Ea ers one ae Ce At the end of this module, I can: 1. Use the kinetic molecular model to explain properties of liquids and solids. 2. Describe and differentiate the types of intermolecular forces. 3. Predict the intermolecular forces present in a molecule. 4. Describe the properties of liquids, and explain the effect of intermolecular forces on these properties. 5. Explain the properties of water based on its molecular structure and intermolecular forces. 6. Measure and explain the difference in the viscosity of some liquids. 7. State the role and importance of intermolecular forces of attraction on the interactions in and between phases of matter. eee RS yo The Kinetic Molecular Model Previous discussions on kinetic molecular theory explain how gases behave. The word “kinetic” comes from the Greek word kinein, which means “to move.” Gas is made up of molecules that move randomly and are widely separated from one another. Because of their wide separation, the forces that attract the molecules together are negligible in ideal gas molecules. In addition, when the absolute temperature is increased, the average kinetic energy of the gas molecules also increase. These may result in an increase in the number of collisions, with energy transferred between collisions. The kinetic molecular model may also be used to explain the properties of liquid and solid molecules, as well as the forces of attraction that account for such properties. The phase at which any substance may exist depends on the predominance of the kinetic energies of the particles (can be an atom, ion, or a molecule) and that of the attractive forces. The kinetic energy of the particle is the energy needed to keep the particles moving. This is dependent upon temperature, as illustrated in figure 1.1. Phase changes are always accompanied by heat flow. The magnitude of such heat flow would depend on the attractive forces present in a specific substance. In solids, different states of solids may exist as solid particles can rearrange differently and follow a specific stacking pattern depending on the current temperature and pressure conditions when the solid is being formed. There are attractive forces that hold particles together. Solids usually have strong forces of attraction, whereas gases have weak forces of attraction. Mj, sore ‘Chemistry 2upon heating O 9) CORD = PRS Fig, 1.1. Temperature affects the amount of kinetic energy of the molecules, therefore affecting their movement. This means that the particles of matter expand upon heating and contract upon cooling. Based on these postulates, the particles of each phase of matter are as follows: © The particles of solids are closely packed together. Because of their compact arrangement, solids have definite sizes and shapes. This particle arrangement is also responsible for their malleability (the ability of a solid to be formed into thin sheets without breaking) and ductility (the ability of the solid to be formed into thin wires). © The particles of liquids are slightly far from one another. This amount of space enables liquids to flow and take the shape of their containers. Thus, they have no definite sizes and shapes. ‘© The particles of gases move freely and are very far from one another, which is why you cannot see them. Furthermore, gases diffuse easily. oO ee eo ae) QE =: 808 == So awl OO > snserssicn Oo O oO solid liquid Se lea aaa Fig. 1.2. Phase transition as a function of varying temperature One example is demonstrated by boiling a pot of water. Initially, no change is seen when water is at room temperature or when it begins to boil. However, as the temperature of water starts to increase, small bubbles start to form. Finally, when water is already boiling, huge bubbles form and move in bumping motion, eliciting vapor formation, In contrast to boiling, cooling reduces the kinetic molecular energy of liquids. Consequently, liquid particles come closer to one another to induce short-range attractive forces that are greater than their kinetic A / Advancing Your Knowledge on Basic Chemicalmolecular energy. This coming together of particles results in solidification or freezing. As shown in figure 1.2, changes in the molecular arrangement result in several important phase changes such as freezing (liquid to solid), melting (solid to liquid), vaporization (liq and sublimation (solid to gas). Fel Reps cnr 1. Using the kinetic molecular theory, explain the observed volatility, or the ease of evaporation of some liquids, such as alcohol and gasoline, especially at elevated temperature conditions. 2. Use the kinetic molecular theory to account for the differences in the properties of solids and those of liquids. to gas), Roueas As a person, you have your own characteristics. Which of your characteristics make you different from others? Explain. Intermolecular Forces of Attraction The intermolecular forces of attraction pertain to forces that hold individual particles such as atoms, molecules, or ions together. The strength of the intermolecular forces of attraction is dependent on the arrangentent of the particles, the proximity of particles relative to one another, and the nature of the interacting particles. The intermolecular forces of attraction influence the resulting properties of solids, liquids, and gases. In solids, for example, the intermolecular forces of attraction directly affect its melting point and heat of fusion. Properties such as boiling point, viscosity, vapor pressure, and heat of vaporization of liquids vary due to the nature and corresponding strength of the intermolecular forces of attraction. The same is also true with gases exhibiting non- ideal properties when these gaseous molecules come close eg Big to one another. Generally, the stronger the intermolecular Idea forces of attraction, the greater is the required amount of Mines ices of attraction influence the properties of solids and liquids. energy to overcome these forces. For example, compounds with high boiling points are those that possess strong intermolecular forces of attraction. MUTT [fecesThe intramolecular forces of attraction, on the other hand, are those responsible for interactions within a molecule, such as covalent and ionic bonds. One example would be the different amino acids present in a certain protein. The functional groups in each amino acid interact with one another, enabling the protein to have a folded structure, Generally, intramolecular forces of attraction are stronger than intermolecular attractions. There are several types of intermolecular forces of attraction. Note that the term van der Waals forces (named after the Dutch scientist Johannes Diderik van der Waals, 1837-1923) is sometimes used when referring to these types. 1. London dispersion force ~ Named after the German- bom physicist Fritz London, this is the weakest among the intermolecular forces. This dispersion force is eis Big caused by polarization, or the distortion of the electron | London dispersion forces cloud brought about by the presence of a highly charged | existin al substances including particle. In this case, the electron cloud of oneatom is | "™™t 988¢° attracted to the positively charged nucleus of another atom. The number of electrons in an atom affects the polarizability of the atom. This is due to the number of electrons affecting the size of the electron cloud. As a result, the larger the electron cloud, the higher the chances of the atom getting attracted by a positively charged particle. This results in the formation of temporary dipoles, wherein one end of the atom is partially positive and the other end is partially negative, To summarize, the London dispersion force happens when one molecule with a temporary dipole exerts a weak attractive force on another molecule. And because it is caused by polarization, the strength of this force depends on the number of electrons present. The London dispersion force occurs in all types of molecules, such as carbon dioxide (CO,); gaseous diatomic molecules such as hydrogen (H.,), oxygen (O,), and nitrogen (N,); and halogens such as xenon (Xe) or argon (Ar). Because of the relatively weak attraction of this type of intramolecular force, it is significant over a short distance only, which is approximately 3 x 10° meters. However, the London dispersion force is responsible for the condensation and solidification of these molecules. See figure 1.3 to see how dispersion happens, Advancing Your Knowedge on Basic Chemical Conospis), mhFig. 1.3. (Left) Structural model of ethanol (CH,CH,OH); (right) its corresponding electrostatic potential map As shown in figure 1.3, the encircled region, where the oxygen atom is positioned, represents the site that is partially negative. The electronegativity of the oxygen atom, or the ability of the oxygen atom to draw an electron toward itself, contributes to the formation of a dipole. 2. Dipole-dipole Interaction — This is an intermolecular force of attraction that occurs between partially positive (8*) and partially negative (6-) ends. This interaction is observed in polar covalent molecules such as amino acids, wherein the electrons are shared both by oxygen and carbon atoms, as illustrated in figure 1.4. However, due to the electronegativity of the oxygen atom, the oxygen ajom assumes a partially negative charge, whereas the carbon atom assumes a partially positive charge. The dipole-dipole interaction is effective over a short distance only, as it is still weak, containing only 1% of the strength of ionic bonds. Moreover, an increase in temperature diminishes the strength of a dipole-dipole interaction, which may explain the observed volatility of certain polar covalent compounds “such as sulfur dioxide. MEE (ex ciene2nitrogen (5 ) alycine , carbon (5°) ug oxygen (5°) oxygen (>), alanine nitrogen (5°) carbon (5°) , Fig. 1.4. The lone pair of electrons in nitrogen seeks the partially positive carbon to form the ‘amide bond between amino acids glycine and alanine. Glycine and alanine are examples of polar covalent molecules. 3. Ion-dipole interaction — This arises from the interaction between an ion and a polar molecule, If the molecule is an anion (negatively charged ion), it will be attracted to the partially positive end of the polar molecule; however, if the molecule is a cation (positively charged ion), it will be attracted to the partially negative end of the polar molecule. The energy of the strength of the ion-dipole interaction is about 15 kilojoules per mole (k3/mol) for a 500 parts per million (ppm) distance. The ion-dipole interaction is responsible for the formation of cations ina solution. Cations are formed from ionic solids such as calcium dichloride (CaCl) when these are dissolved in water to yield aqueous solutions. Some salts even exist in hydrated form, such as the blue- colored copper sulfate pentahydrate (CuSO, * SH,0), wherein the partial negative charge of the oxygen ion is attracted to the positively charged copper (II) ion or Cu**(in the absence of water, the solid is white). Elements belonging to groups I and II of the periodic table, such as calcium (Ca™), lose electrons easily, and thus form cations. ‘Advancing Your Knowledge on Basic Chemical Concepie> “CM4, Hydrogen bond — A hydrogen bond is a special kind of dipole-dipole interaction, which is formed when hydrogen bonds with fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen. Typically, the distance needed to form a hydrogen bond is about 2 x 10-!° meters. In a hydrogen bond, the partially positive end of the hydrogen atom is attracted to the partially negative end of fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen. Generally, hydrogen bonds are still weaker than ionic or covalent bonds, but they are the strongest intermolecular force of attraction (when the hydrogen bond is present between two atoms of two different molecules). Wi 1d The strength of the hydrogen bond is the reason for the high melting and boiling points of water, ammonia, and alcohols such as methanol. Hydrogen bonding is also important in holding together the complementary nitrogenous bases in DNA, as well as the formation of | Hydrogen bonding is protein structures, In fact, hydrogen bonds are responsible Oo et eS eral for certain properties of proteins. For example, albumin} properties of molecules, (the clear, gelatinous liquid in eggs) tums opaque and white when cooked because its hydrogen bonds have been destroyed by the heat. The effects.of ion-dipole interaction and hydrogen bonding may be illustrated by ammonium (NH,’) salts being much more soluble in water (H,O) than the corresponding sodium (Na*) compounds. The ability of the ammonium ion to form a hydrogen bond with a water molecule makes it more soluble as compared to Na’, which forms ion-dipole interactions with water molecules, ethanol water Fig. 1.5. A hydrogen bond, represented by dotted lines, exists between the ‘oxygen atom in water and the hydrogen atom in ethanol. The different types of intermolecular forces of attraction can be summarized using the flow diagram in figure 1.6. Chemistry 2Fig. 1.6. Flow diagram for identifying the intermolecular force of attraction AEB DUE Ree elo Lee 1. Explain how the intermolecular forces of attraction contribute to the observed differences in the vapor pressures between diethyl ether and water as the temperature increases. Vapor Pressure of Water and Diethyl Ether Substance 273K 293K 313K 353K 373K (0°) (20°C) (40°C) (80°C) | (100°C) Diethyl ether| 24.70 58.96 122.80 399.11 647.87 Water 0.61 2.33 137 4734 101.33 5 =~ 2. What type of intermolecular force of attraction exists in each of the following compounds? a, methane (CH,) b. potassium chloride (KCI) carbon monoxide (CO) ‘Advancing Your Knowledge on Basic Chemical Concepts)ease) Cite a personal experience that can be likened to the presence of intermolecular forces of attraction. Explain your analogy. Predicting the Intermolecular Forces in a Molecule Properties of Liquids Due to the presence of intermolecular forces, liquids exhibit the properties of viscosity, surface tension, vapor pressure, and boiling point. 1. Viscosity — This property refers to the measure of a liquid’s resistance to flow. The viscosity of a liquid is strongly dependent on the strength of the intermolecular forces . in play. Highly viscous liquids are those exhibiting the ‘The stronger the intermolecular forces of attraction, the higher the viscosity of the liquid. strongest intermolecular forces. For example, glycerol, a highly viscous liquid, whose structure is shown in figure 1.7, has a viscosity of 1.2 pascal-seconds (Pas) at 293 K (20°C). oo “Ye HO. OH Fig. 1.7. (Left) Chemical structure of a single glycerol molecule showing multiple hydroxyl (-OH) functional groups; (right) multiple hydrogen bonds (represented by dashed lines) formed from interactions among four units of glycerol molecules | Chemistry 2The viscous nature of glycerol rests on its abi presence of three hydroxyl (-OH) groups. Generally, high viscosity is observed in polymeric materials. A few examples of these polymeric materials are polyethylene terephthalate (PET), ity to form hydrogen bonds due to the which is used in fabrics; polystyrene (Styrofoam); and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), which is used in making sewage pipes. Viscosity is also present in protein-rich compounds such as egg albumin and enzymes. The components of these materials form both intermolecular and intramolecular forces of attraction from several functional groups that become highly cross-linked and entangled, resulting in high viscosity. 2. Surface Tension — This is referred to as the amount of resistance needed to increase the surface area of liquids. One example is demonstrated in figure 1.8. (liquid) Fig. 1.8. Surface tension caused by molecular interactions at the air-liquid interface Have you ever wondered why water droplets form beads on some surfaces? This observation is due to the intermolecular forces of attraction present in water. The bulk of the liquid particles on the inside are completely surrounded by other liquid particles, as shown in figure 1.8. Thus, intermolecular forces of attraction are present in all directions. On the other hand, the liquid particles located on the surface only attract themselves to the rest of the liquid particles. This situation creates an imbalance between the forces in the surface particles and the The high surface tension of ‘water is due to the strength of hydrogen bonding. forces on the inside particles, causing a contraction in their surface area. This contraction then causes the water droplets ‘Advancing Your Knowledge on Basic Chemical Concepts iY,to resemble a sphere. Should the liquid’s surface need to be increased, then the intermolecular forces of attraction must move from the inside particles into the surface particles. This is where surface tension occurs. Energy is necessary to overcome surface tension. This energy requirement must be proportional to the strength of the intermolecular forces. The greater the intermolecular force, the higher the surface tension is. Surface free energy is the work required to increase the surface area of a liquid by a unit area, The surface tension of water is 72.8 millinewtons per meter (mN/m) and has a surface energy of 72.8 millijoules per square meter (mJ/m?), Note that the surface tension decreases with decreasing polarity of the liquid, as seen in table 1.1 Table 1.1. Surface tension of some liquids Water (H,0) Chloroform (CHC!) 274 Ethanol (CH,CH,OH) Benzene (C,H,) 289 Also, surface tension is found to decrease with increasing temperature. Surface tension is an important consideration in the preparation of aerosols for drug delivery applications such as nebulizers for asthmatic people. 3. Vapor Pressure — Vaporization is the transformation of a substance from a liquid to a gas. Vaporization is an endothermic process as it requires absorption of energy to break the intermolecular forces of attraction in a liquid. The standard heat of vaporization (AH,,,) is vaporization of water protects: ‘ i Earth from warming brought the energy required to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at a | about by the sun’s energy. pressure of 101 325 pascals (Pa), which is equivalent to 760 millimeters of mercury (mmHg) or | atmosphere (atm). The large heat of vaporization of water, which is 40.7 ki/mol, is significant in harnessing the sun’s energy to cause the evaporation of water from oceans, rivers, and othernatural bodies of water, instead of warming Earth. The human body is composed of 70% water; therefore, the large heat of vaporization of water is also responsible for maintaining the body’s temperature through perspiration. Vv NE Pate alae Explain how intermolecular forces of attraction affect the following properties of liquids: e Surface tension * Viscosity é © Vaporization Consider a liquid inside an enclosed container. Initially, especially when heated, liquid molecules evaporate by escaping from the liquid’s surface and are transformed into gas molecules above the liquid (evaporation). After some time, the number of gaseous molecules increases. When this happens, some of these molecules will have the tendency to return to their liquid phase. This process is called condensation, When the rate of evaporation is the same as the rate of condensation, equilibrium is achieved. @ @ + Ia oiocutes Equilibrium is the condition at which there is a negligible net change. The vapor pressure of a liquid is defined as the pressure of the vapor present at equilibrium. Liquids with high vapor pressure have weak intermolecular forces of attraction. Fig. 1.9. Liquid molecules are Such liquids exhibit volatility, which is the _ tansformed to gas by vaporization, ability to readily evaporate from an open ‘Advancing Your Knowledge on Basic Chemical Contepts Bie.gas molecules condensing into liquid Fig. 1.10. Vapor molecules return to the liquid phase by condensation. vessel. Liquids that have strong intermolecular forces of attraction have relatively lower vapor pressure, so they would require large amounts of energy. For instance, liquids having large molar masses have relatively lower vapor pressure due to large dispersion forces. Let us compare water, which has a molar mass of 18 grams per mole (g/mol), and diethyl ether, which has a molar mass of 74 g/mol. Although diethyl ether has a larger molar mass than water, water has a lower vapor pressure than diethyl ether because of the strong hydrogen bonds between water molecules. Therefore, diethyl ether is more volatile than water. In addition, vapor pressure generally increases with increasing temperature. This is due to the high temperature increasing the kinetic energy of liquid particles, causing the liquid particles to break the existing intermolecular forces of attraction and, therefore, to undergo vaporization, For example, the vapor pressure of water at 303 K (30°C) is 4 242.85, Pa, Increasing the temperature to 363 K (90°C) will cause the vapor pressure to increase to 70 100.90 Pa. - The differences in the vapor pressure of liquids can be used when separating the components ofa mixture. Distillation is an effective method in separating the components of a mixture or in the removal of impurities in solvents. Distillation is performed by heating the mixture at a known temperature. For example, you wish to remove the impurities present in ethanol. You have leamed that ethanol boils at 351.55 K (78.4°C), whereas that of the impurity (water, for example) boils at a higher temperature. Therefore, the solvent must be heated at the boiling temperature of ethanol so that it will be evaporated from the solution and then condense back to liquid form by passing it through a condenser (an apparatus which is cooled by water). The purified ethanol is then received in another receiver flask and is ready for use. . Me // Beneral Chemistry 2VN et corse Compare the rate of evaporation of water in an open container to that of water placed in a closed container, In which system does water evaporate easily? Will you expect a dynamic equilibrium to exist should the water be placed in an open container? Explain. 4. Boiling Point — A liquid boils when its vapor pressure is equal to the prevailing atmospheric Pressure. The normal boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its pressure is equal to the standard pressure of 101 325 Pa. The normal boiling point of any liquid is directly influenced by the existing intermolecular forces of attraction. So if a stronger intermolecular force of attraction isin place, the liquid will have a relatively higher boiling point. Consider the hydrogen halides: hydrogen fluoride (HF), hydrogen chloride (HCI), and hydrogen bromide (HBr). Among the three, HF is expected to exhibit the highest boiling point due to hydrogen bond formation. Fluorine is the most electronegative, and thus it can form hydrogen bonds easily. On the other hand, let’s examine nonpolar compounds such as methane (CH,) and propane (C,H,). Propane has a relatively higher boiling point than methane, because the London dispersion forces are stronger on relatively larger molecules. Comparing HBr with chlorine gas (Cl,), which is a nonpolar compound, HBr has dipole interactive force; thus, it would have stronger intermolecular forces of attraction than Cl,. Therefore, HBr has a higher boiling point than Cl. vs Download the journal article from Khattab, Ibrahim S. et al., entitled “Density, viscosity, surface tension, and molar volume of propylene glycol + water mixtures from 293 to 323 K and correlations by the Jouyban-Acree model” by visiting http://www. sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1878535212001591, Read the article carefully and answer the following questions: |. What happens to the surface tension of propylene glycol + water mixture with an increased mole fraction of propylene glycol at 318 K? ‘Advancing Your Knowledge on Basic Chemical Concepts HB2. Tabulate the data for propylene glycol + water mixture at 293 K, 298 K, and 303 K if the mole fraction of propylene glycol is equal to 0.494. Compare the data afterward. OO | Reflect Upon Identify a person who has influenced you. Describe the bond that exists between you and this person. Properties of Water Importance of Water Water is an extremely important molecule. It actively participates in many chemical reactions, particularly those involving aqueous processes. For example, photosynthesis is based on the oxidation of water to yield molecular oxygen (O,) as a by-product. Photosynthesis is highly useful as this process converts the sun’s energy into chemical energy that organisms need. Water also facilitates the transport of molecules, nutrients, and products of reactions within and between cells. Furthermore, the behavior or properties of biomolecules may be influenced by the presence of water. i no iceland Oe To Bla Ud You usually perspire more during summer because of the warm weather, What happens to the average kinetic molecular energy of water in your body? Physical and Chemical Properties of Water Pure water is an odorless, tasteless, and colorless substance, A water molecule can form hydrogen bonds with many other molecules. A water molecule is also polar due to the lone pair of electrons in the oxygen atom. Therefore, : ‘The unique properties the electron density of the molecule is concentrated on the | of water are due to strong oxygen atom, Water is considered as the universal solvent] hydrogen bonding. because it has great dissolving power. Each water molecule ME) Severe Chemistry 2is surrounded by four other neighboring water molecules through hydrogen bonding. Thus, liquid water is composed of a three-dimensional network of water molecules that are bonded by hydrogen (see figure 1.11). Water expands on freezing, and at 277 K (4°C), liquid water has a maximum density of 1.00 gram per milliliter (g/mL). Because ice has a lower density than liquid water, it forms the top layer of lakes and rivers come winter. However, most of the water remains in liquid form, allowing aquatic life to continue to live through the winter. electron-dense region é.. (dark portion) % Fig. 1.11. (Left) Ball-and-spoke model illustrating the molecular structure of water as well as its electron-dense regions. The large, darker ball represents the oxygen atom; the small, white balls are the hydrogen atoms. (Right) Water molecules forming a hydrogen bond (dotted line). An acid is a molecule that contains a hydrogen proton (H*), and a base is a molecule that contains hydroxide (OH*), according to Arthenius’s definition. Water may act both as an acid and as a base, enabling it to undergo autoprotolysis to give hydronium (H,O") and OH ions. H,O + H,0<— H,0" + OH Autoprotolysis involves the transfer of protons from and to the same identical molecule, as given in the previous equation. Atequilibrium, the autoprotolysis constant (K.,) can be written as K, = [H,O°][OH = 1.0 « 10". Accordingly, pure water gives a neutral pH concentration of 7. Acid-base reactions involving water impose a limit on the relative strength of the acid and base components in solution. This is called the leveling effect of water. Acid-base reactions involving water yields hydronium [H,0°] and hydroxide ions in solution. The leveling effect of water imposes that the strongest acid in the solution is the hydronium ion, whereas the strongest base in the solution is the hydroxide ion. Buffer is the ability to resist extreme pH changes. The buffering capacity of water is so important from an environmental perspective. Any accidental spill of substances with extreme pH such as strong bases and acids (pH > 7 or pH < 7, respectively) will not immediately Advancing Your Knowledge on Basic Chemicalinduce significant pH changes in natural bodies of water. Therefore, aquatic organisms are protected from the hazards of being exposed to conditions of extreme acidity or extreme basicity. Water also exhibits high heat capacity, The buffering capacity . . of water prevents rivers and which prevents oceans or river systems from generating | oceans from becoming highly large changes in their temperature conditions. acidic or highly basic. VAS ee Te ed Explain how water gets its unique properties because of its structure and intermolecular forces of attraction. ONG You are a group of polymer chemists involved with the development of polymer- based resins for the paint industry. Viscosity is an important property for commercially available paints. Thus, your task is to determine the relative viscosity of different liquids at room temperature. Materials: Ostwald viscometer (or glass capillary viscometer), stopwatch, 10-mL graduated cylinder, acy pycnometer, 100-mL beakers, distilled water, copper (II) sulfate solution, coconut oil, ethyl alcohol, vessel dishwashing liquid, honey 2 bi a 1. Obtain a clean and dry Ostwald viscometer. fenirenttard Pour 5 mL of distilled water onto the viscometer | until the liquid’ level is above the lower mark (marked as “2”). See figure 1.12. Figure 1.12 Mi / General Chemisty 22. Allow the liquid sample to flow through the viscometer and immediately start timing when the liquid passes the lower mark. Stop timing when the lower meniscus of the liquid passes the upper mark of the viscometer (marked as “ obtain the mean , where 1 is the time of the outflow of the sample. Do three trials, and 3. Calculate the relative viscosity using this formula gn wept Ton pt where 1), is the relative viscosity, 1) is the viscosity of the liquid, 1, is the viscosity of the reference liquid (distilled water), p is the density of the liquid, ¢is the time lapsed (in seconds) when the liquid flows from the lower mark to the upper mark of the viscometer, pis the density of the reference liquid, and ¢,is the time lapsed (in seconds) when distilled water flows from the lower mark to the upper mark of the viscometer. Rank the samples according to increasing viscosity. In you can’t find data on density values from reliable sources, obtain the density of the solution at room temperature using a pycnometer. Follow these steps: 1. Obtain a clean and dry pycnometer and weigh it on an analytical balance (with the cap on). Record the mass in grams. 2._ Fill the pycnometer up to the mark with distilled water. Put the cap on, and then obtain the mass of the pyenometer with distilled water (figure 1.13). Clean the pyenometer and let it dry. Do the same procedure using another liquid or sample solution, Perform three trials for each sample, Figure 1.13 ‘Advancing Your Knowledge on Basic Chemical concepts 43. Compute the density of the sample using the following equation (pyc = pycnometer): = [ M888 pe + sampte — SUE mass,,. Pape Paster MASS ye + water You are then required to submit a technical report detailing the output of your experiment to the head of the research and development department for evaluation. Your report will be evaluated based on the accuracy of your results, completeness of data, and correctness of interpretation. Extend Your Knowledge Read the following article by Katarzyna Boniewicz-Szmt and Stanislaw J. Pogorzelski entitled “Thermoelastic surface properties of seawater in coastal areas of the Baltic Sea” by visiting http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0078323415001116. ESSENTIAL LEARNING The kinetic molecular theory explains on a microscopic level the properties of solids, liquids, and gases based on their molecular motion. According to this theory, particles of solids are closely packed, whereas those of liquid and gas particles are far from one other. Also, the molecular motion of solids, liquids, and gases change as influenced by temperature and the flow of heat. Solid and liquid particles are also bound by intermolecular forces of attraction. The relative strength of these intermolecular forces of attraction dictate the properties generally observed for these pure substances (elements and compounds), including their phase changes, viscosity, and surface tension. Water is an important liquid. It exhibits unique properties important in many reactions, processes, and phenomena. Such unique properties of water exist because of its ability to form hydrogen bonds.VSI Sa At the end of this module, I can: 1. Describe the difference between crystalline and amorphous solids in terms of their structure. 2. Describe the different types of crystals and their properties. 3. Describe the nature of the following phase changes in terms of enérgy change and the increase or decrease in molecular order: solid-liquid, liquid-vapor, and solid-vapor. 4. Interpret the phase diagrams of water and of carbon dioxide. 5. Determine and explain the heating and cooling curve of.a substance. 6. Explain the influence of intermolecular forces of attraction on the structure, observed properties, and phase changes of solids. ‘Types and Properties of Solids Solids have a definite shape and volume due to the compact arrangement of their particles. They can be broadly classified as crystalline and amorphous. Crystalline solids have a regular, highly ordered arrangement. Amethyst, fluorite, and pyrite are examples of crystalline solids. Amorphous solids, on the other hand, have a random, WH raed Orderliness in the arrangement of particles brings beauty, sparkle, sturdiness, and ‘other unique properties. disordered arrangement. Crystalline SiO, (Quartz) ‘Amorphous SIO, (Glass) Fig. 2.1. Particle arrangement of (left) a crystalline solid and (right) an amorphous solid ‘Adapted from https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Materials/ Structure/solidstate.hus ‘Advancing Your Knowledge on Basic Chemical Concepts)‘Space lattice refers to the three-dimensional pattem formed by the points representing the location of these particles; it defines the basic structure of the crystal. A unit ellis the smallest unit of the lattice, Each unit cell is stacked together repeatedly to resemble the whole. As shown in Harmonization among the particles that make up the figure 2.2, the points are represented by spheres. However, | Solid is necessary to achieve only a portion of the spheres reside in the vertices, faces, or edges of the unit cell Face-centered tetragon (Martensitic) The small dot represents the conter of an atom. Body-centered cube (Ferric) Representation of space lattice and unit cell Representation of dimensions of a unit cell bo Fig. 2.2. Space-filing cubic unit cells and their corresponding lattices Adapted from http:/www.thecoffeebrewers.com/de.htm!; alienspacesciencenews. wordpress.com MA seper0t cnemistry 2Figure 2.2 also shows the unit cells for (a) a face-centered cubic, (b) a body-centered cubic, and (c) a simple cubic. A simple cubic unit cell has spheres occupying all vertices, whereas a face-centered cubic unit cell has spheres occupying all vertices and faces. A body- centered cubic unit cell is characterized by spheres occupying the vertices and a sphere inside the cell. Metals such as chromium, iron, and tungsten are among those that have body-centered crystal structures at 298 K (25°C). Polonium, a rare and highly radioactive metal, assumes a simple cubic erystal structure. Precious metals such as gold and platinum have a face-centered cubic structure. The number of particles present in a unit cell is systematically determined to quantify the coordination number or the number of the nearest neighboring particles, as well as to identify the physical properties of solids such as density and conductivity. In determining the number of particles of each type in a unit cell, particles that are outside the cell, such as those occupying the vertices and faces, are shared by neighboring particles. Here are some guidelines in determining the number of particles in a unit cell: 1. A particle in the body of a cell belongs entirely to the cell and is counted as one. 2. A particle located on the face is shared by two unit cells and is counted as one-half of a unit cell. 3. A particle occupying the edge is counted as one-fourth of a unit cell, as it is shared by four unit cells. 4. A particle situated at the vertex is counted as one-eighth of a unit cell, as it is shared by cight unit cells. The crystal structure of a solid can be determined by X-ray diffraction. This process provides information on bond lengths and angles. William Henry Bragg and his son William Lawrence Bragg pioneered the work on X-ray crystallography and were both awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1915. ‘Advancing Your Knowledge on Basic Chemical Concopts 23).Orthorhombie afbéc P =90" Hexagonal Trigonal # P a Pi 490° Four Types of Unit Cell P= Primitive Tri ic C = Side-centered v4 P cab Fy 00" Fig, 2.3. Types of unit cells in various crystal classes ‘Adapted from http:/www.mechanicalengineeringblog. com/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/ image.png Substances crystallize to give different crystal structures. There are seven crystal systems: cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic, triclinic, hexagonal, and rhombohedral (trigonal). Different substances that crystallize in the same lattice with the same atomic arrangements are called isomorphous, whereas substances that crystallize in several arrangements are said to be polymorphous. Polytypes are crystals that are the same in two dimensions but different in the third. Polytypes can be either hexagonal or cubic close-packed. A hexagonal close-packed polytype gives an ABAB pattern of layers, resembling a hexagonal unit cell. The spheres in the third layer are positioned directly above the spheres of the first layer. On the other hand, the cubically close-packed polytype gives an ABCABC pattern of stacking. The spheres in the third layer are stacked above the gaps in the first layer. The cubic close-packing pattern is shown in figure 2.4, BBY fees neyA. Alayer of close-packed spheres . Adding a third layer directly over the {note the hexagonal arrangement) firsvbottom layer (ABAB...) Tetrahedral site Octahedral site ‘Addition of a second layer, D. Adding a third layer over the sitting in the depressions ‘octahedral sites (ABCABC...) between the lower layer, as close as they can get Fig. 2.4. Stacking patterns for the hexagonal and the cubic closed-packed polytypes Adapted from http:/icronodon. com/Atomic/Metals. html Figure 2.4 also shows the formation of holes in close-packed structures. As the particles are represented by spheres, the manner in which these spheres are packed would give rise to unoccupied spaces in the crystal called holes, Crystals can have either a tetrahedral hole or an octahedral hole. The size of the octahedral hole is 0.414r, and the size of the tetrahedral hole is 0.225r. The unit r is the radius. 1, Isrubber an amorphous solid? Explain. 2. Determine the number of atoms in a body-centered cubic unit cell. 3. Differentiate a crystalline solid from an amorphous solid. Advancing Your Knowledge on Basic Chemical Concepis‘Types of Crystalline Solids Crystalline solids are classified according to the nature of bonding or interactions present among their particles. Solids are classified as ionic, molecular, network, or metallic. Tonic Solids In ionic solids, ions occupy the unit cell, as shown in figure 2.5. Sodium chloride (NaCl) is an example of an ionic solid. Sodium (Na*) and chlorine (CI*) ions are bound via electrostatic or ion-ion interactions. A unit cell of NaC! is composed of four Na* ions and four CI ions. Their coordination number is six. Generally, ionic solids have high melting points ranging from 673 to 3 273 K (400-3 000°C). Also, ionic solids are hard, brittle, and poor conductors of heat and electricity. However, when in their molten state, ionic solids are strong electrolytes because the ions are in their free mobile forms. @ Na" (Sodium ion) @ cr (chioride ion) Fig. 2.5. Lattice structure of sodium chloride (NaC), an ionic solid Adapted from http:/image.tutorvista.comicontent/chemical-bonding/crystal-lattice-of-nacl.gif Molecular Solids The unit cell of a molecular solid is made up of molecules or atoms. The coordination number for molecular solids is four. These molecules or atoms are held by dispersion, dipole- dipole interaction, and/or hydrogen bonds. The intermolecular forces of attraction that exist between particles in a molecular solid are relatively weak, resulting in low melting points, ranging from | to 673 K (from ~272 to 400°C). Moreover, molecular solids are soft and are also poor conductors of heat and electricity. Examples of molecular solids include methane (CH,), phosphorus (P,), molecular oxygen (O,), carbon dioxide (CO,), and fullerenes (molecules of carbon that are hollow spheres in form). MI) /, e012 chemistry 2Network or Covalent Solids Polymeric materials, diamond, and quartz are classified as network or covalent solids. These are large or “giant” molecules in which atoms are covalently bonded in a highly cross- linked, rigid network. Because of the strong covalent bond between their particles, network solids are very hard and have very high meltinig points, ranging from 1 473 to 4 273 K (1 200-4 000°C). Network solids are also poor thermal and electrical conductors at normal temperature, because their electrons are localized in covalent bonds, and thus, they are not free to move. Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon, Allotropes are different physical forms of the same element in the same physical state. Even though diamond and graphite are both made up of carbon, they exhibit different properties because the arrangement and bonding of the carbon atoms in these two substances differ (see figure 2.6). For instance, graphite is a soft material, whereas diamond is the hardest substance (only a diamond can cut another diamond), But both are good thermal conductors. Graphite exhibits excellent thermal conductivity due to the layered arrangement of the carbon atoms in its network. carbon atoms in a diamond ‘weak bonds between layers Fig. 2.6. Comparison of the structure of (left) graphite and (right) diamond * Metallic Solids s Metallic solids are bound by metallic bonding, a type of bond in which the metal atoms “swim” in a sea of electrons. Thus, intermolecular attraction exists between the nucleus of the metal atom and the negatively charged electrons. The coordination number of metals is either eight or 12, but metals with close-packed structures usually have a coordination number of 12, Metals are excellent thermal and electrical conductors. Metals also possess malleability, ductility, luster (interaction of light with the surface of the metal), and hardness. The melting points of metals cover a wide range from 234 to 3 673 K (from -39°C to 3 400°C). Copper, nickel, and chromium are a few examples of metals. - ‘Advancing Your Knowledge on Basic Chemical Concepts iFig. 2.7. (Lett) iron is used in a variety of cooking products because of its high thermal conductivity. (Right) Copper is used in electric wires because it is ductile and has high electrical conductivity. VY Le What Have | Learned So Far? . Differentiate the following types of solids according to the nature of bonding and their corresponding physical and chemical properties: ionic solid, molecular solid, network or covalent solid, and metallic solid. Identify the type of crystalline solids according to the nature of bonding: a. Silica (SiO,) Table sugar (C,,H,,0,,) c. Potassium nitrate (KNO,) d. Copper wire (Cu) = Molecular Orbital(MO) Theory or the Band Theory ‘The molecular orbital (MO) theory, or simply the band theory of metals, accounts for most properties of metals. In molecular solids, molecular orbitals are formed by mixing two atomic orbitals, yielding bonding and antibonding MOs. These MOs are widely spaced due to a large difference in their respective energies. However, for metallic solids, MOs are formed from the valence atomic orbitals of the metal atoms. Because there are swarms of metal atoms interacting with one another, these MOs are so closely spaced that they form virtual bands. When metals are bombarded with electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light, the electrons occupying the filled MO become excited. Because these MOs have very small ME conicsgaps in between them, electrons can jump to the next empty MO. Thus, electrons can move freely throughout the metal crystal. This movement of electrons in the MOs occupied by the conducting electrons called conducting bands enables the conduction of heat or electricity through a metal The size of the band gap between MOs of metals differentiates insulators and semiconductors. Insulators do not conduct electricity or heat due to the large band gap between the empty MO and the conduction band. The electrons require large amounts of energy to jump to the conduction band. On the other hand, the band gap for semiconductors is intermediate between that of the conductor and of the insulator. The difference in the band gap may be addressed using electron doping. Doping is a process of introducing a filled MO from a dopant, which is either electron-deficient or electron-rich, in between the empty MO and the conduction band. Doping allows for a room in which electrons can move from the empty MO to the dopant’s MO (p-doped) or from the dopant’s filled MO to the empty MO of the semiconductor (n-doped), n-doped silicon p-doped silicon Fig. 2.8. Processes showing the movement of electrons upon doping, In this figure, an n-doped silicon contains an extra electron in its band, Whereas a p-doped silicon contains an atom with a proton charge, therefore leaving a “hole.” The band model also accounts for the luster exhibited by metals. Moving electrons are capable of absorbing a wide range of energies (,) as they jump from one MO to the next higher MO. As these electrons retum to lower energy levels within the conduction band, they emit visible light, which gives the luster effect. ‘mainly due fo the continuous development and improvement of semiconductors, Aavancing Your Knowledge on Base Chemical CORBIN DDAS zo ee Read the journal article of Qingqing Ke and John Wang titled “Graphene-based Materials for Supereapacitor Electrodes - A Review” by visiting http://www.sciencedirect com/science/article/pii/S23528478 16000022. Then answer the following questio 1. What is graphene? 2. How do you prepare graphene? 3. What are a few applications for graphene’ a Phase Changes Phase changes involve the transition from one phase to another, For example, a solid changes to a liquid during melting. A phase change entails either absorption or release of heat, represented by a change in the latent heat of fusion, Other phase changes include vaporization, condensation, and sublimation. Phase change occurs when a substance is subjected to different temperature and pressure conditions. For example, Earth receives radiation flux from the sun, which causes the warming of Earth. At elevated temperature conditions, water from the oceans and from other bodies of water tend to evaporate, changing its phase from liquid to gas (water vapor). This phase change is very critical as it prevents solar radiation to completely warm Earth. Water acts as a coolant due to its very large heat of vaporization. Similarly, the vaporization of water from your bodies through perspiration causes your body to cool down. 1. Melting ~ Similar to liquids, solids also undergo phase changes. A solid may turn into liquid if it is heated. This process is called melting. Take ice as an example. The energy that flows into the ice causes the random motion of water molecules. This random motion disrupts the intermolecular forces of attraction between the water molecules. Thus, water molecules break loose from the solid lattice of the ice, The temperature at which a solid changes to a liquid is called the melting point. Melting point can also be defined as the temperature at which the melting rate of a solid is the same as its freezing rate at a given pressure. This implies that the solid and liquid phases of the solid are in equilibrium, The latent heat of fusion (AH,,.) is the energy required to melt | mole of a solid at its melting point, The latent heat of fusion is highly dependent on the nature of the intermolecular force of attraction. Usually, solids with high melting points have also high values of latent heat of fusion. Chemistry 2The various processes undertaken by a substance as a function of energy added (at a constant rate) are illustrated through a heating curve. The heating curve (figure 2.9) is a plot of temperature versus time at which a constant rate of energy is supplied onto the substance. The plateau shown in the heating curve of water at 273 K (0°C) implies that the melting process continues until the solid has fully melted. aa water and steam liquid/gas equiliorium (reat goes inioNg | teem — | atigas heat goes nto phase change) temperature change) /aliliquid (neat “<<— goes into a8 Temperature (°C) sag ice and temperature / wate" change) 2+ | /—soldiquid equitorium of 1 theat goes into phase all solid +f icf change) 20 Time —————> Heat» Fig. 2.9. The heating curve shows that the temperature does not rise until the substance completes its phase change over time. ‘Adapted from hitp1/ch302.cm.utexas.edu/phys€Q/physicaliphysical-ll php a ls eae lay Think of activities that require different facets or aspects of your personality. Show how you utilize your energy and strength to ensure successful completion of those activities. 2. Vaporization — Continuing the heating process will eventually cause the liquid to boil and eventually vaporize, or turn to gas. The temperature further increases and the liquid boils at 373 K (100°C). This temperature remains constant until the liquid has been completely vaporized, as shown in figure 2.9. The melting and boiling points of substances are affected by their vapor pressures, with the vapor pressure of ice being much more dependent on temperature. The vapor pressure of ice increases rapidly with an increase in temperature, ‘as compared to the vapor pressure of liquid water, Thus, at melting point, liquids and solids have the same vapor pressures. ‘Advancing Your Knowledge on Basic. Chemical Concepts 83. Sublimation — Sublimation is the process at which a solid is vaporized at atmospheric pressure without transforming to a liquid. Solids with high vapor pressures easily sublime, Household products such as mothballs and deodorizers undergo sublimation. Occurrence of such a phase change is marked by the distinct odor these products give off. ‘Note that all phase changes are physical changes, which means that no chemical bonds are broken during these processes. rl esc 1. Identify the conditions in which sublimation can occur. x 2. Xenon melts at 161 K (112°C), whereas argon melts at 84 K (189°C). Justify these observations. 3. Differentiate the different types of phase changes. BY cco Phase changes are physical changes that matter undergoes under certain conditions. How are you affected by the physical changes of things around you? What changes or improvements ‘would you like to have for yourself? How do you think would you benefit from these changes? Phase Diagram A phase diagram represents pressure-temperature Bi g relationships at equilibrium, as the pure substance undergoes ws ide phase changes in a closed system. A closed system is a system in which no exchanges of matter take place. On the other hand, in an open system, matter goes into the system and goes out into the surroundings, or vice versa. The phase diagrams for water and for carbon dioxide are shown in figure 2.10. The phase diagram of water represents the conditions at which the solid water (ice) is less dense than the liquid water, as indicated by the negative slope (slanting to the left) of the solid- liquid equilibrium line AB. On the other hand, the phase diagram of carbon dioxide illustrates the conditions at which the solid carbon dioxide is denser than the liquid carbon dioxide, as suggested by the positive slope (slanting to the right) of the solid-liquid equilibrium line AB. LED cost Phase changes and ‘equilibrium relationships of pure substances are shown in phase iagrams.Critical point water (4,0) (746.218 atm) Carbon dioxide (CO,) fD t 3 g i i 1 spimation! deposition 0 100 ‘Temperature (°C)——> “78 3 “Temperature (°C) ——> Fig. 2.10. Phase diagrams for (left) water and (right) carbon dioxide ‘Adapted from hitp:/www.dlt nossm.edultiger/chem4.htm “The solid-liquid equilibrium line 4B in the phase diagram of waters alsoits melting curve. This implies that the most stable form of water to the left of the AB line is solid. Moreover, regions near the AB line indicate that ice is less dense than liquid water. This is demonstrated water. ‘As shown in the phase diagram of water, water boils at different temperatures at different pressure conditions. At higher elevation, the atmospheric pressure is low, causing the water to boil at a lower temperature, As a result, cooking hard-boiled eggs takes a longer time in areas that are thousands of meters above sea level, such as the top of Mt. Everest in Tibet, where the elevation is 8 847.73 meters. At this level, atmospheric pressure is 31 997 Pa, and water boils at 343 K (70°C). “The triple point represented by point 4 is the point at which all phases of a substance (in this case, water) can coexist at equilibrium. The triple point for water is achieved at 273.14 K (0.01°C) and 607.95 Pa (0.006 atm): Pressures and temperatures along the sublimation curve: [AD indicate that solid and gas are in equilibrium, and that below the sublimation curve, solids tend to sublime or vice-versa. In the case of carbon dioxide, the triple point is at 216 K (57°C) and 5.20 * 10° Pa (5.1 atm). This condition at 5.26 10° Pa is above the normal atmospheric pressure (101 325 Pa), which explains why dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) sublimes at atmospheric presse > Ate ‘Advancing Your Knowledge on BasicA supereritieal fluid is formed when the temperature of a substance is above its critical temperature. The critical temperature of water is at 647 K (374°C), whereas the critical temperature of carbon dioxide is at 304 K (31°C). The critical temperature is defined as the temperature in which the vapor cannot be liquefied regardless of the pressure applied. Critical pressure, on the other hand, is the pressure at which liquefaction occurs at the critical temperature. The critical point gives the combination of the critical pressure and the critical temperature. The critical point of water is at 647 K and 2.21 « 10” Pa (218 atm), whereas the critical point of carbon dioxide is at 304 K and 7.40 = 10° Pa (73 atm). Supercritical liquid carbon dioxide can be used for extracting contaminants or separating components of certain mixtures. Carbon dioxide is usually used in fire extinguishers. It puts out fire by keeping the oxygen away, as oxygen is needed to ignite or keep the fire buming. Carbon dioxide also serves as a coolant. Liquid carbon dioxide readily transforms into vapor when released to the environment at standard pressure. << el] What Have I Learned So Far? 1. What is the phase of a sample of carbon dioxide at a temperature of 258 K (—15°C) and a pressure of 1.013 < 10° Pa? 2. Referring to the phase diagram of water, estimate the boiling point of water at a pressure of 75 kilopascals (kPa). SURE Be Sug PEON Pretend you are a group of synthetic scientists working at a research institute involved in the development, improvement, and testing of new substances. Your task is to evaluate the thermal degradation of these new materials. You have to perform an experiment that deals with the effects of stearic acid as it undergoes phase changes. Show these effects by constructing the heating and cooling curves of stearic acid, and determine the freezing and melting point temperatures of stearic acid. Materials: iron stand, iron ring, test tube clamp, test tube, test tube rack, Bunsen burner, 250-mL beaker, wire gauze, stopwatch, thermometer, stearic acid (chemical/reagent) LEE £ Berea Chervistry 2Procedure: ‘A. Cooling Curve 1. Set up the iron stand, iron ring, wire gauze, and Bunsen burner. Fill the 250-mL. beaker with cold water. 2. Fill the test tube with stearic acid (solid). Partially submerge the test tube in the 250-mL beaker containing cold water. Heat the sample carefully by using a low flame and also by moving the burner gently back and forth (igure 2.11). Caution: Before igniting the bumer, make sure that there are no leaks. Make sure that there are no flammable materials such as pieces of paper in your work area. stearic acid (solid) Figure 2.11 3. As soon as the stearic acid starts to melt, remove the heat and place a thermometer in the sample. Using the thermometer to stir the sample gently, resume heating (still using a low flame) until the stearic acid is completely melted (figure 2.12). Put off the flame as soon as the sample has completely melted. Take note of the temperature. (The final temperature should be approximately 343 K, or 70°C.) ‘Advancing Your Knowledge on Basic Chemical Concepts | _Figure 2.12 4, Take temperature readings of the sample every 30 seconds. Keep stirring the sample. 5. Continue this procedure until the temperature of the sample reaches 313 K (40°C). Remove the test tube from the water, and let it stand in the test tube rack. (Do not hold the test tube with your bare fingers. Use a test tube holder.) B. Heating Curve 1. Heat the water in the 250-mL beaker up to 353 K (80°C). Remove the heat. Meanwhile, leave the stearic acid sample undisturbed as it cools to approximately room temperature. 2. Measure the exact temperature of the sample and set the time at 0 minutes. Immerse the test tube in the 250-mL beaker containing the hot water below the water level (figure 2.13). 4, Read and record the temperature of the sample every 30 seconds. Chemistry 2Figure 2.13 5. Use the thermometer again to gently stir the solid-liquid sample. Continue stirring. 6. Record the temperature for every 30 seconds until the temperature of the sample reaches 343 K (70°C). 7. Tabulate your data. Prepare the cooling and heating curves for stearic acid. 8. Dispose of chemicals properly and clean up all pieces of glassware. Your group must prepare a multimedia presentation summarizing the important highlights of your experiment, which will aid you in your oral presentation. The presentation will be evaluated based on the mastery and content of your presentation, quality of audiovisual aids, organization, and your ability to answer questions. | ‘Advancing Your Knowledge on Basic Chemical Conespis! : ih!Extend Your Knowledge Information about amorphous solids can be taken from the following journal article by Zbigniew H. Stachurski titled “A Theoretical Model of an Ideal Amorphous Solid.” You ‘may download the journal article by visiting http://www.seiencedirect.com/science/article/ pii/S1875389213004677. ESSENTIAL LEARNING Solids can be classified into amorphous and crystalline solids. ‘The highly ordered arrangement of solid particles gives crystalline solids unique crystal structures. Also, the arrangement of particles of solids give them and unique properties such as luster, ductility, and malleability. Crystal structures of solids can be studied using the X-ray diffraction technique. Crystalline solids can also be classified according to the nature of bonds present. Solids, just like liquids, also undergo phase changes. These phase changes that solid substances undergo can be shown using a phase diagram.