofs are characteristic of the Egyptian, Persian, and Arabian styles
of architecture.[3]
Around the world, many modern commercial buildings have flat roofs. The roofs are usually clad with
a deeper profile roof sheet (usually 40mm deep or greater). This gives the roof sheet very high water
carrying capacity and allows the roof sheets to be more than 100 metres long in some cases. The
pitch of this type of roof is usually between 1 and 3 degrees depending upon sheet length.

Shed roof
A shed roof, also known variously as a pent roof, lean-to roof, outshot, catslide, skillion
roof (in Australia and New Zealand), and, rarely, a mono-pitched roof,[1] is a single-
pitched roof surface. This is in contrast to a dual- or multiple-pitched roof.
An outshot or catslide roof is a pitched extension of a main roof similar to a lean-to but an extension
of the upper roof. Some Saltbox homes were created by the addition of such a roof, often at a
shallower pitch than the original roof.

1. Gable roof

2. Hip

3. Dutch

4. Mansard roof
5. Flat roof

6. Shed roof

7. Butterfly roof

8. Gambrel roof

9. Dormer roof
10. M Shaped