Introduction

to cell
biology
Dr. K.A.A. Dilhari
Department of Basic
Sciences, Faculty of Allied
Health Sciences, USJ
Objectives

At the end of the lecture,

students should be able to

• Describe the microscopic

structure and function of
the eukaryotic cell

• Describe structure of the

plasma membrane
Content areas
Components of a eukaryotic cell:
o Plasma membrane
o Cytoplasm
o Nucleus
Fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane
o Cytoplasmic organelles
Mitochondria
Passage of substances across the plasma
Ribosomes
membrane
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi complex
Lysosomes
Inclusion bodies
Cytoskeleton
Activity 1 G
Identify L to M structures in the cell. H
Structure Before the Lecture After the Lecture
A I
B F
C
D E
E
F D
G
H C
I J B
J
A
K K
L
M
M L
Components
of a
eukaryotic
cell:
Plasma Membrane

• A phospholipid bilayer with

embedded proteins

• Separates the internal contents

of the cell from its surrounding
environment
 Phospholipid

A lipid molecule made up with

• two fatty acid chains – 2
hydrophobic tails
• a phosphate containing
group – a hydrophilic head
- A glycerol
- A phosphate group
- A polar group (varies)
https://teaching.ncl.ac.uk/bms/wiki/index.php/Phospholipid

The structure of phospholipid

 Fluid mosaic model of
the plasma membrane
• Proposed by Singer and Nicolson in 1972
• Describes the structure of the plasma
membrane as
• a mosaic of components including
phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins,
and carbohydrates
• Its hydrophobic integral components
such as lipids and membrane proteins
that move laterally or sideways
throughout the membrane → the
membrane is not solid, but more like a
'fluid'.
• Its main function: separating the contents of
the cell from the outside
 https://gfycat.com/linearinferiorkingsnake

Fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane

Adaptations of the cell membrane
• In some cells plasma membranes has finger-like projections →
“microvilli” (singular = microvillus)
i.e: Small intestine - absorbs nutrients from digested food
Passage of
substances
across the
plasma
membrane
Passive transport
• Plasma membranes are selectively permeable - they
allow some substances to pass through, but not others
• If this selectivity is lost, the cell would not sustain
itself, and it would be destroyed
• The most direct forms of membrane transport –
“passive”
• A naturally occurring phenomenon
• Does not require the cell to exert any of its energy to
accomplish the movement
https://www.slideshare.net/nirmalajosephine1/biology-
• Ions or molecules passe through a cell via a form-4-chapter-3-movement-of-substances-across-the-

concentration gradient, from an area of high plasma-membrane

concentration to an area of low concentration without

the expenditure of energy
https://microbenotes.com/passive-transport/
https://makeagif.com/gif/passive-transport-Lgu4io
https://www.mrdubuque.com/home/biodub-my-gifs-to-you-diffusion-osmosis
https://makeagif.com/gif/passive-transport-3VifFj https://gfycat.com/giftedpreciousbrownbutterfly
• Plasma membrane
controls the passage
of organic molecules,
ions, water, and O2
into and out of the
cell

• Wastes (such as CO2

and NH3) also leave
the cell by passing
through the plasma
membrane

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/679339925034315505/
Active transport

• The movement of molecules across a

cell membrane against the
concentration gradient using energy
Ex: Na-K pump
Ca pump
K-H pump
 A

B C D

https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/questions-and-answers/label-diagram-showing-substances-cross-cell-
membrane-simple-diffusion-outside-active-trans-q40875141
Cytoplasm
• Cell’s entire region between the plasma
membrane and the nuclear envelope

• A gel-like cytosol https://www.assignmentpoint.com/science/biology/cytoplasm.html

• Organelles are suspended

• Cytoskeleton: a network of filaments/tubules
extends throughout a cell, through the
cytoplasm
• Various chemicals • Consists of 70 - 80% water
• Has a semi-solid consistency – due to
proteins/polysaccharides, AA, NA, FA, and
derivatives of glycerol, Ions (Na, K, Ca, etc)
Nucleus (plural = nuclei)
• The most prominent organelle in
a cell

• Houses the cell’s DNA

• Directs the synthesis of

ribosomes and proteins

• Stores chromatin (DNA plus

proteins) in a gel-like substance https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/structure-of-a-cell/prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-
(nucleoplasm) cells/a/nucleus-and-ribosomes
Nucleolus
• A condensed chromatin region where
ribosome synthesis occurs

• A darkly staining area within the

nucleus
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/structure-of-a-
cell/prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-cells/a/nucleus-and-ribosomes
Nuclear Envelope • Constitutes the nucleus’ outermost
portion
(nucleus’ boundary)
• A double-membrane structure
• Both the inner and outer membranes are
phospholipid bilayers

• Continuous with the endoplasmic

reticulum

• Punctuated with pores that control the

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/structure-of-a-
cell/prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-cells/a/nucleus-and-ribosomes passage of ions, molecules, and RNA
between the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm
Nucleoplasm

• The semi-solid fluid inside the

nucleus

• The chromatin and the

nucleolus can be found in it

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/structure-of-a-
cell/prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-cells/a/nucleus-and-ribosomes
 Chromatin and Chromosomes
• Chromosomes: structures within the
nucleus that are made up of DNA, the
hereditary material

• Every eukaryotic species has a specific

number of chromosomes in the nucleus of
each cell
- In humans: chromosome No.46
- In fruit flies: It is 8

Various levels of chromatin’s organization (DNA and protein)

• In prokaryotes, DNA is organized into a single circular chromosome
• In eukaryotes, chromosomes are linear structures
 • When the cell is in the growth and
maintenance phases of its life cycle,
proteins attach to chromosomes,
and they resemble an unwound,
jumbled bunch of threads

• Chromosomes are only visible and

distinguishable from one another
when the cell is getting ready to
divide

Various levels of chromatin’s organization (DNA and protein)

Centrosome
• A microtubule - organizing centre found
near the nuclei of animal cells

• Contains a pair of centrioles, two

structures that lie perpendicular to each
other

• Each centriole is a cylinder comprised of

9 triplets of microtubules
• Non-tubulin proteins (indicated by
the green lines) hold the
microtubule triplets together

• The centrosome (the organelle

where all microtubules originate)
replicates itself before a cell
divides

• The centrioles appear to have

some role in pulling the
chromatids to opposite ends of
the dividing cell
Ribosomes
• Cellular structures responsible for protein
synthesis

• They may be attached to

• the plasma membrane’s cytoplasmic side
• the ER’s cytoplasmic side
• the nuclear envelope’s outer membrane

• Made up of two different sub-units

• A large subunit (top) and a small
subunit (bottom) comprise
ribosomes
https://biologyeducare.com/ribosome/
https://www.quora.com/What-are-70S-ribosomes
 DNA transcribes into
mRNA

mRNA travels to the

ribosomes

Ribosomes read the

mRNA

Translate the code

provided by the sequence
of the nitrogenous bases
in the mRNA into a specific
order of AAs in a protein

• AAs are the building blocks of proteins

• Protein synthesis is an
essential function of all cells
(including enzymes,
hormones, antibodies,
pigments, structural
components, and surface
receptors)
• Ribosomes are particularly
abundant in cells that
synthesize large amounts of
protein
i.e: the pancreas is responsible
for creating several digestive
enzymes and the cells that
produce these enzymes
contain many ribosomes
Mitochondria (singular = mitochondrion)
• Oval-shaped
• Has their own ribosomes and DNA
• Double membrane organelles
• Has an outer membrane and an
inner membrane
• Inner membrane contains folds,
called cristae: increase its surface
area
• The cristae and the matrix have
different roles in cellular respiration
https://www.sciencefacts.net/mitochondria.html
• Space between the two
membranes →
intermembrane space
• The space inside, the inner
membrane → mitochondrial
matrix
• ATP synthesis takes place on
the inner membrane
• Each membrane is a
phospholipid bilayer
embedded with proteins
https://www.sciencefacts.net/mitochondria.html
• Cell’s “powerhouses” or “energy factories”
• Responsible for making ATP
• ATP: Cell’s main energy carrying molecule
Represents the cell’s short-term stored energy
• ATP produced by Cellular respiration using
the chemical energy in glucose and other
nutrients
• In mitochondria, this process uses O2 and
produces CO2 as a waste product
• In fact, the CO2 that we exhale with every
breath comes from the cellular reactions that https://www.sciencefacts.net/mitochondria.html
produce CO2 as a byproduct
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• A series of interconnected membranous tubules
• Collectively modify proteins (RER) and synthesize lipids (SER)

• The hollow portion of the ER tubules

→ lumen/ cisternal space
• Phospholipid bilayer membranes
embedded with proteins
• Continuous with the nuclear envelope
https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/mhccmajorsb
io/chapter/4-9-the-endoplasmic-reticulum/
RER:
• Ribosomes attached to its cytoplasmic surface
give it a studded appearance

• The ribosomes synthesize proteins while

attached to the ER
• Transfer of their newly synthesized proteins
into the lumen of the RER
• They undergo modifications such as folding or
addition of sugars

• The RER also makes phospholipids for cell

membranes
• If the phospholipids/ modified proteins are https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/mhccmajorsb
io/chapter/4-9-the-endoplasmic-reticulum/
not destined to stay in the RER, they will be
packaged within vesicles
• Transport from the RER by budding from the
membrane
SER:
• Continuous with the RER
• has few or no ribosomes on its cytoplasmic surface

• The SER’s functions:

• synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids, and
steroid hormones
• detoxification of medications and poisons
• alcohol metabolism
• storage of calcium ions https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/mhccmajorsbio/chapter/4-9-
the-endoplasmic-reticulum/

• In muscle cells, sarcoplasmic reticulum (specialized SER)

responsible for storage of the Ca2+ (needed to trigger the
coordinated contractions of the muscle cells)
Golgi complex
• “Manufacturing and shipping
center" of the cell
• Cisternae are flat sacs
• They are stacked in a semi-
circular, bent formation
• Each formation has a membrane
to separate it from the
cytoplasm of the cell

https://www.thoughtco.com/golgi-apparatus-meaning-373366
• Several functions:
• Modification of several products from
the ER
i.e: phospholipids and proteins
• Manufacture its own biological
polymers
• Capable of both disassembly and
reassembly during mitosis
• In the early stages of mitosis, it
disassembles while it reassembles in
the telophase stage https://www.thoughtco.com/golgi-apparatus-meaning-373366
Peroxisomes

• Small, round organelles enclosed by single

membrane

• Detoxify many poisons that may enter the body

i.e:
Peroxisomes in liver cells detoxify alcohol
• Many of oxidation reactions
break down fatty acids and
amino acids → produce H2O2

• H2O2 would be damaging to

cells

• However, when these reactions

are confined to peroxisomes,
enzymes safely break down the
H2O2 into O2 and water
Lysosomes
• Spherical in shape
• A single membrane - bound cell
organelle
• Cell’s “garbage disposal”/ “recycle
centre”
• Contains digestive enzymes
• These enzymes aid in breaking down
proteins, polysaccharides, lipids,
nucleic acids, and even worn-out
organelles
• These enzymes are active at a
much lower pH

• Lysosomes are more acidic

• Low pH allows the digestive

enzymes to work

• Destroy invading viruses and

bacteria
 Inclusion bodies
• Not membrane bound organelle

• Remain free in cytoplasm

• Formed to store reserve materials

in cells
• i.e: Phosphate granules,
Glycogen, lipids, and pigments
such as melanin, lipofuscin, and
hemosiderin
 Cytoskeleton

• Made up of microtubules, actin filaments,

and intermediate filaments
• Chemical Composition:
Main proteins - tubulin (in-microtubules),
actin, myosin, tropomyosin, and other
proteins found in muscles

Cytoskeletal fibers -
Three types: Microtubules, Microfilaments,
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
• Long, unbranched, and slender
structures
• Largest filament
• Composed of the protein tubulin
• Functions:
• Involved in the formation and
degeneration of spindles during
mitosis
• Several cell organelles are derived
from microtubules
i.e: cilia, flagella, basal bodies and
centrioles
Microfilaments
• Comparatively more
slender
• have cylindrical shapes
• made up of contractile
protein actin
• Functions:
- linked to the inner face
of the plasma membrane
- involved in the internal
cell motions
- Cyclosis and amoeboid
movements take place by
microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
• have a diameter in between
microtubules and microfilaments
• Medium in length

• Functions:
• play a role in the determination and
maintenance of cell shape

• They are involved in the integration of

cell compartments
Vesicles and Vacuoles
• Membrane-bound sacs
• Function in storage and transport
• Vacuoles are somewhat larger than
vesicles
• There is a very subtle distinction between
them
• Vesicle membranes can fuse with either
the plasma membrane or other membrane
systems within the cell
• Additionally, some agents such as
enzymes within plant vacuoles break
down macromolecules
• The vacuole’s membrane does not fuse
with the membranes of other cellular
components
https://opentextbc.ca/biology2eopenstax/chapter/eukaryotic-cells/
Activity 1 G
Identify L to M structures in the cell. H
Structure Before the Lecture After the Lecture
A I
B F
C
D E
E
F D
G
H C
I J B
J
A
K K
L
M
M L
Summary
• Components of a eukaryotic cell:
o Plasma membrane
o Cytoplasm
o Nucleus
o Cytoplasmic organelles

• Fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane

• Passage of substances across the plasma membrane

Thank You