Culture
• A broad category of social elements, most
of which are intangible.
• Consists of the shared values, customs, and
linguistic and communicational systems
that can be used to identify a group of
people as a whole.
• Encompasses both intangible and tangible
items that are characteristic of the
community or society.
10 weird phenomena that perfectly sum up
today's Filipino culture.
1. Filipino teleserye phenomenon
2. Filipino social media phenomenon
3. Filipino text messaging phenomenon
4. Istambay phenomenon
5. Tingi-tingi phenomenon
6. Filipino ability to smile during disasters.
7. Pacquiao phenomenon
8. Querida syndrome
9. Aswang phenomenon
10. “My Way killings”
Society
• generally understood as an interdependent
collection of people who communicate in
an organized manner, who worked together
for their survival and well-being of their
community beyond boundaries of land and
culture.
• There are no known human societies that
do not exhibit culture and there can be no
culture without a society.
Politics
• making policy for the government is what
politics is all about. Politics cannot be
disregarded at all. Because of this, it is
essential that we all learn politics and the
constitution.
Government
• it wields power, particularly in terms of
governance and decision making.
Different aspects that makes up culture
Gender
• the socially constructed characteristics that
make someone male or female.
Socio-economic status
• social class or standing of a person or a
group; Frequently assessed using a
combination of factors like occupation,
income, and education.
Three classes in a society
• upper class
• middle class
• lower class
Ethnicity
• Ethnic - they have recognizable cultural
traits that set them apart from others, such
as a shared language, common ancestry,
rituals, and traditions.
Religion
• organized set of beliefs about the
supernatural or the spiritual world, along
with any associated rituals or
ceremonialistic practices, by which people
attempt to understand and/or control
portions of the cosmos that are otherwise
beyond their power.
Social change
• variances or changes in the social
organization of a society’s subgroups, the
society as a whole, or both.
Cultural change
• refers to any changes that have an impact
on new traits, complexes, and changes to
the structure and content of a culture.
Factors involved in socio- and cultural change. Concept of Society
1. Technological and economic changes • Society is a group of people that shares
a. agricultural advancements territory, interaction, and culture.
• lead to surplus food, which result to • Functional Meaning - society is a group full
population growth and urbanization. of complexity in terms of reciprocating
b. Industrialization relationships and interactions.
• the process of altering to a socioeconomic • Structural Meaning - the total social
order in which industry is dominant. heritage of folkways, mores and
2. Modernization institutions; of habits, sentiments, and
• the way of adopting the changes from ideals.
traditional form of society to industrial or
Society
modernized city.
3. Urbanization The following are reasons people live together as
• there was a great shift in terms of a society (Ariola, 2012):
population from rural to urban place.
a. For survival
4. conflict and competition
• man always depends upon their
• based on the demands of the products they
parents and from others. The care,
manufacture or sell, many businesses or
support, and protection given by
merchants in the market engage in conflict
them are important factors for
and rivalry.
survival.
5. political ideology and legal power
b. Feeling of gregariousness
• different political ideas from numerous
• People flock together for emotional
countries with various forms of government
warmth and belongingness.
have influenced other nations and
c. Specialization
contributed to changes in their systems of
• Teachers, businessmen, students,
government.
physicians, nurses, lawyers,
political change pharmacists, and other professionals
organize themselves into societies
• political change happens when a nation's
or associations to promote and
form of government changes or its current
protect their own professions.
rulers are ousted from office.
Characteristics of Society
two types of political change
1. It is a social system.
1. internal political change
• individuals interacting with each
• changes are suggested by country residents.
other. A change in one group of
It can be accomplished through routine
individuals will affect the stability of
occurrences, unusual occurrences like a
the other parts of the system.
coup d etat or a rebellion, or even through
2. It is relatively large.
elections and decision of the current ruler
• people in a family, neighborhood, or
to cede power.
community are socially integrated to
2. external political change
be relatively large in scope.
• changes happen when it is initiated by
3. It socializes its members and from those
other countries.
form without
 • people who are born into that
society are taught the basic norms
According to people’s substinence:
and expectations.
4. It endures, produces, and sustains its
members for generations.
• for a society to survive, it must have
the ability to produce, endure, and
sustain new members for at least
several generations.
5. It holds its members through a common
culture.
• individuals in a society are held
together because that society has
symbols, norms, values, patterns of
interaction, vision and mission that
are commonly shared by the
members of such society.
6. It has a clearly defined geographical
territory.
• having a common belongingness
and sense of purpose when
members live in specific territory.
Major Functions of Society
1. Provides a system of socialization.
• values, norms, beliefs, etc. are
passed on to each member.
2. Provides the basic needs of the members.
• The society must provide the
members with basic needs such as
food, clothing, shelter, medicine,
education, and etc.
3. Regulates and controls people’s behavior.
Dissolution of a Society
• Peace and order are created
through a system of norms and
formal organizations.
4. Provides the means of social participation.
• individuals learn to interact with
each other, present and discuss
their concerns and solve problems.
5. Provides mutual support.
• in the form of relief in any form and
solution to problems met by them.
Types of Societies
1. Food Gathering Societies
• hunting larger animals, collecting
shellfish, and vegetable gathering.
Their tools were made o stones,
wood, and bones.
2. Horticultural Societies
• People planted seeds as a means of
production of subsistence.
3. Pastoral Societies
• They raised animals to provide milk,
fur, and blood for protein.
4. Agricultural Societies
• People used plow than hoe in food
production. Irrigation farming was
introduced which resulted to a
larger yield of production.
5. Industrial Societies
• Mass production of guns, invention
of steam locomotives and large
production of steel and well-
coordinated labor force took place.
6. Post-Industrial Societies or Information
Societies
• Characterized by the spread of
computer. Technology, advances in
this technology are made by highly-
trained computer specialists who
work to increase the capabilities of
computers and internet.
1. When the people kill each other
through civil revolution;
2. When an outside force exterminates the
members of the society;
3. When the members become apathetic
among themselves or have no more
sense of belongingness;
4. When an existing society is submerged
in water killing all the people and other
living things in it;
 5. When the people living in such a society
voluntarily attached themselves to
another existing society.
The concept of Culture
• Culture is a complex whole that is
made up of knowledge, beliefs,
ideas, habits, attitudes, values,
norms, art, law, morals, customs,
traditions, feelings and other
capabilities of man which are
acquired, learned, and socially
transmitted (Arcinas, 2016).
Other definitions mentioned in the book of David
and Macaraeg (2010)
• Culture is a historically transmitted
pattern of meanings embodied in
symbols, a system of inherited
conceptions expressed in symbolic
form by means of which men
communicate, perpetuate, and
develop their knowledge about and
attitude towards like. - Clifford
Geertz
Culture from the perspective of Anthropologists
• Culture consists of shared patterns
of behavior and associated
meanings that people learn and
participate in within the groups to
which they belong. - Whitten and
Hunter
• A society's culture consists of
whatever it is one has to know or
believe in order to operate in a
manner acceptable to its members. -
Ward Goodenough
Characteristics of Culture
Culture from the perspective of sociologist
1. Dynamic, Flexible, and Adaptive
• culture changes and is changed by a
variety of interactions, media, and
technology.
2. Shared and maybe challenged.
• we share culture with others, we act
in an appropriate way as well as
predict how others will act. May be
challenged by the presence of other
cultures and other social forces.
3. Learned through socialization or
enculturation.
• people do not inherit culture but
learned as they interact within the
society.
4. Patterned social interactions.
• Culture is a normative system that
has the capacity to define and
control human behaviors. Norms are
cultural expectations in terms of
how one will think, feel, or behave.
5. Transmitted through socialization or
enculturation.
• we are able to pass the culture to
newer generations.
6. Requires language and other forms of
communication symbols and language
are needed to communicate with others
in society (Arcinas, 2016).
1. Culture is learned.
• each member must learn how to be
a member of that culture. It is
acquired by being born into a
particular society in the process of
enculturation.
2. Symbolic
• it is based on the manipulation of
symbols. Beliefs, religion, rituals,
myths, dances, performances,
music, artworks, sense of taste, etc.
are meaningful human expressions
of what people do and act.
3. Systemic and integrated.
• Parts of the culture work together in
an integrated whole. Systems of
meanings and many other sides of
culture do not function in isolation
but an integrated whole.
 4. Culture is shared.
• Societies do not always exist
independently from each other.
5. Encompassing
• Culture covers every feature of
humanity. Members establish
Types:
connections with each other and
create relationships guided by their
respective cultural practices and
values.
Elements of culture
Forms:
1. Symbol
• anything that is used to stand for
something else and that gives
meaning to the culture. The
meanings we provide to things such
as colors and graphic symbols
provide understanding which is
common to a certain group of
people (David and Macaraeg, 2010).
2. Language
• system of words and symbols used
to communicate with other people.
Culture is hereby transmitted to
future generation through learning.
3. Technology
• application of knowledge and
Components of Culture
equipment to ease the task of living
and maintaining the environment.
4. Values
• culturally defined standards for
what is good or desirable. It
determine how individuals will
probably respond in any given
circumstances.
5. Beliefs
• they are conceptions or ideas of
people have about what is true in
the environment around them like
what is life, how to value it and how
Modes acquiring culture.
one's belied on the value of life
relate with his or her interaction
with others and the world.
6. Norms
• specific rules/standards to guide for
appropriate behavior (Arcinsa,
2016). Societal expectations that
mandate specific situations (David
and Macaraeg, 2010).
a. Proscriptive Norm- defines and tells us
things not to do.
b. Prescriptive Norm- defines and tells us
things to do.
1. Folkways
• also known as customs or the
customary/repetitive ways of doing
things.
2. Mores
• strict norms that control moral and
ethical behavior; they are based on
definitions of right and wrong
(Arcinas, 2016).
3. Laws
• controlled ethics and they are
morally agreed, written down and
enforced by an official law
enforcement agency (Arcinas, 2016).
1. Material Culture
• consists of tangible things. Refers to
physical objects, resources, and
spaces that people use to define
their culture.
2. Non-material Culture
• intangible things. Refers to the
nonphysical ideas that people have
about their culture, including beliefs,
values, rules, norms, morals, and
etc.
1. Imitation
• Children and adults alike have the
tendency to imitate the values,
 attitudes, language, and all other
things in their social environment.
2. Indoctrination or Suggestion
• this may take form of formal training
or informal teaching. Formally, the
person learns from school.
Informally, he may acquire those
Causes of cultural change
behaviors from listening or
watching, reading, etc.
3. Conditioning
• Values, beliefs, and attitude of other
people are acquired through
conditioning. This conditioning can
be reinforced through reward and
punishment.
Adaptation of culture
1. Parallelism
• the same culture may take place in 2
or different places.
2. Diffusion
• those behavioral patterns that pass
back and forth from one culture to
another.
3. Convergence
• takes place when 2 or more cultures
are fused or merged into one culture
making it different from the original
culture.
4. Fission
• takes place when people break away
from their original culture and start
developing a different culture of
their own.
5. Acculturation
• the process wherein individuals
incorporate the behavioral patterns
of other cultures into their own
either voluntarily or by force.
6. Assimilation
• occurs when the culture of a larger
society is adopted by a smaller
society, that smaller society assumes
some of the culture of the larger
society or cost society.
7. Accommodation
• when the larger society and smaller
society are able to respect and
tolerate each other's culture even if
there is already a prolonged contact
of each other's culture.
1. Discovery
• the process of finding a new place or
an object, artefact or anything that
previously existed.
2. Invention
• a creative mental process of
devising, creating, and producing
something new, novel or original;
and also the utilization and
combination of previously known
elements to produce an original or
new product.
3. Diffusion
• the spread of cultural traits or social
practices from a society or group to
another belonging to the same
society or to another through direct
contact with each other and
exposure to new forms. It involves
the following social processes:
4. Acculturation
• cultural borrowing and cultural
imitation
5. Assimilation
• blending or fusion of 2 distinct
culture through long period of
interaction
6. Amalgamation
• the biological or hereditary fusion of
members of different societies
7. Enculturation
• deliberate infusion of a new culture
to another
8. Colonization
• political, social, and political policy
of establishing a colony which would
 be subject to the rule or governance
of he colonizing state.
9. Rebellion and revolutionary
• aims to change the whole social
order and replace the leadership.
Cultural Variation
• Refers to the rich diversity in social
patterns that different human group
exhibit around the world period
Ethnocentrism
music, dance, languages, cuisine,
and art are different from one
culture to another.
Cultural universals
• are patterns or traits that are
globally common to all societies.
• Another example of cultural
universal is the language and the
concept of giving names to member
of the family.
cultural relativism
• it's the practice by assessing a culture by its
own standards rather than viewing it
through the lens of one's own culture.
Symbols
• it is the practice that one must understood
in the context of their locality.
advantages of cultural relativism
1. it promotes cooperation.
• embracing the differences of the
differences society can create
cooperation because it allows a
stronger bond with one another in
Symbolism
the society.
2. Respect and equality is encouraged.
• People from different culture with
different ideas that share their own
perspectives and experiences in the
society can promote respect and
equality.
3. it preserves human cultures
• respect with the diverse set of
traditions, ideas and practices would
help preserve the culture.
4. Cultural relativism creates a society
without judgement.
• worrying and practicing your own
culture prevent disagreement and
judgment in the society.
• is there a guard that one’s own
culture and society is the center of
everything and seen as the most
efficient and superior among the
cultures in the world.
• a person who exhibits
ethnocentrism feels that his or her
culture is correct and appropriate as
compared to other cultures thus an
ethnocentric attitude can be a
problem in understanding each
other culture and foster tensions,
misunderstanding and conflicts
between societies.
• is an object, word, or action that stands for
something, without natural relationship,
that is culturally defined.
• Symbols such as gestures, signs, objects,
signals, and words, help people understand
the world. Symbols provide clues to
understanding experiences.
• it is when something represents abstract
ideas or concepts; It assigns names,
denominations, and defines solutions
between various elements (factors, actions,
goals, means, objects, values, etc.)
Articulated within a narrative.
functions of symbols and symbolism
1. social symbols are used to transfer culture,
ideologies, or beliefs from group to another
group of people.
2. symbols are also used to preserve traditions
or beliefs of a certain group of people.
3. all symbols contain the “face” and “hidden”
values, the hidden value, in a functional
perspective, holds greater meaning and
importance than the face value.
4. symbols and symbolism have been used to
create movements, spread ideas, and share
advocacies that surpasses time and
distance.
types of symbols
1. political symbols
• use the represent a political standpoint;
Seen in various media and form such as
banners, flag, motor, etc.
2. economic symbols
• use in production, distribution, and
consumption of goods and services like
PNC, market, labor, demands and other
economic activities.
general examples of cultural symbols and
practices
• objects, colors, sounds, visual expressions,
figures, words interpretations, or gestures
such as handshakes and hand signals,
instead of symbols and signs.
cultural practices
• are the manifestation of a culture or
subculture, especially concerning the
traditional and customary practices of a
particular ethnic or other cultural group
examples of religious symbols around the world
1. Christian cross
• it's traditionally been a symbol representing
Christianity.
2. Star and Crescent.
• Symbolize the faith of Islam. The Crescent is
the early face of the moon and represents
progress. The star signifies illumination with
the light of knowledge.
3. Jewish flags
• featuring hexagrams alongside. Use of the
Star of David as representing the Jewish
community.
examples of cultural symbols in the Philippines
• Philippines flag, Philippine eagle, Philippine
national anthem, national hero.
examples of cultural practices in the Philippines
1. traditional medical practices
• belief in “albularyo”, herbal medicines,
alternative medicines, and other home
remedies.
2. Religious/spiritual practices
• Obando festival in Bulcavan for fertility,
Panaad sa Camihuin as act of penance and
pilgrim. Feast of the Black Nazarene in
Manila, etc.
3. Culinary practices
• Rice three meals a day, adobo, sinigang, St.
foods, balut, rice cakes, etc.
 4. child rearing practices
• respectful (Use of the words mano, po at
opo), obedience to parents and elders, no
talking back to elders, removing footwear
before entering the house, family meal
time, ninong/ninang, ate/kuya, punishment
using belt/tsinelas.
social symbols and practices
• it is a visible, external denotation of one
social position, indicator of one's social or
economic status.
Status symbol
• relates to how individuals and groups
interact and interpret various cultural
symbols.
• It can be seen in clothing and possessions,
societal recognition, material possessions
and other recognized symbols used
worldwide such as white dove for peace,
red heart for love, etc.
examples of common social symbols
colors:
• white - purity, peace
• red - blood, war, possession, danger
• purple – royalty
political symbols and practices
• the artifacts or objectifications of different
political meanings especially related to
power.
• but they call symbols are usually used to
embody an ideology, an advocacy, or a
group of people with same principles.
• it is related to the practices on in the
administration, distribution and attainment
of power, bureaucratic composition, etc.
examples of common political symbols
colors:
• black - fascism, Catholicism, Christian
democracy
• blue - conservatism, men, monarchism,
liberalism
• brown - nazim, fascism
• gold - capitalism, liberalism
political practices in the Philippines
1. Filipino clans
2. Catholic Church influence
3. Trapo (traditional Politics)
4. celebrities turned politicians
5. political dynasties
• it is the concentration, consolidation
or perpetuation of public office in
political power by persons related to
one another.
6. palakasan system
• refers to a system of getting an
advantage in having or knowing
someone powerful from the office
that can recommend you. This
usually happens within government
offices.
economic symbols
• this represents economic
standpoint. It can be seen in various
media such as Stock Exchange,
money, and currency, gold and
petroleum, life insurance, banking,
etc.
Philippine economic practices
• in terms of savings, one of the
traditional way of saving money in
Filipino is using “Alkansya”
• another way of economic practice of
Filipino is “paluwagan”
• the money was cycled throughout
the group.
Significance of symbols and symbolism
• symbols have been part of our lives and
growth as humankind.
• The use of symbols and symbolism have
given mankind a way to interact with
various social groups, Influence people with
different beliefs, and preserve values that
have been passed generations to
generations.
Socialization
• Socialization refers to that coaching of
novices to end of contributors of current
crew and to think, feel, and act in
approaches the team considers
appropriate.
• socialization is learning on how our society
and specific communities, or groups work
so we can be a part of them. It's a process
of working together in developing
responsibility in our community. Individual
learns to conform to the norms and values
in a group and develop his or her own self
by learning and knowing about his or her
own self from the others.
• socialization is also known as enculturation.
Enculturation occurs when cultural
knowledge is passed on the next barrier
which will perpetuate and ensure the
continuance of their tradition and practices.
(Santarita and Madrid, 2016)
Socialization focuses on the following:
• acquisition of knowledge
• language
• values
• habits
• skills in the society
what does socialization teach us?
• Language
• Culture (norms, values, traditions)
• understanding of others
• understanding of ourselves as a social being
or social self
• emergence of the social self
Theories on socialization
• George Herbert Mead - the development of
the “social self”
• Charles Horton Cooley - the development
of the “looking glass self.”
Nature VS. Nurture
Nature
• Hereditary. these are the traits that we
inherited from our parents starting when
we are born.
Nurture
• Environment. this is generally taken as the
influence of external factors after
conception (e.g. the product of exposure,
experience and learning on an individual).
George Herbert Mead
• argued that “the social self” developed out
of social interaction with others.
• Social interaction involves seeing ourselves
as others see us are taking the role of the
other.
• taking the role of the other involves a
constant interplay between the “eye” and
the “me”
The “ME”
• Part of self-created through socialization;
Learned behavior; The social self.
The “I”
• part of the self that reacted to the attitude
of others; Self creativity; Response to social
self.
Significant others
• when children take the perspective of those
who are most important in their lives;
Perform through the use of language and
symbols in imitation, modeling or simple
role-playing after parents. (preparatory
stage)
Generalize others
• when children take the roles of several
others at once column performed through
the participation of children in complex
games or sports activities: children learn the
shared expectation of an entire social group
or society as a reference point for
evaluating themselves. (Play stage and
game stage)
Charles Horton Cooley
• “the looking glass self” where things to the
self-image that we have based on how we
suppose others perceive us;
• We imagine ourselves in the same way that
others see us;
• others represent a “mirror” in which we can
see ourselves.
• close friends. Through fundamental
three parts of socialization
1. Contexts
• denotes culture, language, social
structures, and the individuals rank
within them. It includes the history
and roles played by the people and
institution in the past.
2. Content and process
• the work or activity in socialization.
Content refers to the details of what
passed from a member to a new
member. While process means the
interaction in ways these new
norms, values and custom are
thought to a novice.
3. results and outcomes
• refers to what happens to an
individual after being exposed to a
particular contents and process.
Context of Socialization
Biological Context
• Sociobiology suggests that some
human capacities may be “wired
into” our biological makeup. Some
hormones (i.e. vasopressin and
oxytocin) encourage human to
interact and socialize with other
people.
psychological context
• composed of (1 )emotional States
and unconsciousness (2) cognitive
theories of development (3) social
and historical events (4) social
position as part of the context.
Types of socialization
1. primary socialization
• occurs early in the child's lifestyle
and is primarily due to have an
impact directly from the family and
socialism, a baby learns basic
societal norms and customs.
Example: mano or pagmamano as
an honoring gesture to the elders.
2. secondary socialization
• occurs when a person learns an
appropriate behavior to be
displayed within a smaller group
which still part of a larger society.
Example: joining a club or
organization in college, getting
employed in a new workplace.
3. anticipatory socialization
• adolescence is initiated between the
ages of childhood and adulthood.
During this stage, children started to
participate in anticipatory
 socialization. They also learned
about their group culture and what
they should expect in the future.
4. developmental socialization
• a.k.a. professional socialization. This
process of socialization occurs
during the early years of an
individual's life. It developed his
skills and attitudes for the future
and prepares him for the various
roles and responsibilities that he will
assume as an adult.
5. Re-socialization
• when an individual moves to a new
group, he has to learn the new
values and beliefs of the new group.
This process of re-socialization helps
him to get used to the new ways of
life.
overall alcohol duration and socialization process
results to:
1. identity formation
• an individual's identity is formed
through his interaction with other
people. A person socialization with
individuals or groups allows him or
her to adopt certain characteristic
and interests that contribute to his
or her identity (idea derived from
Newman, 2012)
2. norms and values
• norms are culturally determined
rules that guide people regarding
what is right, wrong, proper, or
improper. Norms create
predictability in daily affairs and
interactions, making it easier to live
with other members of society
(Newman, 2012 ). These norms are
fundamental to the establishment of
social order in any society (Newman,
2012).
3. Status
• position that an individual can
occupy in society (Newman, 2012 .
• It is not the wrong position, but
simply a label that implies certain
roles that must be performed.
Two types of status
a. Achieved status
• It's one that the person has earned
or chosen based on his or her
abilities and the hard work period
this is usually signified by a certain
profession, such as professional
athlete.
b. Ascribed status
• Is not earned, and it is not
something that people have control
over. For instance, it can be ascribed
to a person's race or sex. Also, it is
not usually a choice in most matters.
Human beings as necessarily social
• individuals contribute in
transforming social norms and
values.
• people are able to transform society
because they have autonomy and
freedom.
Society
• provides the pre given environment and
resources by which individuals create and
continuously recreate themselves.
• the beautiful member of a society, an
individual has to acquire and learn all the
necessary social roles and skills required of
a competent member of that society.
Socialization
• a one way process in which society moves
the individual to conform to the established
social norms and rules.
social determinism
• individuals have no choice but to follow
certain factors or causes that control their
behaviors.
feral children
• like the character of “Tarzan” or “jungle
boy”, they lack the necessary skills and
knowledge of this language to be
competent members of society.
George Herbert Mead
symbolic interactionism
• our concept of the self is acquired through
the use of symbolic gestures.
• gestures - earliest form of communication
between animals; Sending signals to other
animals.
development of the self
• requires the acquisition of language, the
capacity for self-reflection using meaningful
gestures or consciousness, and the ability to
take into consideration with others who
also have the same capacities and skills.
• The self-emerged through interaction with
others who also have the same capacities
and skills.
Socialization in face-to-face settings
• humans have an innate desire for social
interaction. For survival, it is just a crucial as
eating and drinking water. Peoples physical
and emotional health is at risk both
immediately and later on if they don't
engage in regular social engagements.
• Face to face socialization is a vital skill we
develop to foster empathy and the effective
communication abilities required for our
survival and development.
socialization in online settings
• Socialization on the Internet describes how
people communicate and the means they
employ to do so.
• Online socialization has its own culture and
subcultures, just like in the offline world. A
picture, phrase, or video becomes an
Internet “meme” when it is circulated
quickly on social media. Then, for Internet
users, the meme becomes a reference.
Psychological theories related to socialization
Sigmund Freud - psychosexual theory
provinces of the mind
• ID - pleasure principle; Basic human drives,
desires, or instincts.
• Ego - reality principle; Operates through
reason
• Superego - morality principle; Internalized
moral values, prohibitions, and ideas of the
person.
levels of mental life
• Conscious - all those things we are aware
of, including things that we know about
ourselves and our surroundings.
• Pre-conscious - those things we could pay
conscious attention to if we so desired, and
where many memories are stored for easy
retrieval.
• Unconscious - things that are outside of
conscious awareness, including many
memories, thoughts, and urges of which we
are not aware.
Note: Super ego is mirrored by the values
enormous present in a society, constantly
influencing the individual members, while the ego
is every human beings innate capability to govern
his or her desires so as to contribute positively to
the society
Freud’s theory assumes that much of mental life is
unconscious, and that past experiences, especially
in early childhood, shape how a person feels and
behaves throughout their life.
Sigmund Freud psychosexual stages
Erik Erikson – psychosocial theory
8 stages of psychosocial development
• from infancy to maturity, Erikson argued
that personality develops through eight
stages of psychosocial development in a
predetermined order. The person goes
through a psychological crisis at each level,
which may or may not affect how their
personality develops.
• These crises are of a psychosocial origin
since they include individual psychological
demands conflicting with societal needs.
Jean Piaget - cognitive development
cognitive development stages
• learning occurs in four stages; This idea
focuses on how understanding the nature
of intelligence as well as how children gain
knowledge.
• Children constantly gain new knowledge,
build upon current knowledge, and modify
long held ideas to account for new
information as they interact with the world
around them.
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
Albert Bandura - social learning theory
• focuses on how important it is to observe,
model, and imitate the activities, attitudes,
and emotional responses of others.
• Analyzes the interaction between
environmental and cognitive elements that
affect human learning and behavior.
Three basic models of observational learning
and mannerisms without having any
kind of interpersonal
communication.
Conformity
• the act following the rules and goals
of one society. The behavior is met
with rewards and acceptance from
other members of the society.

1. live model - actual individual demonstrating Non-conformity and deviance

or acting out a behavior.
• the alcove violating the social
2. symbolic model - real or fictional characters
norms. These acts are often
displaying behaviors in books, films,
connected with a stigma.
television programs, or online media.
3. verbal instruction model - descriptions and Stigma
explanation of a behavior.
• a strong sense of disapproval on
Agents of socialization non-confirming behavior from
members of society.
1. family
• the agent that has the greatest Social control theory
influence to the child. Family is the
• as an individual feels apathetic
first and the closest contact a child
towards their society, there is a
has since they were born.
higher chance for them to not follow
2. School
or go against the social norms.
• develops an individual's knowledge,
values, and skills to become Rational choice theory
productive member of a society.
• a person's decision to obey or defy
3. Church
societal standards depends on how
• the socialization in the religious
much it will cost and what it will gain
organization are centered on
them.
religious belief system around
supreme or supernatural beings. conflict theory
4. Peers
• society consists of opposing groups
• exposure to meaningful learning
of people whose access to power is
which is important in life, social
an equal. The group that has access
development and social identity.
to power determines which actions
This is why a person tends to share
are deviant based on their perceived
the social characteristics of their
advantage.
peers.
5. mass media social control
• the mass media brings spreads
• social control exists in order to
cultures and knowledge across the
maintain peace and order.
world near to an individual. It puts
across to an individual, lot of ideas
two elements of social control
1. internalization
• point of showing and including social
conventions into operations
personality. An individual is made to
automatically conform to the
dictates of their society through a
cost benefit orientation.
2. Sanctions
• a threat or penalty when deciding
not to do something. Despite an
individual's unwillingness to
conform, when the sanction is
strong, there is a high possibility that
they will decide to abide by the
norms.
four types of sanctions
1. formal positive - and they were given by an
institution to encourage conformity.
2. Formal negative – a punishment by an
institution to enforce conformity.
3. informal positive - but they weren't given
by an individual or group that encouraging
conformity.
4. informal negative - upon ashment given by
an individual or group to coerce conformity.
Social groups
• consists of individuals who are
united by their similar
characteristics.
• Those characteristics serve as the
basis of their constant interaction.
social aggregate
• individuals gather in the same place but are
neither interacting nor sharing similar
characteristics.
types of groups according to influence
1. primary groups
• direct sources of an individual social skills
and knowledge.
• extend over a long period of time.
• families, friends, peers, classmates, and
church
2. Secondary groups
• more formal in context as the
relationship and interaction in them
are limited to a particular role that
an individual plays within a group.
• temporary and practical.
• client and agent, researcher and
informant, and tenant and landlord.
types of group according to membership
1. In Group
• is the social group in which an
individual directly affiliates and
express his loyalty to.
In Group has three primary characteristics
a. members use titles, internal symbols, and
just distinguish themselves from the
outgroup.
b. members apply positive stereotypes to their
in Group and negative stereotypes to the
outgroup. those who do not conform to the
prescribed norms are considered part of the
outgroup. generally, the in Group consists
of the majority who defines what is normal
and acceptable.
c. members tend to clash or compete with
members of the outgroup. the competition
with the other group can also strengthen
the unity within each group. Examples
column rivalries among schools that are
highlighted during competitions.
2. Outgroup
• this is the group that an individual is
not part of
• negative attributes are usually
associated with individuals who are
part of this group
The functions of social organizations
reference group
• the behavior of an individual can be shaped
by the set of behavior and beliefs of a group
that such an individual considers ideal.
two effects of reference group
Functions of social groups and organization
1. normative effect
• when an individual receives a positive self-
evaluation.
2. comparison effect
• from negative self-evaluation.
when individuals try to appraise their
behavior based on its prescribed norms.
social networks
• consist of individuals who have dyadic
relationship that are interacting with other
relationship within a structure.
• it's a social structure consisting of people
who have varying degrees of relations and
interrelations.
social organizations
• are created by individuals to foster a more
direct relationship in secondary group
setting.
• Every organization is defined by its
objectives that may be for the betterment
of the society in general or to address
certain group issues.
Two types of social organization
1. formal organization
• when a secondary group is directed
by its goals. This would include
groups such as political parties and
academic and professional
organizations.
2. Informal organization
• are characterized by the informal
relationship between members.
social organizations goals should be attainable.
• it's possible through rational
planning - this process implies
identification of tasks, rose,
implementation of programs, and
general policies
• the primary group plays a vital part
in the socialization process. Its forms
the social nature and ideas of
individuals especially in shaping the
culture and personality were a
person learns social norms, beliefs,
morals, and values.
• Secondary group members tend to
relate to others only in specific roles
and for practical reasons. This group
has in fulfilling various types of
human needs and brings about
social awareness and social change
• an in Group may form within our
secondary groups such as our
workmates, group mates, or
assembly which functions as a group
of people who can connect with
each other because of their sense of
identity and belongingness while
outgroup functions as a competitor
arrival group that an individual is
opposed to.
• reference group provides a standard
of measurement period this group
has a strong impact on how a person
thinks and acts as it may serve as a
guide to a members behavior and
social norms. Thus, networks
function as a social media
influencer.
• social networks are influential in a
wide range of online platforms used
for building social relationships with
other people including sharing of
political opinions, likes and dislikes,
 and can even show trending social POWER
issues or personalities. • Is the capacity to realize desired ends
despite opposition from others.
THE FORM AND FUNCTIONS OF STATE • According to Macionis, 2012 the utilization
INSTITUIONS of power is business of government, which
STATE defined a formal organization that directs
• is a political unit consisting of a government the political life of a society.
that has sovereignty presiding over a group AUTHORITY
of people and a well-defined territory and • is the right to command.
has the highest form of political
• a power that peoples perceive as legitimate
organization.
rather than coercive.
INSTITUTION
• This person can be your boss, your
• It is composed of formal rules, informal
superiors, or those who hold high positions
norms, or an agreed-upon understanding
in society.
that constrains and prescribes political
3 TYPES OF AUTHORITY
actors' behavior and interaction with one
1. TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY
another.
• Respect for a long-standing cultural pattern
STATE INSTITUTIONS
is used to legitimize power.
• Institutions that have state functions and
2. RATIONAL-LEGAL AUTHORITY
are established to govern the state
• also known as bureaucratic authority;
including all other agencies, bureaus and
legally created rules and regulations are
offices.
used to legitimize power.
POLITICAL AND LEADERSHIP STRUCTURES
3. CHARISMATIC AUTHORITY
• It is defined as the organized way in which
• Extraordinary personal skills that inspire
power is allocated and decisions are made
devotion and obedience is used to
within society, according to Max Weber as
legitimize power.
cited by Santarita & Madrid, 2016.
ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS
THREE BRANCES OF GOVERNMENT
• Is being defined as an enduring
1. EXECUTIVE BRANCH
organization, practice, or relationship
• It consists of the President and the Vice
created by individuals to handle and cope
President, who are chosen directly by the
with the basic economic dilemmas.
popular vote and serve six-year terms.
FORMS OF REDISTRIBUTION AND EXCHANGE OF
• The Constitution allows the president to
PRODUCTS
appoint his cabinet. These departments
RECIPROCITY
form a large portion of the country's
• It is the transaction between two socially
bureaucracy.
equal parties having the same status with
2. LEGISLATIVE BRANCH
regards to values of goods or services.
• Responsible for making laws, alter, and
TYPES OF RECIPROCITY
reverse them through the power bestowed
1. GENERALIZED RECIPROCITY
in the Philippine Congress.
• It is a form of transaction which utilizes
• This institution is divided into the Senate
gestures that express personal relationships
and the House of Representatives.
than economic transaction.
3. JUDICIAL BRANCH
2. BALANCED RECIPROCITY
• maintains the power to resolve disputes
• In this form of transaction, the giver is
concerning rights that are legally
expected to gain something in return
demandable and enforceable.
although it does not have to be given
instantly.
 3. NEGATIVE RECIPROCITY
• This transaction is being practiced using
deceiving ways to gain profit. In this form of
transaction, individuals involved try to gain
as much as conceivable while paying the
least amount possible.
REDISTRIBUTION
• It is the process by which products
produced out of the community is sent to a
place where they are stored, counted, and
later distributed back to the people.
MARKET EXCHANGE
• The price of the transactions of deliverables
and services are supposedly governed by
the rules of supply and demand.
• A transaction that uses money in exchange
for goods or services.
THE FORMS AND FUNCTIONS OF NON-STATE
INSTITUTIONS
NON-STATE INSTITUTIONS
• also called non-state actors is broadly
defined as international actors who are
largely or completely autonomous from the
state, coming from civil society, market
economy or political opportunities.
NON-STATE INSTITUTIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS
• Banks
• Corporations
• Trade Unions
• Cooperatives
• Transitional Advocacy groups
• Development Agencies
• International Organizations
BANKS
• It is a place where people deposit or save
their money with corresponding interest on
a given period of time. It lends money both
to the public and private organizations.
KINDS OF FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS
COMMERCIAL/RETAIL BANKS
• Manage withdrawals and deposits as well as
supplying short-term loans to a person and
small-scale businesses.
INVESTMENT BANKS
• a bank that purchases large holdings of
newly issued shares and resells them to
investors.
INSURANCE AND COMPANIES
• offers insurance policies to the public either
by selling them directly to a person or
through an employer’s benefit plan.
CORPORATION
• A corporation is a legal unit that is distinct
from its owners. Moreover, a corporation
has the right to enter contracts, loan and
borrow money, hire employees, own assets,
and pay taxes.
• Usually, corporations operate as stock
corporations where ownership is through
stockholders who own particular shares in
the company. Examples are San Miguel
Corporation and Jollibee Foods Corporation.
TRADE UNION OR LABOR UNION
• is an organization of workers whose main
objective is to protect the welfare of its
members.
• its purpose is to collectively negotiate
employers for better compensation
benefits, safety standards in the workplace,
just to name a few. In the Philippines, these
national federations are Trade Union
Congress of the Philippines (TUCP) and the
Kilusang Mayo Uno (KMU).
COOPERATIVE
• Cooperatives are jointly owned enterprises
engaging in the production or distribution
of goods or services.
• Cooperatives are usually operated by
farmers or consumers for their mutual
benefit.
DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES
• are committed/dedicated to distributing
aid. These agencies are present in
developing countries challenged by security
conflict, food shortage, climate change,
financial instability and others. Some of the
prominent development agencies in the
Philippines are the following:
• United States Agency for
• International Development (USAID)
• Australian Agency for International
• Development (AusAID)
• Japan International Cooperation
• Agency (JICA)
TRANSNATIONAL ADVOCACY GROUPS
• Organizations that are devoted to
manipulating political, economic, social, and
institutional decisions across country
borders. Their goal is to give the powerless
a voice in the domestic and international
lawmaking body.
• Common social advocacies include human
rights, consumer rights, women’s rights,
environmental issues, and international
peace. In the Philippines, Human Rights
Watch is very active in human rights and
peace issues.
INTERNATIONAL ORGENIZATIONS
• It is an organization with international
membership, scope or presence.
• Include both governmental and
nongovernmental organizations.
TYPES OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
1. INTERNATIONAL GOVERNEMENT
ORGANIZATIONS
• refer to a grouping established by states
and are based on treatise, have formal
structures, and meet at regular intervals
(Santarita & Madrid, 2016).
2. INTERNATIONAL NON-GOVERNMENT
ORGANIZATIONS
• it is refer to an organization which is
independent of government involvement
and extends the concept of non-
governmental organization (NGO) to an
international scope.
FUNCTION AND IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION IN
THE SOCIETY
EDUCATION
• A school is an educational institution
designed to provide learning spaces and a
learning environment for the teaching of
students under the direction of teachers.
EDUCATIONAL FUNCTION
• It referred to the contribution of schools to
the development and maintenance of
education of the different levels of society.
Traditionally, education is often perceived
as only a means for achieving the economic,
social, political, and cultural values and
goals.
SCHOOL
• A school is an educational institution
designed to provide learning spaces and
learning environments for the teaching of
students under the direction of teachers.
SIX MAJOR MANIFEST FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION
IN SOCIETY
FUNCTIONS OF SCHOOL
SOCIALIZATION
• Teach students role, specific academic
subjects and political socializations.
SOCIAL CONTROL
• Schools are responsible for teaching values.
SOCIAL PLACEMENT
• Schools are responsible for identifying the
most qualified people to fill available
positions in society.
TRANSMITTING CULTURE
• As a social institutions education performs a
rather conservable function-transmitting
the dominant culture.
PROMOTING SOCIAL AND POLITICAL
INTEGRATION
• Education serves the latent function of
promoting political and social integration.
AGENT OF CHANGE
• Education can stimulate or bring about
desired social change.
ROLES OF EDUCATION IN THE SOCIETY
• Education should be a means to empower
children and adults alike to become active
participants in the transformation of their
societies. Learning should also focus on the
values, attitudes and behaviors which
enable individuals to learn to live together
in a world characterized by diversity and
pluralism.
1. FOR HAPPY AND STABLE LIFE IN THE
SOCIETY
• If you want to lead a happy life and enjoy
the good things in the society, you certainly
need to get educated. A great job, a food
social reputation is few of the many
benefits of being an educated person.
 Education is a must for a promising and
secure future and a stable life.
2. EQUALITY
• If we want to see the world as a juts and fair
place where everyone is given equal
opportunities, education is what we
require. Education is a must if we want to
get away with the existing differences
between different social classes and
genders. It opens a whole world of
opportunities for the poor so that they may
have an equal shot at well-paying jobs.
3. MAKES YOU CONFIDENT
• Your educational degree is considered as a
proof of your knowledge by many. If you
are educated you have more chances of
being heard and taken seriously. Hence,
education gives you the confidence to
express your views and opinions.
4. MAKES YOURSELF DEPENDENT
• Going to school and getting education is
very important if you want to be a self-
dependent person. It helps you become
financially independent but that is not all.
Education also makes you wiser so that you
can make your own decisions.
5. HELPS YOU UNDERSTAND THE WORLD
• Education is what you need if you want an
answer to your ‘whats’ and ‘hows’ and
‘wheres’. It helps you understand the world
you live in. you get to know more about
your surroundings as well as the whole
world through subjects like history,
geography, science, etc.
6. RESPECT
• Everybody likes a wise and knowledgeable
person. Educated people are considered
highly reputable in the society. The more
educated you are, the more respect you will
get from those around you.
8 KEYS STRATEGIES FOR EDUCATION RESILIENCE
AND CONTINUITY AMIDST THE PANDEMIC
1. Prioritize teacher and student safety,
health, and well-being.
2. Recalibrate curricular and assessment
priorities.
3. Enact flexible leaning options.
4. Empower families for home-based learning.
5. Lead for resilience and innovation.
6. Redesign the learning environment.
7. Evaluate education financing.
8. Create new knowledge.
FORMS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
TYPES/SYSTEMS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
SLAVERY
• Slavery, or the ownership of people, is the
most closed systems, and its has been
widespread throughout human history.
• After agricultural cultures emerged 10,000
years ago, it is believed that slavery started
when members of these societies forced
prisoners of war to work on their crops.
TODAY’S SLAVES INCLUDE:
• Men who were initially captured as
prisoners of war in ethnic conflicts.
• Girls and women who were captured during
war/abducted from their homes and used
as prostitutes or sex slaves.
• Kids whose parents sold them off to
become child laborers,
• Workers paying off debts who were
mistreated, sometimes tortured, and were
too afraid to flee.
ESTATE SYSTEMS
• They were popular in Europe and Asia from
the Middle Ages and into the 1800s, are
defined by control over land.
• The landed gentry or nobility and the
peasantry or serfs were the two major
estates in these systems.
• Huge tracts of land that serfs labored on
were owned by the landed gentry or
nobles.
• Although they often lived in poverty and
were subject to arbitrary control by the
nobles, serfs or peasants had more freedom
than slaves did.
CASTE SYSTEMS
• People who live under a caste system are
born into unequal groups depending on the
status of their parents and stay there for
the rest of their life.
• The caste system that was most widely
recognized for a long time was that of India,
 where several major castes, especially in
rural regions, determined one’s life
prospects from the moment of birth,
supported by Hindu beliefs emphasizing
acceptance of one’s position in life.
CASTE SYSTEM IN THE PHILIPPINES
• Social classes in the Philippines goes beyond
pre-Hispanic times. The classes were
divided into four: Maginoo (Noble Class),
Timawa (freeman or commoner), Maharlika
(warrior), and Alipin (servant).
CLASS SYSTEMS
• Unlike caste systems or slave societies,
when a person is born into a social ranking,
this form of stratification allows for much
easier up- or down-moving.
• Class systems are by far the most open,
which means they have the most vertical
mobility, of the three systems of
stratification that have been explored thus
far.
SOCIAL MOBILITY
• The ability to rise in rank or improve one’s
social status by gaining power, wealth and
prestige.
TWO KINDS OF VERTICAL MOBILITY
1. DOWNWARD MOBILITY
• Social status was downgraded because of
unfortunate instances.
2. UPWARD MOBILITY
• One is able to upgrade their social status or
rise in rank.
HORIZONTAL MOBILITY
• Happens when one’s slight change in
situation does not affect their social
standing.
CLASSLESS SYSTEMS
• Some large nations have done their best to
eliminate stratification by developing
classless societies.
• Karl Marx predicted that the proletariat
would one day rise up, overturn the
bourgeoisie, and establish a communist
society, by which he meant a society in
which there was no class distinction and
where everyone possessed roughly the
same level of money, power, and status.
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STRATIFICATION
SOCIAL DESIRABLES
• These are the factors that are somewhat
accepted or desired in a certain society.
• May be associated with social status,
popularity, acceptance, or approval.
1. WEALTH
• Accumulated economic capital of an
individual or group.
• The Marxist perspective argues that the
differentiation in wealth create social,
economic, and political inequality which
promotes social suffering among the
disadvantaged.
2. POWER
• The capacity of an individual to influence
another person to perform an act that they
would not otherwise do.
• The power to determine the course of
policies and economy can provide an
individual with distinct advantages as
compared with those who cannot wield
influence on others.
3. PRESTIGE
• Wealth combined with power leads to
prestige.
• A level of honor in human society attached
to different groups with reference to the
group’s occupation.
• The basic of social status and rank in human
society.
CONFLICT THEORY
• Theory of Karl Marx
• Proletariats – working class.
• Bourgeoisie – capitalists
• Proletariats are being exploited by the
Bourgeoisie.
• Exploitation occurs without the workers
noticing it due to their false consciousness
and mistaken beliefs that the capitalists are
the ones working for them.
• Marx predicted that a revolution would
happen between the two classes as the rich
became richer.
• Communist society is better than a
capitalist society, wherein people would be
 treated equally, and no one controlled
wealth.
• However, Marx’s hypothesis failed. The
working class became more educated,
allowing them to acquire skills and better
jobs. Instead of exploitation, labor laws and
protection of the working class were
created.
PRINCIPLES OF STRATIFICATION
• Each society must place individuals in social
positions and motivate them to work.
• Some positions are more functionally
important than others or require more
training or talent than others.
• Societies place appropriate people in these
positions and motivate them to work by
connecting these positions to better
rewards.
• Thus, the resulting stratification system is
functional for society.
FUNCTIONALISM
• Each member of society has specific roles
and responsibilities to take and accomplish.
• Each roles has level of difficulty, and a task
with higher level of difficulty entails more
wealth, power, and money.
• Unequal distribution of work among people
enables them to exert more effort toward
the accomplishment of societal rewards.
SOCIAL INEQUALITY
• Is the product of the varying access of
individuals to social desirables.
ACCESS TO SOCIAL, POLITICAL AND SYMBOLIC
CAPITAL
• Capital Is a force inscribed in the society
objectivity of things of things so that
everything is not equally possible and
impossible (Pierre Bordieu).
• These forms of capital are present in human
society, affecting social stratification and
inequality.
• People and groups in higher positions enjoy
more and unlimited resources because of
their wealth and power.
FORMS OF CAPITAL ACCORDING TO PIERRE
BORDIEU
ECONOMIC
• Financial and other tangible assets.
SYMBOLIC
• Qualifications, honours and reputation.
CULTURAL
• Knowledge, tastes and cultural dispostions.
SOCIAL
• Family, networks and relationships.
ETHNIC MINORITIES AND PERSONS WITH
DISABILITIES
SOCIAL EXCLUSION
• Is the concept of alienating or dividing
individuals or a group in a certain society,
which is commonly experienced by ethnic
groups or PWDs.
RACE AND ETHNICITY
• Have also been the basis of social division in
the world.
OTHER MINORITIES (SUCH AS PWDS)
• Also experience inequalities and social
discrimination due to specific differences
they possess as compared with other
groups.
GENDER INEQUALITY
• Gender has always been a sensitive topic in
every argumentation. Violence against
women and children rapidly increase
everyday. Gender discrimination among
LGBTQIA+ continues even if several
organizations have already developed
advocacies and means to eliminate
discrimination in every society.
GLOBAL INEQUALITY
• It refers to the unequal distribution of scare
resources and values across territories (first
world vs third world, developing vs
developed, Global South vs. Global North).
HUMAN DIGNITY, RIGHTS, AND COMMON GOOD
• The pursuit of common good is a primary
challenge among societies with diverse
population. As each sector clamors for its
perceived rights, the scarcity of available
resources poses a continuous threat to the
attainment of common good.
SOCIAL INEQUALITY
• The difference in the distribution of social
desirables such as wealth, power, and
prestige.
• Results from a society organized by
hierarchies of class, race, and gender that
unequally distributes resources and rights.
SOCIAL INEQUALITIES AND GOVERNMENT
PROGRAMS
1. INEQUALITY IN THE ACCESS TO SOCIAL,
POLITICAL, AND SYMBOLIC CAPITAL
a. SOCIAL CAPITAL
• The ability of a collective to act together
to pursue a common goal.
b. POLITICAL CAPITAL
• Trust, goodwill, and influence possessed
by a political actor.
c. SYMBOLIC CAPITAL
• Resources that one owns which is a
function of honor, prestige, and any
other traits that one values within a
culture.
GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS ADDRESSING THESE
INEQUALITIES:
CONDIIONAL CASH TRANSFER PROGRAM
• A.K.A. Pantawid Pamilya Pilipino Program
(4PS). Provides conditional cash grants to
the poorest of the poor in the Philippines.
AGRARIAN REFORM IN THE PHILIPPINES
• The government addressed key national
goals: the promotion of equity and social
justice, food security and poverty alleviation
in the countryside.
SK REFORM ACT OF 2015
• Prohibits political dynasty. Prohibits any
person to run in any Sanggunian Kabataan
Office either elected or appointed if it has a
related up to second degree in the
barangay level to governorship.
UNIVERSAL ACCESS TO QUALITY TERTIARY
EDUCATION ACT
• Institutionalizes free tuition and exemption
from other fees in state universities and
colleges (SUC), Local Universities and
Colleges (LUC) in the Philippines.
2. MINORITY GROUPS
• Groups composed of less-dominant
classifications in society that experience
disproportionately lower opportunities.
RELEVANT ISSUES INVOLVING MINORY GROUPS:
GENDER INEQUALITY
• Some countries pay women relatively lower
than men; the LGBTQIA+ community has
always been treated indifferently and
discriminatively.
PROGRAMS ADDRESSING THE ISSUE
PHILIPPINE PLAN FOR GENDER-RESPONSIVE
DEVELOPMENT
• Recognizes discrimination that exists on the
basis of gender, class, and ethnicity.
MAGNA CARTA OF WOMEN (MCW)
• Seeks to eliminate discrimination through
the recognition, protection, fulfillment, and
promotion of the rights of Filipino Women.
3. ETHNIC MINORITIES
• They have been consistently labeled and
treated as people with minimal knowledge
and capabilities.
PROGRAMS ADDRESSING THE ISSUE
RA 8371 INDIGENOUS PEOPLES RIGHTS ACT (IPRA)
• Right to the indigenous peoples’ lands and
to self-directed development of these lands.
4. OTHER MINORITIES
PROGRAMS ADDRESSING THE ISSUE
RA NO. 9442; AN ACT AMENDING RA NO. 7277
• Other wise known as the magna carta for
disabled persons, and for other purposes’
granting additional privileges and incentives
and prohibitions on verbal, non-verbal
ridicule and vilification against persons with
disability.
ENACTMENT OF ANTI-BULLYING LAW
• Mandates all elementary and secondary
schools to adopt policies to address the
existence of bullying in their respective
institutions.
ANALYZING SOCIAL INEQUALITIES
FUNCTIONAL SOCIETY
• Minorities also play social roles that
contribute to social balance and equilibrium
but are bound by limitations and social
norms.
CONFLICT SOCIETIES
• Minority groups are seen as lower-class
individuals that will not be able to keep up
with the consistent competition occurring
within the environment.
BOTH SOCIETIES
• Discrimination is possible; inequality is
greatly driven by global inequalities coming
from the richer, more influential countries.
TRANSFORMING OUR WORLD; THE 2023 AGENDA
FOR SUITABLE DEVELOPMENT
• A plan of action for people, planet, and
prosperity. Seeks to strengthen universal
peace in larger freedom. It is seen that
eradicating poverty is a requirement for
sustainable development.
1. PEOPLE
• We are determined to end poverty and
hunger, in all their forms and dimensions,
and to ensure that all human beings can
fulfil their potential in dignity and equality
and in a healthy environment.
2. PLANET
• Determined to protect the planet from
degradation, including through sustainable
consumption and production, sustainable
managing its natural resources and taking
urgent action on climate change, so that it
can support the needs of the present and
future generations.
3. PROSPERITY
• Determined to ensure that all human beings
can enjoy prosperous and fulfilling lives and
that economic, social, and technological
progress occurs in harmony with nature.
4. PEACE
• Determined to foster peaceful, just, and
inclusive societies which are free from fear
and violence. There can be no sustainable
development withour peace and no peace
without sustainable development.
5. PARTNERSHIP
• Determined to mobilize the means required
to implement the agenda through a
strengthened global partnership for
sustainable development.
SUSTAIBALE DEVELOPMENT GOALS
GOAL 1
• End poverty in all its forms everywhere
GOAL 2
• End hunger, achieve food security and
improved nutrition and promote
sustainable agriculture.
GOAL 3
• Ensure healthy lives and promote well-
being for all at all ages.
GOAL 4
• Ensure inclusive and equitable quality
education and promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all.
GOAL 5
• Achieve gender equality and empower all
women and girls.
GOAL 6
• Ensure availability and sustainable
management of water and sanitation for all.
GOAL 7
• Ensure access to affordable, reliable,
sustainable and modern energy for all.
GOAL 8
• Promote sustained, inclusive, and
sustainable economic growth, full and
productive employment and decent work
for all.
GOAL 9
• Build resilient infrastructure, promote
inclusive and sustainable industrialization
and foster innovation.
GOAL 10
• Reduce inequality within and among
countries.
GOAL 11
• Make cities and human settlements
inclusive safe, resilient and sustainable.
GOAL 12
• Ensure sustainable consumption and
production patterns.
GOAL 13
• Tale urgent action to combat climate
change and its impact.
GOAL 14
• Conserve and sustainable use the oceans,
seas and marine resources for sustainable
development.
GOAL 15
• Protect, restore and promote sustainable
use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat desertification, and
halt reverse land degradation and halt
biodiversity loss.
GOAL 16
• Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for
sustainable development, provide access to
justive for all and build effective,
accountable and inclusive institutions at all
levels.
GOAL 17
• Strengthen the means of implementation
and build the global partnership for
sustainable development.
WAYS TO ADDRESS SOCIAL INEQUALITIES
SOCIAL INEQUALITY
• Social equality could be an alluring ascribed
in a majority rules and civilized society.
Unfortunately, there are just so many
sources of inequality.
1. SOCIAL CAPITAL
• Refers to the capacity of a collective to act
together to seek after a common objective.
2. POLITICAL CAPITAL
• Refers to the trust, goodwill, and influence
possessed by a political actor, such as a
politician, to mobilize support toward a
preferred policy outcome.
• This also allows a political actor to access
his representatives providing him of
political familiarity in its process and
communications.
• While politicians have ways to “cut the
line,” it does not remove the fact that
political literacy is still a problem in our
society.
3. SYMBOLIC CAPITAL
• Refers to the resources that one possesses
which is a function of honor, prestige,
recognition, or any other trait that one
values within a culture.
• It is an important possession that can
influence the ability of someone to access
opportunities in society. Unfortunately, this
is largely influenced by class origin, and by
other ascribed traits which lead some
individuals unable to access opportunities,
or is so, with which they find difficult.
WHO ARE THE MOST VULNERABLE SECTORS IN
OUR SOCIETY
1. WOMEN
• In societies, women are not allowed to own
a property; and they cannot even drive
their own cars.
• In modern societies, most inequality is
persistent in political rights and
opportunities.
• In our economy, women are still paid less
despite doing more work in a few
industries.
• Women are also susceptible to sexual
harassment, especially within the
workplace.
2. LGBT Community
• They are regularly subjected to
discrimination and mock by the society.
• The society considers them abnormalities or
shapes of deviancy.
• Members of this community struggle to win
recognition for their gracious rights like
same-sex marriages.
3. ETHNIC MINORITIES
• Ethnic minorities are also subjected to
discrimination. Aside from the cultural
marginalization that they suffer from the
dominant cultural majorities, their cultural
practices are also subjects of ridicule and
their physical appearances and demeanor,
they also end up as victims of development
aggression.
4. PERSONS WITH DISABILITY
• Persons with disabilities (PWD) are also
become the target of discrimination, and
their physical impairments become the
basis for them to be denied equal
opportunities in employment. They also do
not usually enjoy the benefits that people
without disabilities receive.
TWO WAYS BY WHICH SOCIAL INEQUALITIES CAN
BE ADDRESSED IN LOCAL AND NATIONAL
GOVERNMENT IN THE PHILIPPINES
1. THROUGH POLICY LEGISLATION
• Gender equality can be fostered by
administering laws that promote the rights
of women, and the LGBT. We have laws
within the Philippines that advance the
rights of women, but not for LGBT.
• Similarly, laws that ensure the rights of
ethnic minorities can be passed. The
Philippines, for example, has in place the
Indigenous People’s Rights Act that seeks to
protect the rights of our cultural
communities.
• We also have passed laws to protect the
right of the persons with disabilities (PWD);
the Republic Act 9442 of the Magna Carta
for Persons with Disabilities that we will no
longer tolerate anyone who humiliates or
bullies a PWS and the right to sue a person
who will treat him/her with “disrespect and
condescendence.”
2. THROUGH PROMOTING CULTURAL
TRANSFORMATION
• To promote cultural transformation and
endeavoring to transform the way society
looks at women, LGBT, ethnic minorities,
and PWDs is a way to respond to social
inequalities. The key to this will be to each
the public, both in formal settings such as
schools as well as though well-known
media.
• Stereotyping of women, LGBT, ethnic
minorities, and PWDs in television, radio,
internet, and other popular media are the
most effective ways to perpetuate
discrimination, and these are also means,
where that such discriminations can be
addressed and minimized, if not totally
removed.
GLOBAL INEQUALITY
• Inequality does not only exist between
social orders and states, but also among
states. Some states are wealthier and more
effective than other states.
• Military strength too gets to be a source of
inequality when states that have the
prevalent military ability can bully other
nations with weaker military strengths.
THREE WAYS TO ADDRESS GLOBAL SOCIAL
INEQUALITIES
FORMATION OF REGIONAL GROUPS…
• Such as the association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN) is one of the ways to
address global social inequality.
• The main drawback is that despite the
presence of the ASEAN, individual members
may be constrained to provide assistance to
others de to the policy of noninterference,
where members are hesitant to intervene in
the foreign and domestic issues of another
country. For example, in the West
Philippine Sea issue where there is a
dispute between the Philippines and China,
there is no firm ASEAN position.
TO ENTER INTO BILATERAL TREATIES AND PACTS
WITH OUTHER COUNTRIES…
• Like the mutual defense agreement
between the Philippines and the US could
be done in order to respond to global social
inequality.
THE RECOURSE TO INTERNATIONAL TREATIES AND
AGREEMENTS…
• Sets contracts on issues are varied as
climate change, transnational crime, and
international development.