Nature of Financial Management Tearnina Qevecrives > toe nestreatnoco winaccn hot mergen eis wrRooucTion cute ramuacugcarecen ee potcen ots SSespondesenhsocann Tey et barge Semeend Ei purng ae eng oe nsng dS ner ne rot femal maou Iwata anthems pan cis 9 buses ae Eancmeemss "Sra Se So Sam Sr teret anette natch 1» G00 Tan STA STN ae epee cieaieerertiinee: iin Chea Se lel ewopng md re el eran ve Scoot ScaN TS Ral and ancl Assets armapetteaue smn timo Suc cas fn rea mal is cy ot ae, { Wah ot nos tlds ted ile hpt i fh ae ed Tce hci sh termina nde arto Stand Grape aise onsen nd wach ees Sg a ‘able 28 Summary of Compounding and Discounting Formulae oo oo oo ee aa ape Gen cantar onan ae Sapna aera Tango ion Stanmay Soe (ny) a Fl oo Fee re ee eeLines Sanwa tiecoaes Shenae: ae moeeateartereseem maehwenseemome Sechggeyer enna ey Ohara leearas Roe si Some we Te oops PROBE] cacy yr im nn Ch ‘iar sg pemsan bey he pm eirrerpetmnny nahin Siohemaameyterats cts coh areSs Ra cm oeeinanaean ef ey i ppt sn ee ae cauncae os © meee tan ote hw 15 em gp tio arom ang vue carps (pont a ep fo he? Beane eens petuptaapeoerimore {eyaraanayliprcotinnsrthosndtas Diet mmalperen Sonueoaat mead spe cB reductase fT) aig ‘opment eee (907-579 3090033) arty | tnd et pe eo ou bey Tay a ak ‘sa aw eur n ante an 38 ‘tn ey an eer Spt pt ote antiem Pate ernresere score eters hon ipscn FRO TIR SS powcr typeof SoLUMON.” 0=190VFA 2) aie se i ie aay of el (beter 64 Tn ee fo Bs poe ise mtn wn ve aa PUPA, 40718 aoe yur PPA wt 355 Tn ete40 Financial Management interest, which the firm will be paying, is approximately 10 beginning of the year, we can use the formula for the percent. compound value of an annuity due to solve the problem: [Frostem 211 AB Limited is creating a sinking fund A(CVFA, ,X1 + i) = 500,000 to redeem its preference capital of %5 lakh issued on 6 April A(CVFA .2 912)(1.12) = 500,000 2004 and maturing on 5 April 2015. The first annual payment will be made on 6 April 2004. The company will make equal A@A4.133)(1.12) = 500,000 annual payments and expects that the fund will earn 12 per 27.0294 = 500,000 cent per year. How much will be the amount of sinking fund A=500,000/27.029 payment? = 718,498.65 SOLUTION: AB Ltd wants to accumulate a future sum of %500,000. Since the annual payments will be made in theSUMMARY In te chaper we have apps the concept of prose! vale to expan the vale of ends and sas. Uk ‘ny oter sts the present value a's Bond eshte seul fhe dscounied volun a he sey a ash ‘owt dean ate bring Ib rae eur ta ens expec om scare of cenpanbe ke Bons or deborares ave debt tstruments osu. nae of 3 Bond/debentre the tam of cash fame tess of anual eet payments and wepeyrent of pric These Rows are fed and Known The value ‘the bond cn be kad fy xptasing thee fee take of return whic meet The market Inst vote or yld eed oe te Scout at nave of Bonds for bone) The Bosc forma for the ‘ied vale fle 1 When the price of bond ive, 2 Bod ie o maturity o intemal tof tum canbe ound by ousting the pee vale of te bon cash tows we pre 1 Zerotent bond (led zecoupen fonds in USA) donot ave exp ae of intrest. They ae isu fora ‘ducted pets te pce a uh lea an the face ale. Terre, hey eta caked deopacant tends The bose dacoamting pines apy in deeming the value old hse bonds lnc shares have apron ove ordinary sharholdrs wth eae dividends The preference dividend 'Sspeeed and kaon Siu th case of edcenaeprelrence shares the redemption of maturity value 1 ac known, Prefrnce share valve can be determined in Oe se ways the bond van ° “Bind jer op 1 ps ‘ation of onc and Saves 67 1 Cah tones of am ordinary (or egy) share cont ofthe pram of dividends and terminal pce of the shar ‘Un the ao of» bond cath Rows ofa sare are not Korn Ths the Hk of hog share higher an thei bond. Conquer. uly expaizaon rae wil be higher un that of bond. The ener fervala feet share vation Fone DN | OM, OME ase aR © In prac, avidend do grow over yar If we assume cvidends to grow ata conan ate g thm DIV, DIVg 15 g, DIV, = DIV +g) DN, = DI, Cg) and the save pres frmala can be writen as YOON: Eee © This formu i usin elt he equ capalzatn ae (when the pec ofthe sare (Ps market ‘Seemined end Keown © Acompanys dvdends may gow in vo stage It may have supersarmal growth for ew year and then grow ‘normal mate indeiny. Tho, See are fo enue aed: ana fo efit ped (upernra ‘gowih sage) abd perpetal ney (nal pronth stage fe sper normal oth sage Ths, wo Sep ae evolved iy calculi share vale fn eave of oaage growth © Under seam of constant goth he shar vaue gu he pin vale of mings ph he ‘wo pov paren so own ble ™ ms Ly, aE, © The price ofa ‘growth sok is ot ner the captain value of earings bt it lio incude the present vale ‘of growth opportunites. © Givena fis ES, ROE, teu caplalzatn te, tenon aan constant growth he growthoppertuntes ‘an be vad a0 flows vy, oNPY, , PWEPS.(ROE~4) hae” Eee) (© We cn alo rewrite the formals bmn lationship between te earings price ao and cplalation ake tao tom BP ay f_%e] wren] © expe. apn nn pe en te Mamromnaroetarent milling or C08 The coupon moo ators 18 por oot and the eppropriaio dicount rte Ie 18 pr cnt, Calvi the sale ofthe bond. Shoal tbe Boog! What int yd ot mary? tnd of sry yor and wil poy intrest anu 15 pee fenton te gusunding amount, Determine the preset ‘alas ofthe debenture are f the eapllianon rte epoca wer as SOLUTION: (a) Valve oftonde NE w ° % "018 [At 495, he bond Is orev therfr, should aot te Bought ‘Yn at aan = The ‘ork ae of te rs share apc noe by he pepsi NP Between he hay ‘Suave pote on wa th ghee NPY cone Tweet IR) tha dc ta che pro et prs vale. Under he iia ped wen one Nm cop 1 Both a NPV metas cou a ei a of any nd ae gency ctr eh he wee uxinzaton ce. Tay sae epee! mst Ine omens impede re 1 Undoramumber of staton Ie I a an pve «medina or mata eave pe Te [ite may as yi map oof arn teen pce si bork wna ang. ce et ie et alt ety pa my ta ae Mottin (0) te te of he rr val ch lows onal note wart of 'SeNPV re specs tthe poe sad We sip when i ha pany nes per ane (FT apne simple a pose 1 ect of inking can ae brent NPV and Phonan of mt cxcaive pict, der ‘raaatan We NPV db pred une econ with eshte pl {penton oer rats fave found favour witht bine ec, Ty ae pyc ted sing sa ar (ARB) meth Bis tebe yes ree to supe ii cash uy on nv poet. The pt weld coped I tack es tan the std poo The grt vn is med ae ‘don oad etn ale of many and det mat cme cn we a he psp 15 The dune pptck cme tere val of mary bt the te angle aye, faa rns cnt {eset yok pes Unde te cond eu cath ya's i te pr ‘cpr of pyc cin go aprouraon ofthe poets ao ar 170 Pract Mnageent © ti ney tg fry pinay ee me ‘eparacerrame maaras ce a tao Sa Borers age ee oe Sesame 0 Shitapensanerstebcoet me meme "Tibet Sammary of Invertnant Cari. 1 DhewtdCanh RnWa nen me es 1 Net pont au NPV: Te rence ene PY ch dow and Po ah ution eau 2 Nv hots oppory at fp! bang the dicount ae vwvelsSpsatheraty’ «satel + neve a Acceptance re To Ace NPV > O(a, NPY i postive jt NY <0 (Ue, NEV sega) jet may be acoped NPS Meite Dmrite 4 Sova ah Sr 1 Ragman ake Seiten sipedly 2 RE etn a opr ot opt wh pone + Buster acretetinatine + Erie toda avo mony 1 Silastic ate tasty pence (Ge-N@Votw ormoe pj aed) «+ Selden wt tne Sander ‘we eon AD prac 2 neal mort RR} T out thi equ pet vale nineteenth fad ‘usher en Sis Sins Sie 978i] stat aerrasie*” case)s seve Sig no cope epee 2 scum 2 Pos ep eee RR +k 4 Coie at or Regu iat of ct fw wh dou ‘Torrens poset ‘ons ot ld th ae adic, TR two or re ret ne) + uence + Re cmt etre Swale woe ‘maul chai + Slo cae th iti i mall wcunecatin poncle > ately a ocempee 2 Pefy nde 2): THe rte pr vol ect wheel out pray inde ot ‘owt as0. Capital Budgeting Decisions 179 Tnitial Investment $5. pias) G ‘Acceptance rule = Accept if PL> 10 = Reject if PI < 1.0 = Project may be accepted if PI = 1.0 Merits Demerits Considers all cash flows ‘+ Requires estimates ofthe cash flows which is a tedious task © Recognizes the time value of money» At times fails to indicate correct choice between mutually exclusive Projects + Relative measure of profitability Generally consistent with the wealth maximization principle Non-Discounted Cash Flow Criteria 4. Payback (PB): The number of years required to recover the initial outlay ofthe investment is called payback. Initial Investment. _ Cy PB seawal Cash Flow” C ‘Acceptance rule = Accept if PB < standard payback => Reject if PB > standard payback Merits Demerits ‘ Besy to understand and compute and * Ignores the time value of money sive to use © Emphasizes liquidity Ignores cash flows occurring after the payback period ‘Easy and crude way to cope with risk * Nota measure of profitability ‘© Uses cash flows information No objective way to determine the standard payback No relation with the wealth maximization principle 5. Discount payback: The number of years required in recovering the cash outlay on the present value basis is the discounted payable period. Except using discounted cash flows in calculating payback, this method has all the ‘demerits of payback method. 6 Accounting rate of return (ARR): An average rate of return found by dividing the average net operating profit (EBIT (1=T)] by the average investment, ‘ARR = Average Net Operating Profit after Tax ‘Average Investment Acceptance rule => Accept if ARR > minimum rate = Reject if ARR < minimum rate Merits Demerits ‘© Uses accounting data with which Ignores the time value of money ‘executives are familiar + Hasy tounderstand and calculate * Does not use cash flows Gives more weightage to future» - No objective way to determine the minimum acceptable rate of receipts retum Conclusion: Net present value (NPV) method is the most superior Investment criterion ast is always consistent with the ‘wealth maximization principle.‘A =10,000 +10,000 B —-=10,000-+17,500+7,500 c +12,000-+4,000 +12,000 +10,000__+3,000_+13,000 (a) Rank the project according to each of the following mothods: (f) Payback, (#f) ARR, (Hi IRR and (iv) NPV; assuming discount rates of 10 and 30 per cont. (b) Assuming the projects aro independent, which ono should be accepted? If the projects are mutually exclusive, which project is the best? SOLUTION: (a) (0 Payback Project A: — 10,000/10,000 = 2 yr. Project B 10,000/7,500 = 1'%5 yrs. 2 sna 10:000=6,000 Project C : 12,000, =25 yrs. Project D : yn UA ARR (20,000 - 10,000)1/2, ag Project A (10.0002 Project p ; {18000-10,0008/2 (@0,000)1/2 500 50% {18,000 —10,0001173 (10,000)1/2 2.087 _ 531 se {26,000 -10,000)1/3 (10,000)1/2 2,000 5,000 ao net cash proceeds include recovery of investment net cash earnings are found by deducting Project D (HTRR Project A: The net cash proceeds in year 1 are just equal to investment. Therefore, r= 0%. Project B : This project produces an annuity of 7,500 for two years. Thorofore, tho required PVAF fs: 10,000/7,500 = 1.33. Looking in Table D across year 2 row, this factor is found under 32% column. Therefore, 7 = 32%. Project C : Since cash flows are uneven, the trial and error method will have to bo followed. Lot us try 20% rato of discount. Tho NPV is +%1,909, ‘A higher rate should be tried. At 30% rate of discount, the NPV is =2633. The true rato of return should be less than 30%. At 27% rate of discount we find that the NPV is ~866 and al 26% + T108. Through interpolation, wo find r= 26.5%.Project D : In this case also we use the and error method, and find that at 37.6% rate of discount NPV becomes almost zero. Therefore, r = 97.6%. iv) NPV Project A: at 10% at 30% Project B : at 10% 10,000 + 10,000 x 0.909 = -910 10,000 + 10,000 x 0.769 = -2,310 10,000 + 7,500 (0.909 + 0.826) = +3013 10,000 + 7,500 (0.769 + 0.592) = + 208 at 20% Project C : ‘at 10% -10,000 + 2.000 x 0.909 + 4,000 x 0.826 + 12,000 x 0.751 = +4,134 10,000 + 2,000 x 0.769 + 4,000 x 0.592 + 12,000 x 0.455 = -639, at 30% Project D : ‘at 10% 10,000 + 10,000 x 0.909 + 3,000 x (0.826 + 0.751) = + 3,821 10,000 + 10,000 x 0.769 + 3,000 x (0.502 + 0.4555) = + 831 ‘The projects are ranked as follows according to the various methods: at 30% vos ewe eon (b) Payback and ARR are theoretically unsound mothods for choosing between the investment projects, Botweon the two time-adjusted (DCF) investment criteria, NPV and IRR, NPV gives consistent results. If the projects ‘azo independont (and there is no capital rationing), either IRR or NPV can be used since the same set of projects will be accepted by any of the methods. In the present ‘case, excopt Project A all tho three projects should be accepted if the discount rate is 10%. Only Projects and D should be undertaken if the discount rate is 30%. If we assume that the projects are mutually exclusive, then under the assumption of 30% discount rate, th choles is between B and D (A and C are unprofitable). Both criteria IRR and NPV give the same results—D is the best. Under the assumption of 10% discount rate, rankings according to IRR and NPV conflict (except for Project A). If we follow the IRR rule, Project D should be accepted. But the NPV rule tells that Project C is the best, The NPV rule generally gives consistent results in ‘conformity with the wealth maximization principle. We ‘would, therefore, accept Project C following the NPV rule. PROBLEM 8.2] Tho cash flows of Projects C and D fem 8.1 are reproduced below: ini Capital Budgeting Decisions 184 ‘C ~10,000+ 12,0004 4,000+ 12,000 +4,134 26.5% D_-10,000+10,000 +3,000+ 3,000 +3,821 97.5% (a) Why is there a conflict of rankings? (®) Why should you recommend Project C in spite of a lower rate of return? SOLUTION: (a) Suppose the discount rate as 0, 10, 15, 30 and 40 per cont. Tho NPV for cach of tho projects io given below: 0 10,000 10 9,821 15 2,942 30 831 40 238 It is noticeable that for Project C, the larger cash flows occur later in its life. At tho lower discount rates, Project C’s NPV will be higher than that of Project D. ‘As discount rates start increasing, Project Cs NPV will, however, fall at a fastor rate simply because its largest cash flows come late in life when the compounding effects of timings are most significant. Till the discount rate resches 12.5%, Project C has highor NPV than Project D. Aftor this break-even discount rate, Project D has highor NPV ‘as well as higher IRR. Thus tho rankings of the projects have differed because of the difference in thne-pattern (B) If the opportunity cost of capital {s 10%, Project should be undertaken because the firm will be richer by additional ®319 (le. €4,134 - 3,822). This can be better appreciated if we calculate the profitability of the incromontal investment (C - D). c-D 0 1000 +1,000 +8,000 +319 ‘The incremental Project C- D involves an outlay of 88,000 in year 1 and produces cash inflows %1,000 and 9,000 in years 2 and 3. At 10% opportunity cost of capital, the NPV 1s positive, 8313. Tho IRR is 12.5%. ‘What does this imply? It implies that Project C has all the benefits of Project D as well as gives additional wealth. [PROBLEM6.3 | An investment project hes two internal rates of rotumn, 20 and 50 per cent. Tho invostmont's NPV at 30 por cent discount rate is +1,000. Would the project be acceptable if the discount rate Is: (0) 40 per cent, (5) 10 por cont, and (c) 60 per cont. Draw NPV graph to justify your answer. 12.5%182. Financial Management SOLUTION: Tho investment in quostion has features of both Jonding and borrowing, Itcan be soon from the graph that NPV is positive if discount rate lies within 20 per cent and $0 por cont rango. Therefore, the investment should ‘be accapted at 40 per cent discount rato (since NPV > 0) and rejected at 10 and 60 per cont (since NPV < 0). Nev 1000 a er ‘A company is considering an investment proposal, involving an initial cash outlay of 45 lakh. The proposal hes an expected life of 7 yoars and zero salvage value. At a roquired rate of rotumn of 12 per cent, the proposal hes a profitability index of 1.182, Calculate the annual cash inflows. SOLUTION: O00 6292 Ax4,584 = 451.182 353.19 / 4.564 = (11.65 lakh, Ple PROBLEM 8.5] Equipmont A has « cost of 875,000 nd net cash flow of ¥20,000 per year, for six years. A substitute equipment B would cost €50,000 and genorate not cash flow of 814,000 per year for six years, The roguired rote of return of both oquipments is 11 por cont. Calculate the IRR and NPV for the equipments. Which equipment should be accepted and why? SOLUTION: Equipment A: NPV = 20,000xPVAR,,,, -78,000 20,000%4.291 ~75,000 = 4,620-75,000 = 80,620 IRR = 20,000xPVAF,, = 75,000 PVAF, , = 75,000//20,000 = 3.75 From the present value of an annuity table, we find: PVAR aus *3.784 PVAR, 39) = 9.085 Therefore, 3.784~8.75 =re01s+0.01 | 2784-375" IRR = 1 =0.15+0.01 (2233) =0.15+0,0004=0.1594 or 15.34% Equipment B: NPV = 14,000xPVAR, .,, ~50,000 = 14,000x4.231-50,000 = 50,24 50,000 = %0,234 IRR = 14,000xPVAF,, = 75,000 PVAR,, =3.571 From the present valuo of an ennulty table, wo find: PVAR, oy = 3.589 PVAR, oi, =9.408 Therefore, x7 oon [3588=2821 5:s00-3.498 =0.17+0.002=0.172 or 17.20% Equipment A has a higher NPV but lower IRR as compared with equipment B. Therefore equipment A should bo proforred sinco tho woalth of the shareholders will be maximized, IRR = REVIEW QUESTIONS concept? How is it p to lead to wrong capital budgoting decisions? ‘Whet is capital budgeting? Why {s it significant for a Grm? Dospite its weaknesses, the payback period method Is popular in practice? Whet are the reasons for its popularity? How do you calculete the accounting rate of return? What are its limitations? Explain the merits and demerits of the time-edjusted methods of evaluating the investment projects. What is meant by the term value of money? Which ca ible for the capital budgeting methods that do not consider the time value of money tal budgeting methods take into consideration this 6. Under what circumstencas do the net present value and internal rate of return methods differ? Which method would you profer and why? 7. What aro the mutually exclusive projects? Explain the conditions when conflicting ranking would be given by the internal rate of return and net present value mothods to such projects. 8. What is profitability index? Which is a superior ranking critorion, profitability index or the net present value? 9. Under what conditions would the internal rate of return be a recipracel of the payback period?208 Financial Management SUMMARY ©The cost of capital to a firm is the minimum return, which the suppliers of capital require. In other words, it isa price of obtaining capital; itis a compensation for time and risk. C2 The cost of capital concept is of vital significance in the financial decision-making, It is used: (a) a8 a discount, or cutoff, rate for evaluating investment projects, (@) for designing the firm's debt-equity mix and () for appraising the top management's financial performance. © Firms obtain capital for financing investments in the form of equity or debt or both. Also, in practice, they maintain a target debt-oquity mix. Therefore, the firm’s cost of capital means the weighted average cost of debt and equity. C1 Debt includes all interest-bearing borrowings. Its cost is the yield (return), which lenders expect from their investment. In most cases, return is equal to annual contractual rate of interest (also called coupon rate) Interest charges are tax deductible. Therefore, cost of debt to the firm should be calculated after adjusting for interest tax shield: KuQ-T) where ky is before-tax cost of debt and T is the corporate tax rate. Equity includes paid-up capital and reserve and surplus (retained earnings). Equity has no explicit cost, as the dividedn rate is not fixed and payment of dividends is not obligatory. However, it involves an opportunity cost. ‘The opportunity cost of equity is the rate of return required by shareholders on securities of comparable risk. Thus, itis a price, which the company must pay to attract capital from shareholders. C1 In practice, shareholders expect to receive dividends and capital gains. Therefore, the cost of equity can be thought to include expected dividend yield and percentage capital gain: tee PNi nee Dy she apc vend pe have ys he mat pe ay a Q the expected dividend growth (capital gain). The dividend growth rate, g, can be calculated as the product of the firm’s retention ratio and rate of return (ROE) in case of a totally equity financed firm. It can also be approximated by the past growth in earnings per share or dividend per share. 1 When a company issues new share capital, it has to offer shares at a price, which is much less than the prevailing market price. Therefore, the cost of retained earnings will be less than the cost of new issue of equity. Amore objective method for calculating the cost of equity is provided by CAPM: ky =Ry +(Ra—Ry)B; where Ry is the risk-free rate equal to current yield on the Treasury bills or governinent bonds; (Ry ~ Ry is the market risk premium measured as average of historical retums of a long series: and B; is the beta of the firm j. CO Three steps are involved in calculating the firm's weighted average cost of capital (WACC). First, the component costs of debt and equity are calculated. Second, weights to each component of capital are assigned according to the target capital structure. Third, the product of component costs and weights is summed up to determine WACC. The weighted average cost of new capital is the weighted marginal cost of capital (WMCC). WACC for a firm, which has debt and equity in the capital structure, is given by the following formula: waceatent(ets b-n(52 where k, is the cost of equity, ky is the cost of debt, T is the tax rate, D is debt and £ is equity. The market value weights should be used in calculating WACC. © A firm may have several divisions or product lines with different risks. Therefore, the firm's WACC cannot be used to evaluate divisions or projects. The following procedure can be used to estimate the divisional or the project's cost of capital: ‘© Identify comparable or pure-play firms and determine their equity beta based on the market data © Find the average equity beta, and unlever it as follows: E 6.-8(5) ‘© Determine the division's target capital structure, and relever the beta as follows: wala ‘© This is division or project’ levered or equity beta. Use CAPM to calculate the cost of equity. Calculate the after-tax cost of debt for the division or project. ‘= Use the target capital structure to calculate the division or project's WACC.(G8 pep i pn i of (00 S's poe usdarig cota rood in a (ot Seedy sb cpa, ich sepa i is fet the fees il be (WT ct of a AA= T= 00708) 8008 o 25% (i Tacit tend tn pra area as io" acto SO ae ‘anda pr se Tin pace ddd pet he iby nF 2 adv ad y= 86 008 Oe ee oy one ys eae z osonae ree oe ilcecnawa eae tpe ads ‘Sop ru lt frre tant ec a an ae SE wet na ean by ‘O80 #630 p90 ‘ged man oie coda gre ope mt as tere oe tony ‘Uber cot oat marge = Bigs Hit oneeoessae0m sctrer remit cence i torias (enneGanecone te ERO Fy age =e ee, eetaeomets Ei hav prt cha hi ot lv a sqiecumtagsen ql comeebum raed eras ies stearate es {Sa arom nt pen ‘Dmg seta of ed Tiina SE Arsen eth ee et eh ty oi ‘swe Or Remap aa capa ee weg ‘nde hres capa ure Tea, ‘ipa caceZestepecae sigepd eee Th cmpany con ead elon ment ear iced we ine ani = 9} 9610900) Stu‘ pe at of etl etd Tae Tareas sect on pect y oon tril hte po care ho ot 1-28 sean- ama eea0-oi09 eral cpa ct 0 “Wp Cal Pepanon Spi Cae Pa oo um gna.SUMMARY ‘The debt-equity mix of a firm is called its capital structure. The term financial structure, on the other hand, usec! in @ broader sense, ancl it includes equity and all liabilities of the firm. ‘The capital structure decision is a significant financial decision since it affects the shareholders’ return and risk, and consequently, the market value of shares. 1) The use of the fixed-charges capital like debt with equity capital in the capital structure is described as financial leverage or trading on equity. The main reason for using financial leverage is to increase the shareholders’ return. Consider an example, Suppose you have an opportunity of eaming 20 per cent on an investment of 2100 for one year. If you invest your own money, your return will be 20 per cent. On the other hand, you can borrow, say, %50 at 10 per cent tate of interest from your friend and put your own money worth €50. You shall get total earnings of 20, out of which you will have to pay 25 as interest to your friend. You shall be left with 215 on your investment of 250, which gives you a return of 30 per cent. You have earned more at the cost of your friend. A firm determines the advantage of financial leverage by calculating its impact on earnings per share (EPS) or retum, on equity (ROE). For a 100 per cent equity-financed company, EPS is calculated as follows: EPS = FBIT=7) For a company that employs both debt and equity EPS is given by the following formula: (eorr-INTDU-T) N by the product of interest rate i and the amount of debt (D), T is corporate tax rate and N is number of shares. Ifthe firm’s overall profitability is more than interest rate, EPS increases with debt. With increasing EBIT, EPS Increases faster with more debt The percentage change in EPS occurring due to a given percentage change in EBIT is referred to as the degree of financial leverage (DFL): DFL = Change in EPS. _ _2 EPS/EPS_ % Change in EBIT A EBIT/EBIT EPS ‘where EBIT is eamings before interest and taxes, INT is interest change which is given Financial and Operating Leverage 333 © An altemative formula to calculate the degree of financial leverage is as follows: prt = 28 _ _ EBIT _, , INT EBT—INT PBT |” Per EBIT depends on sales. A change in sales will affect EBIT. The variability in EBIT due to a change in sales is affected by the composition of fixed and variable cost. © The percentage change in EBIT occurring due to a given percentage change in sales is referred to as the degree Sechange in EBIT _ 4 EBIT/EDIT of operating leverage (DOL): DOL = change in Sales ~ A Sales/Sales Contribution _, , Fixed Cost EBT CEBIT © DOLand DFL.can be combined to se the effect of total leverage on EPS. The degree of combined leverage (DCL) An alternative formula for calculating DOL is as follows: DOI . fe: DCL= DOL x DFL = Stange in EPS __ Contribution _ Contribution _ | INT-+F ivan a9 follows: DCL DOLE nee naa Oe INT PBT PBT © Financial leverage, on the one hand, increases shareholders’ return and on the other, it also increases their risk, For a given level of EBIT, EPS varies more with more debt. Consider a simple example. Let us assume that a firm’s expected EBIT is 7120 with a standard deviation of 263. This implies that earnings could vary between %57 to 2183 on an average. Suppose that the firm has some debt on which it pays %40 as interest, Now the shareholders’ expected earnings will be: £120 - %40 = £80 (ignoring taxes) and standard deviation will remain unchanged. Sharcholders’ earnings will, on an average, fluctuate within a range of 17 and T143. If EBIT is less than %40, the earnings of shareholders will be negative In the extreme situation if the firm is unable to pay interest and principal, its solvency is threatened. In the insolvency, shareholders are the worst sufferers. Thus, we find that financial leverage is a double-edged sword. It increases return as well as risk. A trade-off of between return and risk will have to be struck to determine the appropriate amount of debt. ooth nag nl pla A ‘icant th putly el py ce ‘ecient ec ph Sono ea op sang sere 134 Franc rapes ‘he ied sare masini 5; arr, ‘nue Cato areata rat a ig the ste a a yy ta ‘at we fate Tha company may ae 3500 ‘Shura por ad 250 phe Sa "icon onarg e nd e “Thy etme hs erence pins formule ed se na pr tem 5 or ‘hn ped cee a aa ple ‘os 0 a “3a ini od som sn. saree, far °°? iss so eof tw Sas Sas Saabs ge Hl T-Sh ee vie nttmes pts teed by heals ‘wed anna so pepo lw (0 edtrece pat btwn Ba and seand Init dno spazo_Seano Sano ‘20a 1TH | earr=neT=7) urn zeaqo00 = enero seem ‘ott sein fr th ssa ta would En wth tng ee nce 2 pet ‘uth ot sme moa bo se ifr rey EERE jo ore [ee ee etalpetesednientatiny RSE soe mn eat po Strata tte SSSA SEC cca eer S Fo = Some prensa Beye ae aistenlty Toa (eas of epeig Ieee ge aS cn end Pt Cagle (6) ages te Const Pw 4: 8 39 Ketan in PS oesanre a8, 1 Pn too 15 bate carer al ea aan vr = F191 70-toeF <0104082-A0207 m0 = ‘0 es0_easP080 ie = _caeentsa _ ten) ean 054 cations ra ts 1 Pe of are tae ce‘ SS Irv (0) ear ene semen, os ai Pre -40-2sseF 010-022-2880? (o etesm tess, stes, ‘saaee0n-asse059 ees-2500P030 ct) = eo -07012 =n 97, - RIP» 20-090 050-10 000 ‘ow0 en xasn tonsa 010 tom «08 1 pt he cone of Fac lor. Stow th mg of ea mg te eg eee. Dow tal ng sae ems ag poste? sed oar eee 5 fc nc gs fbi ow Sah we foldividend policy, the directors of a company should aim. at bringing a balance between the desires of shareholders and the needs of the company. The factors that generally influence the dividend policy of the firm are discussed betow.? Firm's Investment Opportunities and Financial Needs Firms should tailor their dividend policies to their long-term investment opportunities to have maximum financial flexibility and avoid financial frictions and costs of raising external funds. Growth firms have a large ‘number of investment opportunities requiring substantial amount of funds. Hence they will give precedence to the retention of earnings over the payment of dividends in order to finance its expanding activities. For matured firms, investment opportunities occur infrequently. These firms may distribute most of their earnings. The retained ‘earnings of these firms during periods, when they do not have investment opportunities, may be invested in short-term securities yielding nominal returns. Some of these firms may follow the policy of paying, 100 per cent dividends and raise external funds when investment ‘opportunities occur. Generally, retained earnings should be used as a source of internal financing only when a company has profitable investment opportunities. If shareholders themselves have better investment opportunities, the ‘earnings should be distributed to them so that they may be able to maximize their wealth. Theoretically. when the company has an internal rate of retur greater than the return required by shareholders, it would be to the advantage of shareholders to allow the reinvestment of ‘earnings by the company. When the company does not have highly profitable opportunities and earns a rate on investment, which is lower than the rate required by shareholders, itis not in the interest of shareholders to retain earnings. It is sometimes argued that, even if the company has highly profitable investment opportunities, earings should be distributed and funds should be raised extemally to finance the investment. This will exert a discipline on the company’s management in proper deployment of funds. But companies in practice prefer to retain earnings because issuing new share capital is inconvenient as well as involves flotation costs. If the company raises debt, the financial obligations and risk will increase, As a matter of fact. directors may neither follow a practice of paying 100 per cent di nor a practice of retaining 100 per cent earnings. The company may have a target payout ratio consistent with investment opportunities and may like to achieve it 3 Ave ‘Nostrand Co. 1966; Weston} F,and ELF Brigham ety of factors are indicated to influence a firm's dividend policy. Sce Hastings, PG, The Management Financ, Dryden Pres, 1972, pp. 346-49; Brandt LK, Analysis for Financial Dividend Policy 441 slowly and steadily. In the absence of profitableinvestment opportunities, it can pay some ‘extra’ dividend, but still retain some earnings for the continued existence of the enterprise. Though shareholders are the owners of the company and directors should follow a policy desired by them, yet they cannot sacrifice the interests of other groups, such as debt holders, employees, society and customers. Shareholders are the residual ‘laimants to the earnings of the company. Directors ‘must retain some earnings, whether or not profitable investment opportunities exist, to maintain the company as a sound and solvent enterprise and to have financial flexibility. Only a financially sound and flexible company ‘can discharge its debt obligations, provide monetary benefits to its employees, produce quality products for its customers and make social contributions by paying, taxes and making donations.* ‘Thus, depending on the needs to finance their long term investment opportunities, companies may follow different dividend policies. Mature companies that have fewer investment opportunities may generally have high payout ratios. Shareholders of these companies would ‘be more interested in dividends, as they obtain higher retum on their investments outside the company. The share prices of such companies are very sensitive to dividend changes. The directors ofthese companies retain only a small portion of the earnings to meet emergent financial needs and to finance the occasional investment ‘opportunities and distribute the rest. Growth companies, ‘on the other hand, have plenty of investment opportuni and hence, they may have low payout ratios. They are continuously in need of funds to finance their fast ‘growing fixed assets. The distribution of earnings will reduce the funds of the company. Therefore, sometimes growth retain most oftheir earnings and issue bonus shares, regularly or from time to time, to satisfy the dividend needs of shareholders. These companies would slowly increase the amount of dividends as the profitable investment opportunities start fading. Shareholders’ Expectations Legally, the board of directors has the discretion to decide the distribution of the eamings of a company. ‘Shareholders are the legal owners of the company, and directors, appointed by them, are their agents. Therefore, directors should give due importance to the expectations ff shareholders in the matter of dividend decision. ‘Shareholders’ preference for dividends or capital gains may depend on their economic status and the effect of tax differential on dividends and capital gains. In most ‘countries, dividend income is taxed at arate higher than of Business Finance; Von ‘Management, Prentice-Hal, 1972; Van Home, [C, Finance Management and Plcy, Prentice Hall of India, 1976, pp. 287-90 44. Hastings ibid442. Financial Management the capital gains. A wealthy shareholder, in a high income taxbracket, may be interested in capital gains than current dividends. On the other hand, a retired person with small means, whose main source of income is dividend, would like to get regular dividend and may not be interested in capital gains? The ownership concentration in a firm may define the shareholders’ expectations. In case of a closely held company, the body of the shareholdersis small and homo} /and management usually knows the expectations of shareholders. Therefore, they can easily adopt a dividend policy which satisfies most shareholders. If most of the shareholders are in high tax brackets and have a preference for capital gains to current dividend incomes, the company can establish a dividend policy of paying sufficient dividends and retaining the earnings within the company, subject to its growth opportunities. ‘tis a formidable task to ascertain the preferences of shareholders in a widely held company. The number of shareholders is very large, they are dispersed and they may have diverse desires regarding dividends and capital gains. Hence it is not possible in case of widely held company to follow a dividend policy, which equally satisfies all shareholders. The firm may follow a dividend policy, which serves the purpose of the dominating. ‘group, but does not completely neglect the desires of others, Shareholders of a widely held company may be divided, for example, into four groups: smal, retired, ‘wealthy and institutional shareholders.* ‘Small shareholders are not the frequent purchasers of the shares. They hold a small number of shares in a few companies with the purpose of receiving dividend income, or sometimes making capital gains. They may not have a definite investment policy. They purchase shares only when their savings permit. Retired and old persons generally invest in shares to get a regular income. They use their savings or provident or pension funds to purchase shares. These persons may, therefore, select shares of the companies that have a history of paying regular and liberal dividends. However, a retired person who has some source of income and is in a high tax bracket may be interested in capital gains as well Wealthy investors are very much concemed with the dividend policy followed by a company. They have a definite investment policy of increasing their wealth and ‘minimizing taxes. These persons are in high tax brackets, and the dividends received in cash by them would be taxed at a high rate. Therefore, they generally prefer a dividend policy of retaining eamings and distributing bonus shares. The wealthy shareholders’ group is quite dominating in many companies as they hold relatively large blocks of shares and are able to influence the composition ofthe board of directors by their significant voting rights. On the dividend policies of these companies, this group will have a considerable influence. Institutional investors purchase large blocks of shares to hold them for relatively long periods of time. Institutional investors, unlike wealthy shareholders, are not concerned with personal income taxes but with profitable investments Most institutional investors avoid speculative issues, seek diversification in their investment portfolio and favour a policy of regular cash dividend payments It should be obvious from the above discussion that, in the case of a widely held company, the interests of the various shareholders’ groups are in conflict. It is rot easy to reconcile these conflicting interests of the different types of shareholders. However, the board of directors should consider two points? First, the board should adopt a dividend policy, which gives some consideration to the interests of each of the groups comprising a substantial proportion of shareholders. Second, the dividend policy, once established, should be continued as long as it does not interfere with the financing needs of the company. A definite dividend policy, followed for a long period in the past, tends to create a particular kind of clientele for the company. That is, it attracts those investors who consider the dividend policy in accord with their investment requirements. If the company suddenly changes its dividend policy, it may work to the detriment of these shareholders, as they may have to switch to other companies to fulfl their investment needs. Thus, an established dividend policy should be changed slowly and only after having, analysed its probable effects on the existing shareholders. Constraints on Paying Dividends Most companies recognize that the shareholders have some desire to receive dividends, although shareholders are also interested in the capital gains. How much dividend shoulda company pay? The company’s decision regarding the amount of earnings to be distributed as dividends depends on legal and financial constraints. Legal restrictions The dividend policy of the firm has to evolve within the legal framework and restrictions. The directors are not legally compelled to declare dividends. For example, the Indian Companies Act provides that dividend shall be declared or paid only ‘out of the current profits or past profits after providing, for depreciation. However, the Central Goverment is empowered to allow any company to pay dividend for any financial year out of the profits of the company without providing for depreciation. The Central Government shall give such relief only when it is in the '5. Dividend income in india hasbeen completely exempted from tax while on short-term capital gai, the taxrate is 10 per ent. Thus, the Indian shareholders may preter dividend over capital gains. The companies, onthe other hand, willhave o pay taxa Sper centon the dividends distributed to shareholders. Thus the elective corporate tax rate would be higher forthe dividend distributing comparies. 6, Hastings op it, 1966, p. 378 7. tid, p 380.public interest. The dividend should be paid in cash, but a company is not prohibited to capitalize profits or reserves (retained earings) for the purpose of issuing. fully paid bonus shares (stock dividend). It has been hheld in some legal cases that capital profits should not be distributed as dividends unless (i the distribution is, permitted by the company’s Articles of Association and (@ the profits have been actually realised. ‘The legal rules act as boundaries within which a ‘company can operate in terms of paying dividends. Acting ‘within these boundaries, a company will have to consider many financial variables and constraints in deciding the amount of earnings to be distributed as dividends. Liquidity The paymentof dividends means cash outflow. Although a firm may have adequate earings to declare dividend, it may not have sufficient cash to pay dividends. ‘Thus, the cash position of the firm is an important ‘consideration in paying dividends; the greater the cash position and overall liquidity of a company, the greater will be its ability to pay dividends. A mature company is generally liquid and is able to pay large amount of dividends. Itdoesnot have much investment opportunities; much of its funds are not tied up in permanent working, ‘capital and, therefore, it has a sound cash position. On the other hand, growing firms face the problem of liquidity. Even though they make good profits, they continuously need funds for financing growing fixed assets and working, ‘capital. Because of the insufficient cash or pressures on liquidity in case of growth firms, management may follow 4 conservative dividend policy. Financial condition and borrowing capacity The financial condition or capability of a firm depends on its use of borrowings and interest charges payable. A high degree of financial leverage makes a company quite vulnerable to changes in earnings, and also, it becomes quite difficult to raise funds externally for financing its growth. A highly levered firm is, therefore, expected to retain more to strengthen its equity base. However, a ‘company with steady growing eamings and cash flows and without much investment opportunities, may follow ‘a high dividend payment policy in spite of high amount of debt in its capital structure. A growth firm lacking liquidity may borrow to pay dividends. But this is not a ‘sound policy. This wll adversely affect the firm's financial Aexibility. Financial flexibility includes the firm's ability to access extemal funds at a later date. The firm may lose the flexibility and capacity of raising extemal funds to finance growth opportunities in the future. ‘Access to the capital market A company that is not sufficiently liquid can still pay dividends if it is able to raise debt or equity in the capital markets. If it is well established and has a record of profitability, it will not find much difficulty in raising funds in the capital markets, Easy accessibility to the capital markets provides Aexibility to the management in paying dividends as well as in meeting the corporate obligations. A fast growing, firm, which has a tight liquidity position, will not face Dividend Policy 443 any difficulty in paying dividends if it has access to the capital markets. A company that does not have sound cash position and it is also unable to raise funds, will not be able to pay dividends. Thus, the greater the ability Of the firm to raise funds in the capital markets, greater will be its ability to pay dividends even if itis not liquid. Restrictions in loan agreements Lenders may generally put restrictions on dividend payments to protect their interests when the firm is experiencing low liquidity or low profitability. As such the firm agrees, as part of a contract with a lender, to restrict dividend payments. For example, a loan agreement may prohibit payment of dividends as long as the firm’s debt-equity ratio is in excess of, say, 1.5:1 or when the liquidity ratio is less than, say, 21 or may require the firm to pay dividends ‘only when some amount of current earnings has been transferred to a sinking fund established to retire debt. ‘These are some of the examples of the restrictions put by lenders on the payment of dividends. When these restrictions are put, the company is forced to retain earnings and have a low payout. Inflation Inflation can act as a constraint on paying dividends. Our accounting system is based on historical costs. Depreciation is charged on the basis of original costs at which assets were acquired. As a result, when prices rise, funds equal to depreciation set aside would not be adequate to replace assets or to maintain the capital intact. Consequently, to maintain the capital intact and preserve their earnings power, firms earnings may avoid paying dividends. On the contrary, some companies may follow a policy of paying more dividends during high inflation in order to protect the shareholders from the erosion of the real value of dividends. Companies with falling or constant profits may not be able to follow this policy. Control The objective of maintaining control over the company by the existing management group or the body of shareholders can be an important variable in influencing the company’s dividend policy. When a company pays large dividends, its cash position is affected. Asa result, the company will have to issue new shares to raise funds to finance its investment programmes. The control of the existing shareholders will be diluted if they do not want or cannot buy additional shares. Under these circumstances, the payment of dividends ‘may be withheld and earnings may be retained to finance the firm's investment opportunities. feria CON y raed 1. How do a firm's investment opportunities and need for funds affect its dividend policy? 2. How shareholders’ desire for income can influence firm's dividend decision? 3. How should 2 firm reconcile the conflict between Its ‘needs for funds and shareholders’ desire for current income in deciding the dividend policy?Principles of Working Capital Management LEARNING QeuEcTIVES nt tase netomat oft cae dot 1 anny rns cme tne tes > Specie ot mrt erg > feanane meow serena ree hcimesa!\ wrarteens Setooaterats omen natcoar es Sonees crear eset Satrinecienisnacesimenessar rene here cea ee ng ear Sic suenierientpaibcerneit Sing talog tetris ope ca Cid pomt crane ahem eeass Eon eegcaasacaaeaes SSL Saeiesraeciipmeca ere cca ie SSontgyermemnomaate ‘Seon mona nen) Sisco et td cre ae Kiitewmects teumetsate “he ten ene a wertng cpg ad theater imiescorn Thon eto hars grape ances youre Sigweleahitycrnanagegcometsoes fom themanagene inp ‘CONCEPTS OF WORKING CAPITAL Focusing on Current Assets Management Teraemocrpbolwolingoptl-guasda The gr woting cpl ancy ames sen Feo gmc feta nts pene How oo ‘nadeanc investment i cate soe Tnvriment Boel hme tne frames nearest SSS seal todd te np es tly ris renee at On et Ei dtputesmounl ening pelea een {fesse them nna Sime ‘cei sl od at nek Seca yt ing wo Sa Fran iobiiae ctensndcoes bao instr af he ging pl pole tossed aangg aarti cet ve Sree ering oo ge ‘She son rong ager hl be mae Toya atbe let forma read ‘eed Marine ees The oul spl ds weber ae cussing on Ligultty Management tdi capi gute concep inte (Seigatly onan ef Seman sop te eet Skee cement Socceecerioms Scere tga ap SSpeciey scat ates Senet astern eae eee eres tear Scone eaaatacey Sea owe a Soave gucon tout of ng ads et Svan eine recon Why Cats Maneenert 857 Sprmunne Theda prton a a teng pt SSeharequty save pn, bowen ‘OPERATING AND CASH CONVERSION CYCLE Biseticenetetegsserietg Enaesetcs Sees eciaea —oescai Haaren ites Saat ‘eter mes enh ertcert tr Seen ered Eprom mantoracnn aa napeceornmeeaae Hee teer eres hom acoso ed dmg a= See engeenmensnart mae [Rpm RE nt Fa Mgr ing. 8p688 Financial Management Operating cycle is the time duration required to convert sales, after the conversion of resources into inventories, into cash. The operating cycle of a ‘manufacturing company involves three phases: % Acquisition of resources such as raw mates labour, power and fuel, ete. %& Manufacture of the product which includes conversion of raw material into work-in-progress. into finished goods. Sale of the product either for cash or on credit. Credit sales create accounts receivable for collection. ‘These phases affect cash flows, which most of the time, are neither synchronized nor certain. They are not synchronized because cash outflows usually occur before cash inflows. Cash inflows are not certain because sales and collections which give rise to cash inflows are difficult to forecast accurately. Cash outflows, on the other hand, are relatively certain. The firm is, therefore, required to invest in current assets for a smooth, uninterrupted functioning, It needs to maintain liquidity to purchase raw materials and pay expenses such as wages and salaries, other manufacturing, administrative and selling, expenses and taxes, as there is hardly a match between cash inflows and outflows. Cash is also held to meet any future exigencies. Stocks of raw material and work- in-process are kept to ensure smooth production and to guard against non-availability of raw material and other Components. The firm holds stock of finished goods to meet the demands of customers on continuous basis and sudden demand from some customers. Debtors (accounts receivable) are created because goods are sold on credit for marketing and competitive reasons. Thus, a firm makes adequate investment in inventories, and debtors, for smooth, uninterrupted production and sale. How isthe length of operating cycle determined? Figure 27.illustrates this The length of the operating cycle of a ‘manufacturing firmisthe sum of: ()inventory conversion period (ICP) and (i) debtors (receivables) conversion period (DCP). The inventory conversion period is the {otal time needed for producing and selling the product. ‘Typically, it includes: (a) raw material conversion period (RMCP), (6) worksin-process conversion period (WIPCP), and (€) finished goods conversion period (FGCP). The ‘debtors conversion period is the time required to collect the outstanding amount from the customers. The total ‘of inventory conversion period and debtors conversion period is referred to-as gross operating cycle (GOO). ‘Table 27.1: Statement of Cost of Sales lakh) Tems “Actual | 20X1—-20X2 1. Purchase of raw material (credit) 4,653. 6,091 2. Opening raw material inventory 523.827 3. Closing raw material inventory 827988, 4. Raw material consumed (142-3) 4399 5,932 5. Direct labour 368498 8. Depreciation a2 90 7. Other mfg, expenses 553704 8. Total cost (4 +5 +6 +7) 3352 7.224 8. Opening work-in-process inventory 185 329 10. Closing work-in-pracess inventory 225 498 11. Cost of production (8+ 9-10) 5.212 7,051 12, Opening finished goods inventory 317526 1, Closing finished goods inventory 526. 995 14. Cost of goods sold (11¢12-13) 5,002. 6,502 15. Selling, administrative and general expenses 34457 16. Cost of sales (14 + 15) 3807 7.038 In practice, a firm may acquire resources (such as raw materials) on credit and may temporarily postpone payment of certain expenses. Payables, which the firm ‘can defer, are spontaneous sources of capital to finance investment in current assets. The creditors (payables) deferral period (CDP) is the length of time the firm is able to defer payments on various resource purchases. ‘The difference between (gross) operating cycle and payables deferral period is net operating cycle (NOC). If ‘deprecation is excluded from expensesin the computation ‘of operating cycle, the net operating cycle also represents the cash conversion cycle (CCC). Itis the net time interval ‘between cash collections from sale of the product and ‘eash payments for resources acquired by the firm. It also Purchases Payment RMCP = WIRCP > FGCP Invertry conversion period. —t Payable Crease {cos operating eye Collection Receivable conversion price Net opening eye Figure 27.1: Operating cycle of a manufacturing firm 2, Richards, VD. and EJ. Laughlin. A Cash-Conversion Cycle Approach to Liquidity Analysis, Finest Managemert, (Spring, 1980), PP 32-38 Also see Moyer ep. cit 1984, pp. 562-43.(662 Financial Management Inadequate working capital is also bad and has the following dangers:* % It stagnates growth. It becomes difficult for the firm to undertake profitable projects for non- availability of working capital funds. % _Itbecomes difficult to implement operating plans and achieve the firm’s profit target. % Operating inefficiencies creep in when it becomes difficult even to meet day-to-day commitments. % Fixed assets are not efficiently utilized for the lack of working capital funds. Thus, the firm's profitability would deteriorate. % Paucity of working capital funds render the firm tunable to avail attractive credit opportunities et. ‘The firm loses its reputation when it is not in a Position to honour its short-term obligations. As 4 result, the firm faces tight credit terms. An enlightened management should, therefore, ‘maintain the right amount of working capital on a continuous basis. Only then a proper functioning of business operations will be ensured. Sound financial and statistical techniques, supported by judgement, should be used to predict the quantum of working capital needed at different time periods. A firm's net working capital position is not only important as an index of liquidity but it is also used as a measure of the firm’s risk. Risk in this regard means chances of the firm being unable to meet its obligations ‘on due date. The lender considers a positive net working, capital as a measure of safety. All other things being equal, the more the net working capital a firm has, the less likely that it will default in meeting its current financial obligations. Lenders such as commercial banks insist that the firm should maintain a minimum net working capital position. c ss ‘OL ers a 1. What are the dangers of excessive working capital? 2. Whatare the dangers of inadequate working capital? DETERMINANTS OF WORKING CAPITAL. There are no set rules or formulae to determine the working capital requirements of firms. A large number of factors, each having a different importance, influence ‘working capital needs of firms. The importance of factors also changes for a firm over time. Therefore, an analysis, of relevant factors should be made in order to determine total investment in working capital. The following is the description of factors which generally influence the ‘working capital requirements of firms. 4 Ramamoorthy op cit 1976, p. 1. ‘5. Ramamoorthy, op. it, 1976, pp. 51-63. Nature of Business Working capital requirements of a firm are basically influenced by the nature of its business. Trading and financial firms havea very small investmentin fixed assets, but requirea large sum of money tobe invested in working capital. Retail stores, for example, must carry large stocks of a variety of goods to satisfy varied and continuous demands of their customers. A large departmental store like Wal-Mart may carry, say, over 200,000 items. Some ‘manufacturing businesses, such as tobacco manufacturers and construction firms, also have to invest substantially. in working capital and a nominal amount in fixed assets. In contrast, public utilities may have limited need for ‘working capital and have to invest abundantly in fixed assets. Their working capital requirements are nominal because they may have only cash sales and supply services, not products. Thus, no funds will be tied up in debtors and stock (inventories). For the working capital requirements most of the manufacturing companies will fall between the two extreme requirements of trading. firms and public utilities. Such companies have to make adequate investment in current assets depending upon the total assets structure and other variables. Market and Demand Conditions ‘The working capital needs of a firm are related to its sales. However, itis difficult to precisely determine the relationship between volume of sales and working capital needs. In practice, current assets will have tobe employed before growth takes place. It is, therefore, necessary to ‘make advance planning of working capital for a growing firm on a continuous basis. Growing firms may need to invest funds in fixed assets in order to sustain growing production and sales. This will, in tun, increase investment in current assets to support enlarged scale of operations. Growing firms need funds continuously. They use external sources as well as internal sources to meet increasing needs of funds. These firms face further problems when they retain substantial portion of profits, as they will not be able to pay dividends tosharcholders.Itis, therefore, imperative that such firms do proper planning to finance their increasing needs for working capital Sales depend on demand conditions. Large number of firms experience seasonal and cyclical fluctuations in the demand for their products and services. These business variations affect the working capital requirement, specially the temporary working capital requirement of the firm. When there is an upward swing in the economy, sales will increase; ingly, the firm’s investment in inventories and debtors will also increase. Under the boom period, additional investment in fixed assets maybemade by some firms to increase their productive capacity. This act of firms will require further additions of working, ‘capital. To meet their requirements of funds for fixed assets and current assets under the boom period, firms ‘generally resort to substantial borrowing. On the other hand, when there isa decline in the economy, sales will fall and consequently, levels of inventories and debtors will algo fall Under a recession, firms try to reduce their short-term borrowings. ‘Seasonal fluctuations not only affect the working ‘capital requirement but also create production problems for the firm. During periods of peak demand, increasing production may be expensive for the firm. Similarly, it will be more expensive during slack periods when the firm has to sustain its working force and physical facilities without adequate production and sales. A firm may, thus, follow a policy of level production, irrespective of seasonal changes in order to utilize its resources to the fullest extent. Such a policy will mean accumulation of inventories during off-season and their quick disposal during the peak season. ‘The increasing level of inventories during the slack ill require increasing funds to be tied up in 1 for some months. Unlike cycli fluctuations, seasonal fluctuations generally conform to a steady pattern. Therefore, financial arrangements for seasonal working capital requirements can be made in advance, However, the financial plan or arrangement should be flexible enough to take care of some abrupt seasonal fluctuations. Technology and Manufacturing Policy ‘The manufacturing cycle (or the inventory conversion cycle) comprises the purchase and use of raw materials ‘and the production of finished goods. Longer the manufacturing cycle, larger will be the firm’s working capital requirements. For example, the manufacturing, «cycle in the case of a boiler, depending on its size, may range between six to twenty-four months. On the other hand, the manufacturing cycle of products such as detergent powder, soaps, chocolate, etc,, may be a few hours. An extended manufacturing time span means a larger tie-up of funds in inventories. Thus, if there are alternative technologies of manufacturing a product, the technological process with the shortest manufacturing cycle may be chosen. Once a manufacturing technology thas been selected it should be ensured that manufacturing, «cycle is completed within the specified period. This needs proper planning and coordination at all levels of activity. Any delay in manufacturing process will result in accumulation of work-in-process and wastage of time. In order to minimize their investment in working capital, some firms, specifically those manufacturing industrial products, have a policy of asking for advance payments from their customers. Non-manufacturing firms, service and financial enterprises do not have a manufacturing, cde. Principles of Working Capital Management 663 A strategy of level or steady production may be ‘maintained in order to resolve the working capital [problems arising due to seasonal changes in the demand. for the firm's product. steady orlevel production policy will cause inventories to accumulate during the off-season periods and the firm will be exposed to greater inventory costs and risks. Thus, if costs and risks of maintaining, 4 constant production schedule are high, the firm may adopta variable production policy, varying its production schedules in accordance with changing demand. Those firms, whose productive capacities can be utilized for manufacturing varied products, can have the advantage of diversified activities and solve their working capital problems. They will manufacture the original product line during its increasing demand and when it hasan off- season, other products may be manufactured to utilize physical resources and working force. Thus, production policies will differ from firm to firm, depending on the circumstances of individual firm. Credit Policy ‘The credit policy of the firm affects the working capital by influencing the level of debtors. The credit terms to bbe granted to customers may depend upon the norms of the industry to which the firm belongs. Buta firm has the flexibility ofshapingits credit policy within the constraint of the industry norms and practices. The firm should use discretion in granting credit terms to its customers. Depending upon the individual case, different terms may bbe given to different customers. A liberal credit policy, without rating the credit-worthiness of customers, will bbe detrimental to the firm and will create a problem of collection later on. The firm should be prompt in making, collections. A high collection period will mean tie-up of large funds in debtors. Slack collection procedures can increase the chance of bad debts. In order to ensure that unnecessary funds are not tied up in debtors, the firm should follow a rationalized credit policy, based on the credit standing of customers and other relevant factors. The firm should evaluate the credit standing of new customers and periodically review the credit-worthiness of the existing customers. Any case ‘of delayed payments should be thoroughly investigated. Availability of Credit from Suppliers ‘The working capital requirements ofa firm are also affected by credit terms granted by its suppliers. A firm will need. less working capital if Uberal credit terms are available to it from the suppliers. Suppliers’ credit finances the firm’s inventories and reduces the cash conversion cycle. In the absence of suppliers’ credit the firm will have to borrow funds from a bank. The availability of credit at reasonable cost from banks is crucial. It influences the working capital policy of a firm. A firm without the suppliers’ credit, but which can get bank credit easily, on664 Financial Management favourable conditions, will beable to finance its inventories and debtors without much difficulty. Operating Efficiency ‘The operating efficiency ofthe firm relates tothe optimum utilization of all its resources at minimum costs. The ‘efficiency in controlling operating costs and utilizing fixed and current assets leads to operating efficiency. The use of working capital is improved and pace of cash conversion cycle is accelerated with operating efficiency. Better ttilization of resources improves profitability and, thus, helps in releasing the pressure on working capital. Although itmay notbe possible fora firm to control prices of materials ‘or wages of labour, it can certainly ensure efficent and effective use of ts, labour and other resources. Price Level Changes ‘The increasing shifts in price level make the functions of financial manager difficult. She should anticipate the effect ‘of price level changes on working capital requirements of the firm. Generally, rising price levels will require firm to ‘maintain higheramount of working capital. Same levels of ‘current assets will need increased investment when prices are increasing. However, companies thatcan immediately revise their product prices with rising price levels will not face a severe working capital problem. Further, firms will feel effects of increasing general price level differently as prices of individual products move differently. Thus, it is possible that some companies may not be affected by rising prices while others may be badly hit. cr Ree eaten 1. Explain how nature of business, market conditions and technology affect a firm's working capital requirement. 2. What is the eflect of credit policy and price level changes on working capital? 8, What do you mean by operating efficiency? How does it alfect working capital? ISSUES IN WORKING CAPITAL MANAGEMENT Working capital management refers to the administration ‘of all components of working capital—cash, marketable securities, debtors (receivables), stock (inventories) ‘and creditors (payables). The financial manager must determine the levels and composition of current assets. He must see that right sources are tapped to finance current assets, and that current liabilities are paid in time. There are many aspects of working capital management which make it an important function of the financial manager ‘% Time Working capital management requires ‘much of the financial manager's time. % Investment Working capital represents a large portion ofthe total investment in asets. & Criticality Working capital management has great significance forall firms ut itis very critical for small firms. % Growth Theneed for working capitals directly related to the firm’s growth. Empirical observations show that the financial managers have to spend much of their time to the daily intemal operations, relating to current assets and current liabilities ofthe firms. As the largest portion ofthe financial manager's valuable time is devoted to working capital problems, it is necessary to manage working capital in the best possible way to get the maximum benefit Investment in current assets represents a very significant portion of the total investment in assets. For example, in the case of the large and medium public limited. in India, curent assets constitute about 60 per cent of total assets or total capital employed In a large company such as Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL), current assets as a percentage of total assets may be as high as, say, 90 per cent. (See Exhibit 27.1 for ‘examples of other companies). This clearly indicates that the financial manager should pay special attention to ‘the management of current assets on a continuing bass. ‘Actions should be taken to curtail unnecessary investment in current assets. ‘Working capital management is critical forall firms, especially for small firms. A small firm may not have much investment in fixed assets, but it has to invest in ‘current assets. Small firms in India facea severe problem of collecting their debts (book debts or receivables). Further, the role of current liabilities in financing current assets is far more significant in case of small firms, as, unlike large firms, they face difficulties in raising long-term finances. ‘Theresa direct relationship between a firm’s growth and its working capital needs. As the sales grow, the firm needs to invest more in inventories and debtors. These needs become very frequent and fast when the sales grow continuously. The financial manager should be aware of such needs and finance them quickly. Continuous growth in sales may also require additional investment in fixed assets. Itmay, thus be concluded that all precautions should be taken for the effective and efficient management ‘of working capital. The finance manager should pay particular attention to the levels of current assets and the financing of current assets. To decide the levels and682 Financial Management ‘The investment in receivables may be expressed in terms of costs of sales instead of sales value. The volume of credit sales is a function of the firm's total sales and the percentage of credit sales to total sales. Total sales depend on market size, firm’s market share, product quality, intensity of competition, economic conditions etc. The financial manager hardly has any control over these variables. The percentage of credit sales to total sales is mostly influenced by the nature of business and industry norms. For example, car manufacturers in India, until recently, were not selling, cars on credit, They required the customers to make payment at the time of delivery; some of them even asked for the payment to be made in advance. This was 80 because of the absence of genuine competition and a wide gap between demand for and supply of cars in India. This position changed after economic liberalization ‘which led to intense competition. In contrast, the textile manufacturers sold tworthirds of their total sales on credit to the wholesale dealers. The textile industry is still going through a dificult phase. ‘There is one way in which the financial manager can affect the volume of credit sales and collection period and consequently, investment in accounts receivable. ‘That is through the changes in credit policy. The term. credit policy is used to refer to the combination of three decision variables: (i) credit standards, (i) credit terms, and (i) collection efforts, on which the financial manager has influence. % Credit standards are the criteria to decide the types of customers to whom goods could be sold on credit. Ifa firm has more slow-paying, customers, its investment in accounts receivable will increase, The firm will also be exposed to higher risk of default. % Credit terms specify duration of credit and terms ‘of paymentby customers. Investment in accounts. receivable will be high if customers are allowed extended time period for making payments. % Collection efforts determine the actual collection ‘The lower the collection period, the lower will be the investment in accounts receivable and vice versa Goals of Credit Policy A firm’s credit policy aims at maximizing shareholders’ wealth through increase in sales leading to net improvement in profitability. Increased sales will not only increase operating profits, but will also require additional investment and costs. Hence, a trade-off between incremental return and cost of incremental investment is involved. ‘A firm may follow a lenient or a stringent credit policy The firm, following a lenient eredit policy, tends to sell on credit to customers on very liberal terms and standards; credits are granted for longer periods even 1 UII wy Do COMPANIES IN INDIA ‘Companies in practice fel the necess for several reasons + Competition Generally the higher the degree of ‘competition, the more the erat granted by a firm, However, there are exceptions such as firms in the deetronies industry in Ind. + Companys bargaining power \i a company has a higher bargaining power wised-is its buyers, it may ‘grant no orlessereit. The company will have strong, bargaining power if ithasa strong product, monopoly power, brandimage, lange sizeof strong financial pose + Bayer’ requirements Inanumberof business sectors bbayers/dealers are not able to operate without extended credit. This is particulary soin the ese of industrial products + Bayer’ status Lange buyers demand easy eet terms because of bulk purchases and higher bargaining power Some companies follow a pobey of not giving ‘much credit to small retailers since it is quite dificlt {0 collet dues fom them. + Relationship with deelers Companies sometimes extend erdit to dealers to bud long-term relationships with them of to ewanl them for thei loyalty: + Marketing tool Credit is used as a marketing tool, Particularly when a new product is launched or when a company wants to push its weak product + Indusry practice Seal companies have ben found sided by industry practice or worm more than the lange companies Sometimes companics continue giving eredit because of past practice rather than industry practice. + Transit delays “This i a forced reason for extended credit in the ease of a number of companies in India. Most companies have evolved systems to minimize the impact of such dclays Some of them take che help of banks to control eash flows in such situations Sone: Paes, .M. and Bhat, R, Managing Corporate Finds, Ch. 8 (unpublished monograph). y oF granting credit to those customers whose creditworthiness is not fully known or whose financial position is doubtful. In contrast, firm following a stringent credit policy sells on credit ‘on a highly selective basis, only to those customers who have proven creditworthiness and who are financially strong. In practice, firms follow credit policies ranging, ‘between stringent to lenient. Marketing Toot ‘Why at al do firms sell on credit? Firms use credit policy as a marketing tool for expanding sales. 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