Classification of Hydropower Plants

Hydropower projects can be classified and recognized on different basis.

Different criteria are used in different country. Following are general
classification of hydropower projects.
1. Classification Based on Head
There is no any hard and fast criteria for classification based on head. In Nepal,
generally following criteria is used.
Very high head : head > 350 m
High head : head = 150 to 350 m
Medium head : head = 60 to 150 m
Low Head : Head = 30 m to 60 m
Medium Low Head : Head = 15 m to 30 m
Very low head : Head up to 15 m
2. Classification based on Capacity
Based on capacity, the hydropower are classified as follows
Micro hydropower : Up to 100 KW
Mini Hydropower : 100 KW to 1 MW
Small Hydropower Project : 1 MW to 25 MW
Medium Hydropower Project : 25 MW to 100 MW
Large Hydropower Project : > 100 MW
3. Classification Based on Grid Connection
Based on grid operation, the hydropower plants may be classified into
a. Isolated Plant
Isolated plant is not connected to national grid. National grid is the transmission
line in which power generated from more then one projects are connected. The
isolated plants are of small capacities which are usually aimed for rural areas or
isolated villages which are far away from the national grid.
b. Grid Connected Plant
Grid connected plants are connected on national grid. In Nepal, there is an
Integrated National Power System (INPS) in which all the plants are connected.
The operation of the grid connected plants is controlled by Load Dispatch
Center (LDC) which is operated by NEA. Most of the plants are grid connected
plants except some micro hydropower plants, bio gas plants, wind power
plants.
4. Based on Operation
Based on the operation time, the plants are of following two types.
a. Base load plants
The base load plants are the plants which are operated for base load. Base load
is the minimum load that is required throughout the time. The base load plants
are operated continuously throughout the year. In our system, the Run off River
plants are base load plants. In developed countries, the Nuclear plants or coal
plants are used as base load plants.
b. Peak load plants
A peak load plant is one which supplies peak power to the system. The time at
which load on the system is high is called peak time and the maximum load is
called peak load. Electricity demand may change from time to time and hour to
hour of a day. For a peak load plant, it should have storage capacity so that the
stored water can be used at required time. The Peaking Run off River (PRoR)
plants are used as daily peak plants and storage plants can be used as
seasonal peaking or any type of peaking.
5. Based on Storage Capacity
Based on storage capacity, the hydropower projects are
classified into
a. Run of River (RoR) Project
b. Peaking Run of River (PRoR) Project
c. Storage Projects
d. Pump Storage Projects
a. Run of River (RoR) Projects
• RoR projects generate power by utilizing the flow or
discharge that is available on the river at each month.
The monthly power production from these projects
depends on the discharge of river available in that
month. In RoR projects, there is no any provision of
storage. A simple weir/barrage is constructed which just
diverts the required amount of water for the project.
RoR project generates at constant rate throughout the
day.
• The components of RoR projects include weir/barrage,
intake, undersluice, divide wall, gravel trap, approach
channel, forebay, headrace canal/pipe/tunnel,
forebay/surge tank, penstock pipe anchor block, power
house including all hydromechanical and
electromechanical equipment, tailrace.
b. Peaking Run of River (PRoR) Project
• Peaking Run of River is similar to RoR project. The difference is that a PRoR
project has a daily peaking pond which can store the discharge of off-peaking
hours of a day in dry months. In the dry months, when the discharge available in
the river is less than the design discharge of the project, the generation will be
less than the installed capacity. In our system, the power demand is not
constant within a day. The demand is more during certain hours which are
called peak hours. The hours of day other than peak hours are called off-peak
hours. Generally maximum demand occurs during evening (generally 6-10 PM).
Previously, demand was in more during morning hours (7-9 AM) too however, in
recent years this pattern has changed.
• A PRoR project stores water of the river during off peak hours and generates at
full capacity during peak hours. For the storage of water, a daily peaking pond is
provided. However, the storage capacity of daily peaking pond is small and it
can store the discharge of certain hours of a day. Also, the peaking capacity of
all projects may not be uniform. As per PPA guidelines of NEA, the peaking
capacity from 1 hour to 6 hours is acceptable.
• But when the discharge available in the river is equal to or greater than the
design discharge of the plant, the PRoR project works same as RoR project and
there is no need to store water in the peaking pond.
b. Peaking Run of River (PRoR) Project Contd……….
The construction cost of PRoR projects is higher than RoR projects because
the dam has to be constructed in PRoR projects to generate peaking reservoir.
That’s why NEA provides higher rates of energy during peaking hours for PRoR
projects. For PRoR projects, the rate of energy during peaking hours is from
8.5 to 10.55 Rs per unit during peaking hours whereas for RoR projects, NEA
provides rate of energy as 8.4 Nrs per unit in dry season.
The components of PRoR project are dam/barrage, peaking reservoir,
undersluice, divide wall, undersluice, spillway, energy dissipator, settling
basin, headrace tunnel/pipe, surge tank, penstock, anchor blocks,
powerhouse with necessary hydromechanical and electromechanical
equipment, tailrace, etc.
b. Peaking Run of River (PRoR) Project Contd……….
For better understanding of PRoR project, refer the following example.
A hydropower project is constructed in a river with net head of 200 m and
design discharge of 40 cumecs. The overall efficiency of the project is 85 %.
The installed capacity is :
P = ηүQH = 0.85*9.81*40*200 = 66,708 KW = 66.7 MW
Consider the month of June when the discharge available in the river is 60
cumecs. The power produced in the month of June will be
P = ηүQH = 0.85*9.81*40*200 = 66,708 KW = 66.7 MW. Here discharge 60
cumecs is not used as the plant can not utilize more discharge than it’s design
discharge. So, in the month of June, the water in the river is sufficient and
there is no use of the peaking reservoir/pond.
b. Peaking Run of River (PRoR) Project Contd……….
Consider the month of April when the discharge available in river is 10
cumecs. The power produced in the month of April will be,
P = ηүQH = 0.85*9.81*10*200 = 16,677 KW = 16.7 MW
So, if we run the plant continuously for 24 hours, we will get 16.7 MW power.
However, if we store the water in the reservoir during off peak hours and
operate the project for 6 hour peaking, then discharge available for peak
hours would be
10∗24∗60∗60
Q= = 40 cumecs.
6∗60∗60
Then the power generated would be
P = ηүQH = 0.85*9.81*40*200 = 66,708 KW = 66.7 MW, which is the installed
capacity of the plant. So, we can shut down the plant for 18 hours and
operate the plant for 6 hours at full capacity. However, it is not necessary that
the plant may be shut down completely during off-peak hours. The design
may differ from project to project.
b. Peaking Run of River (PRoR) Project Contd……….
Power
P = 16.7 MW throughout the day

12AM 12PM 12AM Time

Fig: Power Generation without PRoR

Power

P = 66.7 MW P = 66.7 MW

7 AM 9 AM 6 PM 10 AM Time
Fig: Power Generation with PRoR
Fig: Middle Marshyangdi Hydropower Project, Lamjung a PRoR Project
c. Storage Hydropower Project
o Storage hydropower projects are those projects in which there is a high
dam and large reservoir of sufficient capacity to store the required
amount of water. The storage project stores water during the wet
season/monsoon period so that it can be used in dry season when the
discharge available in the river is low.
o In our country, there is large variation in discharge flowing in the river
among different months. The discharge flowing in the river changes from
month to month. The maximum discharge of the rivers may be even more
than 20 times than the minimum discharge. Considering our river
hydrology, the production in the dry months even falls to 20 % of their
designed capacity for RoR projects whereas the demand remains same.
o So, to manage this gap between production and demand, storage projects
are required which can generate at high capacity during dry season. Also,
these projects can be operated at any time when the load in the system is
high. If the project is shut down (closed), the water will not be wasted as
the water can be stored in the reservoir.
c. Storage Hydropower Project Contd………
o The storage project required huge cost investment as it consists of large
dam and reservoir. The cost of land acquisition for the reservoir
submergence area is also high. That’s why energy generated from this
project has high cost. The PPA schemes of NEA provide 12.4 Nrs per unit
for dry season (6 months) and 7.1 Nrs. per unit for wet season.
o In the countries like Nepal, where the water available in the rivers in dry
months falls significantly and the power production also falls in the dry
months, storage projects are absolutely necessary. Presently, the demand
management on the country has been made possible by import from
India. However, for a long term basis, the country has to develop more
storage projects to address seasonal gap between production and
demand.
o Also, there are many benefits with storage projects. A storage project
gives solutions to flood problems on the downstream reaches, opens
opportunities of tourism development an recreation activities, can be
used as multipurpose project.
o The components of storage project are, dam, spillway, energy dissipator,
intake, tunnel, surge tank, penstock pipe, anchor blocks, powerhouse and
tailrace.
Kulekhani I Reservoir
Kulekhani I Dam and Reservoir
d. Pumped Storage Projects
o Pumped storage project consists of two reservoirs, one on upstream and
one on downstream. The upper reservoir supplies water to the plant
during generation phase. The lower reservoir supplies water to upper
reservoir during pumping phase.
o The pumped storage projects are especially targeted for peak hours.
During peak hours, the plant will start generation. The rate of energy
during peak hours is high. During off-peak hours, the plant starts pumping
water from lower reservoir to upper reservoir using cheap energy
available in the grid. These plants are suitable for addressing daily peak
demand.
o The turbine of the pumped storage plant acts as pump during pumping so
that there is no need of installing separate pump for pumping hours.
Fig: Pumped Storage
Fig: Pumped Storage
Fig: Pumped Storage
Layout of Run of River (RoR) Hydropower Plant
Run of River hydropower plants don not have storage facility or reservoir.
They are simply diversion type of projects. The water of the river is diverted
with the help of headworks. The water diverted by headworks after
sedimentation is carried to the powerhouse by the conveyance system (canal,
tunnel, pipe, penstock). The water hits the turbine and power is generated
and the water is again released to the river by tailrace.
The components of RoR projects are as follows.
a. Weir/Barrage: Weir or barrage is the diversion structure which raises the
water level and diverts the river water.
b. Undersluice: Undersluice structure is the gated structure and is a part of
weir that flushes the sediments deposited at intake location.
c. Intake: To withdraw required discharge from river.
d. Gravel Trap: To settle and remove the gravels contained in the river
water.
e. Settling Basin: Also called desander or desanding basin. It removes the
suspended sediments from river water.
f. Headrace conveyance: The headrace conveyance conveys water from
settling basin to surge tank or forebay. The headrace conveyance may be
canal, pipe or tunnel depending on geology, topography, discharge and
other factors.
g. Surge Relief Structure (Surge Tank/Forebay): Surge relief structure is
used for relief against water hammer pressure. Surge tank or forebay is
used as the surge relief structure.
h. Penstock: Penstock pipe conveys water from surge tank/forebay to the
turbine.
i. Power House: Power house complex is equipped with different types of
hydro-mechanical and electro-mechanical equipment which generate
power.
j. Tailrace: Tailrace conveys the water released from the turbine to the
river.
There are basically three layout alternatives for RoR Projects.
1. RoR layout with canal option
2. RoR layout with pipe option
3. RoR layout with tunnel option
The layout and brief information regarding these types of layouts is presented
below.
1. RoR layout with canal option
In this type of scheme, canal is used as the headrace conveyance structure.
Water is conveyed by the canal to the forebay. In case of load rejection (plant
shutdown), the water is spilled from forebay. Canal layout is possible if the
terrain has gentle slope. In case of instabilities like landslides, this alignment
becomes less favorable. The cross drainage structures must be provided
wherever necessary. For suitable terrain, this type of layout is less costly and
hence economic. This layout is generally suitable for small projects. The
structures required are weir/barrage, undersluice, intake, gravel trap, settling
basin, headrace canal, forebay, penstock, power house and tailrace.
b. RoR layout with Pipe Option
The canal alignment is generally not suitable in hilly terrian due to difficult
topography, large number of cross drainage structures, large loops and
requirement of large canals. So, for small discharge, if the geology of the
alignment is suitable, pipe alignment is more suitable. Also pipe alignment
requires less land and is better if the alignment passes through settlement
area. But for large discharge large pipes and supports are required and pipe
alignment may not be suitable. The surge tank is used as the surge relief
structure. The structures required are weir/barrage, undersluice, intake,
gravel trap, settling basin, headrace pipe, surge tank, penstock, power house
and tailrace.
Fig: Plan of RoR layout with pipe option
c. RoR with Tunnel Option
If the geology of the alignment is not stable and there are the problems of
landslides and other mass movements, pipe and canal alignment is not
suitable. Also, the pipe alignment and canal alignment have large length as
these are surface alignments. If tunnel alignment is adopted, the length will
also be reduced and head loss also reduces. Further, the geological problems
like landslides do not affect tunnel as this is underground type. The land
requirement is zero for tunnel and there will not be problems of land
acquisition. For large discharge, canal and pipe alignment are not suitable.
However, tunnel alignment includes large cost and large construction time.
There are many geological uncertainities in tunnel excavation.
The structures required are weir/barrage, undersluice, intake, gravel trap,
settling basin, headrace tunnel, surge tank, penstock, power house and
tailrace.
Fig: Plan of RoR layout with tunnel option
Fig: Section of RoR layout with tunnel option
Layout of Storage Projects
The main component of a storage project is it’s dam. Many of the structures
are provided in the dam itself. The dam creates reservoir, which stores the
water. Also, due to height, dam builds the head required for the project or
adds head to the natural head. The spillway is the structure to spill excess
flood water from the reservoir. Stilling basins are provided to dissipate the
energy of water flowing over spillway. Water is withdrawn from intake. The
undersluices of bottom sluices are used to flush the sediments or to release
flood.
The headrace tunnel and surge tank may or may not be provided. If the
power house is located at the dam toe, headrace tunnel and surge tanks are
not necessary. However, if the power house is located away from the dam,
headrace tunnel and surge tank is required.
There are two types of layouts of storage hydropower projects.
a. Storage Project with Powerhouse at Dam Toe
b. Storage Project with Power House away from Dam Toe
Fig: Plan Storage Project with power house at dam toe
Fig: Section of Storage Project with Power House at dam toe
Fig: Plan and Section of Storage Project with Power House away from dam
Stages of Hydropower Development
Since hydropower development is a huge investment, it needs the planning of
each and every phase related to the study and development of the
hydropower. The stages of hydropower development include project
identification, different level of study and then construction stage. Following
are the stages planning for the study and development of a hydropower
project.
1. Project Identification Stage
2. Reconnaissance Stage
3. Pre-Feasibility Study
4. Feasibility Study
5. Detailed Engineering Design
6. Construction stage/Implementation Stage
The sequence of planning can be explained by the following chart
 Institutional Setup Implementation/Development

Implementation/Development
Project Identification

No
Feasible ?

Yes Detailed Engineering Design

Yes
Reconnaissance
No
Feasible ?

No Yes
Feasible ?
Feasibility Study
Yes Yes
No
Pre-Feasibility Study Feasible ?
1. Project Identification Stage
The potential project site may be identified based on the topographic maps,
google maps, basin plans, master plans, government basket, list of projects from
government data, literature studies and available hydrological data. A desk
study report is prepared which includes the project site, available data, project
capacity, energy generated and other information about the project is prepared.
The desk study report can be prepared without visiting the site. However, there
may be limitations since this does not include site data. If the project is not
found attractive, this project is rejected and another project is identified.
2. Reconnaissance Stage
Reconnaissance includes confirmation of the information collected in the
identification phase by the field visit. The walkover (reconnaissance) of the
project area is carried out to explore the possible alternatives of layout. The
relevant data on the topography, hydrology, geology, access, environmental
conditions is collected by the field visit. In this stage, different alternative
layouts for the project are prepared and the alternative locations for different
project structures are identified. A preliminary report is prepared which
summarizes project information, layout, capacity, energy, alternative layouts
and other relevant information. Although it may be very early to decide the
feasibility of the project, but based on the study and findings, we can
recommend whether we should conduct further study of the project or not.
3. Pre-Feasibility Study
Prefeasibility study is technical study of the project. It includes the complete
technical study and regarding environmental study, some environmental
baseline data may be collected. However, the level of detailing of technical
study is less as compared to feasibility study and detailed engineering design.
It is not compulsory to conduct prefeasibility study. However, prefeasibility
study is conducted in following two situations.
a. Some more time is needed by the government or the hydropower
developers for planning for the further studies.
b. To conclude whether the project is feasible or not? Whether we should
invest for the further studies or not.
The works carried out in the pre-feasibility study are
i. Topographical survey and mapping of the project area including the
headworks site, conveyance (canal, tunnel or pipe) alignment,
powerhouse site, access road and the river section.
ii. Geological investigations
Under geological investigations, following works are done.
a. Identification of the types of the rock, orientation of the discontinuities.
b. Geological mapping and engineering geological mapping of the project
area.
c. Geophysical Survey (2D-ERT (Electrical Resistivity Tomography) survey or
seismic refraction survey)
d. Core Drilling and geotechnical tests at some important locations.
e. Construction Material Survey: Location of construction material site and
approximate quantity of construction material.
iii. Hydrological Investigations and Studies
Under hydrological studies, following investigations and studies are carried
out.
a. Installation of the Hydrological gauge.
b. Hydrological data measurement like discharge, rainfall.
c. Estimation of the long term mean monthly flows.
d. Estimation of the design flood
iv. Preparation of the alternative project layouts (at least three) and
selection of best layout from optimization studies.
v. Hydraulic design and preliminary structural design of the project
components.
vi. Preparation of drawings.
vii. Calculation of the power and energy generated from the project
viii. Preparation of cost estimate for the project.
ix. Assessment of benefits from the project.
x. Conducting financial and economical studies and evaluation of the
project.
xi. Recommendation whether the project should be taken for feasibility
study or should be dropped.
4. Feasibility Study
Feasibility study is mainly conducted to know the technical, environmental,
financial and economical feasibility of the project. The topographical survey,
geological and geotechnical investigations, hydrological measurement and study
are carried out for the project. The design is done and drawings are prepared.
Environmental Study is conducted along with the feasibility study. After
finalization of layout, design and preparation of the drawings, the cost benefit
analysis is performed to know financial feasibility of the project. The works carried
out under this study are summarized below.
The works carried out in the feasibility study are
i. Review of Previous Studies (Prefeasibility, Identification, Desk Study,
Reconnaissance Study).
ii. Topographical survey and mapping of the project area including the
headworks site, conveyance (canal, pipe or tunnel) alignment, powerhouse
site, access road, camp site and the river section is carried out.
iii. Geological and Geotechnical investigations:
Under geological and geotechnical investigations, following studies are carried
out.
a. Identification of the types of the rock, orientation of the discontinuities.
b. Geological and engineering geological mapping of the project area
c. Geophysical Survey (2D-ERT (Electrical Resistivity Tomography) survey or
seismic refraction survey)
d. Core Drilling at headworks site, settling basin, inlet portal of the tunnel,
outlet portal of the tunnel, surge tank, powerhouse site, etc. and tests of
core material.
e. Construction material survey and testing which includes identification of
quarry sites for construction material, calculation of quantity of
construction material available and tests for construction material.
iv. Hydrological Investigations and Studies
Under hydrological investigation and studies, following works are carried out.
1. Installation of the both manual and automatic gauge.
2. Hydrological data measurement like discharge, rainfall, sediment
concentration.
3. Detailed Hydrological study.
4. Estimation of the long term mean monthly flows.
5. Estimation of peak flood and selection of design flood
v. Preparation of the alternative project layouts (at least three).
vi. Hydraulic and structural design of the project components.
vii. Optimization of the layout, capacity and the individual project
components.
viii. Calculation of the power and energy generated from the project
ix. Preparation of drawings
x. Conducting Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of Initial
Environmental Examination (IEE) study.
xi. Preparation of cost estimate for the project.
xii. Calculation of revenue generated from the project.
xiii. Conducting financial and economical studies. (benefit cost ratio, internal
rate of return, payback period, net present worth) xi. Environmental
studies
xiv. Recommendation whether the project should be considered for
construction/implementation or not.
5. Detailed Engineering Design
Detailed feasibility study is carried out if the project becomes feasible as
recommended by the other studies like pre-feasibility and feasibility and this
study prepares the reports and the documents that are required for the
implementation of the project like tender documents, detailed drawings,
construction schedules. In detailed engineering design the studies and
investigations are carried out at more details.
The works carried out in the Detailed Engineering Design are
i. Review of Previous Studies (Prefeasibility Study and Other Studies)
ii. Topographical survey and mapping of the project area including the
headworks site, conveyance (canal, pipe or tunnel) alignment, powerhouse
site, access road, camp site and the river section is carried out.
iii. Geological and Geotechnical investigations:
Under geological and geotechnical investigations, following studies are carried
out.
a. Identification of the types of the rock, orientation of the discontinuities.
b. Geological and engineering geological mapping of the project area
c. Geophysical Survey (2D-ERT (Electrical Resistivity Tomography) survey or
seismic refraction survey)
d. Core Drilling Works at headworks site, settling basin, inlet portal of the
tunnel, outlet portal of the tunnel, surge tank, powerhouse site, etc. and
tests of core material.
e. Construction material survey and testing which includes identification of
quarry sites for construction material, calculation of quantity of
construction material available and tests for construction material.
f. Additional Geotechnical Investigations if required.
iv. Hydrological Investigations and Studies
Under hydrological investigation and studies, following works are carried out.
a. Installation of the both manual and automatic gauge.
b. Hydrological data measurement like discharge, rainfall, sediment
concentration.
c. Detailed Hydrological study.
d. Estimation of the long term mean monthly flows.
e. Estimation of peak flood and selection of design flood
v. Preparation of the alternative project layouts (at least three).
vi. Hydraulic and structural design of the project components.
vii. Optimization of the layout, capacity and the individual project
components.
viii. Calculation of the power and energy generated from the project
ix. Preparation of working drawings
x. Conducting Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of Initial
Environmental Examination (IEE) study. If EIA or IEE is already completed
in feasibility, supplementary EIA/IEE study study shall be done.
xi. Preparation of detailed cost estimate for the project.
xii. Calculation of revenue generated from the project.
xiii. Conducting financial and economical studies. Calculation of financial
indicators like benefit cost ratio, internal rate of return, payback period,
net present worth.
xiv. Preparation of construction schedule.
xv. Preparation of tender documents for hiring of supervision consultants,
contractor.
6. Implementation/Construction Stage
In this stage, the project development including procurement is completed.
The detail of the works completed in this phase are
a. Hiring of supervision consultant
b. Hiring of civil, hydro-mechanical and electro-mechanical contractor.
c. Construction of access roads and camp facilities
d. Construction of civil structures
e. Installation of hydro-mechanical and electro-mechanical instruments.
f. Construction of transmission line works.
g. Commissioning of project.