Experiment ( 1 )

Student's Name : Mujahed Brijieah

Title: Measurement of Length , Mass , Volume and

. Density

OBJECTIVES: To become familiar with the three length

- measuring instruments commonly used in a physics
laboratory - the meter ruler , vernier caliper , and
micrometer - triple - beam balance for mass
measurements . The densities of various objects will
.also be determined
:APPARATUS
Aluminum Cylinder ,Iron Cylinder ,Micrometer caliper,
English Ruler,Brass cylinder, length of cupper wire, triple
beam balance,vemier caliper

1
Theory : In the study of physical objects is very
important to be able to systematically measure the
quantities of length , mass and time . Every
measurement that you make is a comparison . The
characteristic you wish to quantify must be measured
in comparison to a standard . The standard for length
is the meter . Historically , the meter was intended to
be a convenient fraction , ( 1 / 10,000,000 ) of the
distance between the North Pole and the equator
traveling along a line through Paris . There are
different ways to measure length . The method chosen
to make a linear measurement depends upon the
accuracy desired and distance involved . It is important
to recognize that any measurement you make is
subject to error. The best value of the measured
quantity is given by the average of the values obtained
or the standard unit for mass is the kilogram. Mass is
the property of material bodies that makes them hard
to accelerate . Weight is the force of gravity with
which earth attracts body . Mass and weight are not
the same and should not be confused. The mass of an
object is constant and its weight varies according on
the location of the object. The density of the material
of which each is made is defined as the material's mass
, per unit volume
D = M/V
2
where M is the mass in grams , V is the volume in cubic
centimeters and D is the density with units grams per
. cubic centimeter
For the metal cylinders and the wire the volume is
given by
V=π
Lr 2

V=( π D L)/4
2

where r is the cylinder's radius , d is the diameter ( 2r ),

and L is the length of the cylinder . For the irregular
body the volume will be determined by measuring the
.volume of the liquid that it displaces

The vernier caliper is a device used to make

measurements with a precision of one tenth of a
millimeter . It consists of a fixed part that contains the
3
main scale and a movable jaw that has the vernier
scale . The main scale is divided in centimeters and
millimeters . The vernier scale slides along the main
scale , it is nine millimeters long and is divided into
parts each 0.9 mm long . To obtain a measurement
place an object between the two jaws of the caliper ,
first get the reading of the main scale , then read the
position where the zero line of the vernier falls on the
main scale . Then obtain the fractional part of the main
scale division by noting which line on the vemier
.coincides with a line on the main scale

The micrometer caliper is used to measure distances

with more precision than a vernier caliper . It has a 0.5
mm pitch screw , this means that you read millimeters
and half millimeters along the barrel ( sleeve ) . Every
4
revolution of the ratchet knob will open the jaws a half
millimeter . The thimble is divided into 50 divisions
corresponding to one hundredth of a millimeter ( 0.01
mm ) each . To take a measurement place the object
between the anvil and the spindle , grip the ratchet
and turn until the object is lightly gripped , do not
overtighten . The first part of the measurement is
taken from the barrel , each division is 0.5 mm . note
that the millimeters and half – millimeters are on
opposite sides of the line . Next obtain the reading of
the thimble and add this value to the reading you
.obtained from the barrel

Triple beam balance is used to measure masses very

precisely ; the reading error is 0.05 gram . If you would
like to measure the mass of an object using a triple
beam balance , you first have to adjust the balance so
it will point at the number zero . Then you place the
object on the tray . Afterwards , you adjust the sliding
5
weights called riders on the three beams , so the
pointer will once again , point at zero . Once the Triple
Beam Balance is balanced , you look at the riders and
..see what numbers they are on . That is the mass

:Procedure

PART 1 : Measurement of Wire Length

We Used the Metric ruler and the English ruler to )1

. measure the length of the copper wire
We Measured the length of the piece of copper wire )2
. with the metric ruler
. We Read the position of both ends of the wire )3
We taken different readings at different locations on )4
. the ruler
We Record both readings to 0.01 cm in Data Table )5
. #1

PART 2 : Length and Diameter of Metal Cylinders

6
We Used the vernier caliper to measure the length )1
. and diameter of aluminum , brass and iron cylinders
We Obtain the reading when the jaws of the )2
vernier caliper are closed and in contact with each
other . This is the zero reading of the vernier caliper
. and be either positive or negative
We had each lab partner take readings , we make )3
sure to open and close the jaws before each reading .
. Record the zero reading to 0.01 cm in Data Table # 4
We Measure the length and diameter of each )4
cylinder with the vernier caliper . Each lab partner
should take a length and diameter reading for each
cylinder . Record the reading to 0.01 cm in Data Table
..#2
We Record both readings to nearest 0.01 inch in )5
. Data Table #2

PART 3 : Diameter of Copper

We Used the micrometer caliper to measure the )1

diameter of the copper wire

7
Next obtain the reading of the thimble and add this
value to the reading you obtained from the barrel .
Thimble
We obtain the reading when the surfaces of the )1
anvil and the spindle are in contact . This is the zero
reading of the micrometer caliper , it can be either
. positive or negative
. We record the zero reading to 0.0001 cm)2
. We Measured the diameter of the copper wire )3
We Placed the wire between the anvil and the )4
spindle , grip the ratchet and twist until the wire is
. lightly gripped
we had taken measurements at different points )5
. along the length of the copper wire
We Recorded the reading to 0.0001 cm in Data )6
Table #5

PART 4 : Mass measurement

A) With the pan empty , we moved beams to their

positions , so that the balance reads zero . the )1

indicator on the far right is not aligned with the
8
fixed mark , then calibrate the balance by turning
. the adjustment knob on the left under the tray
We Determined the mass of each metal cylinder , )2
. and copper wire using the triple beam balance

B)We Recorded all the readings in Data Table # 7

:Data and Calculation

Part (1): table#1 measuring the length of wire by meterr
rule
(Deviation)
Length Deviation
(cm)
Left end Right end
17 34 17 0 0
40 57 17 0 0
61 78 17 0 0
76 93 17 0 0
Average
value =
17

The length of the wire = the right end – the left end =34-17=17
Average length = (17+17+17+17)/4 = 17

9
Part (2): table#2 measuring length of wire by
English ruler
Length Deviation ( Deviation )2

Left end Right end

4 10.75 6.75 0 0
12.11 18.86 0 0
6.75
25.14 31.89 6.75 0 0
30.01 36.76 6.75 0 0
Average=6.75
Length of wire in inch = Right end – left end
Average of length= (6.75+6.75+6.75+6.75)/4 =6.75 inch

Part (3):table#3 number of centimeter in on inch

Calculated value 2.5

Accepte value 2.54

Differenc between 0.04
calculated value and
accepted value
Percentage error 1.57%

Calculated value = (17)/6.75= 2.5

Percentage error = (Difference / accepted)×100%

100%× )2.54(/)0.04( =
1.57% =

10
Part (4):table#4 length and diameter metal
cylinder

Reading Reading Reading Reading

Average value
1 2 3 4
Zero reding 0 0 0 0 0

Length Cm5 5 5 5 5
aluminium

Length Iron 5 5 5 5 5

Length 5 5 5 5 5
Diameter 12.665 12.665 12.665 12.665 12.665
aluminium

Diameter mm12.67 Mm12.67 12.67 12.67 12.67

Iron

Diameter mm12.648 mm12.648 12.648 12.648 12.648

Average length of iron= (5+5+5+5+5)/5 = 5

11
 Part (5):table#5 diameter of cupper wire
Redin Reding Redin Reding Average value
g 2 g 4
1 3
Zero 0 0 0 0 0
reading

Demeter 12.67 12.66 12.68 12.65 12.67

along
length
Average value = (12.67+12.66+12.68+12.66)/4
50.66/4 =
12.67=
Part (7): table#7volume and density
Mass Length Diameter Volume Calculated Accepted %error
Density Value
g Cm mm
Aluminium 17.9 5 12.67 6.3 2.84 2.7 5%
cylinder Cm1.267
Iron 49 5 12.66 6.29 7.79 7.874 1.06%
cylinder cm 1.266
Cupper 53.6 5 12.64 6.27 8.54 8.96 4.68%
Cylinder 1.264cm

(D ) L ¿/ 4 Volume
2
= (π
V = (π×(1.267×1.267)×5) /4
cm
3
6.3 =

12
Density= mass/volume
c m3/D = 17.9 /6.3= 2.84 g

Precentege of error =(( calculated value – accepted value)/accepted

value)×100%
100%×)2.7/)2.84-2.7 ((=
14%=

Sources of errors
There are some personal error when we measured )1
the length by meter ruler and The vernier caliper and
the demeter by micrometer also there is a personal
.error in the siginficant figures in the calculations
There is a systematic error where the apparatus we )2
used are old so maybe will be some errors in the
.measurements
there is a random error in the data due to repeat )3
.the measurements for many times in each parts

:Conclusion
In this experiment we measured the length, the
diameter,mass volume and density by important
instruments are the meter ruler , vernier caliper , and
micrometer - triple - beam balance for mass, we
13
determined the volume from Diameter and length also
determined the density by volume we found and mass
We found that there was a precentege of error
about 1.57% in finding the length of wire and this
Precentege of error was due to some sources
error we mentioned above in sources of errors,we
noticed that there was a Precentege of error in
finding density for iron cylinder was about
5%,cuppy wire was about 1.06% and aluminium
cylinder was 4.68% ,due to the errors we
. mentioned above

14
 Experiment (2)

Student's Name: Mujahed Brijieah

Title: UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION ( air track

with photo gates )

OBJECTIVES : To measure the acceleration due to

.gravity g
: APPARATUS
Air track system with one glider Photogate timer with •
Accessory Photogate ( or two Photogate Timers as shown in
. Figure below)
Block : to raise the air track to form an incline •
Meter scale •

15
THEORY
The distance , x , traveled in time t by an object moving
in a straight line with constant acceleration a is given
: by

) x = v.t+ (1/2) a t 2
………. 1

Here y , is the initial speed of the object at time t = 0.

For convenience we choose the initial value of the
distance to satisfy = 0. In the experiment we will release
a glider of mass m from rest on an air track inclined at
. an angle

The " lubrication " provided by the air flowing to the air
track and under the glider provides nearly frictionless
motion , so to a very good approximation we may
neglect the effects of friction . Thus the object is
accelerated only by gravity and hence its acceleration
satisfies

a = g sin (theta). ………..( 2 )

where g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.80 m / s² .

Note that the acceleration a is independent of the mass
of the object . We will experimentally check the validity
of equations ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) by fixing two " light gates "
along the air track at various fixed distances x apart ,
then use the forks ( photogates ) and an electronic timer

16
to very accurately measure the time taken to travel the
. distance x
The method works as follows : when the glider passes
the first gate , it interrupts a light beam and starts the
timer ; when the glider passes the second gate , it again
interrupts a light beam but now stops the timer . The
timer then displays the time taken to travel the distance
.x between the gates

: PROCEDURE

Level your air track as follows :We turn on the .1

blower , then we adjust the elevation screw at the air
intake end of the track until the glider either remains
stationary at the mid - point of the track or move slowly
back and forth about this point ; we leaved this setting
fixed for the duration of the experiment . Next we used
the necessary block ( s ) under the intake end screw to
raise that end of the air track an amount h ( whose value
. will be assigned by the instructor )

We fixed the second , lower light fork ( photogate # .2

2 ) a convenient distance , 25 cm from the upper light
fork . We Used a meter stick to accurately measure the
distance between the two light forks . This are our first
value of x , that is x = 25 cm

17
We Checkd that the timer is set to read timing II in .3
ms " ( that is millisecond ) and properly reset to zero . "
we Started the air blower for the air track while holding
the glider gently at the top of the air track . we Released
the glider , observed the timer start when the glider
passes the first light fork , then we stoped as it passes
the second light fork . we repeated the measurement
several times ,we entered our results in table.1 ; and
. then average the resulting times

We repeated step 2 ,varying only the position of the .4

lower light fork , such that x = 50cm , 75 cm , 100 cm .
125 cm , and 150 cm . For each of these settings we
.repeated step3 to obtain a set of values of x and r

18
Data and Calculations :
Part (1) : Data table#1

X(m) 200 cm 150 cm 130 cm 100 cm 50cm

(2.00) (1.50 m) (1.30m) (1.00 m) (0.50m)
t 1=1.44
Time t1 = 1.75 t1 = 1.53 t1 = 1.32 t 1=¿0.97
t 2=¿1.41
t1,t2t 3 t2 = 1.87 t2 = 1.59 t2 = 1.28 , t 2=¿0.94
t 3=¿1.35
t3 = 1.78 t3 = 1.59 t3 = 1.25 t 3=¿0.97

Average 1.8 s 1.57 1.4 1.28 0.96

time t (s)
Average 3.24 2.46 1.96 1.63 0.92
time
Squared
( t ) ,(s )
2 2

Part (2): Calculation

Average time
1)At x= 2.00 m
Average time = (1.75+1.87+1.78)/3 = 5.4/3
=1.8 s

At x = 1.5 m )2
Average time = (1.53+1.59+1.59)/3 = 4.71/3
s 1.57 =
19
At x = 1.30 m)3
Average time = (1.44+1.41+1.35)/3 = 4.2/3
s 1.4 =

At x = 1.00 m )4
Average time= (1.32+1.28+1.25)/3 = 3.85/3
=1.28 s

At x = 0.50 m )5
Average time= (0.97+0.94+0.97)/3 =2.88/3
=0.96 s

Graph of displacement (x) Vs Average time Squared (t^2)

20
To find acceleration due to gravity (a)
from the graph ]1
) t (/ The slope = x
2

h= 11.4 cm
d = 15.8 cm
Sin(theta) = h/d =11.4/15.8 =0.7
F = ma
mg sin(theta) = ma
a = gsin(theta)
t 2X = x. + v. +(1/2) a
x.=0 ,v.=0
X = 0+0+ (1/2) at^2
21
a = 2 (x/(t ))
2

a = 2 slope
2Slope = gsin(theta)=g.(h/d)
h/d = 11.4/15.8 = 0.7
Slope= 5.03
0.7× )g calculated (= 5.03×2
2
s /g calculated = 14.37 m
The Percentage of error = (|g calculated – g accepted|)/g
accepted)×100% =( |14.37-9.8|/9.8)×100%
% 46.6 =

Sources of errorse
The type and number of errors depend on the setup of the
,experiment and the measuring devices that you are using
:Personal error)1
There is a personal error in the measuring the displacement
.when we used a meter rule
There is a personal error in observing the siginficant figures in
.calculations
Systematic error)2
There is a systematic error from the air resistance that is
effected on the car , so the accepted acceleration is 9.8
22
m/s2 , and the air resistance results the difference in
accepted acceleration, and the calculated acceleration
(14.37 m/s2)
There is a systematic error from the fraction force between
.the surface and the car that causes the different acceleration
Random error )3
There is a random error when we repeat the
experiment at many different times so there will be
.some errors in the data and calculations

: Conclusion
In this experiment we measured the acceleration due
to gravity and compare between the calculated value
we found ( 14.37 ) and the accepted value (9.8m/ s . ) 2

and the Precentage of error was 46.6 % it was a high

value this high precantage of error because there were
many different errors we mentioned above in the part
of errors sources ,the graph shown the relationship
between average velocity and time Squared it is not
. linear relationship the slope equal 5.03 = (1/2)a

23
 Experiment (3)

Student's Name : Mujahed Brijieah

Title: Newton's Second Law ( ticker timer )

: OBJECTIVES
To study the rectilinear motion of a body under constant )1
. force
To measure the acceleration of a cart produced by a given )2
force ( weight ) and to compare it with that calculated from
. Newton's second law of motion
To determine the mathematical relationship between )3
.mass and acceleration when the force is kept constant

APPARATUS
• AC - Power supply
Ticker timer Threads •
Cart •
Ticker tape•
Weights•

24
Metric ruler •
Pulley•

: THEORY
In accordance with Newton's first law of motion , when the
resultant of all the forces acting on a body is zero , if the body
is at rest , it will remain at rest , and if it is in motion , it will
continue to move with constant speed in a straight line .
Newton's second law of motion describes what happens if
the resultant of all the forces is different from zero . When a
force or a net of forces Fact is acted on a body of mass m ;
the latter moves with acceleration as long as the force acts .
If the magnitude of the force Fnet is kept constant , the
velocity is found to increase at constant rate . If the force is
altered , the rate of change of velocity alters in the same
proportion . The relation which holds the net force Fer , the
: mass m , and the acceleration ā is

F = ma( 1 )

In this experiment , it is left as an exercise to find the

theoretical value of acceleration of a cart moving under the
.influence of a falling masses

25
: PROCEDURE
We placed a dynamic cart ( trolley ) on a .1
smooth horizontal table with a thread attached to
it and passing over a smooth pulley as shown in
. Figure below

. we add a weight to the hanger as a driving force .2

We Connected the ticker with 1.5 Volts AC power supply , .3
. with the power off
We Cut a pieces of tape ( about 1 m long ) , and pass it .4
. under the vibrator
We Connected a small heavy object with the tape by a .5
. thread
We turned the power supply on , an allow the small heavy .6
object to move dragging the tape through the vibrator , as
.shown in Figure above
26
We Obtained a tape for this accelerated motion as done , .7
. and write on this tape ( 1 )
. We Recorded our data in the Table . 1 .8
We Load the a cart with several masses successively to .9
obtain other tapes , and we recorded our results

: Data and calculations

:Data
Interval mark Time interval Total distance Average
velocity
0 0.00 S0=0.0 0
1 0.04 S1= 2.7 67.5
2 0.08 S2=5.5 70
3 0.12 S3= 8.7 80
4 0.16 S4= 13.2 112.5
5 0.2 S5= 18.5 132.5
6 0.24 S6= 26.1 190
7 0.28 S7= 34.9 220
8 0.32 S8= 45.3 260
9 0.36 S9= 56.3 275
10 0.4 S10= 67.98 292

Average Velocity= (distance/time)

67.5 m/s= )0.04-0(/)2.7-0( = )t1 -t2(/)S1 – S2 (=
Average velocity = (5.5-2.7)/(0.08-0.04) =70

27
The graph below (Average velocity Vs Time)

2
s /The slope = 425 cm
2
s /Slope = the acceleration =a (measured) = 425 cm
M1= 215 g
M2 = 306 g

The relationship between acceleration and mass

28
 M1g – T = M1a. ………..y axis
T = M2a ………. X axis
Sum the two equations
M1g = M1a + M2a
M1g = (M1+M2)a
a (accepted) = M1g/(M1+M2)
)215+306(/)9.8×215( =
2
s /m 4.04 =
2
s /cm 404=

Precentege of error=(| measured a- accepted

a|)/accep a)×100%
100%×)425/|425 – 404|( =
4.9% =

:Sources of errors
Personal error
There were some personal errors when we used the meter ruler to
measured the total distance and in observed the significance figures
in data and calculations

29
Random errors
There was a random error in data of distance due to
repeating the measureing in many intervals time

Systematic errors
There were a systematic errors due to the old of the
apparatus we used, the air resistance is effected on
measurements at vertical axis and the fraction force is
effected on the measurements at horizontal surface

:Conclusion
In this experiment we measured the acceleration of a cart
produced by a given force ( weight ) and compared it with
that calculated from Newton's second law of motion .and we
determined the mathematical relationship between mass
and acceleration when the force is kept constant,the
Precentege of error was small about % 4.9
and this percentage due to some errors we mentioned
. in the part of errors sources

30