Physical Science 1

All living things are made up of four classes of large - simplest carbohydrate; single sugar
biological molecules: - multiples of CH2O. Glucose (C6H12O6) is the
- Carbohydrates most common monosaccharide
- Lipids Classified by:
- Protein - The location of the carbonyl group
- Nucleic acids - The number of carbons in the carbon skeleton

Macromolecules  Disaccharides
- Large molecules composed of thousands of - when a dehydration reaction joins two
covalently bonded atoms and their molecular monosaccharides
structure and function are inseparable - Glycosidic Linkage; covalent bond formed
- Large molecules formed by joining similar units

Polymer
- Long molecule consisting of many similar
building blocks
- Composed of large molecules/ macromolecules
 Polysaccharides
Monomers - carbohydrate macromolecules; composed of
- Simpler chemical units/ small building-block many sugar-building blocks
molecules - have storage & structural roles; the structure &
- function is determined by its sugar monomers &
Synthesis & Breakdown of Polymers the positions of glycosidic linkages
- Starch; a storage polysaccharide of plants,
Dehydration consists entirely of glucose monomers
- occurs when two monomers bond together - Glycogen; storage polysaccharide in animals
through a loss of a water molecule - Humans & other vertebrates store glycogen in
Hydrolysis the liver & muscle
- when polymers are disassembled into
monomers, a reaction that is the reverse of the
dehydration reaction

Cellulose
- Major components of the tough wall of plant
cells
- A polymer of glucose, but the glycosidic linkages
differ (the difference is based on two ring forms
of glucose: alpha & beta)
- Insoluble fiber; passes through the digestive
tract
Chitin
- Found in the exoskeleton of arthropods &
provides structural support for the cell walls

 Proteins
- are linear copolymers built from monomeric
units (amino acids)
- amino acids are polymerized by amide/ peptide
bonds
An example of a “dipeptide” is the sweetener
Main classes of biological polymers:
- Aspartame.
 Carbohydrates - NutraSweet
- include sugars and the - Equal
polymers of sugars - Tri-Sweet
- Sanecta
 Monosaccharides IUPAC Name:
 Physical Science 2

N-L- α – Aspartyl-L-phenylalanine 1-methyl ester - Man-made or synthetic: polyethylene,

Abbreviated Structure: Asp – Phe - OCH3
 Nucleic Acids
- found in all cells and viruses
- function: storage and expression of genetic
information
 DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
- encodes the information the cell needs to make
proteins
 RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
- comes in different molecular forms that
participate in protein synthesis
 Lipids
- a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules
- hydrophobic; consist mostly of hydrocarbons,
which form nonpolar covalent bonds
- fats, phospholipids, and steroids
 Fats
- To store energy storage
- Stored in adipose cells
- constructed from two types of
smaller molecules:
 Glycerol
- three-carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl
group attached to each carbon
 Fatty Acid
- consists of a carboxyl group attached
to a long carbon skeleton
Unsaturated Fats/ Oils
- fats made from unsaturated fatty acids; & liquid
at room temp
Hydrogenation
- process of converting unsaturated fats to
saturated fats by adding hydrogen
polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride,
neoprene
State of Matter
 Solid
- Has a definite volume & shape; high density,
virtually incompressible, vibrate about fixed
positions
 Liquid
- Has a definite volume but assume the shape of
its container; high density, only slightly
compressible, slides past one another freely
 Gas
- Assume the volume & shape of its container;
low density, very compressible, very free
motion
Condensed Phases
- The molecular particles are much closer
together; the particles are in virtual contact
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction
- Act between molecules/ particles in liquid &
solid states
- Generally, much weaker than bonding forces
- The strength of IMFAs operating in solids and
liquids can be indicated by their melting and
boiling points.
- As particles move away, IMFAs are broken.
Large amount of energy is needed when the
IMFA to be broken is stronger, hence, the
higher the melting and boiling points.

Phospholipids
- major components of all cell membranes
- When added to water, the self-assemble into a
bilayer, with the hydrophobic tails pointing
toward the interior

*Note: Among these 4 biological molecules, Lipids are

not polymers. *

Other Classes of Polymers:

- Naturally occurring and man-made
- Natural polymeric materials: wool, silk, natural
rubber, cellulose
 Physical Science 3

Types of Intermolecular Forces of Attraction:

 Dispersion Forces
- The result of temporary dipoles induced in
atoms/molecules

Properties of Liquid:

Polarizability
- In which the electron distribution in the atom
can be distorted
- increases with the ↑ no. of e- and more diffuse
electron cloud, and DFs usually increase with
molar mass and atomic size; and surface area of
molecule
 Surface Tension
- Amount of energy required to stretch/ increase
the surface of a liquid by unit area
- As the IMFAs increase, the surface tension
increase

 Dipole-Dipole Forces
- Between polar molecules (molecules that
possess dipole moments
Cohesion
- Stronger than the dispersion forces
- IMFA between like molecules
- If: cohesion>adhesion, this results into a
depression of the liquid in the tube.
Adhesion
- IMFA between unlike molecules
- If: adhesion>cohesion, the contents of the tube
will be pushed upward
Electrostatic
- Nature of attraction
- Coulomb’s Law; the larger the dipole moment,
the stronger the attraction
- In molecules of relatively same size/mass: ↑
polarity, ↑ dipole-dipole forces

 Hydrogen Bond
- A special type of dipole-dipole interaction
between the hydrogen atom & electronegative
atom
 Ion-Dipole Forces
- Exists between an ion (cation or anion) & a
polar molecule (molecules that possess dipole
moments)
- The charge and size of the ion, the magnitude of
the dipole moment and size of the molecule can
greatly influence the strength of this
interaction.
 Viscosity
- Liquid’s resistance to flow
- The greater the viscosity, the more the fluid
flows steadily
- Liquids with strong IMFAs are higher in viscosity
 Vapor Pressure & Boiling Point
 Vaporization
- Change of liquid to gas
 Vapor
- Gaseous state at which is normally a liquid
 Molar Heat of Vaporization (∆Hvap )
- Heat required to boil 1 mol of a liquid
 Physical Science 4

- ↑ IMFAs, ↑∆Hvap

Vaporization
- Endothermic process
Heat of Fusion (∆Hfus )
- Heat change that occurs to melt a solid at its
melting point
- ↑ IMFAs, ↑∆Hfus

Structure & Properties of Water:

 High Boiling Point
 High Specific Heat
 High Density in Liquid Form
 High Surface Tension
 High Heat of Vaporization

Formation of Light and Heavy Elements

 Physical Science 5

Nucleosynthesis - Nucleuosysnthesis formed light elements,

- process that creates new atomic nucleus from whereas fusion in star formed elements with an
preexisting nucleons, which is proton neutrons atomic mass that is within the range of
berylluim and iron. Thus any element with an
Bigbang/ Primordial Nucleosynthesis atomic mass higher than iron, which required
- Origin of light elements tremedous amount of enegy to be formed was
produced from a neutron capture- reaction is
Nuclear Fusion supernova.
- Energy and temperature of the universe are
extremely high to cause the neutrons and
protons to combine and form certain species of
atomic nuclei
- Hydrogen (H), Helium (He), and small amounts
of Lithium (Li) and Beryllium (Be) were formed
- Isotopes produced: H-1, H-2, H-3, H-4, and L-7;
a dorm of element that has the same atomic
number of the original element but with
different atomic mass

Stellar Nucleosynthesis
- The formation of heavy elements by fusion of
lighter nuclei in the interior of stars
- Origin and production of heavy elements
(formed only billions of years after the
formation of stars)

Nuclear Synthetic Pathways:

 Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen Cycle
 Proton-Proton Cycle
 Triple Alpha Process

*Layers near core of stars have very high temperatures

enough to Nucleosynthesis heavy elements such as
silicon and iron. *

Elements heavier than iron

- Elements heavier than iron cannot be formed
through fusion as tremendous amounts of
energy are needed for the reaction to occur.
Heavy elements are formed in a SUPERNOVA,
which is a massive explosion of a star

Supernova
- The explosive death of a star
- Neutron capture reaction takes place in
supernova to form heavy elements

Summary:
- There are 3 reactions that led to the formation
of the elements: Nucleosynthesis, Fusion, and
neutron capture reaction.
- These reactions required a certain amount of
energy to proceed, which was obtained from
the heat of the continuously expanding
universe. Thus, energy in the form of Heas does
not only produce work but also the elements
that make up matter that we have today.
- The reaction involved in the formation of these
elements are dependent on the atomic mass of
the elements. More energy, and thus higher
temperature, is needed to form heavier
elements.
 Physical Science 6

Polarity of Molecules
Molecular Geometry
Chemical Bond - Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR)
- Formed when atoms lose, gain, or share theory; determine the spatial arrangement of
electrons atoms in a polyatomic molecule
 Ionic Bond/ Electrovalent bond
- Formed when the electrostatic attraction Lewis Structure
between oppositely charged ions in a chemical - Simplified representation of the valence shell
compound electrons in a molecule
 Covalent Bond - Show how the electrons are arranged around
- Mutual sharing of 1/more pairs of electrons individual atoms in a molecule
between 2 atoms

 Polar Molecule
- A molecule with a partial positive charge on one
end and a partial negative charge on the other
due to the electronegativity difference between
the atoms.
 Nonpolar Molecule
- A molecule with no net dipole moment due to
equal sharing of electrons between atoms.

Electronegativity
- A measure of the ability of an atom to attract
electrons towards itself

Polar Covalent Bond

- When electrons are shared unequally by two
atoms in a compound
 Dipole
- “two poles” one positive and negative end
- Atom with higher EN is- ;atom with lower EN is+

Non-Polar Covalent Bond

- Both atoms equally share a pair of electrons
between them
- Equal EN value

Polyatomic Molecules
- Both the bond polarity & molecular shape
determine the overall molecular polarity