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ETHICS: THINKERS AND PHILOSOPHERS
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1. INDIAN PHILOSOPHERS AND THINKERS...................................................................................................................................3

1.1 INDIAN ETHICS ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 INDIAN SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY ..................................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 ESSENCE OF RAMAYANA AND MAHABHARATA ............................................................................................................................................... 4
1.4 RAMAYANA & MAHABHARAT ............................................................................................................................................................................. 5
1.5 ESSENCE OF BHAGVADGITA ................................................................................................................................................................................ 6
1.6 BUDDHIST ETHICS ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6
1.7 JAIN ETHICS............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7
1.8 KAUTILYA ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.9 THIRUVALLUVAR ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
1.10 SWAMI VIVEKANANDA ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
1.11 GANDHIJI .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
1.12 COMPARING GANDHI WITH SUBHASH CHANDRA BOSE AND RABINDRANATH TAGORE..................................................................... 12
1.13 RABINDRANATH TAGORE ............................................................................................................................................................................... 12
1.14 DR. B. R. AMBEDKAR ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
1.15 VALLABHBHAI PATEL ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
1.16 JAWAHARLAL NEHRU ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
1.17 RAJA RAM MOHAN ROY: MORNING STAR OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE ..................................................................................................... 15
1.18 ISHWAR CHAND VIDYASAGAR ........................................................................................................................................................................ 16
1.19 SAINT MOTHER TERESA ................................................................................................................................................................................. 16
1.20 AMARTYA SEN .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 17
2.21 DR. APJ ABDUL KALAM ................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
1.22 KABIR ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 19
2.23 SIKH ETHICS ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
2.24 SUFISM ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
2.25 RAMANANDA (1400-1470 AD)................................................................................................................................................................... 20
2.26 RAVIDASA (1450-1540 AD) ........................................................................................................................................................................ 20
2.27 TULASIDAS (1532-1623 AD) ...................................................................................................................................................................... 21
2. INDIAN ADMINISTRATORS AND LESSONS FROM THE LIVES AND TEACHINGS OF GREAT LEADERS ............... 22
2.1 E SREEDHARAN (IAS)......................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
2.2 T N SHEEHAN (IAS)............................................................................................................................................................................................ 22
2.3 IQBAL SINGH CHAHAL (IAS).............................................................................................................................................................................. 22
2.4 D ROOPA (IPS) .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
2.5 RUBY AHLUWALIA (IRAS) ................................................................................................................................................................................. 22
2.6 S. JAYASHANKAR (IFS) ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
2.7 UMAKANT UMARAO (IAS) ................................................................................................................................................................................. 23
2.8 PRATIBHA SINGH (IFS) ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
2.9 U. SAGAYAM (IAS) .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 23
2.10 PARAMESWARAN IYER (IAS) .......................................................................................................................................................................... 24
2.11 RAJENDRA BHATT ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 24
2.12 M.K. NARAYAN ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 24
2.13 DURGA SHAKTI NAGPAL (IAS) ....................................................................................................................................................................... 24
2.14 OM PRAKASH CHOUDHARY (EX-IAS) ........................................................................................................................................................... 24
2.15 KEERTHI JALLI (IAS)........................................................................................................................................................................................ 25
2.16 ARMSTRONG PAME (IAS) ................................................................................................................................................................................ 25
2.17 PROMINENT PERSONALITIES AND VALUES NURTURED BY THEM .......................................................................................................... 25
3. WESTERN PHILOSOPHERS .......................................................................................................................................................... 27
3.1 SOCRATES: FATHER OF WESTERN PHILOSOPHY ........................................................................................................................................... 27
3.2 PLATO ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
3.3 ARISTOTLE ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
3.4 KARL MARX ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 30
3.5 JOHN STUART MILL (ETHICAL ALTRUISM) .................................................................................................................................................... 31
3.6 JEREMY BENTHAM (ETHICAL EGOISM)........................................................................................................................................................... 32
3.7 IMMANUEL KANT ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 32
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3.8 THOMAS HOBBES ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 33

3.9 JOHN LOCKE ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 34
3.10 ROUSSEAU .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 34
3.11 JOHN RAWLS: SOCIAL JUSTICE THEORY ....................................................................................................................................................... 35
3.12 CAROL GILLIGAN .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 36
3.13 THOMAS AQUINAS ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 36
3.14 MACHIAVELLI .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 36
3.15 RENÉ DESCARTES ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 37
3.16 VOLTAIRE .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 39
3.17 MONTESQUIEU .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 39
3.18 AUGUSTE COMTE .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 40
3.19 SAMUEL CLARKE .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 41
3.20 CICERO ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 41
3.21 HENRY DAVID THOREAU ................................................................................................................................................................................ 41
3.22 MAX WEBER ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 42
3.23 CONFUCIUS ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 43
3.24 ADAM SMITH ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 43
3.25 HERBERT SPENCER .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 44
3.26 AYN RAND ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 44
3.27 LAWRENCE KOHLBERG ................................................................................................................................................................................... 45
3.28 ABRAHAM LINCOLN ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 45
3.29 MARTIN LUTHER KING JR ............................................................................................................................................................................... 46
2.30 NELSON MANDELA........................................................................................................................................................................................... 46
3.31 JEAN-PAUL SARTE............................................................................................................................................................................................ 47

1. INDIAN PHILOSOPHERS AND THINKERS

 Philosophy is derived from the Greek word “Philosophia” which means love of wisdom. A human is a social
being who seeks to understand cause and effect relationships in nature and the society he lives.
 The person who is a knowledge seeker through his curiosity is termed a philosopher. These thinkers and
philosophers and their philosophies are celebrated in ancient India and medieval Europe for their
contribution.
1.1 INDIAN ETHICS

 Indian ethics is the oldest moral philosophy in the history of civilization. The remoteness of Indian ethics
is responsible for making it well established in the practical life of the followers. Every school of Indian
Philosophy confirms the endurance of ethical ideals which are unshaken even today.
 Indian thinkers suggest some practical means of attaining a life of perfection in this world. The rules of
conduct have been practically followed by the Yoga, the Jain and the Buddhist disciples for thousands of years.
 The aim of Indian moral philosophy is not only to discuss moral ideals but also to follow the path leading
to moral Ideals.
 In Indian Ethics, there is a synthesis of theory and practice, of intellectual understanding and direct
experience of ultimate reality (Kaivalya, Nirvana etc.) In Indian Ethics, intellectualism and moralism are
two wings that help the soul in spiritual flight.
 Indian ethics is absolutistic and spiritualistic. It aims at the realization of supreme reality by
transcending pleasure and pain; even right and wrong and good and evil. The ideals are attainable by spiritual
discipline.
 Indian Ethics is humanistic. It seeks a balance between an individual’s inner and outer life; individual
and social life. Moral laws or code of conduct is prescribed in such a way that individual progress and social
welfare will lead to harmonious living. The goal of morality is the well-being of humanity.
 Indian ethical thinkers preach non-violence, love, compassion and goodwill for all living beings. It
includes every living being, plants, birds, and animals, every visible and invisible form of life.
 Indian thinkers believe in the “Law of Karma”. The Law of Karma means that all our actions good or bad
produce their proper consequences into the life of an individual, who acts with a desire for fruits thereof. It
is the general moral law that governs the life of all individuals. The Law of Karma is the force generated by
an action that has the potency of bearing fruit. It is the law of the conservation of moral values. Except for
Charvakas, all Indian schools accept the Law of Karma.
1.2 INDIAN SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY

 Indian system of philosophy consists of six schools of philosophy called “Shad Darshan”.
 It is also called Sankhya - enumerating number.

 Main theme: Eliminate physical and mental pains and receive liberations.
 It preaches the philosophy of “Dvaitavada” or dualism. It believes in the existence of
1. Samkhya: matter (Prakriti) and soul (Purusha) as two separate entities. The soul passes on to
temporal bodies and at the end merges with subtle matter or cosmic energy.
 Application: The theory highlights the inner conscience or soul that guides one's ethical
conduct.
 Yoga means union of yoking.
 Main theme: Practised meditation and samadhi for renunciation.
 It deals with values that help one with mental and physical abilities. It suggests
Ashtanga-Yoga considering following steps:
2. Yoga: o Yama= Restraint from ahimsa and falsehood.
o Niyama= Discipline
o Asana= Set of exercises for physical wellbeing
o Pranayama= Breath control
o Pratyahara= Control of senses
o Dharana= Awareness
o Dhyana= Concentrated meditation

o Samadhi= Soul releasing from Sansar
 Application: Yoga helps in the development of self and virtues. As it provides insight
into self-awareness and promotes discipline. The theme of the International Yoga Day
2021 is “Yoga for Wellbeing” indicating both physical and mental well-being during
Covid and lockdown times.
 Nyaya signifies Rule.
 Main theme: Logical quest for god and phases of creation
 This philosophy emphasizes “logic and epistemology”. It promotes the gain of
3. Nyaya knowledge through inference, and true knowledge leading to the liberation of the soul.
 Application: It upholds true knowledge or wisdom that was also propounded by
philosophers of virtue ethics. For example, Buddha is considered to be the
“Enlightened one” this is because he is said to understand the reason for suffering i.e.
Desire. Thus, he conquered his desire to establish logic and uphold Nyaya principles.
 Main theme: Science of logic and futility of Maya
 It is significant for its naturalism, a feature that is not characteristic of most Indian
4. Vaisheshika thought.
 The Vaisheshika school attempts to identify, inventory, and classify the entities and their
relations that present themselves to human perceptions.
 Mimamsa means critical reflection.
 Main theme: Vedas are eternal and divine
 It is the earliest Hindu school of philosophy that interprets Vedas and also provides
5. Mimamsa: philosophical justification. According to the theory, one can attain salvation through
Karma-Kanda (Ritualism).
 Application: Modern-day ritualism derives its justification from this school. We can also
attribute this to consumerism and materialism.
 The term Vedanta means conclusion, specifically the end of Vedas.
 Main theme: Explains the divine nature of soul, Maya and creation.
 As per the school of thought, one Vedas are the true source of knowledge and one can
attain salvation by seeking true knowledge.
 It emphasized the path of Jnana (knowledge) for Moksha rather than ritualism and
sacrifice to achieve moksha.
 Vivekananda’s interpretation of Vedanta philosophy:
6. Vedanta: o Ethics: It is a code of conduct for a man to be good as his soul is pure. So, the
emphasis was laid on the intrinsic purity of atman (soul).
o Religion: Religion offered a pathway to the eternal supreme i.e. Atman merging with
Paramatman.
o Education: He advocated education for the character building of an individual and
was in complete agreement with the methods and results of modern science.
 Application: The modern education system is inclined towards monetary benefits but
the Vedas in a true sense had holistic knowledge of life, health, recreation, and also
economic principles.
1.3 ESSENCE OF RAMAYANA AND MAHABHARATA
Character What Can We Learn

 Governance: Public is of prime importance over family and social welfare should be the
main role of government.
Ram  Friendship: Hanuman was treated as a friend rather than a subordinate.
 Marriage is an institution: Loyalty towards his wife.
 He is a major proponent of the social contractarianism approach due to his relationship
with the public/ subjects.

 Self-respect: She showed self-respect when her purity was questioned by the public and
Sita Lord Ram himself.
 Sita upholds the values and courage thus can be included in proponent of virtue ethics.
 Madhyam marga: Never take decisions when one is happy or sad. This can be termed in
Dasharatha today’s term as Emotional Intelligence.
and Kaikeyi  Social influence: The influence of the maid on Kaikeyi led to Lord Ram moving to the forest
signifies the importance of bad and good social influence.
 Greed: Despite Ravana being an intellect the greed for power and other women
Ravana overshadowed his wisdom and could not differentiate between ethical and unethical acts.
 True Knowledge and Wisdom are important for happiness, his ignorance symbolizes the
absence of ethical intellectualism.
 Dharma: One has to abide by his dharma. It applies to contemporary civil servants who often
Bhishma complain of unhealthy working conditions.
 He can also be considered as Deontologist for whom means are important than ends.
 Positive thinking: Krishna was the epitome of positive thinking who found solutions and
positivity in every situation.
Arjun and  Contractarianism: Arjun broke the words given to Yudhishthira and yet forgiven by him
Krishna took the punishment of a one-year pilgrimage.
 Krishna can be considered as the propagator of the Teleological approach where ends or
consequences of action decide the act is ethical or not.
1.4 RAMAYANA & MAHABHARAT

 Ramayana & Mahabharat, are not just religious texts but they reflect Ethical issues and Ethical
dilemmas in our life.
 They teach us how to live a life and how not to live a life and what is good and what is bad.
Character Role What to Learn?

 Governance  Governance – Public as prime importance over family.
 Friendship Commitment to his people’s welfare. An ideal model of
Ram  Marriage Governance.
 Respect to elders  Friendship – Treated Hanuman as his friend than his
 Courage of conviction subordinate
 Law Vs Morality  Marriage – Remain loyal to his wife
Sita  Self-Respect and  Loyal to her Husband and self-respect when Lord Ram
Marriage suspicion her pureness
Dasharatha  Bad social influence  Never make promises when you are Happy
& Kaikeyi  Bad influence results in bad actions which yield bad results
only
 Greediness  Though he was very intellectual, his intelligence
Ravana overshadowed by his madness and ignorance led him to
destruction.
 Dharma  Though he has the ability to occupy the throne, but he stayed
away from Throne and power just because he gave word to
his father.
Bhishma  Don’t get too much attached
 Learn to Forgive
 Dharma Comes first
 Be compassionate
Sri Krishna  Teacher – Student  Krishna led Arjuna to fight with Kauravas’s. Dharma wins
& Arjuna relationship always over Evil
Relationship

Dharmaraj  Values  Lifelong he sticks to his Moral values what he believed in
1.5 ESSENCE OF BHAGVADGITA

 Pleasure and Work: Do not let the fruit be the purpose of your actions, and therefore, you won’t be attached
to not doing your duty. It lays more weight on duty with commitment than with destination. For example,
few civil servants after getting into service get involved in a rat race of rewards, promotion, and salary than
focusing on public commitment.
 Emotional intelligence: The awakened sages call a person wise when all his undertakings are free from
anxiety about results. For example, the recent death of Sushant Singh Rajput showed the importance of
managing emotions for society.
 Focus: We are kept away from our goals, not by obstacles but by a clear path to a lesser goal. The modern-
day distractions in form of social media, love, and materialism provide temporary pleasure but derail us from
our permanent goal completely.
 Selflessness: A gift is pure when it is given from the heart to the right person at right time without expecting
anything from return. For example, the modern culture of huge donations and NGO establishment in
presence of media by influential is not a selfless act.
 Truth alone triumphs: There always will be bigger power watches and truth can never be hidden. For
example, Skin colour is a biological phenomenon while Race is a social phenomenon. But western rulers
tried to mask this truth but Gandhi’s movement in South Africa against Apartheid, in the end, proved race
just being a social construct.
1.6 BUDDHIST ETHICS

 According to Buddhist teachings, the ethical and moral principles are governed by examining whether
a certain action, whether connected to body or speech is likely to be harmful to one's self or others
and thereby avoiding any actions which are likely to be harmful.
 In Buddhism, there is much talk of a skilled mind. A skilful mind avoids actions that are likely to cause
suffering or remorse.
 The two most important systems of moral discipline in Buddhism are the Five Precepts, which apply to
laypeople, and the Vows of Individual Liberation (Skt. prā timokṣ a) which apply to monks and nuns.
 Lord Buddha’s teaching to lead the path beyond evil is known as Four Noble truths (Chatvari Aryasatyani).
The fourth noble truth in Buddhism is about the path to reach a state free from misery i.e. Nirvana. This
noble path is eightfold. This is essentially filled with moral precepts.
The Ashtanga Marg Of Buddha:

1. Right Views (Samyak Drishti): defined as the correct knowledge about the Four Noble Truths. Such
knowledge helps moral reformation and leads us to Nirvana. Ignorance is the main link of the chain of 12
causes. So when ignorance, the root course is removed by Right Views, the whole chain can be broken.
2. Right Resolve (Samyak Sankalpa): it is the firm determination to reform life, in the light of truth. The
aspirant has to renounce the worldliness, give up ill feelings towards others.
3. Right Speech (Samyak Vacha): it is the control of speech. Speech is the reflection of an individual’s
character. So speech of the individual indicates that the right resolve has become part of the self. Right speech
consists of abstention from lying, slander, harsh words and frivolous talk.
4. Right conduct (Samyak Karmanta): it is unselfish action. It is the outcome of the right knowledge, right
resolve and right speech. Right conduct includes five vows viz. ‘Panchashila’. `Panchshila’ is similar to Vrata’s
of Jainism. These are the rules of conduct to be followed by the aspirant. These vows consist in restraining
oneself from killing, stealing, sensuality, lying and intoxication.
5. Right Livelihood (Samyak Ajivika): it is maintaining one’s life by honest means. In every action, at every
moment, the aspirant’s righteous character must be reflected. No forbidden means to be adopted to maintain
one’s life. Right livelihood is the indication of the transmutation or sublimation of the character of the
aspirant. It is the conversion of the whole personality from the gross, ignoble life of indulgence to the pure,
noble life.
6. Right Effort (Samyak Vyayama): it is a constant endeavour to maintain moral progress. There is always a
risk of deviation from the righteous path. Moral progress can be maintained by ruling out old evil thoughts

and preventing evil thoughts from arising new. The empty mind should be filled up with good ideas and retain
these good ideas.
7. Right Mindfulness (Samyak Smruti): Right Mindfulness is the constant contemplation over the perishable
nature of things. The constant remembrance of the true nature of worldly objects including one’s body, helps
the aspirant to remain free from attachment and consequently from misery.
8. Right Concentration (Samyak Samadhi): Right Concentration is a deeper and deeper stage of meditation
to attain Nirvana. Right Concentration has four stages of meditation:
1. First stage of concentration involves reasoning and investigation regarding Truths. The First stage
brings joy and delight.
2. Second stage of concentration involves rising above the reasoning of Truths. The second stage brings
internal joy and calmness.
3. Third stage of concentration, all passions and views disappear. The Third stage brings indifference to
joy but the feeling of physical relaxation persists.
4. Fourth stage of concentration involves detachment from physical relaxation too. It is a state of Nirvana,
a state of perfect peace and self-possession.
 The stage of Right concentration is a gradual march towards universality. Such march can be facilitated by
constantly cherishing Four Sublime moods (Brahmavihara) viz. Love (Maitri), Compassion (Karuna),
Cheerfulness (Mudita) and Impartiality (Upeksha)
 The aspirant who attains Nirvana is called Arhat i.e. a venerable person.
 In the old books of Buddhism, the Noble Eightfold path is summarized into Three-fold path namely:
1. Right Knowledge includes the right views and right resolve.
2. Right Conduct includes right speech, right conduct, right livelihood and right effort.
3. Right concentration includes right mindfulness and right concentration.
1.7 JAIN ETHICS

 The Jaina believe that ignorance is the root cause of bondage. The Jaina prescribe the threefold path of
right faith, right knowledge and right conduct for liberation. Right conduct is essentially related to
morality.
 The essential stage of Right conduct is to take five vows (Vratas). These vows are the basic rules of conduct
viz. Non-injury (Ahimsa), Truthfulness (Sunruta), Non-stealing (Asteyam), Celibacy (Brahmacharya)
and Non-possession (Aparigraha).
 The purpose of the five vows is to build a strong character, self-purification and self-realization.
 There is only one fundamental Fivefold spiritual discipline in Jainism. In the case of the monk, it is extremely
strict, rigid and puritanical. The vows prescribed for the ascetic are called Mahavratas (the great vows).
The great vows lead the monk towards absolute renunciation.
 The fivefold spiritual discipline in the case of the layman or the householder is modified and diluted. The
Vows prescribed for the layman are called Anuvratas (the atomic or lesser vows).
 The first three vratas viz. Ahimsa, Sunruta and Asteyam are the same for the layman. The last two vows are
modified.
 Brahmacharya is restricted to chastity and Aparigraha is restricted to contentment.
 The adoption of Anuvrata is the training for the layman to rise to the level of the monk. The code of conduct
for the layman and the monk is the same differing only in the degree.
1.8 KAUTILYA
 Science of wealth: Kautilya explained the science of wealth in his book “Arthashashtra” where he
elaborated upon the political economy of the nation.
 Governance:
o King's happiness lies in the happiness of his subjects. His focus should lies on the welfare state.
o “Yatha Raja Thata Praja” highlights the importance of honesty, efficiency, and accountability of the King.
o He said corruption is natural in government as being selfish is human nature. One has to control
corruption as follows:
1. Saam-Niti: Educating citizens and also public officials. Example: Whistleblowing act encourages
concerned citizens to act as eyes of the government.

2. Daam-Niti: Incentivising the hard work of the officials. Example: The adoption of a 360-degree
review system for bureaucrats recognises the hard work.
3. Dandh-Niti: Punishments for deterrence. Example: Last year 2 IAS officers and 9 IPS officers were
dismissed for corrupt practices.
4. Bedh-Niti: Vigilance and spy system. Example: The institutions like CVC, Lokpal and Lokayukta, CBI
help in vigilance against corrupt practices.
1.9 THIRUVALLUVAR
 Thiruvalluvar has given many concepts in “Thirukkural” regarding king and kingdom which can be
correlated with the contemporary concepts of political science like state, government etc.
 “Thirukkural” concentrated more on Political governance, wisdom, Love and sex.
 Qualities of King: Courage, Liberalism, Wisdom & energy, Knowledge, Taking strong decisions.
 Components of Kingdom: People, Army, Resources, Ministry, Friendship, Fort.
 Duties of King: Identifying resources, collecting revenue, Protecting revenue, Distribution of revenue.
Thoughts From His Work “Thirukkural”:
Truthfulness:  “Even a lie could be considered as a truth if that lie is harmless and brings
unquestionable benefits”
God & Religion:  “Even if god and fate doesn’t will it, your true efforts will bear the fruits”
Forgiveness:  “Retaliation will bring joy only for a day. Patience and forgiveness will bring joy
for life”.
Character:  “Great is the joy of the mother when a child is born to her; but greater is the joy
when she hears his unblemished character and scholarliness from others”
 “Even the most powerful person in the world will get into serious trouble with a
Talk with caution: loose tongue”.
 “Even fire burns will heal easily but burns from loose words will never be”.
Grace/Charity:  “Grace is the child born out of the mother called love. However, grace is always
raised as the stepchild of wealth”.
Righteousness:  “Nothing will protect you as much as righteousness. Nothing will destroy you as
much as the lack of righteousness”.
Nation/State:  “A Nation should have 5 key elements – Good health, Good economy, Harvest,
Happiness and Strong defence”
Wealth:  “Wealth is like a lamp taken into a dark room. It can eliminate the despair of
darkness and poverty”
Win or lose:  “Better to lose fighting an elephant than to feel elated winning a rabbit”
Application: Tiruvalluvar’s philosophy becomes the guiding light to the modern quest of revenge and
vengeance between the people, communities, and nation-states. Examples like atheists getting more success,
Gandhi’s ability to forgive people of their ignorance and the eightfold path of Buddha stand on Tiruvalluvar’s
policy.
1.10 SWAMI VIVEKANANDA

 Swami Vivekananda, a disciple of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, was a pioneer of the rationalist movement
in India.
 Vivekananda was follower of Vedanta Philosophy. His version of Vedanta is called “Practical Vedanta” based
on Adi Shankar’s Advaita Philosophy.
 He tried to find the scientific account of practical Vedanta. Vivekananda was deeply impressed with western
materialism and scientific discoveries. He desired Indian spiritualism plus western materialism for a
happier life of a man.
His Contributions:
 Education and Social service through RK Mission: To awaken the people of India through education, to
develop a sense of patriotism through discipline and to serve the society he established the Ramakrishna
Mission and Ramakrishna Math.
 Brotherhood: Through speech at the World Parliament of Religions and later initiatives developed a sense
of brotherhood among the people of India and people of the globe.
 Rationality and Scientific temper: He condemned blind superstitious beliefs and searched for rationality
and scientific meaning to every aspect of religion. He says that if superstition enters into brain, man becomes
ignorant and path of degradation of life.
 Materialism & Spiritualism: The West appeared to him as the land of material civilization. The spirit of that
civilization to him was essential for Indian progress. Therefore, he declared “From the great dynamo of
Europe, the electric flow of that tremendous power vivifying the whole world, we want that energy, that love
of independence, that spirit of self-reliance, that immovable fortitude, that dexterity in action, that bond of
unity of purpose that thirst for improvement”.
 Religion: He distinguishes institutional religion from personal religion. According to him, true religion is one
who follows their conscience and personal religion. Religion is the highest form of expressing love and
devotion.
 Empowerment: His birth anniversary is celebrated as National Youth Day. He believed that Youth energy
can change the shape of the country.
Application: His ideas on brotherhood are more relevant today as the world has become a global village and
people of different backgrounds have come closer leading to racial and communal conflicts as recently seen
in the Charlie Hebdo case in France and George Floyd case in the USA.
1.11 GANDHIJI
 The politics, sociology, economics and ethics of Satyagraha, Constructive Programme, Trusteeship,
Swadeshi and Khadi, basic education, Truth and Nonviolence, eleven vows, peace and sustainability
of human society – all contribute to a Gandhian dream of a sane, just and empathetic society.
Contributions Of Gandhiji:
 Means over ends: Gandhi ji pioneered the idea that means are as important as the ends when determining
the ethicality of an action. Wrong means can never lead to a lasting noble end. He withdrew the Non-
cooperation movement and did not support revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh because of violent means.
 Human values (Truth & Non-violence): Satya and ahimsa must always be upheld as they are of intrinsic
value to human beings. They are not only respectful but also the key to a good life.
 Tolerance, pluralism and fraternity: Gandhi ji advocated for universal brotherhood, monotheism and
equality of all beings. His prayer “Ishwar Allah tere naam, sab ko sanmati de bhagwan...” gives the same
message.
 Education: Education leads to the all-round development of a person’s ‘mind, body and spirit’ and turns us
into better human beings citizens and members of society and so on. He emphasized value-based education
in his Wardha scheme of education.
 Humanitarianism: Gandhi ji believed that every human being has the right to dignity and a good life.
Betterment of human life must be the prime goal of social and political action. With this idea, Gandhi ji worked
for the upliftment of Harijan, women and so on.
 Inner strength: Gandhi ji preached that a person should have such high moral strength that no amount of
pressure can shake his moral standing. The technique of satyagraha was based on the inner strength of
satyagrahis who could go on fasting unto death, take beating etc. Inner strength can be developed through
the courage of conviction, confidence and even spirituality. He said, "Strength does not come from physical
capacity. It comes from an indomitable will." Gandhi ji even assured people of success if they believed in
their strength and acted for the right cause. He triumphantly said, "First they ignore you, then they laugh
at you, then they fight you, then you win."
 Satyagraha meant the use of truth, non-violence and sacrifice to agitate, assert one’s position and bring
a change of heart in the opponent, to get justice. The recent peaceful, as well as the successful long march of
farmers in Maharashtra, can be seen as an example.
 Conscience: Gandhi ji believed that God resides in every person and speaks from within. Such divine voice
is the voice of conscience which people must obey in times of dilemma. Gandhi ji remarked that “there is a
court above all courts, and that is the court of conscience”.
 Gender: Gandhi ji had a nuanced view on gender equality. He stated that though women are different from
men and have different strengths and weaknesses, they are equal in status. Women are superior to men in
matters like moral strength. He said, “To call woman the weaker sex is a libel; it is man's injustice to
woman......If by strength is meant moral power, then the woman is immeasurably man's superior.”
 Bringing change: Gandhi ji believed in human potential and appreciated the individual initiative. He urged,
“Be the change you wish to see in the world”, as the change was the responsibility of people as well as the
state.
 Honesty and integrity: For Gandhi “Happiness is when what you think, what you say, and what you do are
in harmony”. He did not shy away from criticizing even the Indian National Congress for its wrong policies
and slow functioning.
 Generosity: Gandhi ji urged people to be kind and righteous regardless of the behaviour of others. He said,
“The weak can never forgive. Forgiveness is the attribute of the strong”.
 Attitude: He stated that attitude is a consequence of our actions and a determinant of our destiny. Hence, we
should ensure the cultivation of the right attitude. He said, "A man is but the product of his thoughts, what he
thinks, he becomes."
Gandhiji’s Thoughts On The Good Life:

 Austerity: Gandhi ji preached a simple life with bare minimum material privileges. He believed in the
fulfilment of higher-order needs such as knowledge, morality, faith etc. Moreover, Gandhi ji said it was against
his conscience to have the material luxury when the masses of India lived in poverty and hunger.
 Altruism: Altruism was advocated by Gandhi ji not only as a voluntary good deed but also as a duty for the
well-off, to create a just and sustainable social order. Gandhi ji’s follower Vinobha Bhave took it forward in
the form of the Bhoodan movement.
 Social service: For Gandhi ji, selfless social service was a way of spiritual upliftment and a higher sense of
fulfilment. Gandhi ji said, "The best way to find yourself is to lose yourself in the service of others."
 Cleanliness: Gandhi ji said that “cleanliness is next to godliness”. Cleanliness and hygiene lead to mental
peace and the generation of good thoughts. Moreover, through this idea, Gandhi ji tried to address the menace
of sanitation and therefore, manual scavenging and untouchability.
 Intoxication: Gandhi ji advocated the prohibition of liquor and condemned intoxication. It pollutes our soul,
mind and heart and gives way to immoral acts.
Gandhiji’s Thoughts On Decision Making: What Is The Right Thing To Do?

 Talisman: Gandhi ji favoured choosing the course of action based on compassion. He taught that whenever
we are in doubt over our course of action, we should think about how our actions will affect the poorest and
weakest, whether it will help to alleviate their suffering, whether it will benefit them. This talisman is
particularly relevant for decision making by public servants.
 Bhagavad Gita: Gandhi ji termed the Gita as his ‘spiritual dictionary’ and gave it the status of his ‘mother’.
One should do one’s duty i.e. dharma and not care about the result, which is the way to salvation. Gandhi ji
gave the idea that fulfilling one’s duty in family, society, nation etc. should be the core principle of human life.
Gandhiji’s Thoughts On Polity And Governance:

 Self-governed, self-sufficient village republics: Gandhi ji argued that as opposed to big centralized
governments, local self-governance (Panchayats) and self-sufficiency are the keys to good governance and it
also provides social control to ensure ethical behaviour. True Swaraj will come only when people govern
themselves as per their values.
 Secularism: Gandhi ji envisaged a state that was impartial to all religions and derived inspiration from all
religions as a way of value-driven politics, as was the case during the rule of Ashoka and Akbar. He believed
in the traditional Indian idea of Sarva Dharma Sama Bhava.
 Just law: Laws should be just and reasonable. People must abide by the law in all circumstances but they
have the right to disobey and resist when the law is unfair and unreasonable. For instance, the salt law was
broken by Gandhi ji with his Dandi March.
Gandhiji’s Thoughts On The Economy:

 Private enterprise: Gandhi ji favoured minimal economic regulation and free enterprise, but for larger social
well-being and not individual greed or luxury.
 Trusteeship model: Gandhi ji propounded the idea that owners of wealth should see themselves as
custodians of public resources which people have
entrusted with them to do larger social good.
Wealth should not lead to greed but should be used
for the well-being of all, such as innovation, job
creation, philanthropy etc.
 Small industries and manual labour: Gandhi ji
promoted small industries as they can be set up by
persons with limited means using their traditional
skills and they also lead to employment generation
and inclusive growth. Skill development and
manual labour is the means to ensure livelihood for
all.
 Gandhiji on Machined Production: Gandhi called
machines “evil” and held them responsible for the impoverishment of India. Gandhi supported machinery
which reduces human suffering but was against those machines which replace humans in production. He
said, “the spinning wheel itself is a machine; a little toothpick is a machine, what I object to is the craze for
labour-saving machinery. Men go on saving labour, till thousands are without work and thrown on the open
streets to die of starvation”
 Rural development: Gandhi ji once said that ‘India lives in villages’ and favoured rural development on its
terms over urbanization because he saw villages representing true Indian ethos and culture.
 Antodaya: that is upliftment of the bottom strata, was the key to the development of all (Sarvodaya) and was
also India’s moral responsibility as a civilized society. Antyodaya is key to Sarvodaya. Inclusive and equitable
development is necessary for a sustainable social order.
Gandhiji’s Seven Sins:

 Gandhiji in his weekly “Young India” publication mentioned Seven types of sins that destroy us. They are:
Type Of Sins Recent Example

Politics without  The recent cases of defection in Karnataka.
principles  Example: 233 of 539 MP’s of Lok Sabha have criminal cases against them.
Wealth without  The inflating prices of cryptocurrency have changed many fortunes.
work  Example: Current Rs 11 Lakh crore NPA in banks also shows the corrupt and
manipulative mindset of the people.
Pleasure without  The burning issue of marital rape on adolescents.
conscience  Environmental plundering under the ambit of development
 Use of cyberspace to disrupt national infrastructure as observed in 2021 Mumbai
Knowledge blackout.
without character  Example: Recent cases of “Missing women” due to female feticide using ultrasound
test.
Science without  Recent bombarding of missiles between Israel and Gaza Strip.
humanity  Governments not banning toxic drinks and cigars despite evidence of cancer.
 The use of nuclear weapons over Japan in 1945 is an assault of science on humanity.
Commerce  Google and Facebook recently tussle with the US Senate on privacy issues.
without morality  Sexism in Bollywood songs and movies over the female body just to market their
content.

Religion without  Religious fundamentalism in all religions leads to communal tensions as seen
sacrifice recently in France.
(Manavaseva =  Development of ritualism over bhakti.
Madhava Seva)
Application: Gandhi’s seven sins are very relevant in today’s context in the sphere of life from family, society,
and even at the government level.
1.12 COMPARING GANDHI WITH SUBHASH CHANDRA BOSE AND RABINDRANATH TAGORE
Parameter Views of Gandhi Views of Bose Views of Tagore

Means were as important as Ends over means especially Means were most important
Means vs ends e.g. non-violence in times of important and should uphold
ends oppression e.g. invasion of humanism
India by INA
India’s tradition and culture Indian culture had Human choice and reason
were the bedrock of its deteriorated due to vested should determine culture. It
Culture civilization and should be interests and ignorance and must keep evolving. Humans
preserved needed to be modernized are ends in themselves and
not means
Education should Education should include Education should not be top-
incorporate values, skills, modern sciences, both down and prescriptive but
Education culture, social awareness. Its natural and human. Its aim student-centric. It should
aim should be to create better should be the development of aim at character building and
members of society. society and upliftment of the bringing students closer to
marginalized nature
The world is one family but The world is governed by a The world is one and
see power politics and relationship of power humanity is a family,
World exploitation. India should between countries. India artificially divided by
limit contact with the outside should gain the power to borders. We need universal
world unless it's strong protect its interest and regain brotherhood to ensure peace
enough to deal with it its old glory and justice.
The rights of individuals The rights of the society The rights of individuals are
Rights should be balanced by the outweigh the rights of inviolate and should be the
rights of the society so that individuals, as the former is basis of any social order.
both can sustain. required for the latter
A nation is a civilization that A Nation is a political unit A nation's Is an artificial
Nation is sustained ethics and that needs strength to sustain concept that divides
culture humanity. The world is one.
1.13 RABINDRANATH TAGORE

 Rabindranath Tagore was born in Calcutta on May 7, 1861. Bengali poet, novelist, and painter, who was
highly influential in introducing Indian culture to the west.
Tagore on Education:
 Tagore envisioned a novel blending of the ideas of the East and West. The spiritualism of Indian
philosophy and the progressive outlook of the western people were blended.
 Tagore was a naturalist; nature is the best teacher to students. Nature will provide the student with the
necessary situation to gain knowledge. It is nature that will shape his behaviour and character.
 For the first time in the arena of Indian education, Tagore established a new mile-stone by rejecting book-
centred education for students.

 According to Tagore, teaching should be practical and real but not artificial and theoretical. Education
should increase the creative skill within a leaf
 Tagore laid great importance on the fine arts in his educational curriculum. Activities like, games, dance,
music, drama, painting etc and considered as a part of the educational process.
 Tagore was aware of the rural poverty of our country. So, he wanted to eradicate poverty through
education. The practical training imparted in different crafts to the students will make them skilled artisans
in their field.
Tagore on Nation:
 Tagore was a national poet and a patriot. His writings were filled with patriotic values. He had joined the
freedom struggle to make the country free from foreign yoke.
 Sense of national service, patriotic feeling, dedication etc. was fostered through his writings. “Jana Gana
Mana Adlii Nayak Jai Hai” expresses a strong sense of integration.
1.14 DR. B. R. AMBEDKAR

 Dr B R Ambedkar was one of the principle architects of the Indian Constitution. He was a well-known
politician and an eminent jurist. Ambedkar's efforts to eradicate their evils like untouchability and caste
restrictions were remarkable. The leader, throughout his life, fought for the rights of the Dalits other socially
backward classes.
Ambedkar Views On Social Justice:

 Ambedkar aimed to get justice for the 'last, the lost and the least' and emerged as a sort of revolutionary
leader of India's Hindu untouchable and other castes.
 He aimed for their equality and seek improved living conditions for them and reach education among
them and get adequate representation for them in elected bodies and government services.
 During the freedom struggle, Ambedkar's emphasis on issues related to social justice forced the leaders
of the national movement to take these up as part of the agenda associated with the main demand for
unshackling the country from the chains of colonialism.
 Ambedkar in his work Who Were the Shudras? questioned the whole Hindu social order and tried to create
a theory that the “Shudras not a separate varna or caste but were originally Kshatriyas who in a
struggle with Brahmins were manipulated out of the Kshatriya caste by the Brahmins and were
deprived of the sacred thread”.
 He believed the root of all lack of social justice in India was the caste system that created the environment
for exploring citation of man by man - of the Shudras and untouchables by the brahmins and other upper
castes.
 He believed no democracy is possible in India without first establishing social justice by the
annihilation of caste. So he took a position that was opposed to the position of both the Congress and
Gandhiji. Both wanted political reform and independence from the British colonial rule first the also the
socialists and Marxists who wanted economic equality established first.
 He believed lack of social justice as a consequence of the caste system would never be dismantled by
the upper castes because it served their interests and also by any system of western-style because all
institutions from the parliament to the judiciary would be dominated by the upper castes who would
manipulate and control the system to make sure Shudras and untouchables don't come up.
 He also felt the economic exploitative basis of the caste system was so solidly to the benefit of upper
castes they would never be willing to change the situation. That is the reason he wanted constitutional
safeguards and direct representation for the lower castes and Dalits democratic institutions from the
parliament to the judiciary.
 His views on social justice are to be found in his books and speeches. His most important works are
Annihilation of Caste (1936), Who were the Shudras (1946) and The Untouchables (1948). Also his
writings like What Congress and Gandhi have done to the Untouchables.
 It is interesting he even though attacked Gandhi's Congress Party's views and attitudes on the caste system
quite severely and in a scathing manner in his writings, Gandhiji suggested Ambedkar's name to head the
committee to draft the Constitution.

1.15 VALLABHBHAI PATEL

 Sardar Patel dominated the Indian political scene from 1917 to 1950 and dedicated himself to the
freedom struggle and reorganised the Indian National Congress. After Independence, he managed sensitive
portfolios such as Home and the States. Following the Partition, he restructured the bureaucracy and
integrated the princely States.
 Patel laid the foundation of political democracy by being an important member in the drafting of the
Indian Constitution. Thus, he emerged as an astute leader and as a sagacious statesman acknowledged as the
‘Iron Man’ and a founder of modern India.
Political And Social Views:

 As a fiery champion of fundamental rights and liberty, he was convinced that these values were essential
pre-requisites for the development of the individual and a nation. He always raised his voice on several issues
against exploitation and criticised the high-handedness of authority, the exploitative revenue policy of the
Government and maladministration in the Princely states.
 He not only criticised the arbitrary policies of confiscation of movable and immovable properties but also
insisted on guarded regulations on land reforms and the nationalisation of key industries. His efforts
to reform the Hindu religion and protect the people of other faiths reflected his longing for the right to
religion.
 He encouraged the duly elected authority to bring restrictions through various legislative measures to
freedom for all. Thus, his political value system was a fine synthesis of liberalism, conservatism and
welfarism.
 His vision of State was in tune with the pattern of his political values. In his concept, the State was
founded and held together by a high sense of nationalism and patriotism. Individual liberty was to conform
with the provisions of the Constitution, to create a Nation-State, he pressed for the emancipation of backward
communities and women and bring about Hindu-Muslim unity through the Gandhian constructive
programme and skilfully utilised the higher castes for social integration and political mobilisation.
 Thus, he strengthened the plural basis of the nation-state by bringing electoral participation as effective
political mobilisation.
 He saw a nation as ‘democratic in structure, nationalistic in foundation and welfarist in spirit and
function’.
 Patel worked extensively against alcohol consumption, untouchability, caste discrimination and for
women emancipation in Gujarat and outside.
1.16 JAWAHARLAL NEHRU

 Nehru moulded his ideology mostly from western liberal values like democracy, scientific temper,
rationality and Leftist ideologies like Socialism, Marxism.
 His Political philosophy is based on Democracy. He had a strong faith in democracy.

Political  He believed in the autonomy of democratic institutions. He followed strong ethical and
Philosophy: moral values in politics.
 Never resort to misuse of his power. When there is a situation criticism against govt, he
never steps back to point out his own govt mistakes and praises opposition members.
 In his Congress annual session at Avadi happened in 1955 he reiterated that “To
establish a socialistic pattern of society”.
Economic  Till liberalization of the Indian economy in the 1990’s India followed his economic
Philosophy: principles where the state owns resources of the country and also encouraged the private
sector too, that is Mixed Economy.
 He gave importance to the centralization of planning. Land reforms were undertaken
to distribute lands to the landless poor.
 Religion has nothing to do with the state.
Secular:  Present secular credentials of India attributed to his strong values in Secularism. He
emphasized Scientific temper and rationality over pseudo-science.

 He raised his voice against superpower dominance and colonial rule. Played a key
International role in getting independence to many African countries. A frontrunner in establishing
Ethics: NAM (Non-Aligning Movement). Even today in International relations his “Panchsheel”
follows:
1. Mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty.
2. Mutual non-aggression.
3. Mutual non-interference.
4. Equality and mutual benefit.
5. Peaceful co-existence.
1.17 RAJA RAM MOHAN ROY: MORNING STAR OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE

 Monotheism: Roy preached the unity of God and that all religions are different paths to the same ultimate
truth and salvation.
 Cosmopolitanism: Roy considered people of different nationalities as sub-units of one big family that are
co-dependent and have to cooperate to achieve the common good. Roy supported the French nationalists and
became the first person to break the tradition of not crossing the sea and going to England.
 Rationalism and modernity: Like Rousseau, Roy regarded reason and rationality as prime criteria for
deciding the right course of action rather than tradition and superstition. Roy is called the ‘Father of Modern
India’ as emphasized modern education as a means to carry out social reform and upliftment.
 However, Roy did not blindly promote modernity but was also mindful of the value of traditional
Indian culture. Roy stood for a blend of tradition and modernity, a blend of East and West. Roy critiqued
even the West for religious orthodoxy and distortions of Christianity.
 He wrote the book ‘Precepts of Jesus’ for Christians to deliver the true message of Christianity, without any
distortions.
 Reformist: Roy saw social reform as a way to achieve social progress and national development. He pushed
social reform by mobilization of people, petitioning the government, setting up educational institutions,
creating voluntary organizations etc. Roy fought for women’s causes like widow remarriage, age of consent,
sat etc. This resulted in the passing of reformative legislation like banning of Sati, banning polygamy, Widow
Remarriage Act etc.
 Vedantic philosophy: He tried to take Hinduism away from orthodoxy and superstition and sought to revive
Vedantic philosophy. He promoted knowledge, enlightenment and spirituality as chief tenets of the religion.
 Humanism and human values: Roy was a strong proponent of human values like peace, dignity, care, justice
etc. He worked for the upliftment of the poor, weak and marginalized as he believed that a good life is the
right of every human being.
 Education: Roy was an educationist and even encouraged the incorporation of western technical education
into the traditional Indian curriculum. He set up the Vedanta college in Bengal in 1825 and assisted David
Hare in setting up of Hindu college.
View On Polity And Governance:

 Freedom of the press: Roy published journals himself and advocated for freedom of the press, especially
vernacular press, through petitions, meetings etc.
 Representative government and bureaucracy: Representation in government was considered by him to
be the right of the governed. He was among the first to raise the demand for the Indenisation of civil services.
He also pushed for a responsible government in India through the creation of a representative legislature in
a parliamentary democracy.
 Separation of judiciary from executive: He called for the separation of judicial powers from Collectors so
as to ensure fairness in revenue administration.
 Liberty and freedom: He believed in the sanctity of natural rights of life, liberty, the pursuit of property and
so on. He also advocated state legislation for social reform and reconstruction.
View On Economy:

 Indigenous industrialization: Roy extended support for industrialization using modern tools and
technology, as the key to national development. He supported the native domestic industry and urged the
government to provide tariff protection to Indian industries.
 Colonial destruction: The idea of ‘drain of wealth’ can be traced back to Roy who exposed the colonial
economic destruction of India due to British policies.
1.18 ISHWAR CHAND VIDYASAGAR

 Gender justice: Vidyasagar was a compassionate and conscientious social being. He was a pioneering
proponent of social reforms for gender equality. He fought for widow remarriage, girl education and
polygamy and child marriage.
 Scholar and Educationist: Due to his diverse and in-depth academic knowledge, he was given the title of
‘Vidyasagar’ (Ocean of learning). He also authored famous works like Borno Porichoy. Vidyasagar was
the principal of Sanskrit college and carried out many reforms in education and administration. He also
supported J.E.D. Bethune established the Bethune school, the first-ever girls school, in 1849.
 Importance of education: Vidyasagar regarded education as the key to the development of a person as well
as society. Vidyasagar believed that learning and broadening of horizons was the way to inculcate a sense of
dignity and liberty among people, which drives them towards freedom and progress. For this purpose,
Vidyasagar opened the doors of Sanskrit college for the lower castes and poor.
 Reformist: He described social reform as a prerequisite for social and national progress. He considered it is
the responsibility of the educated and capable to provide leadership and push for reform.
 Humanism and potential: He preached that ethical action is one that respects human dignity and allows
each individual to fulfil their potential. Each human being had certain basic needs and rights which must be
fulfilled. Humans can’t be seen as mere objects of tradition but as masters of their own destiny.
Views On Polity And Economy:

 Leadership: He believed that the state should provide leadership to the society in pushing for social reform
when the society is trapped in orthodoxy and rigidity. For instance, Vidyasagar struggled for the enactment
of the Widow Remarriage Act in 1856.
 Skill development and enterprise: He believed in vocational learning and empowerment of women and
marginalized through skill development and remunerative work, as a way to inclusive growth. He started
homes for marginalized women which provided shelter and skills like weaving nursing etc.
1.19 SAINT MOTHER TERESA

 Mother Teresa was born in Macedonia. At the age of eighteen, she left her parental home and joined an Irish
community of nuns with missions in India.
Her Contributions:
 From 1931 to 1948, Mother Teresa taught at St. Mary’s High School in Calcutta, she glimpsed suffering and
poverty outside the convent walls which made a deep impression on her. In 1948, she received permission
from her superiors to leave the convent school and devote herself to working among the poorest of the
poor in the slums of Calcutta.
 Although she had no funds, she depended on Divine Providence and started an open-air school for slum
children. Soon she was joined by voluntary helpers, and financial support was also forthcoming. This made
it possible for her to extend the scope of her work.
 She was the founder of “The Missionaries of Charity”, whose primary task was to love and care for those
persons nobody was prepared to look after.
 She is known for her selfless service, willpower, compassion towards people suffering from various kinds
of issues.
 Her compassion towards leprosy patients, AIDS/HIV people is commendable.
 For her service, she was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Catholic Church of the Vatican recognised her with
sainthood.

1.20 AMARTYA SEN

 Amartya Sen, an economist who was awarded the noble prize in Economic Sciences in 1998 for his
contributions to welfare economics and social choice theory and for his interest in the problems of
society’s poorest members.
 Sen was best known for his work on the causes of famine, which led to the development of practical solutions
for preventing or limiting the effects of real or perceived shortages of food.
Contributions:
 The Capability Approach is defined by its choice of focus upon the moral significance
of individuals’ capability of achieving the kind of lives they have reason to value.
 This distinguishes it from more established approaches to ethical evaluation, such as
Capability utilitarianism or resources, which focus exclusively on subjective well-being or the
Approach availability of means to the good life, respectively.
 A person’s capability to live a good life is defined in terms of the set of valuable ‘beings
and doings’ like being in good health or having loving relationships with others to
which they have real access.
 Seeks to evaluate economic policies in terms of their effects on the well-being of
Basic Welfare the community.
Economics  His influential monograph “Collective Choice and Social Welfare”—which
addressed problems such as individual rights, majority rule, and the availability of
information about individual conditions.
 Sen devised methods of measuring poverty that yielded useful information for
improving economic conditions for the poor.
 For instance, his theoretical work on inequality provided an explanation for why there
Sex Ratio are fewer women than men in some poor countries in spite of the fact that more
women than men are born and infant mortality is higher among males.
 Sen claimed that this skewed ratio results from the better health treatment and
childhood opportunities afforded to boys in those countries.
 Sen’s interest in famine stemmed from personal experience. As a nine-year-old boy, he
witnessed the Bengal famine of 1943, in which three million people perished.
Poverty and  He believed that there was an adequate food supply in India at the time but that its
Famines distribution was hindered because particular groups of people—in this casual
labourers—lost their jobs and therefore their ability to purchase the food. In his book
“Poverty and famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation”, Sen revealed
that in many cases of famine, food supplies were not significantly reduced.
Economic  In order for economic growth to be achieved, he argued, social reforms such as
Growth improvements in education and public health must precede economic reform.
 Along with Pakistani economist Mahbub-ul-Haq, he proposed UNDP’s Human
Human Development Index to measure economic development. The Human Development
Development Index (HDI) is a summary measure of average achievement in key dimensions of
human development: a long and healthy life, being knowledgeable having have a
decent standard of living.
 Application: His ideas have been compiled and Human Development Index has been devised by United
Nations to supplement economic growth parameters like GDP and GNP.
2.21 DR. APJ ABDUL KALAM

 Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam was an Indian aerospace scientist and statesman who served as the
11th President of India (2002 to 2007).
Ethical Views:

 Dr A.P.J Abdul Kalam is a very good example of an ethical leader. He had a noble mind, strongly believed in
simplicity and has encouraged scores of Indians and people all of the world through his dedication, empathy
and integrity. He was a visionary who had immense faith in the ability of the human mind.
 He upheld the virtues of a citizen and, as a scientist, always combined ethics with science.
 While occupying the highest position in the country, Mr. Kalam was not swayed by power but used love and
peace as tools to be one among the masses.
Educational Philosophy Of Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam:

 According to him Education in its real sense is the pursuit of truth.
 Education is a journey of knowledge and enlightenment so there is no scope for pettiness, disharmony,
jealousy, hatred or enmity.
 Education transforms a human being into a wholesome whole, a noble soul and an asset to the universe.
 Education is all about forming beautiful minds that are creative.
 The parents give to their children their physical birth. The second birth is the process of education.
Aims Of Education:
 Education should develop in the students the capacities to deal with the real world, to grow in their
professional career and participate in national development.
 Education should develop in the students’ special capacities of research and enquiry, creativity and
innovation, use of high technology, entrepreneurial and moral leadership.
 The aim of the education system should be to create employment generators rather than employment
seekers apart from building research capability.
 The students should be groomed to be physically fit and academically sound. Education should make
them emotionally mature and spiritually awakened.
 The purpose of education is the creation of enlightened citizens. Education should develop children into
good human beings with knowledge and value system.
Curriculum:
 In the schools and colleges, teachers should give lectures on moral values at least once in a week for one hour.
This may be called as Moral Science Class.
 Proficiency in science must be enlarged with the reoriented framework of integrating education, research,
innovation, and entrepreneurship.
 The students should be equipped with knowledge on subjects like leadership, management, finance,
marketing, interpersonal relationship, negotiation, entrepreneurship, IT/ITES applications,
knowledge process outsourcing, domain expertise and also adaptation of ethical values in all
professional transactions.
 The teachers should inspire the youth to take up subjects of their interest be it poetry, music, art or
philosophy, commerce, literature, finance and all the other disciplines.
Moral Education:
 Moral education must be provided to the children right from the school stage so that they have a strong moral
value base for the whole life.
 Parents and teachers should work for the mission of value inculcation among children in an integrated
manner.
 The school hours for children are the best time for learning and they need the best of environment and
mission oriented learning with value system. During this stage, they need value-based education in school
and at home to become good citizens.
 Spirituality must be integrated with education and self-realization should be the focus. Everyone should be
aware of his higher self.
Quotes:
 You have to dream before your dreams can come true.
 Man needs his difficulties because they are necessary to enjoy success.

 Great dreams of great dreamers are always transcended.

 Dreams are not those which comes while we are sleeping, but dreams are those when u don’t sleep before
fulfilling them.
 Don’t take rest after your first victory because if you fail in second, more lips are waiting to say that your first
victory was just luck.
 All Birds find shelter during a rain. But Eagle avoids rain by flying above the Clouds. Problems are common,
but attitude makes the difference!!!
 To succeed in your mission, you must have single-minded devotion to your goal.
 We should not give up and we should not allow the problem to defeat us.
 Those who cannot work with their hearts achieve but a hollow, half-hearted success that breeds bitterness
all around.
 It is very easy to defeat someone, but it is very hard to win someone.
1.22 KABIR
 Sant Kabir Das was born in the city of Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. He was a 15th CEC mystic poet, saint and
social reformer and a great proponent of the Bhakti Movement.
 Kabir on tolerance: Sant Kabir tried to unite communities of India mainly the Hindu-Muslims who
constituted the major chunk. He gave metaphors like “Both Hindus and Muslims are made of the same
clay”. His teachings become important in the contemporary period when religious tensions are brewing
across the globe.
 Kabir on wisdom: Kabir laid emphasis on the development of wisdom. He elaborates them with his Dohas
as follows, “If I tell the truth, people will rush to beat me, but if lie they trust me”. This symbolizes the
need for oneself to attain true knowledge. This is true even in modern times as people get offended by bitter
truth but are ready to accept lies and mediocracy to suit their views.
2.23 SIKH ETHICS

 Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak in the 16th century in the Punjab district of what is now India and
Pakistan.
 It is based on the teachings of Guru Nanak and those of the 9 Sikh gurus who followed him. Sikhism, the
most recent faith in Indian tradition, lays great stress on ethics in human life.
Code Of Conduct For Sikhs:

 Moral Standards: The major problem with morality is houmai (ego or I-am-ness). Guru Nanak, in his
composition Japji identifies houmai as a feeling of individualism. Guru Nanak uses sat (truth) as the principle
of spiritual progress. The journey to sachiara (self-realization) becomes easier if we accept God’s hukam
(will).
 Human Motives, Propensities and Praxis: Kaam (Lust), Karodh (Wrath), Lobh (Greed), Moh (Attachment),
and Ahankar (Ego or Pride) are known as 5 thieves or vices. The Gurus stress the need to control them or
overpower them. These propensities keep a person in a state of restlessness. These propensities should be
controlled voluntarily through poise and balance and not through penance.
 Virtues: Virtues are qualities essential to endear the self to the Divine. The Sikh Scriptures emphasize the
following virtues – wisdom, truthfulness, justice, temperance, courage, humility, contentment, and love for
humanity.
 Duties: Duties of the Sikhs are outlined in Rahitnamas (code of conduct). A Sikh should perform all his duties
to his/her best ability depending upon the station of life he/she is in. The Moral duties are (1) Right belief,
(2) Right livelihood, (3) Chastity and fidelity. Organizational duties pertain to observing 5 K’s.
Social Ethics:
 It is always helpful to evaluate someone’s social ethics considering history of the place a person is coming
from.
 Sikh religion started in India by Guru Nanak (1469-1539 AD) who was born in Punjab.
 This was an era of great awakening when old dogmas and faith of established religions were being reviewed
and challenged.
 Some of the religions, especially in South Asia, had lost their original direction at the hands of an established
priestly class.
2.24 SUFISM
 Sufism was a liberal reform movement within Islam. It had its origin in Persia and spread into India in the
eleventh century.
 The first Sufi saint Shaikh Ismail of Lahore started preaching his ideas. The most famous of the Sufi saints of
India was Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, who settled in Ajmer which became the centre of his activities.
Philosophy:
 Love and devotion: Sufism stressed the elements of love and devotion as effective means of the realisation
of God. Love of God meant love of humanity and so the Sufis believed service to humanity was tantamount to
service to God. They consider love and devotion as the only means of attaining salvation.
 Self-discipline: It is considered an essential condition to gain knowledge of God by sense of perception.
While orthodox Muslims emphasize external conduct, the Sufis lay stress on inner purity.
 Spirit of tolerance: Sufism also inculcated a spirit of tolerance among its followers.
 Other ideas emphasised by Sufism: meditation, good actions, repentance for sins, performance of prayers
and pilgrimages, fasting, charity and suppression of passions by ascetic practices.
2.25 RAMANANDA (1400-1470 AD)

 The movement which Ramanuja started in South India was spread to the other parts of Northern India by his
great disciple Ramananda.
 His concept of God is that he is a person who cares for all men and rewards their devotion.
 Ramananda brought a radical reform and made no distinction between Brahmanas and members of the other
castes. He wanted to promote the ideal of inter-dining.
Spirit of religious tolerance:

 Religion is a question of individual approach to God without the necessity of any outside interference.
 Both the Muslims and Hindus are equal and they are the children of the only true God. Nevertheless, the
mystics were fearless in pointing out the defects in the belief of both Hindus and Muslims.
 They fought against casteism and idolatry of the Hindus.
 The ideal of Islamic brotherhood exerted profound influence on Hindu social thinking. Islam treats all men
equal which was in disregard to caste in the new development of Bhakti philosophy
2.26 RAVIDASA (1450-1540 AD)

 Ravidasa was a great Hindu saint and Philosopher during the medieval times. Although he hailed from a low
community, he did not suffer from inferiority complex. He returned good to the evil.
View On Religion:
 He considers religion as the basic need of man.
 Man has religious instinct distinct from hunger and thirst.
 He says that if self-realization is the dawn of the soul, self-negation is the dark night of the soul.
 He can guide those grouping in darkness to their destiny.
 Ravidasa criticizes these teachings of religion which did not appeal to the human reason. He stands against
the fallacy of the vain religious action.
 Ravidasa condemns the superstitious practices associated with devotion. For his devotion was chiefly in the
form of service.
Human existence:
 Ravidasa considers the human existence as rare, and obtained due to the result of meritorious deeds.
 He should utilize his life in achieving the highest human aspiration which becomes possible only by following
a moral code of discipline.

 Ravidasa exhorts the people to raise above evils of pride, anger, greed, attachment, jealousy and lust.
 True freedom can be realized only in the absence of determinism.
 Reason, faith, contemplation have been attached much importance.
 Reason is dependable and indispensable. The philosophy of Ravidasa is marked by the values of self-
transcending existence of absolute freedom.
2.27 TULASIDAS (1532-1623 AD)

 Tulasidas has composed the great work Rāmacarita mānasā usually known as Rāmāyaṇa.
 According to him, the supreme fruit of devotion is deliverance from sin and purification of heart.
 Knowledge and devotion are the two paths for attaining God.
 In the whole creation, there is nothing in comparison to such abiding value as saintliness of character. A saint
has the characteristics of deep wisdom and boundless love.
 A wise man sees unity in diversity and identifies himself with the whole of creation.
 The devotee radiates peace which is active and exalted which silently and gently communicates itself to
others.
 Tulasidas says that man is responsible for his sorrows and joys in life. He attaches great importance to the
man associating with the good and holy.
 This is said to be a recognized way prescribed for the ordinary mortals to help themselves to progress on
Godward path.

2. INDIAN ADMINISTRATORS AND LESSONS FROM THE LIVES AND

TEACHINGS OF GREAT LEADERS
2.1 E SREEDHARAN (IAS)
 Basic: Also called Metro Man of India who worked towards redefining public transport in India.
 Perseverance: He was successful in developing Konkan Railways at the highest quality despite his
disagreement with the Railway Minister over the choice of gauges. He persuaded the minister with his
diligence and perseverance.
 Equity: Delhi Metro is one of his successful ventures where he ensured affordable tickets for all and free
travel for women.
 Ethics of work culture: He says “Ethics in work is a compulsion, not an option”. He upheld punctuality,
professionalism, and competence as the cardinal principle of the work environment.
2.2 T N SHEEHAN (IAS)

 Basic: He was an IAS officer from Tamil Nadu Cadre who stamped his authority on the electoral system in
India.
 Leadership: He identified several electoral malpractices ranging from inaccurate election rolls, booth
capturing, electioneering, etc. He then acted on all aspects strictly and set milestones for officers to come.
 Discipline: He was known for his strict adherence to the law. He ensured his support staff and politicians
abide by the rules. For instance, in 1994 he advised PM to remove two sitting cabinet ministers for electoral
malpractices. His approach was often termed as “Zero delay and Zero deficiency” approach.
 Innovative: He successfully started the implementation of the Model Code of Conduct during elections
which today has evolved as an important part of elections in India.
2.3 IQBAL SINGH CHAHAL (IAS)

 Basic: Iqbal Singh Chahal is a 1989 batch IAS officer of the Maharashtra cadre. He is currently the
Commissioner of Brihan-Mumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC).
 Mumbai Dharavi Model: He is widely given the credit for keeping COVID-19 under check in Mumbai. The
Supreme Court of India and High Court of Maharashtra also lauded Mr. Chahal for his Mumbai Dharavi Model.
 Proactive Approach: He added thousands of beds through new field hospitals, and private facilities handed
over their Covid-19 wards to the government with 800 vehicles being turned into ambulances.
 Focus on downtrodden: He focused on 55 slums of Mumbai city including, Dharavi, where a strict lock-
down was accompanied by aggressive sanitation of public toilets, mass coronavirus screening and a huge
volunteer effort to ensure that nobody went hungry.
2.4 D ROOPA (IPS)

 Working Under Political Pressure: In July 2017, She found irregularities inside the jail. She alleged that
AIADMK (Amma) general secretary V K Sasikala was enjoying VIP treatment at Parappana Agrahara central
prison, in exchange for a Rs 2-crore bribe to jail officials.
 Integrity: In January 2019, An independent inquiry committee, had found and confirmed "serious lapses"
and "falsification of records" on the part of senior prison officials. It further vindicated her stand.
 Persistence: She has been transferred 41 times in 17 years till 2017, has faced privilege motions for naming
politicians in FIRs.
2.5 RUBY AHLUWALIA (IRAS)

 Basic: 1987 batch IRAS officer, Ms. Ruby Ahluwalia is an expert in the field of Finance, Administration &
Management.
 Public-Private Partnership: She has done extensive work in the realm of public-private partnership. While
she was working, Ms. Ahluwalia pursued a dual MBA-CFA degree with a specialisation in financial markets.
 New Konkan Railway line: She used her expertise to raise Rs. 3,000 crore from the market through
structured financial products for the construction of a new Konkan Railway line.
 Betterment of society: She is committed to bringing social change for the betterment of society. She is the
founder of Sanjeevani Life Beyond Cancer. It is a non-profit organisation that works towards the
rehabilitation of underprivileged cancer patients by providing holistic medical care and innovative long term
solutions.
2.6 S. JAYASHANKAR (IFS)

 Basic: Subrahmanyam Jaishankar is a former Indian diplomat and politician who is the current Minister of
External Affairs since 31 May 2019. He has previously served as the Foreign Secretary from 2015 to 2018.
 He was part of the team that resolved the dispute over the supply of US nuclear fuel to the Tarapur
Power Stations in India. From 1985 to 1988 he was the first secretary at the Indian
embassy in Washington, D.C.
 From 2004 to 2007, Jaishankar was Joint Secretary (Americas) at the Ministry of External Affairs in New
Delhi. In this capacity, he was involved in negotiating the US-India civil nuclear agreement and improving
cooperation, including during relief operations following the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.
 Jaishankar was also involved with the conclusion of the 2005 New Defense Framework and the Open
Skies Agreement, and he was associated with the launch of the US-India Energy Dialogue, the India-US
Economic Dialogue, and the India-US CEO's Forum.
2.7 UMAKANT UMARAO (IAS)

 Basic: 1996-batch Madhya Pradesh cadre IAS officer, Umakant Umarao is a B.Tech in civil engineering from
IIT Roorkee. He also studied economics.
 Facing Challenges: When he joined as District Collector of Dewas, he had a number of focus areas in mind in
the education and healthcare sectors, with a larger crisis looming over the region due to deficient
rainfall. Dewas was perhaps the first district in India where water was brought by a train, much before Latur.
His challenge was to find an economically viable and sustainable solution to Dewas' water woes.
 Tremendous effort: His efforts resulted in the construction of 16,000 ponds with over 1,000 farmers
earning more than Rs 25 lakh a year. Also, Dewas has not only seen a speedy rise in groundwater but level, it
has also witnessed a 20-fold increase in irrigated land from a mere 18,000 hectares to more than three lakh
hectares.
 Dewa model: It has since been adopted by farmers in districts like Vidisha, Ratlam, Mandsaur, Ujjain and
Raisen in MP, Bundelkhand in UP and Marathwada, Latur and Chandrapur in Maharashtra.
2.8 PRATIBHA SINGH (IFS)

 Basic: 1994-batch IFS officer and an alumnus of the University of Delhi, she is the first officer ever in India to
resign from the Indian Foreign Service and join the Indian Forest Service, placing on record her love for
wildlife and the environment.
 Environmental awareness: Her contribution is specifically laudable in the areas of forest conservation,
afforestation, increasing green cover outside forest areas, forest and wildlife protection, man-animal conflict,
and biodiversity conservation.
 Pilibhit Tiger Reserve: Her efforts in the establishment of the Pilibhit Tiger Reserve, the lion safari in
Etawah, the declaration of eco-sensitive and up-gradation of facilities in Kanpur and Lucknow Zoos have been
widely acclaimed.
 Special efforts: For the National Biodiversity Target, she has made special efforts in Uttar Pradesh by taking
steps such as preparing a People's Biodiversity Register and forming Biodiversity Management Committees
for nine villages.
2.9 U. SAGAYAM (IAS)

 Basic: 2001-batch IAS officer of the Tamil Nadu cadre, Shri Ubagarampillai Sagayam hails from a farming
family in Perungudi village of Pudukkottai district and did his masters in social work and law.
 Transparent Election: He was the first IAS officer in Tamil Nadu to publicise his financial information. In
2011, the Election Commission of India posted him as Collector of Madurai - a district that had become known
for bribing voters. Shri Sagayam thwarted multiple attempts at bribing voters; educated voters about the law;
confiscated cash intended for distribution to voters.
 Friend of the Poor: During this stint, Shri Sagayam was also recognised as a friend of the poor. He started
Uzhavan Unavagam (farmers' food court) where poor farmers could sell traditional dishes.
 Working Against all odds: He carried out a probe which revealed looting of high-value granite from private
and government land, destruction of water bodies, diversion of rivers and irregularities in the export of
granite.
2.10 PARAMESWARAN IYER (IAS)

 Basic: 1981-batch Uttar Pradesh cadre IAS officer, Parameswaran Iyer is the torchbearer of India's fight to
make itself an Open Defecation Free (ODF) country. He is an illustrious bureaucrat, who played a path-
breaking role during his tenure in the Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation.
 Varied experience: During his tenure at the World Bank, he worked in Vietnam, China, Egypt and Lebanon,
and implemented the Swajal Programme, among other initiatives.
 Changing age-old habits of millions of people through persuasion: It was through his efforts to make this
programme a Jan Andolan that more than 100 million toilets have been constructed in rural areas and the
national rural sanitation coverage, which was 38.7 per cent in October 2014, increased to 100 per cent in
October 2019.
2.11 RAJENDRA BHATT

 Bhilwara model: As Bhilwara’s 56-year-old collector/district magistrate, he was in charge of implementing
the plan and has been credited with its conceptualisation of the Famous Bhilwara model for the Covid
contentment in Rajasthan's Bhilwara district.
 Ingenuity: During the pandemic period he planned the three cycles of isolation, testing and quarantining for
Covid containment and showed ingenuity in difficult times.
 Hard work: From isolating the district to mapping the hotspots, conducting door-to-door screening and
aggressive contact tracing, ramping up quarantine and isolation wards to readying a monitoring mechanism
for rural areas — the instructions from the DM’s office were real-time and unambiguous, which he work hard
in synch ground worker.
2.12 M.K. NARAYAN

 Basic: Mayankodu Kelath Narayanan is a former Indian Police Service officer. He was National Security
Adviser of India from 2005 to 2010.
 He has headed the Intelligence Bureau (IB) from 1987 to 1990. He was appointed Special Adviser (a non-
Civil Service appointment) for Internal Security to the Prime Minister of India beginning in May 2004. He was
Indian National Security Adviser with the rank of Minister of State from 2005 to 2010. He played a
significant role in the negotiation of the landmark Indo-US Civil Nuclear Agreement of 2008.
2.13 DURGA SHAKTI NAGPAL (IAS)

 Basic: Durga Shakti Nagpal is an officer in the Uttar Pradesh cadre of the Indian Administrative Service.
 Bold and courageous actions: She came into public view after launching a massive drive against corruption
and illegal sand mining within her jurisdiction of Gautam Buddha Nagar. She was later suspended by the UP
government for allegedly demolishing an illegal mosque wall in a village in Greater Noida, which resulted in
severe opposition as it was perceived to be based on flimsy grounds. Her suspension was revoked by the UP
government on 22 September 2013.
 On 5 August 2013, reacting to the suspension of Nagpal, the National Green Tribunal ordered a pan-India
suspension of all sand mining activity carried without a license from the Ministry of Environment and
Forests.
2.14 OM PRAKASH CHOUDHARY (EX-IAS)

 Basic: South Bastar and Dantewada regions of Chhattisgarh are known for Naxalism and consequent
violence. As a consequence, children drop out of school and the literacy rate is currently 33 per cent. With
this in view, Shri Omprakash Choudhary, then District Collector embarked on a mission of mental
transformation.

 Education City: The district administration started establishing 97 acres of the township at the cost of Rs.
100 crore dedicated exclusively for the residential and classroom educational facilities.
 Skill Education: To add value to those students who have no basic literacy levels, a livelihood college was
established on a public-private partnership model.
 Chhoo Lo Asmaan: The programme is an initiative for qualitative improvement in Science Education in the
11th and 12th standards.
 Implementation of Right to Education (RTE): The RTE envisages the enrolment of 25 per cent the children
from the deprived society.
2.15 KEERTHI JALLI (IAS)

 Basic: Keerthi Jalli is an officer of the Indian Administrative Service (IAS) of 2009 batch belonging to Assam
cadre. She took over her responsibilities as the first woman District Deputy Commissioner in Hailakandi
district of Assam Barak Valley. Currently, posted as Cachar Deputy Commissioner.
 Leadership: Recently, she visited the flood-affected areas in Cachar District, Assam and inspected the areas
on foot and she also interacted with local people to understand their problems due to this flood and erosion.
The officer instructed the concerned officials to put in place all measures to protect the land from flood and
erosion.
 Other remarkable works: She is known for being involved in several other campaigns such as promoting
menstrual hygiene.
 Awards: In 2020, she was awarded the title of ‘Best administrative’ for controlling various issues of the
district as well as taking excellent steps in public service.
2.16 ARMSTRONG PAME (IAS)

 Armstrong Pame is an officer of the Indian Administrative Service (IAS) of 2009 batch belonging to Manipur
cadre. Presently serving in the position as District Magistrate in the District of Tamenlong, under Government
of Manipur.
 Leadership: Known as the ‘Miracle Man’, this IAS officer from Manipur, is famous for single-handedly being
responsible for building a 100 km road famously known as the “Peoples’ Road“. The road connects Tousem
with the rest of Manipur, as also with Assam and Nagaland.
 Dinner with school children: He decided to invite 10 students from Class V to X for dinner, every Friday.
These selected children will be given a chance to observe the working of the district administration during
post lunch office hours.
2.17 PROMINENT PERSONALITIES AND VALUES NURTURED BY THEM
Personalities What They Value

Mahatma Gandhi  Simplicity, Minimalism, Satyagraha, Sarvodaya, Secularism, Ahimsa, Non-
Violence, Truth, Forgiveness, Self-Sufficiency, Dignity of labour etc.
Jawaharlal Nehru  Democracy, institution building, consensus building, socialism, secularism, self-
determination, internationalism etc.
Nelson Mandela  Service, dignity, self-belief, equality of the human race, freedom, fairness, justice,
etc.
 Dedication towards public service, Humanism, Social equality, compassion
Savitribai Phule towards weaker sections of society, determination and exceptional courage,
women empowerment.
Abraham Lincoln  Humanism, equality of the human race, integrity, idealism, honesty, freedom etc.
A.P.J Abdul Kalam  Dedication towards public service, Humanism, Scientific temper, Patriotism,
Integrity, determination and courage, self-belief, helpfulness, kindness.
Martin Luther King Jr  Self-belief, equality of the human race etc.
Raja Rammohan Roy  Social equality, equality of the human race, women empowerment, scientific
thinking etc.
Swami Vivekananda  Self-belief, equality of the human race, patriotism, compassion etc.

B R Ambedkar  Self-belief, equality of the human race, radical thinking, compassion etc.
Mother Teresa  Compassion, altruism, helpfulness, kindness, cleanliness, determination.
Verghese Kurien  Self-belief, co-operative societies, entrepreneurship, innovation, farmer welfare
etc.
E. Sreedharan  Punctuality, self-belief, integrity, high-quality standards etc.
M.S. Swaminathan  Sustainable development, green revolution, poverty alleviation, farmer welfare
etc.

3. WESTERN PHILOSOPHERS
3.1 SOCRATES: FATHER OF WESTERN PHILOSOPHY
 Socrates (c. 469 - 399 B.C.) was a hugely important Greek philosopher from the Classical period (often known
as the Socratic period in his honour). He is credited as one of the founders of Western Philosophy.
 He grew up during the golden age of Pericles’ Athens, served with distinction as a soldier, but became best
known as a questioner of everything and everyone.
Socrates’ Philosophy:
 Scrutiny and exploration: In words of Socrates, “An unexamined life is not worth living: one should
question, accept and reject the facts.”: By this philosophy, he builds scientific temper which furthers paves
for scientific revolution in Europe. For example, the recent trends of fake messages via social messaging
sites often tend to create conflict between communities in India. This is because of not examining the facts.
 Courage: It depicts freedom to speak of one’s mind, the ability to speak the truth, and objectivity. For
example, A major chunk of world believes in Chinese aggression but they fail to speak up due to financial
dependency on China.
 Ethics of happiness: According to him the only virtue is knowledge and the only sin is ignorance. He valued
knowledge that can lead to an ethical life. For example, The death of V G Siddhartha (Owner of Cafe Coffee
Day) shows money is not the source of happiness but it’s true knowledge.
 Conflicting promise: In the case of conflicting promises one should follow a promise that has higher moral
worth. For example, India had promised double digit growth in 2018-20 budget and its constitution also
promises social nature. Thus during pandemic govt prioritised welfare of people over its economic aims.
 Ideal life: An ideal life should focus on self-development especially the pursuit of goodness, virtue, justice,
integrity, and friendship. Valuing virtues like love, friendship, courage, truth takes an individual far more
than others due to his ideal values.
 Virtue bases approach: Most important virtue for human being as per Socrates is knowledge. (Jainism –
Right faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct).
 He believed that life of virtue was always in a person’s best interests. Socrates believed that
Virtue as only people with self-knowledge could find true happiness.
Happiness  According to Socrates, Happiness flows not from physical or external conditions, such
as bodily pleasures or wealth and power, but from living a life that’s right for your
soul, your deepest good.
 Self-knowledge is a sufficient condition to the good life. Socrates identifies knowledge with
Virtue as virtue. If knowledge can be learned, so can virtue. Thus, Socrates states virtue can be taught.
Knowledge  He believes “the unexamined life is not worth living.” One must seek knowledge and
wisdom before private interests. In this manner, knowledge is sought as a means to ethical
action.
Application Or Examples:
 Individual-level: True knowledge is the basis of ethical life thus one should stay away from superstation,
feudal mindset, fake news, and misinformation. Practices like mutilation, fake news like the corona virus
spread by religious groups hamper our journey towards an ethical life.
 Societal level: India today ranks 142 of 180 nations in Freedom of Press; this is against the Socratic value
of courage.
 Governance level: When our government favours PM-Garib Kalyan Yojana of free food over Fiscal
responsibility highlights valuing morally high promise.
Quotes:
 The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.
 Sometimes you put walls up not to keep people out, but to see who cares enough to break them down.
 Contentment is natural wealth; luxury is an artificial poverty.
 Understanding a question is half an answer.
 The hottest love has the coldest end.

 He is not only idle who does nothing, but he is idle who might be better employed.
 True knowledge exists in knowing that you know nothing.
3.2 PLATO
 Plato was the student of Socrates. He held the view that it was our reason which uncovers knowledge. Plato
believed that moral concepts are understandable only in an environment of social structure.
 The three most important works of Plato are ‘The Republic’, ‘The Statesman’ and ‘The Laws’. Apart from
these works, he has written a number of other smaller books.
Four Cardinal Virtues (Moral Universalism):

 Plato identifies four cardinal virtues that are necessary for a happy individual and a good society. He also
believed that an ideal state should have people with these virtues.
1. Prudence – is right reason in action. It plays vital role in terms of guiding and regulating all other virtues.
2. Temperance – is a strength that protects against excess and consists self-regulation and obedience to
authority. It suggests harmony among conflicting elements.
3. Courage –is bravery to do justice. It removes obstacles that come in the path of justice.
4. Justice – Different philosophers have different idea of justice.
Plato’s Thoughts:
Ideal State  According to him, an Ideal State should be made up of three classes namely: Ruling
Class, Military Class and Economic Class.
 He believed that justice resided both in one single human being as well as the State. He
said every human being is endowed with three qualities though in different proportions.
He said these qualities are:
1. Reason, which resides in a person’s head,
Ideal Justice 2. Spirit which resides in a person’s heart and
3. Appetite which resides in a person’s stomach. He said these are the three parts of
the human soul.
 Firstly, he said true justice is that, these three parts should do their rightful business
in order to make a human being whole.
 Secondly, these three parts existing in every individual, should be faithfully reflected in
the State which is a collective of human beings as a whole through the formation of the
three classes namely, Ruling Class, Military Class and Economic Class by which his Ideal
State is formed.
 Plato designs an education system based on various stages suited to the age of the
students from childhood to adulthood.
 He also devices methods of eliminations as higher stages of education are reached by
Education human beings depending on the proportion of the three parts of their souls namely
reason, spirit and appetite.
 Persons who are found suited to fulfil economic duties of the State are separated from
the ones suited for Ruling and Military services. In the second process of elimination the
persons suited for ruling are given special training to become what Plato calls
‘Philosopher Kings’ to rule his ‘Ideal State’.
 In his work ‘The Republic’, Plato had practically condemned Democracy. He had
Democracy developed the idea that all were not fit to rule and that only the philosophers who had
been specially trained for the purpose should rule.
Children  According to Plato, children were national possession and as such it was obligatory
on the part of the State to bring them up according to their attitudes.
 Plato thought that we have three major parts: The intellect, the emotions, and the
Virtue appetites. We have the intellect to reason and learn, emotions to be motivated, and the
appetites to know when we are in need of something (food, water, etc.).

 Wise people use their emotions to motivate them to do what the intellect finds
valuable, but the unwise use their emotions to motivate them to overindulge the
appetites. To over-indulge the appetites is to be immoderate and addictive, but the
intellect should learn to value fulfilling our appetites in a healthy way.
 Plato helps us understand why some people do what they know to be wrong—
because our emotions can side with our appetites—but he does not make it entirely clear
why some people are (relatively) wise and are able to passionately value the right things,
but others are unwise and passionately value superficial things.
 Individual-level: The rise of public gatherings like elections and religious conglomeration amidst of
pandemic signifies a prevalence of Spirit over Knowledge.
 Societal level: As per the utopia of Plato the three pillars on not in tandem today. This can be experienced
by observing the merger of duties. For examples, Comedians and social media influencers becoming activist.
Quotes:
 States are as the men, they grow out of human characters
 Dictatorship naturally arises out of democracy, and the most aggravated form of tyranny and slavery out of
the most extreme liberty
 Beauty of style and harmony and grace and good rhythm depend on simplicity
 Knowledge becomes evil if the aim be not virtuous
 Nothing in the affairs of men is worthy of great anxiety.
Epicureanism
Epicureanism is a system of philosophy based on the teachings of Epicurus, founded around 307 B.C. It teaches
that the greatest good is to seek modest pleasures in order to attain a state of tranquillity, freedom from fear
("ataraxia") and absence from bodily pain ("aponia").
3.3 ARISTOTLE
 Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C.) was an important Greek philosopher from the Socratic (or Classical) period, mainly
based in Athens.
 He is one of the most important founding figures in Western Philosophy, and the first to create a
comprehensive system of philosophy, encompassing Ethics, Aesthetics, Politics, Metaphysics, Logic and
science.
Philosophies Of Aristotle:
 Eudemonia: It signifies happiness. Eudemonia means achieving the best conditions possible for oneself, in
every sense–not only happiness, but also virtue, morality, and a meaningful life. For example, if you’re a
parent, you should excel at raising your children; if you’re a doctor, you should excel at healing people and if
you are civil servant you should work towards welfare of the society.
 Ethical being: He considered humans as social, political, and also as an ethical beings against the views of
Sigmund Freud and even Kautilya.
 The doctrine of Golden Mean: He emphasized avoiding extreme actions like choosing courage against
cowardice and sloth. For example, One should not go against the constitution in highlighting their views with
extreme protests and on the other hand they should also not stay silent in case of exploitation. A legal
constitutional battle is a favourable middle path.
 Emphasis on virtue: It is the character that determines ethicality and not actions, motives, and
consequences. In Bonafide errors, people are generally forgiven due to their true intent and thus the act
becomes ethical. RBI recently accepted the failure of Demonetization but the act was considered ethical
because of the intent of the Prime Minister.
Applications Or Examples:

 Individual-level: One has to focus on building character as PM recently on civil services day quoted “Shilam
Param bhushanam” (Character is everything).
 Societal level example: Good people do not need law and bad people find the way around. Based on this
motto for character development NCERT has introduced ethics for children.
 Governance level example: Civil servants are criticized for being Yes Minister. They should use the
doctrine of the mean in their approach.
Teleological approach
“Telos” is the ancient Greek term for an end, fulfilment, completion, goal or aim. Teleology is a philosophy
that states that consequences of one’s action are the ultimate judge to rightness or wrongfulness of the
conduct. It is further divided into three sub-theories based on its proponents or thinkers.
Quotes:
 At his best, man is the noblest of all animals; separated from law and justice, he is the worst.
 He who is to be a good ruler must have first been ruled.
 Fear is pain arising from the anticipation of evil.
 The character may almost be called the most effective means of persuasion.
 Of all the varieties of virtues, liberalism is the most beloved.
 The aim of the wise is not to secure pleasure, but to avoid pain.
 All men by nature desire knowledge.
 We make war that we may live in peace.
 Man is by nature a political animal.
 It is unbecoming for young men to utter maxims.
 Men create gods after their own image, not only with regard to their form but with regard to their mode of
life.
3.4 KARL MARX

 Karl Marx is one of the few people who changed the way we see the world. For Marx, any theory should not
only support understanding the world around but be a step towards transforming the world.
 His works – Communist Manifesto, Materialistic Conception of History and Das Capital, are a
culmination of various economic ideas, channelled towards the single goal of self-emancipation of working
class. He touched upon capitalism, socialism and communalism.
Some Of His Works And His Thoughts:
Marx’s Works Theme Thoughts

Social change  To raise the proletariat to the position of the ruling class
The Communist through Revolution and to win the battle of democracy
Manifesto  Communist should aim to replace private property with
public control of all properties.
Bible of the working  It deals with the process of production of capital, process of
Das Capital class circulation of capital and the totality of the process of
capitalist production.
Philosophical  Materialism principally dealt with social world. The
approach to reality material world has always been in constant motion,
Dialectical derived from the contradictions and change. Marx believes that friction
Materialism teachings of Karl caused by constant motion in the society leads to
Marx contradictions within the society, which eventually leads to
change in the society. Dialectical Materialism relates to the
process of change in the society.
Theory of Surplus Surplus Labour value  The Capitalists gets surplus value for the extra labour that
Value has been put in by the labourers. The capitalist pays his

workers less than the value of their labour, and on most

occasions usually only enough to maintain the worker at a
subsistence level.
Gandhiji & Marxism:

Subject Gandhiji Marx
 Gandhiji and Marx both wanted to establish a  Means – Class Struggle and Violence
Concept of stateless and classless society but for their  End – Stateless society
State means for achieving the aim is different.
 Means - Non-Violence
 End – Stateless and Classless society
 Both are not having faith in Capitalism and its  He wanted to uproot Capitalism
exploiting but they differ in means through Revolution
 Gandhiji wanted to remove capitalism by
Capitalism creating Capitalist Trustees by Economic
Decentralisation and Cooperative societies &
Cottage industries
 He had firm faith in Democracy but he felt  Dictatorship of working class
Democracy western democracy was incomplete so he
wanted to decentralize powers by giving more
powers to Panchayats.
Rights&  Staunch supporter of Individual Liberty and  Collective rights than Individual
Liberty rights rights
 Gandhiji believes in god and led a spiritual life.  Marx believes in Materialistic life
and no faith in god. He considered
religion as opium for the workers
because in his view religion made
Religion man a fatalist and it did not allow
discontentment to arise in the
workers against capitalism. The
result was that they lacked the
organisation and enthusiasm
needed for a revolution.
Economy&  The local economy needs to be strengthened.  Industrial Economy and Working-
Industries  “Not Mass Production but Production by class dominance
Masses”
Ends &  Non-Violence  Violence
Means
3.5 JOHN STUART MILL (ETHICAL ALTRUISM)

 John Stuart Mill (1806 - 1873) was an English philosopher. Mill was a strong believer in freedom especially
of speech and of thought. He was Naturalist, Utilitarian and Respects liberal values.
Mill’s Philosophies:
 Social Utilitarianism: It supported utilitarianism but in such a way that an individual’s action should not
bring harm to society at large. i.e.- The pleasure of an individual should not bring displeasure to society.
 Ethical altruism: Here one’s ego is satisfied but it is subjected to the conditionality of not affecting others.
 Higher pleasure and lower: Mill distinguished between higher and lower pleasure. The pleasures that are
intellectual based were termed as higher pleasure and the ones associated with sensual pleasures are lower
pleasures. For example, choosing hard work oversleep or entertainment can be considered as higher
pleasure.
 An upgrade from Bentham’s utilitarianism: As per Bentham, an action is ethical if it produces the greatest
good for the greatest number of people. He termed this as quantitative utilitarianism. However, Mill moved
from this idea and provided Qualitative utilitarianism which focuses on intellectual pleasure and considers
such action to be ethical. This distinction is also referred to as Rule Utilitarianism.
 Ideas of liberty: He was vocal about free speech and believed that people should be free to act however they
wish unless their actions cause harm to somebody else.
Utilitarianism
 Utilitarianism means “Greatest good to the greatest number of people”. Human actions based on
maximising his/her utility in a given situation so that human can survive. It’s purely based on cost
benefit analysis.
 Two moral philosophical thinkers Jeremy Bentham and J S Mill, who’s theories framed on utilitarian
principle.
 Application of Utilitarian Principle:
o Individual level – Self motives (Ego satisfaction)
o Societal level – Greater good to greater number of people
o Governance – Same principle, more benefit to the people in schemes, govt benefits, in administration
etc.
Application And Example:

 Individual-level: Active smokers tend to harm their bodies by will but this act is considered to be unethical
on the ground of impacting passive smokers nearby depicting the act is not ethical as per social utilitarianism.
 Societal level: There is a prevalence of “I-culture” in the west but in the East, there is “We-culture”. Based on
this difference China in the UN asked for a different definition for “Human rights” for the east and the west
endorsing ethical altruism.
 Governance level: The 2021 World Press Freedom Index produced by Reporters Without Borders (RSF),
has placed India at 142nd rank out of 180 countries. Such actions are adherence to Mill’s idea of liberty.
3.6 JEREMY BENTHAM (ETHICAL EGOISM)

 Born in London and is also called the founding father of utilitarianism.
 Bentham was also a Utilitarian who defined Happiness from the perspective of Society. Individuals fulfil
their pleasures for benefit of society which is called Ethical Egoism. Because Individuals satisfy their ego
needs which brings more pleasures than pain which is considered Ethical.
 According to him, People should be given individual liberty to satisfy their ego needs. Once Individual
pleasures are satisfied it benefits society by self-development.
 Any action considered as good maximises society benefits.
Bentham’s Philosophies:
 Pleasure and Pain principle: The main aim of human life is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.
 Ethical egoism: It is always moral to promote one’s own good. What is good for an individual is good the
society.
Applications:
 Individual-level: Utilitarianism promotes values like liberty, freedom of choice, and democracy. Thus we
observe migration and brain drain in India where maximum individuals are attracted towards Bentham’s
pleasure and pain principle.
 Societal level: There are certain sects like Protestants in the West, Sindhis, and Agarwals in India who
believe in ethical egoism thus the communities opt for entrepreneurship.
 Governance level: Government policies like Cess, Wealth Tax, Hydro projects may impact a few lives but
are beneficial to societies at large.
3.7 IMMANUEL KANT

 Immanuel Kant was one of the central Enlightenment thinkers. Kant's comprehensive and systematic
works in epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics have made him one of the most influential figures
in modern Western philosophy.
 He belongs to the Deontological school of ethics where means and ends both are important.
Kant’s Philosophy:
 Moral rationalism: It dismissed the view of considering ends as a barometer to measure the ethicality of
conduct. According to him, it is the actions driven by motives that make any conduct ethical. i.e. Goodwill is
the only qualification for ethical conduct
 Example: Supreme Court in case of Sec 144 of IPC upheld its importance despite detaining being against
universal values but it helps in maintaining public order in contingency situations.
 Selfless action (Nishkama Karma): According to this, action should be end in itself. For example, Charity
is a Nobel task, but when people do it to gain recognition the act cannot be called as ethical as a means and
end relation is created.
 Categorical imperative: Some actions are of personal desires like working hard to buy a house or a car. But
categorical imperative asks one to work for a cause or do something irrespective of personal desire like
taking care of parents. There are four categorical imperatives:
1. Don’t do to others what you don’t want others to do to you.
2. Act according to maxim that can be established as a universal law.
3. Don't use man as means to an end.
4. Human actions should benefit society.
Applications Or Examples:
 Individual-level: Celebrities, politicians, and sports personnel involved in charity and NGO activities to
enhance their public engagement is unethical as means and ends relation is established.
 Societal level: Development without values is a threat to the survival of society. Excessive focus on GDP and
GNP numbers despite reduced happiness remits the absence of moral rationalism.
 Governance level: In slavery, one human uses another as a means thus violating the principles of the
categorical imperative and thus making the process unethical entirely.
Deontology
 The basic premise of deontology states that we are obligated to act in accordance with a set of rules,
principles, and values regardless of outcomes. Its emphasis is on means rather than ends. Kant is the
philosopher who championed deontology.
3.8 THOMAS HOBBES

 Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679) was an English philosopher of the Age of Reason. His famous 1651 book
“Leviathan” and his social contract theory, developed during the tumultuous times around the English Civil
War, established the foundation for most of Western Political Philosophy.
Philosophies:
 Human nature: Human by nature is selfish, brutish, murderous, and self-preserving. Thus he cannot
maintain peace and stability; therefore people come together via contract to form a state or a government.
 State of nature is a state of war: He also believed that human beings will engage in a fierce struggle for
scarce resources to fulfil their self-interest.
 Leviathan State: He calls for a leviathan state with the following provisions,
o Absolute power to govern
o People have no right to revolt against the state
o People do not have absolute rights
o The state should lay emphasis on civic education and induce obedience among the citizens.

 Individual-level: India currently has NPA (Non-Performing Assets) worth 11 crores. As per
Contractarianism, this act can be considered as unethical as a contract is broken by the people.
 Societal level: The rule by Kim Jong-Un in North Korea can be considered as the nearest example of the
modern leviathan state.
 Governance level: The government of India uses an online surveillance mechanism called NETRA. These
monitors all over activities for internal security. This shows the absence of absolute rights.
3.9 JOHN LOCKE

 John Locke (1632 - 1704) was an English philosopher of the Age of Reason and the early Age of
Enlightenment. He is widely regarded as one of the most influential early Enlightenment thinkers.
Philosophy:
 Liberty: Locke was a huge advocate of freedom and governance by consent. He distinguished between self-
regarding and other-regarding actions, which should be a criterion for deciding whether to intervene or
not. He considered LIFE-LIBERTY-PROPERTY as the “Three Natural Rights” of every man.
 On patriarchy and women: He also champions women’s rights and demands equal opportunities for them.
 On property: Locke says that man has a natural right over property, and also says that nature is entirely
at the disposal of man for his comfort. This can be examined by the fact that he was writing at the time of
abundance when America was recently discovered and Europeans were colonizing it.
 Tolerance: Locke was an advocate of minority rights, and a heterogeneous society where people of different
cultures co-exist.
Application Or Example:
 Individual-level: Our founding fathers of the constitution initially believed in the philosophy of John Locke
as they had imbibed the Right to property in the constitution under Art 19 and Art 21 uphold the Right to
Life and Liberty.
 Societal level: As per Locke if the Right to Property was a natural right why the percentage of average
landholding of farmers is below 2 hectares.
 Governance level: As per Locke governance by consent should be the core of the functioning of government
but the recent overthrow of Kabul by the Taliban depicts violation of peoples will and is a modern
extreme form of Leviathan State. Farm bills and the citizenship amendment act show actions without a
demand.
Contractarianism:
According to the theory of Contractarianism, conduct is considered to be ethical if one adheres to the contract
or agreement made by two or more at some point in time. When such a contract exists between people and
state it is termed a social contract. Where the state governs the people with some duties and people also share
some obligations towards the state. This theory is championed by three philosophers: Thomas Hobbes, John
Locke, Rousseau.
3.10 ROUSSEAU
 Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 - 1778) was a French philosopher and writer of the Age of Enlightenment.
Philosophy:
 Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains: One man thinks he is master of others but remains more
of a slave than they are. This shows the man is born free but society has constricted his freedom.
 General will: People are the ultimate in any democracy and sovereignty lies within the people.
 Property: He rejected the idea of private wealth and supported that wealth should only fulfil a basic need.
This shows his inclination towards socialism.
 Education: He said education must be gained through nature rather than formal education i.e. through
books.

Application Or Example:
 Individual-level: His theory on people being in chains is true. For example, A child is born free but it is
responsible to its family (contribute to its sustenance and continuity), school (adhere to prescribed
curriculum), government (abide by law of land), international law (immigration, visas and citizenship) and
order depicting chains.
 Societal level: The recent update to the National Education Policy emphasis understanding our
surroundings rather than root learning. The same can be observed in Rabindranath Tagore’s Shanti
Niketan which is on the idea, to create a free and fearless atmosphere for children to grow up in, in close
contact with nature
 Governance level: The recent defeat of Mr Trump due to his authoritarian governance show people being
ultimate in any democracy.
3.11 JOHN RAWLS: SOCIAL JUSTICE THEORY

 John Bordley Rawls (1921 –2002) was an American moral and political philosopher. He is chiefly known for
his book “A Theory of Justice”, an effort to define social justice. The work has greatly influenced modern
political thought.
 Contemporary Contractarianism: John Rawls is called the father of contemporary contractarianism and
he is the most influential American philosopher post Second World War. His philosophy is also called
“RAWLSIANISM”.
 Socrates and Plato interpreted justice as lies equally in both state and humans, ideal justice which
questions the authority. The idea that justice involves giving each person his due continuous to be an
important part of our present-day understanding of justice.
Philosophy Of Rawls:
 Equality: Every rich and poor should have equal rights that are basic like liberty, right to vote, and right to
hold public offices. These are called political rights in most nations.
 Differential equality: Since some are rich (in advantage) and some are poor (disadvantage) position people
enjoy different rights, some societies term them as reservation while others term them as positive
discrimination.
 In A Theory of Justice, John Rawls provides a Contract Theory of the principles of social justice in terms
of the ‘basic structure of society, or the way in which the major social institutions distribute fundamental
rights and duties to determine the division of advantages from social cooperation’.
 The distributive justice (Social and Economic justice) proposed by Rawls is underpinned by two
fundamental principles:
1. First principle is the idea that people’s liberties should be preserved in distribution.
2. Second principle is the idea that any inequality that is permitted should only be permitted on the basis
that it benefits the least favoured in society.
 Justice: It is the standard used in decision-making by considering facts and without any prejudices also called
“Veil of Ignorance”. Veil of Ignorance:
o Also called as Original Position.
o It is a hypothetical situation prior to the starting of society when people decide the principles on which
the society builds up.
o The principles are mainly set by the people who are unaware of the social position they occupy or will
occupy. i.e. people are unaware of being rich, poor, strong, weak, majority, minority, etc.
o This ensures Just and Fair principles be developed as each individual contributes to the value by
considering even the worst-case scenario.
 Equal treatment for equals

 Proportionate justice
Principles of  Recognition of special needs
Justice:
 Just distribution
 State intervention in doing justice

Applications or Examples:
 Individual-level: One should respect others' political rights as per the equality principle. But we observe
in media, Journalists question one’s right to protest during several protests.
 Societal level: Amartya Sen Philosophy of “Capability Approach” also highlights differential equality or
equity. According to him a developed nation having three people can share a pie equally but in an
underdeveloped nation, this ratio is ineffective.
 Governance level: The concepts like Zero Budgeting; we use a rudimentary form of Veil of Ignorance.
We consider the results of programs and policies to approve them for the next year without any prejudice.
3.12 CAROL GILLIGAN

 Carol Gilligan (1936) is an American feminist, ethicist, and psychologist. She is the founder of the theory
of ethics of care.
 Theory of female moral development: Gilligan proposed her theory of stages of female moral development
based on her idea of moral voices. According to Gilligan, there are two kinds of moral voices:
1. Masculine: The masculine voice is “logical and individualistic” meaning that the emphasis in moral
decisions is protecting the rights of people and making sure justice is upheld.
2. Feminine: The feminine voice places more emphasis on protecting interpersonal relationships and
taking care of other people. This voice focuses on the “care perspective,” which means focusing on the
needs of the individual to make an ethical decision.
 Ethics of care: Gilligan argued that women approached ethical problems differently than men. According to
Gilligan, women’s moral is centred around the understanding of responsibilities and relationship whilst
men’s morale is instead centred around the understanding of the morality of fairness, which is tied to
rights and rules. Women also tend to see moral issues as a problem of conflicting responsibilities rather
than competing rights so whilst women perceive the situation as more contextual and narrative men define
the situation as more formal and abstract.
3.13 THOMAS AQUINAS

 He was an Italian philosopher. His two major works are Summa Theologica (in which he gave the five proofs
of the existence of God), and Summa Contra Gentiles.
 Natural law philosophy was fully developed by the medieval philosopher St. Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas says
that every natural object has a natural purpose or function.
 Just war: Thomas Aquinas in his historic work, Summa Theologica defined the conditions under which a war
could be just. He laid these out:
o First, war must occur for a good and just purpose rather than the pursuit of wealth or power.
o Second, just war must be waged by a properly instituted authority such as the state.
o Third, peace must be a central motive even in the midst of violence.
 Four types of law:
1. Eternal law - the decree of God that governs all creation
2. Natural law - human “participation” in the eternal law, which is discovered by reason
3. Human law - the natural law applied by governments to societies
4. Divine law - the specially revealed law in the scriptures.
 Principle of forfeiture and the Doctrine of Double Effects: Natural law ethics concedes that in certain
circumstances one may have to deprive individuals of their life. If a mad killer is going on a rampage, police
will be justified in killing him. The action of the police will be justified based on the principle of forfeiture.
3.14 MACHIAVELLI
 Machiavelli (1469-1527) was an Italian Renaissance historian, politician, diplomat, philosopher, humanist,
and writer. He wrote his most renowned work ‘The Prince’ in 1513. For Machiavelli, the highest purpose
of social political life is to attain and hold power.
Philosophy:

 Separation of politics, religion and morals: Machiavelli made a clear distinctions between politics on the
one hand and religion and ethics on the other and in doing so he has accorded subordinate position to the
latter.
 Political amorality: He was not immoral; instead, he advised princes to embrace political amorality, which
encouraged virtuous behaviour among subjects but accepted a rulership that transcended morality
 End justifies the means: He ignores the ethical purpose of the state. To him state is not a means but an end
in itself with its own interest. The interest of the state justifies everything.
 Combination of both the qualities of a lion and a fox: Machiavelli advised the prince he should imitate the
qualities of fox and lion. The imitation of the fox (cunningness, foresight) will enable him to visualize his goal
and means to achieve it. The imitation of the lion will give him necessary strength and force to achieve that
goal
 Use double standard of politics: A ruler has primary duty of preserving the state. For this purpose he may
use instruments of lie, conspiracy, killings and massacre etc. Thus Machiavelli prescribes double standard of
morality
 Favoured despotic ruler: If in a society men are corrupt and selfish and the law is powerless, then normal
administration is not possible at all. A superior power is essential for bringing the society into order.
 Must consider Human nature: According to him human nature is selfish, power hungry, quarrelsome and
guided by materialistic considerations. Only fear of punishment is a powerful bond and it never fails.
 Must try to win popularity of his people: Prince should try to win popularity, goodwill and affection of his
people. He should keep his subjects materially contented by not taxing them
 Must have council of wise men: Prince must choose wise men in his council and should give them full liberty
to speak the truth to him.
 Must be free from emotions: Prince should exploit emotions of his people for the purpose of the state. He
should be cool, calculating and opportunist.

 Individual-level: His theory ‘end justifies the mean’ is an ambiguous one. During certain situations means
may not be ethical, but ends matter more, like physical torture of a terrorist to know where he has planted
bomb in the city. Here, although means (use of torture) is not ethical, but it is essential to know the
whereabouts of bomb to prevent death of innocent people. Thus, the situation influences ends as well as
means.
 Societal level: Clinical Trials are required to test the efficacy of a new vaccine. But the testing may pose
serious health risk to the volunteers though it may result in the production of a vaccine that ultimately
benefits many individuals. Here the 'means is clearly unethical while the outcome is otherwise.
 Governance level: Sometimes, in a riot like situation Police had to resort to lathi charge and lob tear gas
shells to control or disperse the mob, or using an online surveillance mechanism called NETRA to monitors
all over activities for internal security may seem unethical means but the outcome actually protects the
society as a whole.
Quotes:
 It is better to be feared than loved, if you cannot be both.
 Men judge generally more by the eye than by the hand, for everyone can see and few can feel. Everyone sees
what you appear to be, few really know what you are.
 Where the willingness is great, the difficulties cannot be great.
 If an injury has to be done to a man it should be so severe that his vengeance need not be feared.
 The first method for estimating the intelligence of a ruler is to look at the men he has around him.
 Never was anything great achieved without danger.
 Whosoever desires constant success must change his conduct with the times.
 Politics have no relation to morals.
 One who deceives will always find those who allow themselves to be deceived.
 There is no avoiding war; it can only be postponed to the advantage of others
3.15 RENÉ DESCARTES

 René Descartes (1596 –1650) was a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist. Dubbed the father of
modern western philosophy, much of subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings, which
are studied closely to this day.
Philosophy:
 To obey the rules and customs of his country and his religion and never take an extreme opinion. The
main thrust being to lead a moderate life which is sensible and to defer judgment on matters unless certainty
about them has been established. This would lead to performance, of morally good actions.
 To be decisive and stick with his decisions, even if some doubts exist. It implies firmness of actions.
According to him practical action must be performed without delay - one must follow the most probable
route.
 To try to change himself, not the world. It implies one should try to master oneself and not the fortune.
Whatever is in his control is his own and nothing else. This would help to avoid regret from desires which
cannot be satisfied.
 To examine all the professions of the world and try to figure out the best one this implies that the correct
choice of one’s occupation can ensure a degree of contentedness. One should choose an occupation which is
most suitable to him.

 Individual-level: Mahatma Gandhi once said, ‘’be the change you want to see in the world”. For instance, if
each one of us lead by example and changed our own habits, doing our tiny bit of change we so desire in
others, the change would happen. Others around us would be inspired to follow and not litter themselves
and one spark would light several others and bring about a revolution of change.
 Societal level: To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the
National Anthem and to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of
India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities and to renounce practices
derogatory to the dignity of women are the fundamental duties of every Indian citizen enshrined in Article
51A of Indian Constitution.
 Governance level: Being decisive means taking good decision on the matter in good time with the right
information. For instance, Government of India’s decision to revoke Article 370, scrap Article 35A and
reorganise J&K (into two Union territories) will go down as one the most audacious decisions taken since
Independence
Wax Argument
He considers a piece of wax; his senses inform him that it has certain characteristics, such as shape, texture,
size, color, smell, and so forth. When he brings the wax towards a flame, these characteristics change
completely. However, it seems that it is still the same thing: it is still the same piece of wax, even though the
data of the senses inform him that all of its characteristics are different. Therefore, in order to properly grasp
the nature of the wax, he should put aside the senses. He must use his mind.
Quotes:
 Conquer yourself rather than the world.
 It is not enough to have a good mind; the main thing is to use it well.
 The reading of all good books is like a conversation with the finest minds of past centuries.
 If you would be a real seeker after truth, it is necessary that at least once in your life you doubt, as far as
possible, all things.
 Each problem that I solved became a rule, which served afterwards to solve other problems.
 Except our own thoughts, there is nothing absolutely in our power.
 The greatest minds are capable of the greatest vices as well as of the greatest virtues.
 Perfect numbers like perfect men are very rare.
 It is only prudent never to place complete confidence in that by which we have even once been deceived.
 Divide each difficulty into as many parts as is feasible and necessary to resolve it

3.16 VOLTAIRE
 Voltaire (1694-1778) was a French philosopher, poet, historian, and playwright. He opposed authority and
tradition, specifically the authority and tradition of the French government and the Catholic Church.
Philosophy:
 Religious Beliefs: Voltaire was very outspoken when it came to organized religion. He advocated religious
perspective known as deism. Deism proposes that there is some kind of supernatural creator, but it is not
associated with any mainstream religion.
 Political Beliefs: Voltaire was a strong advocate of political reform. Voltaire largely distrusted democracy
because he viewed it as an “idiocy of the masses”. Voltaire distrusted democracy as too unpredictable and
believed that only an enlightened monarch could bring about change.
 Scientific Beliefs: Although Voltaire was a deist, he still had a very naturalistic worldview. He had a deep
regard for science and its importance in promoting rational thought over superstition.
 Personal Freedom: Voltaire was a proponent of personal liberty and freedom of speech, making the famous
statement, “I disagree with what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.” Despite his
apparent disdain for religion, Voltaire was a strong advocate for religious tolerance, stating that diverse, open
religious beliefs are fine, “as long as they are not murderous.”
 Cultural believes: Voltaire believed that all that is common to human nature is the same in every culture.
The reason for any changes in humans is from climate, government and religion.

 Individual level: In a democracy, the freedom of speech and expression is one of the prime liberties granted
to the citizens. It forms a foundation for other rights granted to citizens, such as the freedom of the press.
Personal liberty and freedom of speech is mentioned in Preamble and guaranteed in Article 19 of Indian
Constitution.
 Societal level: Promotion of science and its importance in shaping rational thought over superstition is
significant. According to Article 51A (h) of the Indian Constitution, citizens must develop scientific temper,
humanism, and the spirit of inquiry and reform.
 Governance level: England's government was ideal in as much as it was a constitutional monarchy, one
which balanced out the voice of the people with more learned political opinions.
Quotes:
 It is dangerous to be right when the government is wrong.
 One day everything will be well, that is our hope. Everything’s fine today, that is our illusion
 Prejudices are what fools use for reason.
 Democracy is just filler for textbooks! Do you actually believe that public opinion influences the government?
 It is better to risk sparing a guilty person than to condemn an innocent one.
 If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him.
 Judge of a man by his questions rather than by his answers
 Those who can make you believe absurdities can make you commit atrocities.
 Every man is guilty of all the good he did not do.
 It is forbidden to kill; therefore all murderers are punished unless they kill in large numbers and to the sound
of trumpets.
3.17 MONTESQUIEU
 Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu was a French Political philosopher. He is
the principal source of the theory of separation of powers, which is implemented in many constitutions
throughout the world.
Philosophy:
 Classification of governments: Abandoning the classical divisions of his predecessors into monarchy,
aristocracy, and democracy, Montesquieu produced his own analysis and assigned to each form of

government an animating principle: the republic, based on virtue; the monarchy, based on honour; and
despotism, based on fear.
 Separation of powers: Dividing political authority into the legislative, executive, and judicial powers, he
asserted that, in the state that most effectively promotes liberty, these three powers must be confided to
different individuals or bodies, acting independently.
 Political influence of climate: He stressed the effect of climate, primarily thinking of heat and cold, on the
physical frame of the individual, and, as a consequence, on the intellectual outlook of society. The other
factors (laws, religion, and maxims of government being the most important) are of a nonphysical nature,
and their influence, compared with that of climate, grows as civilization advances.
Application And Examples - Constitutional Provisions Ensuring Separation Of Power:

 Article 50: State shall take steps to separate the judiciary from the executive.
 Article 121 and 211: Judicial conduct of a judge of the Supreme Court and the High Courts’ cannot be
discussed in the Parliament and the State Legislature.
 Article 122 and 212: Validity of proceedings in Parliament and the Legislatures cannot be called into
question in any Court.
 Article 361: the President or the Governor shall not be answerable to any court for the exercise and
performance of the powers and duties of his office.
Quotes
 The tyranny of a prince in an oligarchy is not so dangerous to the public welfare as the apathy of a citizen in
a democracy.
 To become truly great, one has to stand with people, not above them.
 Power ought to serve as a check to power.
 Useless laws weaken the necessary laws.
 There is no greater tyranny than that which is perpetrated under the shield of the law and in the name of
justice.
 Liberty is the right of doing whatever the laws permit.
 We should weep for men at their birth, not at their death.
 The love of democracy is that of equality.
3.18 AUGUSTE COMTE

 Auguste Comte (1798 - 1857) was a French positivist thinker and came up with the term of sociology to name
the new science made by Saint-Simon.
Philosophy:
 Theory of Positivism: Influenced by the prevailing atmosphere of rationalism and science, early sociologists
like Saint Simon, Comte, Spencer and Durkheim attempted to define the subject matter and the method of
sociology in scientific and objective terms.
 Universal law: at work in all societies and sciences, and through which progress is inevitable and
irreversible
 He called this the Law of Three Phases, the three phases being:
 The theological (the pre-Enlightenment) phase: in which man’s place in society was referenced to God or
nature, in which the divine will subsume human rights, and man blindly believed in whatever he was taught
by his ancestors
 The metaphysical (the post-Enlightenment) humanist phase: referenced to explanations by impersonal
abstract thought, and where the universal rights of humanity are most important
 The positive (the final scientific stage) phase: in which the search for absolute knowledge is abandoned,
scientific explanation is based on observation, experiment and comparison, and individual rights are
considered more important than the rule of any one person.
Quotes:

 The dead govern the living.

 Each department of knowledge passes through three stages. The theoretic stage; the theological stage and
the metaphysical or abstract stage.
 Men are not allowed to think freely about chemistry and biology: why should they be allowed to think freely
about political philosophy
 The only real life is the collective life of the race; individual life has no existence except as an abstraction.
 Every science consists in the coordination of facts; if the different observations were entirely isolated, there
would be no science.
 Know yourself to improve yourself.
 To understand a science, it is necessary to know its history.
3.19 SAMUEL CLARKE

 Samuel Clarke (1675 –1729) was an English philosopher and Anglican clergyman. He is considered the major
British figure in philosophy between John Locke and George Berkeley.
Philosophy:
 Truths of reason: Ethical truths are discoverable through reason and correspond to necessary and eternal
relations among things in the world.
 Free will: He argues that freedom of the will involves a libertarian power of self-determination. Clarke’s
primary defense of libertarian freedom involves clarifying the relationship between the will and the
judgment. In order to will, one must have a judgment about what to do and the power to choose in accordance
with that judgment.
3.20 CICERO
 Marcus Tullius Cicero (106 - 43 B.C.) was a Roman philosopher, orator and statesman of the Roman period.
Cicero subordinated philosophy to politics, so it should not surprise us to discover that his philosophy had a
political purpose: the defense, and if possible the improvement, of the Roman Republic.
Philosophy:
 Natural Law: He has combined the Platonic principles of right and justice as eternal and Stoic principle
supremacy and universality of law as it exists in nature. The universal law of nature binds all men together.
It is unchangeable and it is to be found in all peoples and in all nations. This universality of natural law
constitutes the foundation of world-city.
 Concept of Natural Equality: It is another aspect of his political philosophy. Men are born for justice and
that right is based not upon man’s opinion but upon nature. There is no difference between man and man in
kind in the eye of natural law, all men are equal.
 Idea of State: The purpose of Cicero in Republic is to set forth a conception of an ideal state as Plato had done
in his Republic. He has adopted the same technique of dialogue. But Cicero’s state is not an imaginary
organization. It is confined to Roman state and he has cited illustrations from the history of Rome.
3.21 HENRY DAVID THOREAU

 Henry David Thoreau (1817 - 1862) was an American philosopher, naturalist, writer and political activist of
the early Modern period. A leading transcendentalist, he is best known for his book Walden, a reflection
upon simple living in natural surroundings, and his essay "Civil Disobedience" (originally published as
"Resistance to Civil Government"), an argument for disobedience to an unjust state.
Philosophy:
 Transcendentalism: Thoreau and the Transcendentalists believed that there was more to reality than what
a person could experience with their senses, and more knowledge than what a person could discover through
human reason.
 Civil Disobedience (Essay):
o It has been perhaps the most influential of his works because of its overt political implications.

o He boldly asserted that “the only obligation which I have a right to assume is to do at any time what I
think right”.
o He believed that radical social reforms (such as the abolition of slavery, for example) could be effected
only when each right-minded individual takes direct action on his own part.
o This form of “peaceful revolution” could be achieved by an individual withdrawing his allegiance in
person and property from the government that supports or permits the abuse in question (such as, for
example, refusing to pay taxes).

 This philosophy of civil disobedience and non-violent resistance has been specifically credited by such later
figures as Leo Tolstoy, Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr.
3.22 MAX WEBER

Max Weber (1864 –1920) was a German sociologist, historian, jurist, and political economist regarded as among
the most important theorists of the development of modern Western society. His ideas profoundly influence
social theory and research.
Philosophy:
 Bureaucratic model (rational-legal model): He attempts to explain bureaucracy from a rational point of
view. Weber argued that bureaucracy is "based on the general principle of precisely defined and organized
across-the-board competencies of the various offices" which are "underpinned by rules, laws, or
administrative regulations." Weber identified nine main characteristics/principles:
1. Specialized roles
2. Recruitment based on merit (e.g. tested through open competition)
3. Uniform principles of placement, promotion, and transfer in an administrative system
4. Careerism with systematic salary structure
5. Hierarchy, responsibility and accountability
6. Subjection of official conduct to strict rules of discipline and control
7. Supremacy of abstract rules
8. Impersonal authority (e.g. office bearer does not bring the office with them)
9. Political neutrality
 Rationalisation: This theme was situated in the larger context of the relationship between psychological
motivations, cultural values and beliefs (primarily religion), and the structure of the society (usually
determined by the economy). Weber understood rationalisation, first, as the individual cost-benefit
calculation; second, as the wider bureaucratic organisation of the organisations; and finally, in the more
general sense, as the opposite of understanding the reality through mystery and magic (i.e. disenchantment).
 Sociology of religion: Weber saw religion as one of the core forces in society. His goal was to find reasons
for the different development paths of the cultures of the Occident and the Orient, although without judging
or valuing them, like some of the contemporary thinkers who followed the social Darwinist paradigm; Weber
wanted primarily to explain the distinctive elements of the Western civilisation
 The state, politics, and government: In political sociology, one of Weber's most influential contributions is
his essay "Politik als Beruf" ("Politics as a Vocation"), in which he defines "the state" as an entity that
possesses a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force. Weber proposed that politics is the sharing of
state power between various groups, whereas political leaders are those who wield this power.
Quotes
 The fate of our times is characterized by rationalization and intellectualization and, above all, by the
disenchantment of the world.
 It is not wise to apply to public administration the sort of moral and ethical norms we apply to matters of
personal conscience. It is important to realize that the state bureaucracy might possess its own
independent bureaucratic morality.
 The ethic of conviction and the ethic of responsibility are not opposites. They are complementary to one
another.

 Causal analysis provides absolutely no value judgment, and a value judgment is absolutely not a causal
explanation.
 One can say that three pre-eminent qualities are decisive for the politician: passion, a feeling of
responsibility, and a sense of proportion.
3.23 CONFUCIUS
 Confucius (551- 479 BC) was a Chinese philosopher, poet, and politician who are traditionally considered the
paragon of Chinese sages. Confucius’s teachings and philosophy underpin East Asian culture and society,
remaining influential across China and East Asia to this day.
Philosophy:
 Confucianism: emphasized personal and governmental morality, the correctness of social relationships,
justice, kindness, and sincerity.
 Confucian ethics are the virtues of the self: sincerity and the cultivation of knowledge. Virtuous action
towards others begins with virtuous and sincere thought, which begins with knowledge.
5 Main Virtues:
1. Benevolence (ren): It is an act of kindness towards ourselves and others without expecting to get anything
in return.
2. Righteousness (yi): Righteousness in the literal term means justice, moral and have the ability to choose
to act rightfully in any given situation.
3. Trustworthiness (xin): In the Analects, Confucius said: “if one is trustworthy, others will give one
responsibility.” This means if you are trustworthy, others will be more likely to rely upon you.
4. Propriety (li): Propriety means politeness or the quality of conforming to conventionally accepted
standards of behavior or morals.
5. Wisdom (zhi): Wisdom is the characteristics of having knowledge, experience, and good judgment in any
given situation. A person is considered intelligent and has wisdom when he/she can make a sound decision
based on his/her prior knowledge and learning experiences.

 Individual level: In the workplace, if you are known for trustworthiness, your manager will take notice and
are more likely to give you important tasks therefore you will be compensated better with a higher salary,
and get promoted much quicker.
 Societal level: Seek ways to add values to other people’s life. For example, volunteer to do a task for your
friend or family member and do it in a cheerful manner because you love, respect him or her, and do it without
hoping to gain anything in return.
 Governance level: Understand the full context of a situation before giving judgment or an opinion in a moral
and helpful way.
Quotes
 Wheresoever you go, go with all your heart.
 It does not matter how slowly you go so long as you do not stop.
 Choose a job you love, and you will never have to work a day in your life.
 Never do to others what you would not like them to do to you.
 Death and life have their determined appointments; riches and honors depend upon heaven.
 Our greatest glory is not in never falling, but in rising every time we fall.
 Before you embark on a journey of revenge, dig two graves.
3.24 ADAM SMITH

 Adam Smith was a Scottish philosopher and political economist of the Age of Enlightenment. He is widely
cited as the father of modern economics, and sometimes as the father of modern Capitalism, and his
magnum opus, “The Wealth of Nations”, is considered the first modern work of classical economics.

Philosophy:
 The Theory of Moral Sentiments: In this work that Smith first referred to the “invisible hand” to describe
the apparent benefits to society of people behaving in their own interests. He critically examined the moral
thinking of the time, with the aim of explaining how mankind can form moral judgments in spite of its natural
inclination toward self-interest.
 Theory of sympathy: in which the act of observing others makes people aware of themselves and of the
morality of their own behavior.
 An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations: In it, he expands on three main concepts
that together form the foundation of free market economics and Capitalism: the division of labor, the pursuit
of self-interest and freedom of trade.
Quotes
 It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from
their regard to their own interest.
 The real tragedy of the poor is the poverty of their aspirations.
 All money is a matter of belief.
 Man is an animal that makes bargains: no other animal does this - no dog exchanges bones with another.
 Science is the great antidote to the poison of enthusiasm and superstition.
 Virtue is more to be feared than vice, because its excesses are not subject to the regulation of conscience.
3.25 HERBERT SPENCER

 Herbert Spencer (1820 –1903) was an English philosopher, biologist, anthropologist, and sociologist famous
for his hypothesis of social Darwinism.
Philosophy:
 Societal Darwinism: Spencer saw human life on a continuum with, but also as the culmination of, a lengthy
process of evolution, and he held that human society reflects the same evolutionary principles as biological
organisms do in their development. For Spencer, all natural and social development reflected ‘the
universality of law’.
 Laws of life: the conditions of social existence, and the recognition of life as a fundamental value, moral
science can deduce what kinds of laws promote life and produce happiness.
 Egoism: The general theory of normative egoism does not attempt to describe human nature directly, but
asserts how people ought to behave. It comes in two general forms: rational egoism and ethical egoism.
Quotes
 “Ethics has to recognize the truth, recognized in unethical thought that egoism comes before altruism.”
 “Unless each duly cares for himself, his care for all others is ended in death, and if each thus dies there
remain no others to be cared for.”
3.26 AYN RAND

 Ayn Rand (1905 –1982) was a Russian-born American writer and philosopher. She is known for her fiction
and for developing a philosophical system she named “Objectivism”.
Philosophy:
 Objectivism: She considered Objectivism a systematic philosophy and laid out positions on metaphysics,
epistemology, ethics, political philosophy, and aesthetics.
 In metaphysics: she supported philosophical realism and opposed anything she regarded as mysticism or
supernaturalism, including all forms of religion. She believed in free will as a form of agent causation and
rejected determinism.
 In epistemology: Rand considered all knowledge to be based on sense perception, the validity of which she
considered axiomatic, and reason, which she described as "the faculty that identifies and integrates the
material provided by man's senses". Rand rejected all claims of non-perceptual knowledge, including
"'instinct,' 'intuition,' 'revelation,' or any form of 'just knowing'"
 Rational and ethical egoism: She said the individual should "exist for his own sake, neither sacrificing
himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself". She referred to egoism as "the virtue of selfishness". She
condemned ethical altruism as incompatible with the requirements of human life and happiness, and held
the initiation of force was evil and irrational.
Quotes
 The question isn’t who is going to let me; it’s who is going to stop me.
 The smallest minority on earth is the individual.
 Those who deny individual rights cannot claim to be defenders of minorities.
 We can evade reality, but we cannot evade the consequences of evading reality
 A creative man is motivated by the desire to achieve, not by the desire to beat others.
 Throughout the centuries there were men who took first steps, down new roads, armed with nothing but
their own vision.
 Wealth is the product of man’s capacity to think.
 Contradictions do not exist. Whenever you think you are facing a contradiction, check your premises. You
will find that one of them is wrong.
3.27 LAWRENCE KOHLBERG

 Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–1987) was an American psychologist best known for his theory of stages of
moral development.
Philosophy:
 Moral dilemmas: stories that present conflicting ideas about two moral values. The best known moral
dilemma created by Kohlberg is the “Heinz” dilemma, which discusses the idea of obeying the law versus
saving a life. Kohlberg emphasized that it is the way an individual reasons about a dilemma that determines
positive moral development.
 Moral development: Kohlberg believed that moral development, like cognitive development, follows a
series of stages. Kohlberg defined three levels of moral development: pre-conventional, conventional, and
post-conventional. Each level has two distinct stages. Each level is associated with increasingly complex
stages of moral development.
Levels of Moral Development

Throughout the pre-conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally
Pre-conventional controlled:
Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation
Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and
Conventional societal relationships:
Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation
Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation
Throughout the post-conventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in
terms of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are
Post-conventional unjust and should be changed or eliminated:
Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation
Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation
Quotes
 Right action tends to be defined in terms of general individual rights and standards that have been critically
examined and agreed upon by the whole society.
 Intelligence may be taken as a necessary, but not sufficient, cause of moral advance. All morally advanced
children are bright, but not all bright children are morally advanced.
3.28 ABRAHAM LINCOLN

 Abraham Lincoln (1809 –1865) was an American lawyer and statesman who served as the 16th president of
the United States from 1861 until his assassination in 1865. Lincoln led the nation through the American Civil
War and succeeded in preserving the Union, abolishing slavery, bolstering the federal government, and
modernizing the U.S. economy.
Philosophy:
 Moral integrity: It occupied the core of the kind of person Lincoln made himself. Financial honesty
represented one important aspect of this integrity. When his partner in a grocery business, William Berry,
died in 1835, leaving behind serious debts, Lincoln worked long and hard to pay off not only his own share
but Berry’s as well, going beyond his legal obligation in doing so.
 Intellectual honesty: Lincoln opposed slavery not only on political grounds but on moral grounds. He
considered every human being has worth which is expressed through dignity.
 Balance between moral certainty and moral humility: He was certain enough about his beliefs to act on
them, but humble enough about his beliefs to acknowledge at least the possibility he might be wrong
Quotes
 Whatever you are, be a good one.
 Nearly all men can stand adversity, but if you want to test a man’s character, give him power.
 Those who deny freedom to others, deserve it not for themselves
3.29 MARTIN LUTHER KING JR

 Martin Luther King Jr. (1929 – 1968) was an American Baptist minister and activist who became the most
visible spokesman and leader in the civil rights movement from 1955 until his assassination in 1968.
Philosophy:
 The life and philosophy of Martin Luther King, Jr. provides a text for learning how to understand and live in
a world of conflict and change without creating conflict or be-coming a passive victim of the negative conflict
and violence.
 He taught that refusal to retaliate to violence was not an act of cowardness, but could be an act of
strength or even courage.
 For him the “Beloved Community” was a destination that required a pilgrimage, which involved change.
 Nonviolence is not only standing against what is wrong, but also standing for what is right.
 For him the “Beloved Community” is not a distant geography in the sky, but rather a day to day existence of
revolving relationships with loved ones and ones to be loved.
Quotes
 The function of education is to teach one to think intensively and to think critically. Intelligence plus
character - that is the goal of true education.
 Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere.
2.30 NELSON MANDELA

 Nelson Mandela (1918 – 2013) was a South African anti-apartheid revolutionary and political leader who
served as the first president of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. Nelson Mandela received the Nobel Peace
Prize in 1993 for his life long struggle for human rights.
Philosophy:
 Forgiveness and reconciliation: Nelson Mandela holds these values very dear. Strong-willed and
determined, He never cowered and vehemently fought for what he believed in, but he was also humble and
kind.
 Self-awareness: He considered it as a sign of great leadership. He understood that if he was going to lead his
nation out of racial discrimination and into a peaceful democracy he would have to “be the change.”
Quotes
 Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world.
 To be free is not merely to cast off one’s chains, but to live in a way that respects and enhances the freedom
of others.
 Do not judge me by my successes, judge me by how many times I fell down and got back up again.
3.31 JEAN-PAUL SARTE

 Jean-Paul Sarte (1905 –1980) was a French philosopher, playwright, novelist, political activist, biographer,
and literary critic. He was one of the key figures in the philosophy of existentialism and phenomenology, and
one of the leading figures in 20th-century French philosophy and Marxism.
Philosophy:
 Existentialism: Existentialism is widely considered to be the philosophical and cultural movement which
holds that the starting point of philosophical thinking must be the individual and the experiences of the
individual. Existentialists generally believe that traditional philosophies are too abstract and away from
concrete human experience.
 Existence precedes essence: Man first of all just exists. Man encounters or sees himself in this world, and
defines himself afterwards. Man simply is. After realizing his existence man starts willing and then becomes
what he wills. Thus man is nothing but what he makes of himself.
 Subjectivity of Man: According to Sartre ‘man’ is a project which possesses a subjective life. This subjective
life precisely makes man different from other objects of the world. Man alone is capable of willing and
becoming. In other words man is alone capable of choosing a mode of action over the other. Man alone is
capable of making a conscious decision.
 Man in complete possession of himself: What follows directly from the principle of subjectivity is man’s
possession of himself / herself. In other words, man is totally responsible for what he is and what he becomes.
 Man keeps willing & keeps on making choices his existence is renewed every time through these decisions,
made by him. Needless to say he alone is responsible for his decisions and his life.
 The notion of ‘despair’: The word ‘despair’, is generally defined as – ‘loss of hope’. In existentialist ethic
 the word ‘despair’, is more specifically related to the reaction when an individual starts weighing the
possibilities involved in a particular decision, which is going to affect his ‘self or identity’.
 The notion of Abandonment: God doesn’t exist, and whatever logical consequences are likely to be drawn
from this are necessary to be drawn. Hence Sartre declared – “Man is condemned to be free.” Precisely from
the realization of Abandonment the feeling of despair arises.
Quotes
 Every existing thing is born without reason, prolongs itself out of weakness, and dies by chance.
 Freedom is what you do with what's been done to you.
 Life begins on the other side of despair.

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1. INDIAN PHILOSOPHERS AND THINKERS...................................................................................................................................3

3.8 THOMAS HOBBES ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 33

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1. INDIAN PHILOSOPHERS AND THINKERS

1.1 INDIAN ETHICS

1.2 INDIAN SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY

 It is also called Sankhya - enumerating number.

o Dhyana= Concentrated meditation

1.3 ESSENCE OF RAMAYANA AND MAHABHARATA

Character What Can We Learn

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1.4 RAMAYANA & MAHABHARAT

Character Role What to Learn?

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Dharmaraj  Values  Lifelong he sticks to his Moral values what he believed in

1.5 ESSENCE OF BHAGVADGITA

1.6 BUDDHIST ETHICS

The Ashtanga Marg Of Buddha:

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1.7 JAIN ETHICS

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Thoughts From His Work “Thirukkural”:

1.10 SWAMI VIVEKANANDA

Gandhiji’s Thoughts On The Good Life:

Gandhiji’s Thoughts On Decision Making: What Is The Right Thing To Do?

Gandhiji’s Thoughts On Polity And Governance:

Gandhiji’s Thoughts On The Economy:

Gandhiji’s Seven Sins:

Type Of Sins Recent Example

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Parameter Views of Gandhi Views of Bose Views of Tagore

1.13 RABINDRANATH TAGORE

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1.14 DR. B. R. AMBEDKAR

Ambedkar Views On Social Justice:

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1.15 VALLABHBHAI PATEL

Political And Social Views:

1.16 JAWAHARLAL NEHRU

 His Political philosophy is based on Democracy. He had a strong faith in democracy.

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1.17 RAJA RAM MOHAN ROY: MORNING STAR OF INDIAN RENAISSANCE

View On Polity And Governance:

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1.18 ISHWAR CHAND VIDYASAGAR

Views On Polity And Economy:

1.19 SAINT MOTHER TERESA

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1.20 AMARTYA SEN

2.21 DR. APJ ABDUL KALAM

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Educational Philosophy Of Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam:

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