BUILDING TECHNOLOGY MIDTERM

REVIEWER

NOTE: EXAM IS A MULTIPLE CHOICE TYPE

WOOD

I. WOOD IN ARCHITECTURE
HEMLOCK
A. WOOD
• One of the most adaptable natural materials SPECIE APPEA CHARACT APLICA FEATURE
• Used in construction, decoration, and furnishing RANCE ERISTICS TION
of homes since time immemorial /USE
• Traditional building material Cedar Pale tone, Strong Interior
of knotty aromatic carpentry
• Easy to work with, durable, and beautiful Lebanon smell,
• Lightweight and has a high ability to absorb durable
shocks from sudden loads
• 30/40,000 species of trees are common use for
wood Douglass Attractive Resinous, Exterior &
Fir grain fairly durable, interior
COMMONLY USED AS: long boards carpentry,
available furniture
• Beams and posts
• Rafters
• Studwork partitions European Numerous Not durable, All-purpose
• Paneling Silver small easy to work construction
knots timber,
• Flooring furniture,
• Mouldings glulam
• Framing beams
• Furniture Larch Knotty, Resinous, Flooring,
• Casework/carcass wavy medium plywood,
grain hard, not veneers
durable
B. PROPERTIES OF WOOD
• Color
• Luster Norway Pale, Medium Interior
• Texture Spruce straight hard, not carpentry,
• Weight and hardness grain durable glulam
beams
• Hygroscopicity
• Low thermal conductivity
• Combustible Scots pine Pale to Not durable General
• Acoustic (Absorptive and diffusive (redwood) reddish available in construction,
knotty long boards, joinery
easy to work
C. CLASSIFICATION OF WOOD
1. SOFTWOOD
• Come from the conifers (evergreens) Western Light in Soft, wear- Exterior &
• Have needle-like leaves hemlock tone, resistant interior
• Grow faster than hardwood straight carpentry,
grain cladding,
• Do not shed leaves saunas,
• Commonly used for feature walls, ceilings, veneers
furniture, doors, and windows
Western Warm Very soft, Exterior &
• Cheaper than hardwood red cedar tone, highly interior
weathers moisture & carpentry,
to grey, rot-resistant, shingles
wavy aromatic
grain

Yellow Very light, Very soft, not Interior

Pine fine, even durable, carpentry,
straight dimensionally doors,
grain stable, easy joinery,
to work furniture

CEDAR DOUGLAS FIR 2. HARDWOOD

• Come from both temperate and tropical
areas
• Come from the broad-leaved or deciduous
trees
• Slow growers, hence, denser wood
• Shed leaves annually
• Most Philippines timber are of this kind
• Commonly used for flooring and also
cladding, paneling, fencing, boats, and
outdoor decks
PINE COCONUT • Generally, more expensive
 Ironwood Warm color, Very hard, Stairs,
fine, twisted durable veneers,
grain floors,
furniture,
cabinetry
Jatoba Warm- Exceptionally Flooring,
(Brazilian toned, Fine hard, 2x hard furniture,
Cherry) grain as oak decorativ
e veneers

Keruing Dark-toned, Durable, Constructi

coarse available in on,
texture long boards exterior
carpentry
MAHOGANY NARRA Mahogany Dark & Strong, Flooring,
- African richly naturally furniture,
- American colored, fine resistant to interior
grain pests, carpentry,
woodworm, veneers
easy to carve
Maple Near-white, Medium Flooring
fine even hard, very in areas
texture, durable, w/ heavy
straight weather traffic
grain resistant, (dance
good for halls,
steam- gym,
bending squash
courts,
bowling
alleys),
furniture
YAKAL ACACIA
Merbau Similar to Oily surface, Exterior &
mahogany, very hard & interior
SPECIE APPEA CHARACT APLICA FEATURE straight or durable carpentry,
RANCE ERISTICS TION twisted flooring,
grain furniture,
/USE veneers,
Afrormosia Dark-toned, Vert durable, Exterior & cabinetry
fine texture, restricted interior Oak Pale/mid Very hard & Structural
straight availability carpentry, brown, durable, elements,
grain furniture, darkening difficult to flooring,
flooring or velvety carve & interior &
gray w/ work, easily exterior
Afzelia Mid-toned, Very durable, Exterior & weathering, split or cleft carpentry,
coarse readily interior coarse, cabinetry,
texture polished carpentry, open grain furniture
flooring Padauk Dark red Easy to work Interior &
colored, & carve, very exterior
straight durable carpentry,
Ash Typically Medium Veneers
grain furniture,
- American pale, coarse hard, tough, for
veneers,
- European texture, extremely cabinetry/
cabinetry
straight flexible cladding,
Sycamore Creamy Medium Flooring,
grain flooring,
white, hard, easy to furniture,
furniture
straight work & veneers,
Beech Light color, Medium Flooring, grain steam-bend cabinetry
uniform hard, strong, cabinetry,
straight easy to work cladding,
Teak Mid to dark- Very durable, Decking,
grain and bend bentwood
toned, highly outdoor &
, furniture
straight weather indoor
Birch Pale color Medium Plywood,
grain resistant, flooring,
- European w/ straight hard, not veneers,
thanks to furniture,
- American grain (EU); particularly furniture,
oiliness external
pale w/ strong finish
carpentry
whorled carpentry
Tulipwood Very pale, Very soft, not Plywood
figuring (US)
straight durable veneers,
Cherry Darkens on Easy to work Furniture,
grain cabinetry,
- European exposure and bend flooring,
furniture
- American (US); fine contrastin
even, g borders,
straight veneers Walnut Beautifully- Easy to work, Flooring,
grain figured & prone to furniture,
dark-toned, woodworm veneers,
Chestnut Light color, Soft, Flooring,
coarse joinery
slightly naturally cabinetry,
texture,
wavy grain resistant to finish
straight/wav
pest and carpentry
y grain, have
fungus
cracks/knots
Elm Midtone, Not durable, Interior
Wenge Very dark, Very hard, Exterior &
(American) medium only carpentry,
straight durable interior
grain available in furniture
grain carpentry,
small
flooring,
sections
veneers,
Eucalyptus Mid to light- Resinous, Flooring, cabinetry
(Jarrah) toned, wavy medium interior
grain hard, carpentry
durability D. WOOD STRUCTURE
dependent
on variety
1. PITH
Iroko Similar to Medium Exterior &
teak, hard, interior • Located at the very center
straight extremely carpentry, • Oldest part of the tree
grain durable worktops,
• Has a greater tendency to crack than the rest of
flooring,
veneers, the wood in a tree
cabinetry, • The pith, together with the tree’s first few annual
teak rings, is called juvenile wood
substitute
2. ANNUAL RINGS
• Radiating out of the pith
• Each ring has two components: early wood
(spring wood) and late wood (summer wood)
• When a tree is cut into boards or blocks for
carving or turning, the beautiful figure you see is
created by the annual rings
5. SAPWOOD
• The area conducting water to the leaves
• Contains living cells and takes and active part in
the life process of a tree
• More susceptible to bluing fungi and wood-
boring insects, and is not durable

6. HEARTWOOD
3. CAMBIUM LAYER • The heartwood no longer conducts water, but,
• Located between the bark and the wood being filled with extractives and minerals gives
• Where cell division takes place, and when the strength to the tree
cells divide, they became either wood cells or • It becomes the tree’s vertebrae
bark cells • Denser, less permeable and more durable than
the surrounding plywood

4. BARK
• The tree’s protective covering-its skin E. WOOD DEFECTS
• Made up of living and dead cells, which keep
moisture and gases contained in the tree 1. BOW
• Helps the tree resist attacks by insects and • A curve on the face of a board, typically
micro-organisms and protects the tree form extending from one end to the other
damaging weather conditions. • If the board was sitting flat, the ends would not
be touching the ground
2. CROOK 7. SHAKE
• A warp that happens along the edge of a board • When the grain between the wood’s growth
rings separates
• Can occur on the face of a board or below the
surface

3. CUP
• When the face of a board is hollow

8. SPLIT
• A crack in a piece of wood that goes all the way
through the board

4. TWIST
• Occurs when there are multiple different bends
in a board

9. WANE
• When there is missing wood or an untrimmed
edge along the side or corner of a board

5. CHECK
• A crack that occurs along the wood’s growth
rings
• It does not extend through the entire thickness
of the board
• The corners of a board do not touch the ground 10. DECAY
when the board is flat on a surface • Caused by the attack od fungi

6. KNOT 11. PITCH POCKET

• Circular imperfections caused by a broken-off • Well-defined openings between annual rings
tree branch containing sold or liquid pitch
• A naturally-occurring defect in a piece of wood
• Tight knots are nothing to worry about, but dead
or loose knots may fall out or leave a hole
F. METHODS OF SAWING WOOD II. LUMBER

1. PLAIN SAWN A. CLASSIFICATION OF LUMBER

• Most common, cut parallel along the length of
the trunk
• Lumber cut tangent to the annual rings or, in
commercial practice, cut with annual rings at an
angle 0o to 45o
• Greatest variety of graining patterns & color,
highest number of knots
• Preferable when a pleasing pattern is required,
as in wall paneling
• Floors made with plain sawn boards have greater
color and pattern variation than floors made
with boards sawn using other methods.
• Wood that is used in construction is called
lumber
• Lumber is classified by:
o Its size or dimension measured in
inches
o Ex. A piece of lumber measuring 2
inches by 4 inches is called 2 x 4
• Generally, they are in even-numbered widths: 4,
6, 8, 10, 12 inches
1. STRIPS
• Lumber less than 2” thick and less than 8” wide

2. BOARD LUMBERS
• Pieces less than 2” thick and at least 8” wide

3. DIMENSION LUMBER
• Pieces more that 2” and less than 5” in any
dimension

4. TIMBER
• Pieces 5” or more on the smallest dimension

• It is important to realize that the stated size of

lumber is not its actual finished size
• Nominal size is the size of lumber when it is cut
from the log
2. QUARTER SAWN • After cutting, the lumber is dried and then
• Wood cut radially to the annual rings parallel to planed on all four sides to achieve smoothness,
the rays or, in commercial practice, cut with the the finished size is therefore smaller
annual growth rings at an angle 45o to 90o
• Desirable because it has less shrinkage than
plainsawn lumber
• This method usually produces fairly uniform
boards with similar grain patterns and color

B. MEASUREMENT OF LUMBER

• Lumber is sold in lengths from 6’ up to 20’ in

3. RIFT SAWN
• Continue sawing boards off the faces of the
quartered log and get rift sawn boards
• The grain on the top of the board will be linear,
while the grain on the ends will be somewhat
slanted
increments of 2’
• Special lengths greater than 20’ are also
available but cost more per board foot the
standard lengths
• Board foot is the measurement of lumber which
may be described as the measure of a piece of
wood 1” tick, 12” (or 1’) wide and 12” or (1’)
long
NOTE:
• All lumber is sized according to its rough
dimensions as it comes from the saw, its size,
however, is reduced after being surfaced or
dressed by a planer
Ex. 2x4 surfaced on four sides (S4S) measures on 1 3/4” x 3
¾“ in actual
• Dressed lumber costs slightly more than rough
C. SEASONING OF LUMBER
• Moisture has a big influence on the behavior
and properties of wood. Water has been in
wood since its formation, yet after a tree is cut, it
becomes damaging. It makes wood prone to the
attack of insects and fungi and unfit for use.
• When surface moisture of wood comes in
contact with the air, it evaporates. The water
equilibrium in the log is disturbed and moisture
from the interior travels towards the surface.
This is the beginning of the drying of wood in the
log. The free water passes out first before the
absorbed water in the cell wall vaporizes.
• When all free water is removed but all absorbed
water remains, fiber-saturation point
(approximately 30% moisture content (M.C.) for
all species) is reached.
• Shrinkage of the wood occurs at moisture
content percentages below the fiber saturation
point. The drying of the wood continues until the
vapor pressure in the air just balances the vapor
pressure on the wood surface.
• This condition of dryness of the wood is called
equilibrium moisture content (E.M.C. and in the
Philippines this is equivalent to from 12 to 16
percent moisture content.
• Seasoning is the process of removing moisture
from green wood (wood from freshly-cut logs). It
the process by which moisture content in the
timber is reduced to required level
• Seasoning may be done by:
1. AIR DRYING
• A natural process exposing timber logs to the air
by arranging them in layers in a shed.
• The arrangement is done by maintaining some
gap with the ground.
• The platform is built at 300mm height from
ground.
2. KILN DRYING
• Timber is subjected to hot air in air tight
chamber called kiln
• The hot air circulates in between the timber
logs and reduces the moisture content.
• The temperature inside the chamber is raised
with the help of heating coils.
ADVATAGES OF KILN VS AIR DRIED LUMBER:
• Greater reduction in weight.
• Control of moisture content to any desired value.
• Reduction in drying time.
• Killing of any fungi or insects.
• Setting the resins in resinous wood.
• Less degrade
• Degrade is the loss in quality during seasoning
of the lumber through unequal shrinkage which
causes checks and loosening of knots, warping).
ADVANTAGES OF SEASONED LUMBER:
• It lessens the chances of the wood to be
attacked by the fungi causing bluing and decay,
and by some wood-boring insects.
• Reduction of weight.
• Increased strength.
• Minimum shrinkage after the lumber is in place
(thus avoids opening up of joints in doors,
windows, siding, etc.)
• Reduced checking and warping.
• Increased nail-holding power of the wood (nails
do not hold well when driven into green or
unseasoned lumber because of its softness).
• Improvement of the wood for the application of
paint and to receive wood preservatives, fire
retardants.
D. DETERIORATION OF LUMBER
1. DECAY
• Molds, stains and decay in wood are caused by
fungi. Their growth depends on mild
temperatures and dampness.
• Most decay occurs in wood with a moisture
content above the fiber saturation point.
Usually, wood maintained at 20% M.C. or less is
safe from fungus damage.
2. INSECTS
2.1. SUBTERRANEAN TERMITES
• They live in the ground and require moist
environments.
• They usually nest in or near the soil and
maintain some connection with the soil through
tunnels in wood or through shelter tubes.
• They are often found in wood that has been
slightly decayed.

2.2. DRYWOOD TERMITES
• They infest dry, sound wood-including structural
lumber, dead limbs on trees, utility poles, decks,
fences, lumber in storage, and furniture.
• Unlike subterranean termites, they do not
require contact with soil.
• Feeding by drywood termites can cut across the
grain of wood leaving a characteristic pattern of
chambers and tunnels, some of which are filled
with fecal pellets.
• These fecal pellets, which are distinctive in
appearance with six longitudinal flattened sides,
may be the first clue to their presence.
2.3. CARPENTER ANTS AND POWERDPOST BEETLES
• Carpenter ants they excavate wood and form
smooth tunnels inside of the wood. They do not
eat wood, they only tunnel and chew through it
to create nests.
• The only external sign of an infestation other
than the presence of ants are small openings on
the surface of wood.
• Through these openings, the ants expel debris,
which consists of sawdust-like shavings or
fragments of insulation or insect body parts.
• Powderpost beetles are reddish-brown to black
in color with a cylinder-shaped body and
typically range between 1/8 and 3/4 inches in
length.
• They have distinctly visible heads and antennae
with two-jointed clubs.
• Their primary food source is deciduous trees,
which they bore into and reduce to powdery
dust over time.
E. PRESERVATION OF LUMBER
OIL-TYPE WOOD PRESERVATIVES
1. COAL-TAR CREOSOTES
• Black or brownish oil made from distilling coal
tar.
o Advantages:
o Highly toxicity to wood-destroying
organisms
o Insolubility in water
o Ease of application
o Disadvantages:
o Strong, unpleasant odor
o Cannot be painted
o Easily ignited when first applied
2. CREOSOTES DERIVED FROM WOOD, OIL, WATER,
AND GAS
• Has same advantages as coal-tar creosote but is
less effective
3. CREOSOTE SOLUTIONS
• A mixture of coal-tar or petroleum oils and 50 to
80% by volume of coal-tar creosotes
• Has same advantages as coal-tar creosotes but
is less effective
4. PENTACHLOROPHENOL (PCP)
• A mixture of petroleum oils and 5%
pentachlorophenol
• Has high protection against decay fungi and
termites
• Can be painted; has no unpleasant odor
• Less easily ignited than coal-tar creosotes
• Provide less protection against marine borers
• It is no longer available to the general public.
• It is still used as a wood preservative for utility
poles, railroad ties, and wharf pilings.
WATER-BORNE WOOD PRESERVATIVES
1. CHROMATED ZINC CHLORIDE (CZC)
• Gives protection against decay, insects, and fire
• Can be painted on
• Has no objectionable odor
• Disadvantages are: wood cannot be used in
contact with the ground or water
2. CHROMATED COPPER ARSENATE (CCA) AND
AMMONIACAL COPPER ARSENATE (ACA)
• Both are dissolved in water for pressure
treating, producing a product that is clean and
odorless.
• Both bond with the wood after pressure
treating in a chemical process known as fixation,
producing treated wood that is highly leach-
resistant and safe to use in applications with
regular human contact.
• Provides good protection against decay and
insects
• Can painted on
• Has no objectionable odor
• Wood can be used in contact with the ground
but generally recommended for contact with
water.
F. PRESERVATION OF LUMBER
APPLICATION OF PRESERVATIVES
PRESERVATIVES APPLICATION
Creosote Railway tiles, mine timbers, poles,
foundation piles, marine pile and
bulkheads
Pentachlorophenol Utility poles, cross arms, bridge
timbers and ties
ACA Piles, utility poles, marine timbers,
construction lumber
CCA Guard rail posts, utility poles, bridge
timbers, piles, structural glued-
laminated timbers, landscape
timbers, posts, boardwalks,
permanent wood foundations and
residential constructions, decking
and fencing
METHODS OF APPLYING PRESERVATIVES
1. PRESSURE TREATMENT
• Consists in placing the wood in cylinders into
which the preservative is pumped under
pressure
2. HOT AND COLD BATH METHOD
• Placing the wood in a bath of hot preservative
for an hour or more
• It is when withdrawn and quickly placed in a
bath of cold preservative. This is generally used
for creosote preservative
3. DIPPING OR IMMERSING THE WOOD IN A HOT
PRESERVATIVE FOR A SHORT TIME
4. BRUSHING
FIRE-RETARDANT-TREATED (FRT) WOOD
• Wood has been treated with fire-retardant
chemicals to produce a product that resists
ignition and significantly slows the spread of
fire.
• Fire-retardant wood is not wood that has been
treated with a coating or other external fire
retardant and it must be fully incorporated into
the wood to be considered a fire-retardant
wood
• All fire-retardant wood starts with kiln-dried
untreated wood and plywood. The exact
retardant applied to the wood depends on the
manufacturer as most of the chemicals used are
proprietary. However, almost all fire-retardant
wood is made using a pressure system.
PRESSURE-TREATED WOOD
• Wood that has undergone a special process to
make it more durable and less susceptible to
decay, insect infestation, mold, and water
damage.
• Lumber is first placed in a pressure chamber
comprised of a horizontal steel cylinder called a
retort.
• Once the lumber is properly secured in the
retort, a vacuum removes the air from the
cylinder and from the cell structure of the
lumber
• The retort is then flooded with treatment
chemicals under pressure. Using 160 pounds of
pressure, the treatment chemicals are driven
into the cell structure of the lumber.
• Once the pressure treatment is complete, the
lumber is moved to a drip pad until it cures and
dries enough to be shipped to a supplier.
This should not generally be used for interiors but required
in:
• Direct contact with earth
• Floor joists less than 18" (or girders less than
12") from the ground
• Plates, sills, or sleepers in contact with concrete
or masonry
• Posts exposed to weather or in basements
• Ends of beams entering concrete or masonry,
without 1 /2" air space
• Wood located less than 6° from earth
• Wood structural members supporting moisture-
permeable floors or roofs, exposed to weather,
unless separated by an impervious moisture
barrier
• Wood retaining walls or crib walls
• Exterior construction such as stairs and railings
III. WOOD COMPOSITES & PRODUCTS
• Wood composites include a range of different
derivative wood products, all of which are
created by binding the strands, fibers or boards
of wood together.
• It is also known as manmade wood, engineered
wood and wood-plastic composite (WPC).
• Wood composite is usually made from the same
hardwoods and softwoods used for lumber,
except that it uses the sawmill's scraps and wood
waste and is created by mixing ground wood
particles with heated thermoplastic resin.
• Most wood composites are produced in large
sheets, usually 1220mm (4°) x 2440mm (8°).
1. PLYWOOD
• Coatings or layers of protective material over
the surface are good only for interior purposes
because they are not durable when exposed to
the weather.
• Advantages:
o the approximate equalization of
strength properties along its length
and width
o greater resistance to checking and
splitting
o less change in dimension due to
moisture content
1.1. TYPES OF PLYWOOD
• Ordinary Plywood
• Form Plywood - high density overlay of
phenolic resin
• Marine Plywood - waterproofed
• Fancy Plywood
o Narra book match
o Kalantas rotary cut
o Tanguile ribbon grain
o Lauan rotary cut
o Dao book match
o Rosewood y Tanguile
2. HARDBOARD
• Made from small wood fibers and wood pulp
that is pressed until it is densely impacted and
then baked for added stability.
• Hardboards are a cheaper option than plywood
where strength is not required.
• Hardboard has a smooth surface on one side
and a screened surface on the other. It is
sometimes known as Masonite, after the man
who invented it.
 2.1. TYPES OF HARDBOARD
• STANDARD HARDBOARD
o light brown in color and has a fairly
hard, smooth surface on one side
and a screened impression on the
other.
o flexible and easy to bend
o suitable for interior use only and
where it is not subject to moisture.
• PANEL HARDBOARD
o Is somewhat denser than the
standard but not as dense as
tempered
• TEMPERED HARDBOARD
o the densest type, made by
impregnating standard board with
tempering compound of oils and
resins and baking it to polymerize
the tempering materials.
o It is dark brown in color, brittle and
stiff, with improved machining
qualities and greater resistance to
moisture and water penetration,
making it ideal for exterior use.
NOTES:
• Hardboard is usually in panel size of 4’x8’
(1220mm & 2440mm) with thicknesses of 1/8"
(3mm), 3/16” (4.5mm) or ¼" (6mm), and is
obtainable either with a plain, textured, or
perforated surface.
Brand names of Hardboard:
• LAWANIT - standard and tempered
boards
• LAWANEX - panel boards
• MASONITE - standard, panel and
tempered hard board
3. CHIPBOARD
• Also called particle board or low-density fiber
board
• Made by bonding together wood particles with
an adhesive under heat and pressure to form a
rigid board with a relatively smooth surface,
often faced with veneer.
• Made by binding phenolic resin or urea
formaldehyde glue.
• Chipboard is available in a number of densities;
normal, medium and high-density.
o NORMAL DENSITY is fairly soft and
'flaky'
o HIGH-DENSITY is very solid and hard
(often used for worktops and
fireldoors)
o MEDIUM DENSITY is somewhere in
between
• Advantages: cost-effectiveness and versatility of
uses
• Disadvantage: porous therefore it is water
absorbent and prone to swelling
• Can be used on:
o Kitchen worktops
o Kitchen cabinets
o Building insulation
o Trims and mouldings
o Sound deadening and absorption
• Variation: Melamine-faces chipboard (MFC)
4. MDF BOARD
• An engineered wood product formed by
breaking down softwood into wood fibers, often
in a defibrator, combining it with wax and a resin
binder, and forming panels by applying high
temperature and pressure.
• Made up of separated fibers (not wood
veneers), but can be used as a building material
similar in application to plywood.
• It is much more dense than normal particle
board.
• Advantages:
o very smooth
o low tear out when sawn
o Attractive, finished surface when
painted
o mild reaction to moisture
• Often covered in a veneer or laminate
(prelaminated MDF board)
• Generally, the panel size is 4’x8’ (1220mm x
2440mm and 3/16” (4.5mm) or ¼" (6mm), ½"
(12mm) and ¾ " (19 mm) in thickness
5. GLULAM
• Extremely strong structural members (timbers &
beams) formed by gluing sheets, boards, or
planks of softwood together under pressure,
with grain running parallel;
• The resulting product is very stable & strong and
is available in extra-long lengths to span greater
distances;
• Application: Timber-frame construction, floors,
roofs & ceilings
6. BLOCK BOARD/PLYBOARD
• Block board (also known as lumber core) is a
man-made board similar to plywood but, in this
type of board, the center layer or core is made
from strips of softwood. The strips are put edge
to edge and sandwiched between veneers of
softwood, hardwood, particleboard or MDF
(medium-density fiberboard), pasted under high
pressure and heat with glue.
• Block boards are used in the construction of
railway carriages, bus bodies, marine and river
crafts and for furniture making, partitions,
paneling, prefabricated houses, etc.
6.1. TYPES/ GRADES
• BWP GRADE - Such block board may
be used for bus bodies, railway
coaches, prefabricated houses, etc.,
where it is likely to be exposed to high
humidity and for external use.
• MR GRADE- Such block board may be
used for interior use such as furniture,
partition, panelling, ceiling, etc.
Dimensions and Tolerances:
• Thickness: The thickness of block
boards shall be 12, 15, 19, 25, 30, 35,
40, 45 or 50 mm.
• Each of the grades specified above shall be of the
following two types:
1. DECORATIVE TYPE - These are block boards
with decorative face veneers on one or
both sides for use in high class furniture,
panelling, interior decoration, partitions,
etc.
2. COMMERCIAL TYPE - These are block
boards with veneers of commercial timber
on both sides and are used for ordinary
furniture, table tops, partitions and
panelling to be painted over flooring and
seats of bus bodies, railway carriages, etc.
7. WOOD LAMINATE: FLOORING
• Interior wood products and systems designed to
be used as flooring, paneling, worktops, fitted
kitchen & bathrooms & other storage
• An outer facing veneer is made of a number of
different layers designed to achieve resilience,
water-resistance, etc.
• EX. Eurotex Laminated Flooring Ash Gray
1215mm x 196mm x 8.3mm
• BRANDS. Eurotex, Matimco, Hornitex, APO
Floors
• Hard to touch and are used to cover wooden
furniture to give them attractive looks;
• an artificial material put on top of plywood by
pressing thin layers of paper and resins together;
• BENEFITS. water resistance;
• BRANDS. Formica, Wilsonart, New Mika
Laminate, Lamerra, Worldclass laminate, Unica
IV. MILLWORK
• Millwork are ready-made products which are
manufactured at a wood-planing mill or
woodworking plant: moldings, doors, door
frames, window sashes, stair work, cabinets,
etc.; normally does not include flooring, ceilings,
and siding.
• Architectural millwork is a ready-made millwork
as obtained from the mill, especially fabricated
to meet the specifications for a particular job, as
distinguished from standard or stock items or
sizes.
TYPES OF MOULDINGS
• ASTRAGAL: A small convex moulding.
• BEAD: A convex moulding, usually semi-circular.
There are a variety of different types of beads,
such as angle bead, nosing bead, double bead
and so on.
• BEAK MOULDING: A moulding that is shaped
into a beak-like form.
• BED MOULD: Part of the cornice that appears
under the projecting edge.
• CONGÉ: A concave moulding.
• CYMA: Sometimes called a wave moulding, this
is a double curvature that is used as the
uppermost element in a cornice.
• ECHINUS: Sits below the abacus and above the
necking of a column.
• OVOLO: A convex moulding, also Known as a
“quarter round'
• REED: A series of convex mouldings running
parallel to each other. Also known as reed
moulding or reeding.
• SCOTIA: One of the elements used in the attic
base of columns, it is a concave moulding
between two fillets.
• STRING COURSE: A horizontal moulding usually
made from a series of complex profiles.
• TORUS: A semi-circular, convex moulding that is
one of the distinctive elements in the attic base
of columns.
CONCRETE
I. INTRODUCTION
A. HISTORY OF CONCRETE
• The Romans used it in everything from bath
houses to harbors, aqueducts to the Colosseum,
systematizing its production and application
from the 3rd century BC to the fall of the empire
in the 5th century AD.
• The key to its longevity appears to be the use of
volcanic ash, or pozzolana.
• According to a research published in 2017, it was
found that the addition of sea water actually
strengthened these structures over time,
making them harder and harder over the
millennia.
• 1824, the invention of Portland Cement in 1824
by Joseph Aspdin.
• 1877 - Ernest L. Ransome patents a system that
uses twisted square rods to improve the bond
between steel and concrete and begins building
with steel-reinforced concrete.
• 1904 - the first concrete high-rise building (16
stories/64 meters) is constructed in Cincinnati,
Ohio.
• 1913 - the first load of ready-mix concrete is
delivered in Baltimore, Maryland.
• 1915 - L.M. Scofield becomes the first company
to produce color for concrete (color hardeners,
colorwar, integral color, sealers, and chemical
stains).
• 1930's - air entraining agents are used for the
first time in concrete to aid in its resistance
against damage from freezing and thawing.
• 1938 - John Crossfield files the first patent for
concrete overlay, which is created by adding
latex to Portland cement, aggregate, and other
materials
• 1950's - Brad Bowman develops the Bomanite
process---the original cast-in-place, colored,
textured and imprinted architectural concrete
paving
• 1970's - fiber is used with concrete in order to
increase its strength
• 1976 - the CN Tower is completed. This concrete
and steel building becomes the tallest free-
standing building in the world for the next four
decades.
B. DEFINITION OF CONCRETE
• A proportioned mixture of cement, aggregate
and water.
• A plastic mass which can be cast, molded or
formed into predetermined size or shape
• Upon hydration, becomes stone-like in strength,
hardness and durability.
• The hardening of concrete is called setting.
• MORTAR, STUCCO OR PLASTER - cement + fine
aggregate + water
• CONCRETE - cement + fine aggregate + large
aggregate + water
C. COMPOSITION OF CONCRETE
Concrete consists of the following
1. CEMENT
• LIME
o One of the oldest manufactured building
materials used as a mortar and plaster by
all the early civilizations.
o Egyptian used lime plaster before 2600 BC
o Greeks used it extensively for mortars and
plasters.
o Romans developed a mixture of lime putty
and volcanic ash for the first real cement.
o Manufactured by the calcination of
limestone (carbonates of calcium and
magnesium.
o The carbonates decompose into carbon
dioxide, which is expelled, and calcium
oxide (CaO) called quicklime.
o Before quicklime can be used, it must first
be mixed with water in the process called
slaking or hydration.
o The lime has now become calcium
hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), known as slaked lime
or hydrated lime.
o Lime putty (hydrated lime + water) is used
as an ingredient of hard-finish coat for two-
and three-coat Portland cement plasters.
o It is also used for mixing with cement
mortar or concrete to:
▪ increase its workability
▪ decrease its permeability to water
▪ reduce cracking due to shrinkage
o Hydraulic lime, a type of lime which will set
under water.
• GYPSUM
o Also used as a plaster by the Egyptians,
Greeks and Romans.
o "Plaster" from the Greek word for both the
raw material and calcined product.
o In architectural terminology, "Plaster" and
o "gypsum" are often used interchangeably.
o Gypsum rock is ground fine and heated
(calcined) to between 325 °F. to 340 °F.
when it loses about three-fourths of its
combined water.
o The remaining product is Plaster of Paris, a
quick-setting gypsum plaster consisting of a
fine white powder (calcium sulfate
hemihydrate), which hardens when
moistened and allowed to dry.
o Gypsum plaster is rendered more plastic by
the addition of hydrated lime.
o Fiber or hair is also sometimes added for
greater cohesiveness. The fiber may be
hemp, sisal or jute; the hair is generally
cleaned goat or cattle hair.
• PORTLAND CEMENT
o The word "cement" generally refers to the
Portland Cement which is the principal
type of cement in use.
o Obtained by finely pulverizing clinker
produced by calcining a proportioned
mixture of argillaceous (silica, alumina) and
calcareous (lime) materials with iron oxide
and small amounts of other ingredients.
o TYPE I: Normal for general construction.
o TYPE Il: Modified for a lower heat of
hydration, for large structures or warm
weather.
o TYPE III: Modified for high, early strength,
where forms must be removed as soon as
possible, such as high-rise construction or
cold weather.
o TYPE IV: Modified for low heat for very
large structures.
o TYPE V: Modified for sulfate resistance.
o TYPES IA, IIA, OR IIIA: Air-entrained to resist
frost.
CEMENT
• High-grade Type 1 Portland cement type C-150
conforming to the "Standard Specifications and
Test for Portland Cement" of the American
Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) should be
used in reinforced concrete construction.
• The kind of tests usually made are:
o soundness, or constancy of volume
o time of setting
o fineness
o tensile strength
• In the US, a bag of cement is equivalent to
approximately 1 cu. ft. and weighs 94 lbs.
• In other countries, cement bags are in 25kg and
50kg.
• In the Philippines, 40kg is the common cement
bag weight.
• BRANDS: Holcim, Lafarge (Republic), Eagle
Cement, CEMEX
STORING OF CEMENT
• Cement should be protected at the building site
from contact with dampness.
• Should be stored in shed with a wood floor
raised about 300mm (12") from the ground.
• Piles should be limited to 12 sacks in height.
• Cement should be used as soon as possible after
• delivery.
• Warehouse set, a tendency for the lower layers
to harden caused by the pressure above when
the cement is stored in high piles for long
periods.
2. AGGREGATES
• Inert mineral fillers used with cement and water
in making concrete
• Particles that are durable strong, clean, hard
and uncoated, and free from damaging amount
of dusts, lumps, soft and flaky particles, shale,
alkali, organic matter loam or other deleterious
substances.
• Two major types:
1. FINE AGGREGATES
o Aggregates smaller than 6mm (¼") in
size
o Consist of sand, stone screenings or
other inert materials of similar
characteristics.
o Specifications: 80 to 95% shall pass a
No. 4 wire cloth sieve and not more
than 30% nor less than 10% shall pass
a No. 50 sieve.
2. COARSE AGGREGATES
o Aggregates larger than 6mm (¼") in
size
o Consist of crushed stones, gravel or
other inert materials of similar
characteristics.
o Should pass between all reinforcing
bars and between reinforcement and
forms
o Not exceed 25mm (1”) in size for
reinforced beams, floor slabs, & thin
walls
o Up to 50mm (2") for less highly
reinforced parts of the structures such
as footings, thick walls, and massive
work
o Commonly used: 3/4" in size
3. SPECIAL AGGREGATES
o Such as cinders, blast furnace slag,
expanded shale or clay, perlite,
vermiculite, and sawdust,
o May produce:
▪ lightweight, nailable concrete
▪ thermal insulating concrete.
3. WATER
▪ Water combines with the cement to form a
paste which coats and surrounds the inert
particles of aggregates. Upon hardening, it binds
the entire mass together.
▪ The strength of the mixture therefore depends
directly upon the strength of the paste.
▪ If there be an excess of water the paste becomes
thin and weak and its holding power is reduced.
▪ Water should be:
o free from oil, acid, alkali, vegetable
matter, or other deleterious substances
o clear and clean.
▪ The use of sea or brackish water is not allowed.
▪ Water-cement ratio is the amount of water used
per bag of cement.
▪ Varies from 5 to 7 gallons, with 6.5 gallons as
average for ordinary job conditions.
▪ The ideal mix is one that is plastic and workable.
▪ In general, lower water-cement ratios produce
stronger, more durable concrete.
▪ It should not be too dry that it becomes too
difficult to place in the forms, nor too wet that
separation of the ingredients result.
D. STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
1. STRENGTH: high compressive strength
2. WEAKNESS: low tensile strength (bending and
buckling), weak in diagonal tension (shear), and
shrinkage
• Concrete should be:
o Strong
o Durable
o Uniform quality
o Thoroughly sound
• These are obtained through:
o careful selection of materials
o correct proportioning
o thorough mixing
o careful transporting and placing
o proper curing or protection of the
concrete after it is placed
E. TYPES OF CONCRETE
1. PLAIN CONCRETE
• Also known as plain cement concrete or PCC
• Most commonly used for paving and flooring
• Made from a mix of cement, aggregate, and
water
• Different types of aggregate and ratio of
materials will result to different properties
• Most plain concrete shares the same strengths
and weaknesses: incredibly strong under
compression while weak under tension.
2. REINFORCED CONCRETE
• Also known as reinforced cement concrete or
RCC
• PCC + steel rebars
• By casting the wet cement around reinforcing
steel bars, the resultant composite material has
much more strength under tension while the
concrete maintaining its strength under
compression
3. PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
• Differs from ordinary, reinforced concrete in that
prestressing steel is under a very high tension,
compressing the concrete together, before any
load is placed on the member.
• This strengthens the concrete in shear as well as
bending.
• This requires very high-strength steel which is
impractical in ordinary reinforced concrete but
results in large steel savings.
• Prestressed concrete is used to build bridges,
heavy-loaded structures or roofs that have long
spans.
 F. USE AND APPLICATION

1. PROPORTIONING

PRINCIPLES OF PROPER PROPORTIONING

• Use good quality materials. Portland cement,
water, and aggregate.
• Determine the strength of the concrete using
the water-cement ratio. The strength increases
as the water-cement ratio decreases.
• Determine the consistency of the mix using the
slump test using as dry a mix as practicable.
• Add correct proportions of aggregates to the
cement and water as will give a mix of the
desired consistency.
• Make a mix that is workable, not harsh
• The strength of a workable concrete mix
depends upon the water-cement ratio.
• The economy of the mix depends upon the
TWO METHODS OF PRESTRESSING CONCRETE: proper proportioning of the fine and coarse
aggregates.
• PRE-TENSIONING is accomplished by stressing • There are several methods of proportioning
wires or strands, called tendons, to concrete:
predetermined amount by stretching them o Proportioning by arbitrary proportions
between two anchorages prior to placing o Proportioning by the water-ratio and
concrete. slump test
o Proportioning by water-ratio, slump
• POST-TENSIONING involves tightening the rods
and fineness modulus
or cables after the concrete is poured and cured
PROPORTIONING BY ARBITRARY PROPORTIONS
• the oldest, the most commonly used, the most
convenient and the least scientific method.
• In this method, the aggregates are measured by
loose volume, that is, its volume as it is thrown
into a measuring box.
• One sack of cement is taken as 1 cu. ft.

4. PRECAST CONCRETE
• Made and cast off-site according to specific
measurements
• Transported to the application site and
assembled for use.
• Precast concrete is used for: The proportion is to be read:
o Concrete blocks • CLASS A : 1 part cement is to 2 parts sand is to 4 parts
o Precast walls gravel.
o Staircase units • Each 'part is equivalent to one cubic foot which is the
o Poles measure of the box constructed to be 1 foot (12
• The advantage of using precast concrete is its inches) on each of the three sides.
speedy assembly. • Each bag of cement is equivalent to approximately
• Since the units are manufactured in a factory, one cubic foot.
they are of very high quality.
PROPORTIONING BY WATER-RATIO AND SLUMP TEST
• There are two steps to be observed:
• Select the amount of water to be added to the
cement to give the desired strength
• Add just enough mixed aggregate to the water
and cement to give a concrete mix the desired
consistency.
• It is customary to specify:
o the cement in sacks
 o the water in gallons per sack of cement
and
o the mixed aggregate in cu. ft. per sack
of cement.
• Proportions of cement to fine aggregate to
coarse aggregate may be given if desired.
PROPORTIONING BY WATER-RATIO, SLUMP TEST, AND
FINENESS
• The same as the previous except that the
proportions of the fine and coarse aggregate are
determined by the fineness modulus method.
• For economy, proportion the fine coarse
aggregates so that the largest quantity of mixed
aggregate may be used with a given amount of
cement and water to produce a mix of the
desired consistency of slump.
• Comparatively, the coarse aggregate has a lesser
total surface to be covered with cement paste
and, therefore, is more economical.
• However, there must be enough fine aggregate
present to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate,
or extra cement paste will be needed for this
purpose. A well-graded aggregate contains all
sizes of fine and coarse particles in such
proportions that the voids in the combined
aggregate will be a minimum.
2. MIXING OF CONCRETE
• The selection of the method is totally
dependent on the size of the
construction work.
• Two methods:
• Hand mixing
▪ For small construction or maintenance
works
▪ Used when employing a machine
mizing method is not cost effective
▪ can be done on an impermeable floor
or a large flat iron tray (concrete
mixing tubs), depending on the
situation.
▪ Retempering of concrete that has been
allowed to stand more than ½ is not to
be permitted.
▪ To begin, alternate layers of coarse and
fine aggregate are distributed over the
floor or tray in prescribed proportions.
▪ The cement is then poured on top, and
the elements are mixed dry using a
shovel until the color is consistent.
▪ The components are combined dry first
since it is more efficient and requires
less human strength. The process of
mixing concrete becomes more
difficult after water is added.
▪ This mixture is then spread out to a
thickness of 200 mm and sprinkled
with water. The mixture is continually
turned over until a consistent color is
produced.
▪ Because hand mixing cannot be
comprehensive, it is preferable to add
some additional cement (10%) to
compensate for the perhaps inferior
concrete generated by this method.
▪ Once the proper consistency of the
concrete mixture has been obtained, it
is deployed using
• Machine mixing
• The process of mixing concrete
materials in a concrete mixer
• Commonly used for medium- large
construction projects where a huge
amount of concrete is required and
hand mixing is ineffective.
• Two main classification:
• Batch mixer
• Continuous mixer
• The mixing of each batch should
continue not less than one minute
after all the materials are in the mixer.
• Whenever practicable, the length of
the mixing time should be increased to
1.5 or 2 minutes.
• The entire contents of the drum should
be discharged before recharging the
mixer.
• The mixer should be cleaned at
frequent intervals while in use,
BATCH MIXER
• Into which sufficient materials are placed at
one time to make a convenient size batch
of concrete, the whole amount being
discharged in one mass after it is mixed.
• Suitable for project which needs small
loads of concrete or mortar such as
domestic construction projects.
• Its output is measured in kg per batch.
CONTINUOUS MIXER
• Dedicated to producing a single high-volume
product.
• Ingredients are continuously fed to the mixer
according to a formula, with the mixing taking
place as the material moves from the charging
port to the discharge nozzle.
• The output is measured in kg per hour up to as
high as 500 tons an hour.
TYPES OF CONCRETE MIXER
1. ROTATING NON-TILTING TYPE (NON-TILTING DRUM
MIXER)
• The drum rotates around the horizontal axis.
• It is loaded by means of the loading skip/hopper
which is pulled up or lowered by means of a wire
rope and pulley movement.
• The discharge chute at the other end unloads
the mix when it is manually dropped to allow
the mixed concrete to slide & drop.
2. ROTATING TILTING TYPE (TILTING DRUM MIXER)
• The drum is conical and revolves around an
inclined axis.
• Carried out at a drum inclination of 20 to 30
degrees to the horizontal.
• It's either charged through a skip which is lifted
up through a wire rope & pulley movement as
expressed above or through a manual feeding
directly into the mouth.
• More convenient for very stiff work abilities as
the entire mix can be easily emptied or
discharge by tilting the drum.
3. PAN TYPE CONCRETE MIXER o STATIONARY CONCRETE BATCHING
• The drum is fixed or free running with the PLANT
blades rotating around the vertical axis. ▪ Often composed of huge
• Very efficient as the concrete mixing process is twin shaft mixers that are
designed to work at full
faster & spraying of water on the mix is uniform
and assists in efficient mixing. capability, efficiency and
reliability for a variety of
• Various types:
large-scale and high-quality
o Stationary pan
concrete production.
o Free running pan
▪ Built to offer maximum rated
o Co-rotating power-driven pan
production capacity and
o Counter rotating pan
long work hours.

4. PADDLE TYPE CONCRETE MIXER o TRANSIT / DRY MIX CONCRETE

• Comprises a cylindrical non-rotating open BATCHING PLANT
through in which concrete materials are mixed ▪ An ideal choice for the
by paddles rotating around the horizontal axis on manufacturers if there is a
one or two shafts. quite long distance to the
• In a twin shaft paddle mixer, two shafts rotate in construction site from the
opposite directions. batching plant.
• The paddles are mounted helically so as to ▪ On the way to the
produce three-dimensional mixing movements construction site, the drum
of materials. of a mixer truck can keep
• The electric drive of the concrete mixer shafts is rotating to prevent the
spring mounted to enhance trouble-free mixing mixed concrete from
function hardening and ensure the
freshness of the materials

CONCRETE BATCHING PLANT

• The assembly of tools and machines such as
o WET MIX CONCRETE BATCHING PLANT
mixers, cement batchers, aggregate batchers,
▪ Easy to transport and install due
conveyors, radial stackers, aggregate bins,
to its portable movement.
cement bins, heaters, chillers, cement silos,
▪ Can be classified into two:
control.
stationary type wet concrete
• The main purpose of using a this plant is to plant and mobile type wet mix
produce homogenous and uniform concrete. concrete batch plant.
• The plant must produce concrete consistently in
batches one after the other in the same
proportions.
• Types:
o MOBILE CONCRETE BATCHING PLANT
▪ Comes with a stable main chassis
allowing extreme durability, safe
transportation, continuous long-
life operation and sensitive
weighing by minimizing the
vibrations to the scales.
▪ All the equipment necessary for
the operation of the batch plant is
installed on the main chassis and
is being transported on it.
CONCRETE BATCHING PLANT
▪ ADVANTAGES:
o Improves the construction quality due
to advanced production technology
o Construction speed increases and
rental costs reduced thus owners can
shorten the construction cycle and
reduce investment risk.
o Stable and reliable quality of the
commercial mixing plant
o Improves the long-term performance
of concrete missed with admixtures
o Improves the construction
organization, reduces labor intensity,
reduces construction management
costs, technical difficulty and quality
risk.
II. TRANSPORTING AND PLACING
▪ Fresh concrete should be transported from the
mixer as rapidly as practicable by methods that
will permit the placing of the concrete in the
forms before initial set occurs and without loss
or separation of materials.
▪ The delivery of the concrete from the mixer to
the forms should be fairly continuous and
uninterrupted.
▪ The time of transportation should not exceed 30
minutes.
▪ The concrete may be transported by means of
barrows, buggies, buckets, cableways, hoists,
chutes, belts and pipes.
▪ When chutes are used, the slope should not be
more than 1:2 or less than 1:3 slope.
▪ The delivery end of the chutes shall be as close
as possible to the point of deposit.
▪ Before placing concrete, the forms shall be
cleaned and inspected, surfaces wetted or
oiled, and reinforcement properly secured.
▪ Concrete should be deposited in approximately
horizontal layers in wall, column and footing
forms. They should not be piled up in the forms
which may result in the separation of the cement
mortar from the coarse aggregate.
▪ Concrete should never be allowed to drop freely
over 1.5m (5’) for unexposed work and over
0.9m (3’) for exposed work.
▪ Occasionally, free-fall distance is restricted to
0.6m (2’).
III. FORMWORKS
1. LUMBER FORMS
▪ Lumber used in form construction should only
be partially seasoned.
▪ Kiln-dried lumber has a tendency to swell when
soaked by the concrete, and this swelling causes
bulging and distortion of the forms.
▪ Green lumber dries out and shrinks if allowed
to stand too long before the concrete is placed.
This causes checks and warps. However, these
can be prevented to some extent by keeping the
boards thoroughly saturated with water.
▪ When using natural, well-seasoned lumber, do
not to drive the work up too close, since forms
should always be left in a position to experience
some slight swelling without any undesirable
results.
▪ Siizes of lumber frequently used :
o 2” thick for columns, beams and girder
o bottoms
o 1” thick for floor panels and beam and
girder
o sides
o 2x4s for struts, posts, shores, and
uprights
o 1” or 2” thick for cleats
▪ Sheathing lumber dressed at least one side and
both edges even are used where the removal
and cleaning of the forms are necessary for re-
use.
▪ Sheathing lumber dressed on all four sides shall
be used in face work, where smooth and true
surface is important.
▪ Tongue-and-groove lumber will achieve tight
joints between boards in floor and wall panel
construction.
▪ Simply dressing the lumber true to edge form
square of butt joints in the forms for columns,
▪ Use nails sparingly in the construction of forms
because unnecessary nailing not only adds to the
labor of wrecking but also renders the lumber
unfit for continued use.
▪ Where nails must be used, leave the head
protruding so that they may be withdrawn
without injury to the lumber.
▪ All forms for concrete require a coating of some
lubricant to prevent concrete from adhering to
the wood and thus make a rough, unpleasant
appearance.
▪ Crude oil and petroline preserve the forms
against damage by alternate wetting and drying.
▪ The forms should preferably be oiled before
they are set in place.
▪ Oil should not be used, however, on forms
against surfaces which are to be plastered, as oil
prevents adhesion of the plaster. In such cases,
wetting with water will be sufficient.
▪ The inside of forms which have been used once
and are to be used again shall be coated an
approved soap or other approved material, or
thoroughly wetted before concreting. No
application of soap or other material should be
made to forms after the reinforcements are in
place.
▪ The forms should be durable and rigid, and
should be well braced so that bulging or twisting
cannot occur.
▪ The joints should be made tight enough to
prevent leakage of the mortar.
2. PLYWOOD FORMS
• Works best where a smooth surface is required.
The plywood should be waterproof, Grade “A”
and at least 12mm (½”) thick.
3. STEEL FORM
• May be in the form of pans for concrete joist
construction or steel decking or corrugated
steel for concrete slabs and slab-and-joist
construction.
4. PLASTIC FORM
• Polystyrene forms are now available for concrete
work.
IV. SHRINKAGE
• Shrinkage of concrete due to hardening and
contraction from temperature changes, causes
cracks the size of which depends on the extent of
the mass.
• In long continuous length of concrete, it is better
to place shrinkage or contraction joints.
• Shrinkage cracks are likely to occur at joints
where fresh concrete is joined to concrete
which has already set, and hence in placing the
concrete, construction joints should be made on
horizontal and vertical lines.
V. CURING
• Concrete curing is the process of maintaining
adequate moisture in concrete within a proper
temperature range in order to aid cement
hydration at early ages.
• Hardening is a rather slow process in which the
cement and water unite to form compounds
that give strength and durability to the
concrete.
• Properly cured concrete has an adequate
amount of moisture for continued hydration and
development of strength, volume stability,
resistance to freezing and thawing, and
abrasion and scaling resistance.
• Three main factors that affect hardening are:
o Age or time
o Temperature
o Moisture
• American Concrete Institute (ACI) recommends a
minimum curing period corresponding to
concrete attaining 70% of the specified
compressive strength.
• The often specified 7-day curing commonly
corresponds to approximately 70% of the
specified compressive strengths.
• For about 7 days after placing, concrete should
be protected from excessive vibration, loads,
extreme heat or cold, too rapid drying, and
contact with impurities which may interfere with
the chemical action.
• Keeping the concrete from drying out too
rapidly by:
o Covering the concrete
o Removal of forms at prescribed time
o Sprinkling with water
o Using curing compounds (admixtures)
VI. ADMIXTURE
• Substances added to cement, mortar, and
concrete for the purpose of improving or
imparting particular properties, such as:
o To improve workability of concrete,
e.g. hydrated lime
o To improve durability by entrainment
of air
o To accelerate setting or hardening
(accelerators) e.g. calcium chloride
o To retard setting (retarders).
o To improve wear resistance
o To impart water-repellant or water-
proofing qualities e.g. hydrated lime,
KAOLINE, CELITE
o To impart water-repellant or
waterproofing qualities, e.g., hydrate
lime, waterproofing compounds,
KAOLINE, CELITE
o To impart color, MINERAL OXIDES,
COLORCON, METALICHROME
• Admixtures come in powder, paste, and liquid
form, and are usually patented and sold under
trademark names.
• Three categories:
o For mixing into concrete
o For mixing into mortar
o For surface application or finish
CONCRETE ADMIXTURES
1. ACCELERATORS
• To speed up setting time, to develop earlier
strength, and to reduce length of time for
protection.
• Principal ingredient is calcium chloride.
• Maximum amount added is 2 lbs. per bag of
cement.
• Disadvantages:
o increase the expansion and contraction
of concrete
o reduce resistance to sulfate attack
o increases efflorescence and corrosion
of high tension steels.
• Efflorescence is the appearance of white salt
deposits on or near the surface of concrete
causing a change in appearance.
2. RETARDERS
• To slow down the hydration of the cement
during very hot weather.
• Principal ingredients include zinc oxide, calcium
lignosulfonate, and derivatives of adipic acid.
• Disadvantages:
o may cause some loss of early strength
o require careful control and more
frequent slump tests
o reduces the expansion and contraction
of concrete
3. AIR-ENTRAINING AGENTS
• Introduce minute air bubbles to greatly increase
the resistance of concrete to freezing and
thawing, increase plasticity and reduce bleeding.
• Addition of air-entraining admixtures is usually in
the proportion of 3 to 6% of the volume of
concrete.
• They are manufactured from such ingredients as
rosin, beef tallow, stearates, foaming agents
(soap).
• Disadvantages:
o require careful control and more • Apparatus consist of:
o frequent slump tests o Slump cone, bottom 200mm (8”) dia.,
o may cause some loss of strength top 100mm (4”) dia., and height
300mm (12”)
4. INERT, FINELY DIVIDED POWDERS o Steel tamping rod
• Such as powdered glass, silica sand, stone dust, o Measuring stick Base plate or slump
hydrated lime pan
• Added to improve workability, used as per
manufacturer’s directions
• Hydrated lime is usually in the proportion of 10
to 15% of the cement by volume

5. WATERPROOFING (PERMEABILITY-REDUCING)
COMPOUNDS
• Reduce the capillary attraction of the voids in
the concrete or mortar
• It may decrease water absorption of the
concrete or mortar; it does not render concrete
waterproof.
• They are manufactured from stearic acid or its
compounds, mainly calcium stearate, and include STEPS ILLUSTRATION
asphalt emulsions. Step 1:
• They are introduced usually in the amounts of Place the cone on a flat,
0.1 to 4.0% of the weight of cement. smooth, horizontal surface
and stand on the footholds
6. COLORED PIGMENTS either side to ensure the
• Mainly to used to give color to concrete floors. cone is planted firmly on
the ground
• Two types:
o Dry-cast, broadcast or dust-on, for Step 2:
surface coloring. They are dusted on, Fill the cone in three layers,
usually in two coats, after all surface using the steel tamping rod
water has disappeared. The surface is to compact — or tamp —
then finished with a steel trowel. the concrete after each
o Integral colors, for body coloring. layer in an even, uniform
Integral color pigments are manner (this should be
incorporated in the mortar topping. done 25 times per layer).
They are mixed dry with the cement Step 3:
and aggregate before water is added. Once the cone is filled,
Amount of color pigment required is remove any overflowing
not more than 10% of the cement by concrete from the top,
weight, generally 3 to 6 lbs. per bag of making sure the concrete
cement fills the cone exactly to the
top level. Remove any
spilled concrete from the
base of the cone, too.
Step 4:
Lift the cone vertically,
using a slow and steady
motion until the cone is
clear of the concrete. Place
the cone upside down on
VII. CONCRETE TESTIBG
the surface next to the
concrete.
1. SLUMP TEST
Step 5:
• Used for measuring the consistency/workability
The concrete will subside —
of a concrete mix.
or slump. To measure the
• Consistency may be defined as the “state of slump, place the steel rod
fluidity of the mix” including the entire range of across the top of the
fluidity from the wettest to the driest possible upturned cone so it
mixtures. overhangs the concrete.
• In this test the tendency of a mix to “slump”, or Step 6:
reduce its height due to gravity action, is Now, measure from the rod
measured. down to the top of the
slump. The level of slump is
measured to the nearest
5mm.
RESULT OF SLUMP TEST:
• True slump — the concrete largely retains its
cone shape, demonstrating that the mix is
cohesive and its workability isn’t too high.
• Zero slump — the concrete retains its shape
completely. This shows that the mix is very dry
(this kind of concrete is best used in road
construction).
• Shear slump — the top half of the concrete
subsides dramatically, leaning to one side,
meaning the mix has workability but low
cohesion. The mix may have too much water
content and can be retested after being
amended
• Collapse — the mix doesn’t retain its shape at all
and completely collapses. This means the water-
cement ratio is too high and needs to be fully
amended
• A harsh mix is efficient for slabs, pavements, or mass
concrete where the lowest possible water-cement
ratio is desirable.
• The following table gives the permissible slump for
various types of concrete in relation to their uses:
2. COMPREHENSIVE STRENGTH TEST
• Compressive strength is the ability of material or
structure to carry the loads on its surface
without any crack or deflection.
• Compressive strength test provides an idea
about all the characteristics of concrete and
whether concreting has been done properly or
not.
• Concrete compressive strength for general
construction varies from 15 MPa (2200 psi) to 30
MPa (4400 psi) and higher in commercial and
industrial structures.
• Compressive strength of concrete depends on
many factors such as water-cement ratio,
cement strength, quality of concrete material,
quality control during the production of
concrete, etc.
• American Society for Testing Materials ASTM
C39/C39M provides Standard Test Method for
Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete
Specimens.
• The diameter of the cylinder cast must be at
least 3 times the nominal maximum size of the
coarse aggregate employed in the concrete
manufacture.
• The apparatus required:
o Compression testing machine
o Cylinder mold of 150mm diameter
o and 300mm height or 100 x 200mm
o Weighing balance
• Test at least 3 specimens
VIII. PROCESSED CONCRETE
A. TYPES OF PROCESSED CONCRETE
1. AEROCRETE
• A light–weight, expanded structural concrete
produced by adding a small amount of metallic
aluminum powder to the mixture of Portland
cement and sand of cinders.
• On the addition of water, a gas is generated
which expands the wet mix and forms small air
cells throughout the material.
• It is used for structural floor and roof slabs,
partition blocks for sound proofing, wall
insulation, in rooms of refrigerator plants,
lightweight fill on top of structural floor and roof
slabs.
• In addition to its light weight, it has excellent
fire-resistive qualities.
2. GUNITE
• The mixture of sand and cement deposited
under high pneumatic pressure with a machine
manufactured under the trade name CEMENT
GUN, to which the required supply of water is
added just before the dry constituents emerge
from nozzle.
• GUNITE is used for encasing structural steel,
when reinforced, for floor and roof slabs and
curtain walls. Ideal for swimming pool
construction.
3. PORETE
• A Portland cement concrete to which a chemical
foam is added to generate gases in the process
of deposition, resulting in light weight precast or
shop-made unit in both hollow and solid forms.
• It is manufactured in solid slabs for short spans
roofs and siding of industrial buildings.
4. HAYDITE
• Processed concrete added with lightweight
aggregate
B. AGGREGATES FOR LIGHT-WEIGHT CONCRETE
ADVANTAGE OF LIGHT-WEIGHT CONCRETE:
• Reduction of dead loads saves structural steel,
reduces bearing on foundation and cuts cost of
concrete forms
• High insulating value is provided by numerous
dead air spaces.
• Rough texture of surfaces has good acoustical
properties.
• Lightweight allows easier handling of precast
slabs and blocks
• Lightweight plaster has less tendency to crack
and its heat resistance makes it a good material
for fireproofing structural steel
DISADVANTAGES OF LIGHT-WEIGHT CONCRETE
• Porosity requires changes in the usual formulas
for water and slump, and closer supervision of
mixing.
• As aggregates become lighter, they become
structurally weaker so he strength of the matrix
must be modified by adding more cement.
• The cost of raw aggregates is higher than for
gravel, rock, and sand because of small
production facilities and the additional
processing that is sometimes necessary
CLASSIFICATION:
1. AGGREGATES OF VOLCANIC ORIGIN
• PUMICE
o Weighing from 25 to 60 lbs. per cu. ft.
is well qualified as a lightweight
aggregate when dry and well graded.
o It is hard to be handled and mixed
without excessive breakdown.
o Undesirable feature, however, is its
water absorption which can be
mitigated by wetting the aggregate
before it is mixed with cement
• PERLITE
o Composed of stable silicates, and is
inert and thus durable for use as a
lightweight aggregate or for
insulation.
o Disadvantages: friability, small particle
size, and extreme lightness.
o The small particle size requires more
cement, while its lightness, from 8 to
16 lbs. per cu. ft. increases the
tendency to float out of the mortar.
o Useful where maximum strength is not
required, as in precast slabs and blocks
and in floor fill, fireproofing and
plaster.
2. MICACEOUS MINERALS
• VERMICULITE
o A micaceous mineral which expands
on application of heat to as much as
30 times its original volume.
o Dried ground ore is subjected to about
1,800 degrees heat for 4 to 8 seconds,
after which it weighs only 6 to 12 lbs.
per cubic ft.
o It is used as an aggregate in concrete
fireproofing steel, for floor and roof fill,
and for acoustic and fireproof plaster
3. EXPANDED SHALES AND CLAYS
4. BY-PRODUCT AGGREGATES
• EXPANDED SLAG OR FOAMED SLAG
o made by treating molten blast furnace
slag with controlled quantities of
water or steam.; has been used for
precast blocks, cast-in-place walls of
houses and for panel filling of steel-
framed buildings.
• CINDERS
o composed of the ash components of
the coal along with the various
quantities of unburned or partially
burned combustible matter. Cinders
containing a minimum amount of
combustible material are satisfactory
for use in concrete but are not
particularly weight saving. Lightweight
cinders often have unsound physical
and chemical properties.
MASONRY
I. INTRODUCTION
1. HISTORY
• Use of masonry dates back thousands of years, with
evidence of masonry construction found in ancient
civilizations around the world.
• Can be traced to ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, and
the Indus Valley, where early forms of fired brick and
stone masonry were used to construct structures such
as temples, palaces, and fortifications
• Ancient Mesopotamia: One of the earliest known
examples of masonry can be found in Mesopotamia
(modern-day Iraq), where fired brick was used to
construct structures such as ziggurats and city walls
as early as 4000 BCE.
• Ancient Egypt: In ancient Egypt, massive stone
structures such as the pyramids were constructed
using limestone and granite blocks, showcasing the
mastery of stone masonry techniques. The Great
Pyramid of Giza, built around 2580 BCE, is one of the
most famous examples of ancient masonry
construction.
• Ancient Greece and Rome: The Greeks and Romans
made significant advancements in masonry
construction, including the use of mortar, various
masonry bond patterns, and the development of
monumental structures such as temples, aqueducts,
and amphitheaters.
• Middle Ages: During the Middle Ages in Europe,
masonry continued to be a prominent construction
technique, with the construction of castles,
cathedrals, and fortifications using stone masonry.
The Gothic period, in particular, saw intricate stone
masonry detailing and ornamentation.
• Industrial Revolution: in the 18th and 19th centuries,
masonry saw advancements in construction
techniques and materials. Mechanically produced
bricks, along with modern cement-based mortars,
became more widely used, making masonry
construction more efficient and accessible.
• Modern Masonry: In the 20th and 21st centuries,
masonry continues to be a popular construction
technique, used in a wide range of building types
and styles. Today, masonry construction incorporates
a variety of materials, including bricks, stones,
 concrete blocks, and reinforced masonry, with a
focus on structural integrity, durability, and
sustainability.
2. DEFINITION
MASONRY
• construction technique or trade that involves the
use of individual units or elements, such as
bricks, stones, or concrete blocks, bonded
together with mortar to create a solid and
durable structure.
• involves the careful arrangement and placement
of masonry units, which are typically rectangular
in shape, to create walls, arch
3. TYPES OF MASONRY UNITS
• BRICKS
o one of the most common types of
masonry units, typically made from
clay or shale that is fired in a kiln.
o Available in different sizes, shapes, and
colors, and their characteristics can
vary depending on the manufacturing
process and materials used.
o Clay bricks are known for their
durability, strength, and natural
aesthetic appeal, making them
suitable for a wide range of
applications, including walls,
foundations, and facades. They are also
commonly used in residential,
commercial, and industrial
construction.
• STONES
o have been used as masonry units for
thousands of years, with various types
of natural stones, such as granite,
limestone, and sandstone, being
commonly used.
o Stones can be cut or shaped into
different sizes and shapes, and their
natural beauty and durability make
them ideal for high-end architectural
projects, such as historical
restorations, monuments, and
decorative facades.
o Stone masonry can be labor-intensive
and requires skilled craftsmanship,
but it can result in timeless and visually
appealing structures.
• CONCRETE BLOCKS
o also known as concrete masonry units
(CMUs), are made from a mixture of
cement, aggregates, and water that is
molded into a block shape and cured.
o Available in various sizes, shapes, and
textures, and can be either solid or
hollow.
o They are known for their strength,
versatility, and cost-effectiveness,
making them widely used in modern
construction for walls, partitions, and
load-bearing structures.
• GLASS BLOCKS
o made from thick blocks of glass that
are bonded together with mortar or
silicone.
o Glass blocks are transparent or
translucent, allowing natural light to
penetrate through while providing
privacy and visual interest.
o Glass blocks are commonly used in
interior partitions, walls, and
decorative applications, and can
create unique design effects with their
play of light and shadow
COMPOSITE MASONRY UNITS
• made by combining two or more materials to
create a single masonry unit with enhanced
properties.
• For example, autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC)
blocks are lightweight concrete blocks made by
adding a foaming agent to the concrete mixture,
resulting in a cellular structure that provides
excellent thermal insulation and soundproofing
properties.
• Other examples of composite masonry units
include concrete blocks with built-in insulation
or reinforcement, or bricks with a veneer of
natural stone for aesthetic purposes.
4. SIGNIFICANCE OF MASONRY IN ARCHITECTURE
• STRUCTURAL: Masonry provides durability,
strength, and stability, making it essential for the
structural design of buildings. It can resist various
loads and withstand natural disasters, ensuring
the stability of the structure.
• AESTHETIC: Masonry offers diverse textures,
colors, and patterns that enhance the visual
appeal of a building. It allows for architectural
expression and can convey tradition,
craftsmanship, and permanence.
• HISTORICAL: Masonry has a rich historical
significance in architecture, with ancient
structures around the world using masonry
techniques. It provides insights into the
evolution of construction techniques, design
aesthetics, and cultural practices.
• CULTURAL: Masonry is deeply embedded in
various cultures, contributing to architectural
heritage and creating unique styles and
traditions. It has been used in cultural
landmarks, holding religious, social, or symbolic
significance.
• SUSTAINABLE: Masonry is considered
sustainable due to its durability, energy
efficiency, and low maintenance requirements.
It provides thermal insulation, reduces energy
consumption, and is recyclable, making it
environmentally friendly.
II. ROUGH MASONRY
• construction technique where materials such as
stones, bricks, or concrete blocks are used to
create walls or structures without extensive
finishing or refinement.
• Focus on the structural function rather than the
aesthetic appearance.
• Typically, larger and less refined
• Joints between the materials may be irregular or
rough.
TYPES OF ROUGH MASONRY
1. STONE MASONRY – Constructed by using stones
bonded together with the help of mortar
2 MAIN CLASSIFICATION:
1. RUBBLE – Uses stones of irregular shape and size
2. ASHLAR – uses square or rectangular stones
RUBBLE MASONRY ASHLAR MASONRY
• Coursed Rubble • Ashlar Fine
• Uncoursed Rubble • Ashlar rough tooled
• Random Rubble • Ashlar rock or quarry
• Dry Rubble faced
• Polygonal Rubble • Ashlar Chamfered
• Flint Rubble • Ashlar block-in course
1. COURSED RUBBLE
• stones, bricks, or blocks are arranged in regular
horizontal courses or layers, with consistent
heights and joint patterns,

ASHLAR MASONRY

1. ASHLAR FINE
• stones are carefully cut and shaped to be used
2. UNCOURSED RUBBLE as building blocks, with smooth and even
• stones, bricks, or blocks are laid without a surfaces, and regular dimensions. With precise
specific pattern or regularity, resulting in a more and refined appearance, often used in high end
random and irregular appearance. or decorative applications

2. ASHLAR ROUGH TOOLED

• stones are cut and shaped to have a rough and
3. RANDOM RUBBLE
• stones of different sizes and shapes are used textured surface, achieved through a process of
without any particular pattern or arrangement, tooling or chiseling, while maintaining regular
resulting in a rustic and natural-looking dimensions and alignment. Provide a rustic or
appearance aged look, commonly used in traditional or
historical buildings.

3. ASHLAR ROCK OR QUARRL FACES

4. DRY RUBBLE • stones are used in their natural state, with the
• stones or blocks are laid without the use of quarry or rock face left exposed on the
mortar or other bonding agents, relying solely exterior surface, resulting in a rough and
on the interlocking and stability of the stones or rugged appearance. Often used for a natural or
blocks organic aesthetic, commonly seen in rustic or
rural buildings

4. ASHLAR CHAMFERED
• stones are cut and shaped with beveled edges
5. POLYGONAL RUBBLE
or chamfers, creating a chamfered or sloping
• stones are carefully shaped and arranged in
edge along the corners or edges of the stones.
polygonal shapes, such as hexagons or
provide a distinctive and decorative look,
pentagons, resulting in a distinctive and unique
commonly used in modern or contemporary
appearance
architecture

5.
6. FLINT RUBBLE
• uses flint stones, which are hard and durable, as
the primary material. Often characterized by
irregularly shaped flint stones arranged in a
random or coursed pattern, commonly found in
historical buildings in certain regions
ASHLAR BLOCK-IN-COURSE
• stones are arranged in alternating courses of
ashlar blocks and rough masonry, creating a
contrast between the finely cut ashlar blocks
and the rougher masonry in between. provide
a unique and eye catching appearance, often
used in architectural detailing or accents.
 out). The headers and stretchers are arranged in
an alternating pattern, creating a visually
appealing bond with good structural stability.

III. MORTAR & MORTAR JOINT

• Mortar - is a mixture of cement, sand and

water 3. ENGLISH BOND
• used to bond the masonry units together, • Similar to Flemish bond, it consists of alternating
providing stability and strength to the overall rows of headers and stretchers. However, in
structure. English bond, the headers are placed in one row,
• Skilled masons carefully lay and level the units, and the stretchers are placed in the next row,
ensuring that they are plumb, level, and aligned creating a strong bond compared to Flemish
according to the design and specifications of bond
the building.
• Mortar Joints- The spaces or gaps between
masonry units that are filled with mortar.
• Mortar joints play an important role in the
aesthetics, strength, and durability of a
masonry structure.
• The size, shape, and finish of mortar joints can
affect the overall appearance of the masonry, as
well as the performance of the structure in 4. STACK BOND
• masonry units are laid directly on top of each
terms of water penetration, thermal insulation,
and structural integrity other in a straight, vertical pattern, without
overlapping joints. It is a simple and modern-
looking bond that is commonly used for non-
load-bearing walls or decorative purposes.

5. COMMON BOND
• This bond consists of several courses of
stretchers followed by a row of headers,
repeating the pattern throughout the wall. It is
a versatile bond that provides good structural
stability and is commonly used for load-bearing
walls.

MASONRY BONDS
• refer to the different patterns or arrangements
in which bricks, stones, or other masonry units
are laid and interconnected to form a cohesive
and structurally stable masonry wall.
• Various types of masonry bonds are used in
construction, each with its unique
characteristics, aesthetics, and structural
performance.

TYPES OF BONDS:
1. RUNNING BOND
• Also known as a stretcher bond, it is the simplest
and most common type of masonry bond.
Masonry units are laid in a continuous pattern
with overlapping vertical joints, while the
horizontal joints are aligned. It is a relatively
weak bond in terms of structural stability and is
often used for non-load bearing walls or as an
aesthetic choice

2. FLEMISH BOND
• characterized by alternating rows of headers
(bricks laid with their short end facing out) and
stretchers (bricks laid with their long end facing
MASONRY WALLS
• walls constructed using bricks, stones, or other
masonry units bonded together with mortar to
form a solid, durable, and load-bearing structure.
• Masonry walls are commonly used in
construction due to their strength, durability,
and fire resistance properties.
• They can be used for both load-bearing and non-
load-bearing applications in various types of
buildings, such as residential, commercial, • Retaining walls: used to retain soil or other
industrial, and institutional structures. materials and prevent erosion or slope
instability. It can be made of various masonry
TYPES OF MASONRY WALLS units and may incorporate reinforcement, such
• Load-bearing masonry walls: designed to carry as steel bars or geogrids, for increased stability
the weight of the structure above them, and strength.
including the dead loads (weight of the wall
itself) and live loads (loads from occupants,
furnitur e, etc.).

• Non-load-bearing or curtain walls: do not carry

any structural load and are used primarily for
enclosure or separation purposes. Walls are
typically thinner and lighter compared to load-
bearing walls and are often used in conjunction
with other structural systems, such as steel or
concrete frames, for support.

• Reinforced masonry walls: incorporate

reinforcement, such as steel bars or wire mesh,
to increase their structural strength and
resistance to cracking or movement. Commonly
used in areas with high seismic activity or other
design requirements that demand enhanced
structural performance.

• Cavity walls: consist of two or more masonry

wythes separated by a cavity or air gap. The
cavity can serve various functions, such as
providing insulation, preventing moisture
penetration, and improving sound insulation.
Cavity walls are commonly used in areas with
high moisture exposure or thermal performance
requirements

• Veneer walls: used for aesthetic purposes and

are typically non-load-bearing. Consist of a thin
layer of masonry units, such as bricks or stones,
that are attached to a structural backing, such as
a steel or concrete frame, to provide a decorative
finish to the building facade.
ABTECN01 QUIZ NO 1 ANSWER KEY 8. It is the method of sawing wood where
wood is cut radially to the annual rings
I. MULTIPLE CHOICE parallel to the rays or, in commercial
practice, cut with the annual growth rings at
1. It is the part of the tree which is denser, less an angle 45-90 deg.
permeable and more durable than the a. Quarter Sawn
surrounding sapwood and becomes the b. Rift Sawn
tree’s vertebrae. c. Plain Sawn
a. Heartwood d. Live Sawn
b. Pith
c. Bark 9. It is the method of sawing wood where
d. Sapwood wood is cut with annual rings at an angle 0-
e. Annual rings 45 deg and greatest variety of graining
patterns & color, highest number of knots.
2. It is the part of the tree which is located at a. Quarter Sawn
the very center and has a greater tendency b. Rift Sawn
to crack than the rest of the wood in a tree. c. Plain Sawn
a. Heartwood d. Live Sawn
b. Pith
c. Bark 10. Classification of lumber less than 2"thick
d. Sapwood and at least 8" wide.
e. Annual rings a. Strips
b. Board Lumber
3. It is the part of the tree which helps the tree c. Dimension Lumber
resist attacks by insects and micro- d. Timber
organisms and protects the tree from
damaging weather conditions. 11. Classification of lumber pieces 5” or more
a. Heartwood on the smallest dimension.
b. Pith a. Strips
c. Bark b. Board Lumber
d. Sapwood c. Dimension Lumber
e. Annual rings d. Timber

4. It is the part of the tree which is more 12. Classification of lumber pieces more than 2”
susceptible to bluing fungi and wood-boring and less than 5” in any dimension.
insects, and is not durable. a. Strips
a. Heartwood b. Board Lumber
b. Pith c. Dimension Lumber
c. Bark d. Timber
d. Sapwood
e. Annual rings 13. It is the term for the size of lumber when it
is cut from the log.
5. It is the part of the tree that is radiating out a. Green wood
from the pith. b. Seasoned lumber
a. Heartwood c. Nominal size
d. Dimension lumber
b. Pith
c. Bark
14. Classification of lumber pieces less than 2” thick
d. Sapwood and less than 8” wide.
e. Annual rings e. Strips
f. Board Lumber
6. It is the method of sawing wood where the g. Dimension Lumber
grain on the cut top of the board will be h. Timber
linear, while the grain on the ends will be
somewhat slanted. 15. It is the general term for the process of
a. Quarter Sawn removing moisture from green wood.
b. Rift Sawn a. Green wood
c. Plain Sawn b. Seasoning
d. Live Sawn c. Kiln drying
d. Air drying
7. It is the part of the tree that is located
between the bark and the wood, where cell 16. It is a natural process exposing timber logs to the
air by arranging them in layers in a shed.
division takes place, and when the cells
a. Green wood
divide, they become either wood cells or
b. Seasoning
bark cells. c. Kiln drying
Answer: CABIUM LAYER d. Air drying
17. It is a traditional building material that is easy to 26. It is a kind of wood defect that well-defined
work with, durable, and beautiful. It is openings between annual rings containing solid
lightweight and has a high ability to absorb or liquid pitch.
shocks from sudden loads. a. wane
a. concrete b. shake
b. steel c. split
c. glass d. check
d. wood e. pitch pocket

18. It is a process where timber is subjected to hot

air in air tight chamber.
a. Green wood
b. Seasoning
c. Kiln drying
d. Air drying

19. It is a kind of wood defect that is caused by the

attack of fungi.
a. shake
b. knot
c. decay
d. check
e. pitch pocket

20. It is a kind of wood defect that occurs when

there are multiple different bends in a board.
a. wane
b. bow
c. twist
d. cup
e. crook

21. It is a kind of wood defect where there are

presence of circular imperfections caused by a
broken-off tree branch.
a. wane
b. split
c. knot
d. check
e. pitch pocket

22. It is a kind of wood defect where a crack in a

piece of wood that goes all the way through the
board.
a. shake
b. split
c. knot
d. check
e. pitch pocket

23. It is a kind of wood defect when there is missing

wood or an untrimmed edge along the side or
corner of a board.
a. wane
b. split
c. knot
d. check
e. pitch pocket

24. It is a kind of wood defect where a warp happens

along the edge of a board.
a. shake
b. bow
c. twist
d. cup
e. crook

25. It is a kind of wood defect that a crack occurs

along the wood’s growth rings.
a. wane
b. shake
c. split
d. check
e. pitch pocket