Machine Translated by Google

15: STRENGTHENING MECHANISM

Single crystal plastic deformation in conjunction with dislocation motion and

with basic deformation mechanisms for glides and for twinning forms

single crystals represent the most ideal conditions for more in-depth lectures.

The simplification caused by the single crystal state from a material point of view

helps in describing the deformation behavior in relation to

crystallographically and with structural defects. Except for solid electronic devices

(solid-state electronic devices), single crystals are rarely used for this application

engineering caused by limitations involving strength, size and

manufacture. Commercial metal products are without exception composed of crystals

individually or from a large number of individual items. individual items

polycrystalline aggregates do not change shape according to relative laws

simple, which describes the plastic deformation in a crystal caused by

the restraining impact of the grains surrounding it.

Discusses the basic relationships of dislocation behavior. From this it is clear, that strength

inversely proportional to the mobility of dislocations and that in single crystals

with high purity there are a number of possible factors, can

affect the strength of the mechanical behavior. So, the crystal structure determines the amount

and the type of sliding system, defines the Burgers vector and determines the voltage

lattice friction (Peierls stress) which governs the level of the base strength and

dependence of strength on temperature. In a dense structure, energy

stacking faults determine the extent of dissociation of dislocations, which affects their ease

cross-sliding and the magnitude of the subsequent strain-strengthening rate. Purity and

the preparation method determines the density and: initial dislocation and substructure.

This finite variable exposes the subtleties that the 'mechanical behavior of

generally cannot be related as a function of strain, strain rate,

temperature, and voltage rate with high precision.

Machine Translated by Google

However, it takes increasing complexity to produce materials with

highest strength and usability. So fine grain is often desired for

high strength, addition of atoms-dissolving in. large amount.to increase

strength and phase transformations can be utilized to increase strength.

15.1. GRAIN BOUNDARIES AND DISLOCATIONS

The boundaries between grains in polycrystalline aggregates are lattice regions

which is interrupted to a width of only a few atomic diameters. In terms of

In general, the crystallographic orientation changes abruptly across boundaries

item from one item to the next. Grain boundaries, regular large angles

describes the random misfit region between the lattice

crystals around it.' Over the difference in orientation between the grains on the left

the right of the border decreases, the state of order at the border increases. For

low-angle grain boundaries, where the orientation differs along the length

boundary may be less than 10 , the boundary consists of arrays of dislocations

regularly.

The large-angle grain boundary is the boundary with the surface energy

a bit high. For example, inner grain boundaries. copper has an interplanetary

surface energy of about 600 erg/cm2 , while the twinning boundary energy is only

about 25 erg/cm2 . Caused by

Due to their high energy, grain boundaries are the preferential sites for reactions

solid state reactions such as diffusion, phase transformation, and

precipitation reaction. The high energy of the grain boundaries usually results

the concentration of dissolved atoms is higher at the boundary than inside

grain. This makes it difficult to separate the purely mechanical impacts of the grain boundaries against

nature, of the impact caused by segregation of impurities.

When a single crystal undergoes tensile deformation the crystal usually

free to deform on single slide system for big parts

deformation and crystals can change their orientation through rotation of the lattice when

2
Machine Translated by Google

extension occurs. However, the individual items in the test object are polycrystalline

shall not be subjected to a single uniaxial stress system, when the object is tested

subjected to tensile deformation. In polycrystals, continuity must be

maintained, so that the boundaries between deformed crystals remain

unchanged. Even though each grain tries to change shape with

homogeneous according to the overall deformation of the test object, limitations

imposed by continuity makes a marked difference

in deformation between adjacent and inward grains

each item. Lecture on deformations in coarse-grained aluminum

show that the strain around the grain boundaries is usually different

between grains by conspicuously from the strain in the middle of the grains.

Even if strain is continuous along the boundary, it may exist

sharp strain gradient in this area.

If the grain size decreases and the strain increases, the deformation becomes more

homogeneous. Due to the limitations imposed by grain boundaries,

slip occurs in some systems, even when the strain is low. it becomes

cause of slip in the non-solid plane in the region near grain boundaries.

When the grain diameter decreases, more grain boundary impact is felt

in the middle of the grain. So, the strain hardening of fine grained metals will be large

than in. coarse grained polycrystalline aggregates.

At temperatures above half the melting point, deformation can occur due to

slide along grain boundaries. Grain boundary slippage becomes lebili

stand out as the temperature increases and the strain rate decreases, as in

creeps. Concentration of deformation in the grain-boundary region is one

important source of high-temperature fracture. Because of the dirt

tends to separate to grain boundaries, fracture between grains (intergrannular fracture)

greatly influenced by composition. Crude way to discriminate

when the grain-boundary slip plays a role is with temperature

sanw-sticky (equicohesive temperature). Above this temperature is the boundary area

3
Machine Translated by Google

the grain is weaker than the inner part of the grain and the strength of A increases

with increasing grain size. Under coherent temperature, area

grain boundaries are stronger than the inner grain and the strength increases

with decreasing grain size (increased grain boundary area).

The reinforcement mechanisms discussed in this chapter include groups that

inhibits conservative movement of dislocations. This mechanism takes place

at a temperature of about 0.5 Tm, where Tm is the inner melting temperature

degrees Kelvin.

15.2. Reinforcement Mechanism:

15.2.1. Grain Reinforcement

Direct evidence for the mechanical strengthening of grain boundaries is given by

experiments on bicrystals where the orientation differences between grain boundaries

longitudinally changed systematically. Bicrystalline yield stress

increases linearly with increasing misorientation along the length

grain-boundary and extrapolate to zero-orientation-error-angle (zero

misorientation angle) gives a value close to the voltage value

single crystal yield. This result implies that reinforcement

as a result of grain boundaries is the result of mutual interference with

slip within the grain.

Several attempts have been made to calculate the curve

stress-strain for polycrystals based on the stress-strain curve

for single crystals.

The Hall-Petch relationship

4
Machine Translated by Google

Hall proposed a general relationship between the yield stress (and the

other mechanics) with grain size. This relationship then

is developed by Petch.

ÿo = ÿi + kD - 1/2)

Where :

ÿo = yield stress

ÿi = "friction stress" which is resistance

crystal lattice against dislocation movement

k = "fastening parameter" which is the size

relative hardening contribution by grain boundaries

D = grain diameter

The Hall-Petch persary was initially constructed on the basis of point measurements

yield low carbon steel. And has been shown to be able to describe

relationship between grain size and flow stress at various strain values

plastic to brittle fracture. Apart from that, it can also be described

varlation of brittle fracture stress with grain size and dependence

fatigue strength on grain size. The Hal-Petch equation is also valid for

other types of boundaries such as ferrite and pearlite boundaries in pearlite, twinning

mechanics and martensite plates.

Grain-Size Measurement

Grain-size was measured by light microscopy by counting the number

grains on a specified area, by specifying the number of grains (or

grain boundaries) that intersect any line length

known, or by comparing it with a size chart

raw grain. Most grain-size measurements require

separation relative to the shape and size distribution of the grains and therefore

5
Machine Translated by Google

it must be interpreted with caution. As pointed out by De

Hoff and Rhines, the easiest technique to implement is technique

which provides structural information that can provide correlations

with data properties (property data) and which can be implemented with

relatively simple measurements on a polished surface.

Most grain-size measurements are for search purposes

relationship between grain boundaries and specific mechanical properties. So,

grain boundary measurement per unit volume Sv, is the parameter that

useful. Smith and Guttman' show that Sv can be calculated

without problems related to grain shape and size distribution

from the measurement of the average number of intercepts of the angular test line with the boundary

grain per unit length of the NL test line .

Sv = 2NL

If Sv requires the average grain diameter D, this diameter

can be obtained by assuming that the grains are spherical and

constant size and note that each boundary is equally divided by

two adjacent items

Many studies have used the average intercept length of the test line

rambang as grain size. This determination is made with

divide the total length of the test line by the number of grains cross-cut.

The method commonly used to measure grain size in America

Union is to compare grains at the specified magnification

with the American Society for Testing and Materials grain size card

(ASTM). The relationship between the ASTM grain size numbers n and N*, ie

the number of grains per inch squared at 100 X magnification is expressed by

n-1
the following equation: N* = 2

15.2.2. Strain Strengthening

6
Machine Translated by Google

Strain hardening is the strengthening that occurs

when metal is deformed by plastic. When the metal is stretched until it occurs

plastic deformation, the metal will harden

strain

15.2.3. Solid Solution Strengthening

Solid solution strengthening (solid solution strength hardening) is

strengthening that occurs due to the addition of alloying elements, which are soluble in

form of a substituted solid solution or an interstitial solid solution.

15.2.4. Second Phase Strengthening

The second phase hardening (secong phase hardening) is the reinforcement

occurs by dissolving and distributing the second phase in the matrix.

15.2.5. Precipitation Strengthening

Precipitation hardening is a strengthening

occurs due to the emergence of a new phase in the form of intermetallic compounds

(intermetallic). The formation of a new phase is triggered by the addition of elements

an alloy of metals that forms a solid solution. As for the type

other strengthening mechanisms include Dispersion Gaining, Gaining

Martensite, Texture Reinforcement