Instructional Materials For Fundamentals of Mixed Signals Sensors v2

Republic of the Philippines
POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

Office of the Vice President for Branches and Campuses
Santa maria bulacan campus
Santa Maria, Bulacan
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL FOR
CMPE 30153
Fundamentals of Mixed Signals and Sensors
COMPILED BY:
Conrad A. Populi
Overview:
These instructional materials cover operational amplifiers, signal converters, power
switching devices and the construction and operation of sensors and transducers for converting
physical parameters into electrical signals and vice-versa. The course focuses on the application
of these devices in developing signal conversion circuits that allows measurement, processing
and control of physical parameters by digital processing systems such as a finite state machine
or a digital computer.
Course Outcomes:
The student is expected to understand and analyze the basic operations, constructions
and characteristics amplifiers, signal converters, sensors and transducers, and utilize
fundamentals of devices to measure, process and control physical parameters in digital systems.
Learning Outcomes:
After the successful completion of these instructional materials, the student should be able to:
1. Understand the basic operations, constructions and characteristics amplifiers, signal
converters, sensors and transducers.
2. Analyze and solve worded problems implementing the fundamentals of amplifiers,
signal converters, sensors and transducers.
3. Utilize fundamentals of devices to measure, process and control physical parameters
in digital systems.
Course Grading System:
Class Standing 70%
 Objective Type and Problem Solving Quizzes

 Assignments and Research Papers
 Portfolio
Midterm / Final Examinations 30%

100%
Midterm Grade + Final Term Grade = FINAL GRADE

2
Table of Contents
LESSON 1: Operational Amplifiers ........................................................................................................ 6

Introduction to Operational Amplifiers ................................................................................................. 6
The Inverting Amplifier......................................................................................................................... 12
The Noninverting Amplifier ................................................................................................................. 16
Two Op-Amp Applications .................................................................................................................. 18
Linear ICs .............................................................................................................................................. 21
Activities/Assessments ........................................................................................................................ 22
LESSON 2: Differential Amplifiers ........................................................................................................ 23
Differential Amplifier ............................................................................................................................. 23
DC Analysis of a Diff Amp................................................................................................................... 26
AC Analysis of a Diff Amp ................................................................................................................... 27
Input Characteristics of an Op Amp .................................................................................................. 31
Common-Mode Gain ........................................................................................................................... 35
LESSON 3: Linear Op-Amp Applications ............................................................................................ 38
Inverting-Amplifier Circuits .................................................................................................................. 38
Noninverting-Amplifier Circuits ........................................................................................................... 38
Inverter/Non-inverter Circuits.............................................................................................................. 40
Differential Amplifiers ........................................................................................................................... 42
Instrumentation Amplifiers .................................................................................................................. 43
Current Boosters .................................................................................................................................. 45
Voltage-Controlled Current Sources ................................................................................................. 47
Single-Supply Operation ..................................................................................................................... 48
LESSON 4: Non-Linear Op-Amp Applications .................................................................................... 51
Comparators with Zero Reference .................................................................................................... 51
Comparators with Nonzero References............................................................................................ 55
Comparators with Hysteresis ............................................................................................................. 58
The Integrator ....................................................................................................................................... 62
Active-Diode Circuits ........................................................................................................................... 64
The Differentiator .................................................................................................................................. 66
Class-D Amplifier.................................................................................................................................. 67
LESSON 5: Analog to Digital Conversion ............................................................................................ 68
Conversion Parameters....................................................................................................................... 68
Sampling ................................................................................................................................................ 70
Quantization Noise ............................................................................................................................... 70
Methods of Analog-to-Digital Conversion ......................................................................................... 71
LESSON 6: Digital to Analog Conversion ............................................................................................ 75
Simple DAC ........................................................................................................................................... 75
Improved DAC with Output Op-Amp ................................................................................................. 76
DAC Specification Jargon ................................................................................................................... 77
DAC Designs......................................................................................................................................... 77
LESSON 7: Basic Measurement Theory .............................................................................................. 81
Temperature Measurement ................................................................................................................ 81
Strain, Pressure, and Flow Rate Measurements ............................................................................ 90
Motion Measurement ........................................................................................................................... 95
Level Measurement ............................................................................................................................. 97
Neutron Flux Measurement .............................................................................................................. 100
Activities/Assessments ...................................................................................................................... 103
LESSON 8: Sensors and Transducers ............................................................................................... 104
Transducer .......................................................................................................................................... 104
Types of Transducers ........................................................................................................................ 104
Sensors ................................................................................................................................................ 106
Types of Sensors ............................................................................................................................... 107
Other Types of Sensors .................................................................................................................... 109
LESSON 9: Basic Control Devices ...................................................................................................... 110
Switches .............................................................................................................................................. 110
Diodes .................................................................................................................................................. 111
Capacitors ........................................................................................................................................... 112
Transistors ........................................................................................................................................... 112
Circuit Protection Devices ................................................................................................................. 114
Electromagnetic Devices................................................................................................................... 117
Motors .................................................................................................................................................. 118
APPENDICES ......................................................................................................................................... 119
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................................... 123
LESSON 1: Operational Amplifiers
Introduction to Operational Amplifiers

The term operational amplifier (op amp) refers to an amplifier that performs a mathematical
operation. Historically, the first op amps were used in analog computers, where they did addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and so on. At one time, op amps were built as discrete circuits. Now,
most op amps are integrated circuits (ICs).
The typical op amp is a dc amplifier with very high voltage gain, very high input impedance, and
very low output impedance. The unity-gain frequency is from 1 to more than 20 MHz, depending
on the part number. An IC op amp is a complete functional block with external pins. By connecting
these pins to supply voltages and a few components, we can quickly build all kinds of useful
circuits.
The figure below shows a block diagram of an op amp. The input stage is a diff amp, followed by
more stages of gain, and a Class-B push-pull emitter follower. Because a diff amp is the first
stage, it determines the input characteristics of the op amp. In most op amps, the output is single-
ended, as shown. With positive and negative supplies, the single-ended output is designed to
have a quiescent value of zero. This way, zero input voltage ideally results in zero output voltage.
Not all op amps are designed like this. For instance, some do not use a Class-B push-pull output,
and others may have a double-ended output.
The schematic symbol of an op amp has noninverting and inverting inputs and a single-ended
output, illustrated in the left figure below. Ideally, this symbol means that the amplifier has infinite
voltage gain, infinite input impedance, and zero output impedance. The ideal op amp represents
a perfect voltage amplifier and is often referred to as a voltage-controlled voltage source
(VCVS), as shown in the figure on the right below.
Instructional Material for Fundamentals of Mixed Signals and Sensors (CMPE 30153) 6
The following table summarizes the characteristics of an ideal op amp.
Quantity Symbol Ideal LM741C LF157A
Open-loop voltage gain 𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿 Infinite 100,000 200,000
Unity-gain frequency 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 Infinite 1 MHz 20 MHz
Input resistance 𝑅𝑖𝑛 Infinite 2 MΩ 1012 Ω
Output resistance 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 Zero 75 Ω 100 Ω
Input bias current 𝐼𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠) Zero 80 nA 30 pA
Input off set current 𝐼𝑖𝑛(𝑜𝑓𝑓) Zero 20 nA 3 pA
Input off set voltage 𝑉𝑖𝑛(𝑜𝑓𝑓) Zero 2 mV 1 mV
Common-mode rejection ratio 𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 Infinite 90 dB 100 dB
Operation of 741 Op Amp

The following figure is a simplified schematic diagram of the 741.
The input stage is a diff amp (Q1 and Q2). In the 741, Q14 is a current source that replaces the tail
resistor. R2, Q13, and Q14 are a current mirror that produces the tail current for Q1 and Q2. Instead
of using an ordinary resistor as the collector resistor of the diff amp, the 741 uses an active-load
resistor. This active-load Q4 acts like a current source with an extremely high impedance. Because
of this, the voltage gain of the diff amp is much higher than with a passive-load resistor.
The amplified signal from the diff amp drives the base of Q5, an emitter follower. This stage steps
up the impedance level to avoid loading down the diff amp. The signal out of Q5 goes to Q6.
Diodes Q7 and Q8 are part of the biasing for the final stage. Q11 is an active-load resistor for Q6.
Therefore, Q6 and Q11 are like a CE driver stage with a very high voltage gain.
The amplified signal out of the CE driver stage (Q6) goes to the final stage, which is a Class-B
push-pull emitter follower (Q9 and Q10). Because of the split supply (equal positive VCC and
negative VEE voltages), the quiescent output is ideally 0 V when the input voltage is zero. Any
deviation from 0 V is called the output error voltage.
When v1 is greater than v2, the input voltage vin produces a positive output voltage vout. When v2
is greater than v1, the input voltage vin produces a negative output voltage vout. Ideally, vout can
be as positive as +VCC and as negative as -VEE before clipping occurs. The output swing is
normally within 1 to 2 V of each supply voltage because of voltage drops inside the 741.
Active Loading
In the previous figure, we have two examples of active loading (using transistors instead of
resistors for loads):
1. Active-load Q4 on the input diff amp
2. Active-load Q11 in the CE driver stage
Because current sources have high output impedances, active loads produce much higher
voltage gain than is possible with resistors. These active loads produce a typical voltage gain of
100,000 for the 741C. Active loading is very popular in integrated circuits (ICs) because it is easier
and less expensive to fabricate transistors on a chip than it is to fabricate resistors.
Frequency Compensation
Referring to the previous figure, CC is a compensating capacitor. Because of the Miller effect, this
small capacitor (typically 30 pF) is multiplied by the voltage gain of Q5 and Q6 to get a much
larger equivalent capacitance of:
𝐶𝑖𝑛(𝑀) = (𝐴𝑣 + 1)𝐶𝐶
where Av is the voltage gain of the Q5 and Q6 stages.
The resistance facing this Miller capacitance is the output impedance of the diff amp. Therefore,
we have a lag circuit, which produces a cutoff frequency of 10 Hz in a 741C. The open-loop gain
of the op amp is down 3 dB at this cutoff frequency. Then, 𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿 decreases approximately 20 dB
per decade until reaching the unity-gain frequency.
The 741C has an open-loop voltage gain of 100,000, equivalent to 100 dB. Since the open-loop
cutoff frequency is 10 Hz, the voltage gain breaks at 10 Hz and then rolls off at a rate of 20 dB
per decade until it is 0 dB at 1 MHz.
An op amp that is internally compensated, such as the 741C, has a first-order response.
Incidentally, not all op amps are internally compensated. Some require the user to connect an
external compensating capacitor to prevent oscillations. The advantage of using external
compensation is that a designer has more control over the high-frequency performance. Although
an external capacitor is the simplest way to compensate, more complicated circuits can be used
that not only provide compensation but also produce a higher f unity than is possible with internal
compensation.
Bias and Offsets

A diff amp has input bias and offsets that produce an output error when there is no input signal.
In many applications, the output error is small enough to ignore. But when the output error cannot
be ignored, a designer can reduce it by using equal base resistors. This eliminates the problem
of bias current, but not the offset current or offset voltage.
This is why it is best to eliminate output error by using the nulling circuit given on the data sheet.
This nulling circuit works with the internal circuitry to eliminate the output error and also to
minimize thermal drift, a slow change in output voltage caused by the effect of changing
temperature on op-amp parameters. In case the data sheet of an op amp does not include a
nulling circuit, a small input voltage is applied to null the output. The figure below shows the nulling
method from the data sheet of a 741C.
The ac source driving the inverting input has a Thevenin resistance of RB. To neutralize the effect
of input bias current (80 nA) flowing through this source resistance, a discrete resistor of equal
value is added to the noninverting input, as shown.
To eliminate the effect of an input offset current of 20 nA and an input offset voltage of 2 mV, the
data sheet of a 741C recommends using a 10-kΩ potentiometer between pins 1 and 5. By
adjusting this potentiometer with no input signal, we can null or zero the output voltage.
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

For a 741C, CMRR is 90 dB at low frequencies. Given equal signals, one a desired signal and
the other a common-mode signal, the desired signal will be 90 dB larger at the output than the
common-mode signal. In ordinary numbers, this means that the desired signal will be
approximately 30,000 times larger than the common-mode signal. At higher frequencies, reactive
effects degrade CMRR.
Maximum Peak-to-Peak (MPP) Output
The MPP value of an amplifier is the maximum peak-to-peak output that the amplifier can produce
without clipping. Since the quiescent output of an op amp is ideally zero, the ac output voltage
can swing positively or negatively. For load resistances that are much larger than 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 , the output
voltage can swing almost to the supply voltages. For instance, if 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = +15 V and 𝑉𝐸𝐸 = -15 V, the
MPP value with a load resistance of 10 kΩ is ideally 30 V.
With a nonideal op amp, the output cannot swing all the way to the value of the supply voltages
because there are small voltage drops in the final stage of the op amp. Furthermore, when the
load resistance is not large compared to 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 , some of the amplified voltage is dropped across
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 , which means that the final output voltage is smaller.
When the load resistance decreases, MPP decreases. For instance, if the load resistance is only
275 Ω, MPP decreases to 16 V, which means that the output saturates positively at +8 V and
negatively at -8 V.
Short-Circuit Current
In some applications, an op amp may drive a load resistance of approximately zero. In this case,
you need to know the value of the short-circuit output current. The data sheet of a 741C lists a
short-circuit output current of 25 mA. This is the maximum output current the op amp can produce.
If you are using small load resistors (less than 75 Ω), don’t expect to get a large output voltage
because the voltage cannot be greater than the 25 mA times the load resistance.
Frequency Response
The unity-gain frequency is the frequency at which the voltage gain equals 1. Data sheets usually
specify the value of 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 because it represents the upper limit on the useful gain of an op amp.
For instance, the data sheet of a 741C lists an 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 of 1 MHz. This means that the 741C can
amplify signals up to 1 MHz. Beyond 1 MHz, the voltage gain is less than 1 and the 741C is
useless. If a designer needs a higher 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 , better op amps are available. For instance, the LM318
has an 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 of 15 MHz, which means that it can produce usable voltage gain all the way to 15
MHz
Slew Rate
The compensating capacitor inside a 741C performs a very important function: It prevents
oscillations that would interfere with the desired signal. But there is a disadvantage: the
compensating capacitor needs to be charged and discharged. This creates a speed limit on how
fast the output of the op amp can change.
Here is the basic idea: Suppose the input voltage to an op amp is a positive voltage step, a sudden
transition in voltage from one dc level to a higher dc level. If the op amp were perfect, we would
get the ideal response shown in the first graph below. Instead, the output is the positive
exponential waveform shown. This occurs because the compensating capacitor must be charged
before the output voltage can change to the higher level.
In the first graph, the initial slope of the exponential waveform is called the slew rate, symbolized
𝑆𝑅 . The definition of slew rate is:
𝛥𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑆𝑅 =
𝛥𝑡
where the Greek letter ∆ (delta) stands for “the change in.” In words, the equation says that slew
rate equals the change in output voltage divided by the change in time.
The second graph above illustrates the meaning of slew rate. The initial slope equals the vertical
change divided by the horizontal change between two points on the early part of the exponential
wave. For instance, if the exponential wave increases 0.5 V during the first microsecond, as
shown in the third graph, the slew rate is:
0.5 𝑉
𝑆𝑅 = = 0.5 𝑉/𝜇𝑠
1𝜇𝑠
The slew rate represents the fastest response that an op amp can have. For instance, the slew
rate of a 741C is 0.5 V/s. This means that the output of a 741C can change no faster than 0.5 V
in a microsecond. In other words, if a 741C is driven by a large step in input voltage, we do not
get a sudden step in output voltage. Instead, we get an exponential output wave. The initial part
of this output waveform will look like the third graph.
The data sheet of an op amp always specifies the slew rate because this quantity limits the large-
signal response of an op amp. If the output sine wave is very small or the frequency is very low,
slew rate is no problem. But when the signal is large and the frequency is high, slew rate will
distort the output signal.
With calculus, it is possible to derive this equation:
𝑆𝑆 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑉𝑃
where 𝑆𝑆 is the initial slope of the sine wave, f is its frequency, and 𝑉𝑃 is its peak value. To avoid
slew-rate distortion of a sine wave, 𝑆𝑆 has to be less than or equal to 𝑆𝑅 . When the two are equal,
we are at the limit, on the verge of slew-rate distortion. In this case:
𝑆𝑅 = 𝑆𝑆 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑉𝑃
Solving for 𝑓 gives:
𝑆𝑅
𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2𝜋𝑉𝑃
where 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the highest frequency that can be amplified without slew-rate distortion. Given the
slew rate of an op amp and the peak output voltage desired, we can use this equation to calculate
the maximum undistorted frequency. Above this frequency, we will see slew-rate distortion on an
oscilloscope.
The frequency 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 is sometimes called the power bandwidth or large-signal bandwidth of the
op amp.
For instance, suppose we are using a 741C. To get an undistorted output peak voltage of 8 V,
the frequency can be no higher than 10 kHz. One way to increase the 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 is to accept less output
voltage. By trading off peak value for frequency, we can improve the power bandwidth. As an
example, if our application can accept a peak output voltage of 1 V, 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 increases to 80 kHz.
There are two bandwidths to consider when analyzing the operation of an op-amp circuit:
1. the small-signal bandwidth determined by the first-order response of the op amp
2. the large-signal or power bandwidth determined by the slew rate.
The Inverting Amplifier

The inverting amplifier is the most basic op-amp circuit. It uses negative feedback to stabilize the
overall voltage gain. The reason we need to stabilize the overall voltage gain is because 𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿 is
too high and unstable to be of any use without some form of feedback. For instance, the 741C
has a minimum 𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿 of 20,000 and a maximum 𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿 of more than 200,000. An unpredictable
voltage gain of this magnitude and variation is useless without feedback.
Inverting Negative Feedback

The following figure shows the ac-equivalent of an inverting amplifier. Input voltage vin drives the
inverting input through resistor 𝑅1 . This results in an inverting input voltage of 𝑣2 . The input
voltage is amplified by the open-loop voltage gain to produce an inverted output voltage. The
output voltage is fed back to the input through feedback resistor 𝑅𝑓 . This results in negative
feedback because the output is 180° out of phase with the input. In other words, any changes in
𝑣2 produced by the input voltage are opposed by the output signal
Here is how the negative feedback stabilizes the overall voltage gain: If the open-loop voltage
gain 𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿 increases for any reason, the output voltage will increase and feedback more voltage
to the inverting input. This opposing feedback voltage reduces 𝑣2 . Therefore, even though 𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿
has increased, 𝑣2 has decreased, and the final output increases much less than it would without
the negative feedback. The overall result is a very slight increase in output voltage, so small that
it is hardly noticeable.
Virtual Ground
When we connect a piece of wire between some point in a circuit and ground, the voltage of the
point becomes zero. Furthermore, the wire provides a path for current to flow to ground. A
mechanical ground (a wire between a point and ground) is ground to both voltage and current.
A virtual ground is different. This type of ground is a widely used shortcut for analyzing an inverting
amplifier. With a virtual ground, the analysis of an inverting amplifier and related circuits becomes
incredibly easy.
The concept of a virtual ground is based on an ideal op amp. When an op amp is ideal, it has
infinite open-loop voltage gain and infinite input resistance. Because of this, we can deduce the
following ideal properties for the inverting amplifier (refer to the figure below):
1. Since 𝑅𝑖𝑛 is infinite𝑖2 , is zero.
2. Since 𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿 is infinite, 𝑣2 is zero
Since 𝑖2 is zero in the figure, the current through 𝑅𝑓 must equal the input current through 𝑅1 , as
shown. Furthermore, since 𝑣2 is zero, the virtual ground shown in the figure means that the
inverting input acts like a ground for voltage but an open for current!
Virtual ground is very unusual. It is like half of a ground because it is a short for voltage but an
open for current. To remind us of this half-ground quality, the figure above uses a dashed line
between the inverting input and ground. The dashed line means that no current can flow to
ground. Although virtual ground is an ideal approximation, it gives very accurate answers when
used with heavy negative feedback.
Voltage Gain
In the figure, visualize a virtual ground on the inverting input. Then, the right end of 𝑅1 is a voltage
ground, so we can write:
𝑣𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖𝑖𝑛 𝑅1
Similarly, the left end of 𝑅𝑓 is a voltage ground, so the magnitude of output voltage is:
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑖𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑓
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑖𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑓
Divide 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 by 𝑣𝑖𝑛 to get the voltage gain where 𝐴𝑣 = 𝑣𝑖𝑛
= 𝑖𝑖𝑛 𝑅1
. Therefore:
−𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿) =
𝑅𝑓
where 𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿) is the closed-loop voltage gain. This is called the closed-loop voltage gain because
it is the voltage when there is a feedback path between the output and the input. Because of the
negative feedback, the closed-loop voltage gain 𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿) is always smaller than the open-loop
voltage gain 𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿 .
The closed-loop voltage gain equals the ratio of the feedback resistance to the input resistance.
For instance, if 𝑅1 = 1 kΩ and 𝑅𝑓 = 50 kΩ, the closed-loop voltage gain is 50. Because of the
heavy negative feedback, this closed-loop voltage gain is very stable. If 𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿 varies because of
temperature change, supply voltage variations, or op-amp replacement, 𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿) will still be very
close to 50. The negative sign in the voltage gain equation indicates a 180° phase shift.
Input Impedance
In some applications, a designer may want a specific input impedance. This is one of the
advantages of an inverting amplifier; it is easy to set up a desired input impedance. Here is why:
Since the right end of 𝑅1 is virtually grounded, the closed-loop input impedance is:
𝑧𝑖𝑛(𝐶𝐿) = 𝑅1
This is the impedance looking into the left end of𝑅1 . For instance, if an input impedance of 2 kΩ
and a closed-loop voltage gain of 50 is needed, a designer can use 𝑅1 = 2 kΩ and 𝑅𝑓 = 100 kΩ.
Bandwidth
The open-loop bandwidth or cutoff frequency of an op amp is very low because of the internal
compensating capacitor. For a 741C:
𝑓2(𝑂𝐿) = 10 𝐻𝑧
At this frequency, the open-loop voltage gain breaks and rolls off in a first-order response.
When negative feedback is used, the overall bandwidth increases. Here is the reason: When the
input frequency is greater than 𝑓2(𝑂𝐿) , 𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿 decreases 20 dB per decade. When 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 tries to
decrease, less opposing voltage is fed back to the inverting input. Therefore, 𝑣2 increases and
compensates for the decrease in 𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿 . Because of this, 𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿) breaks at a higher frequency than
𝑓2(𝑂𝐿) . The greater the negative feedback, the higher the closed-loop cutoff frequency. Stated
another way: The smaller 𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿) is, the higher 𝑓2(𝐶𝐿) is.
The graph above illustrates how the closed-loop bandwidth increases with negative feedback. As
you can see, the heavier the negative feedback (smaller 𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿) ), the greater the closed-loop
bandwidth. Here is the equation for an inverting amplifier closed-loop bandwidth:
𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑓2(𝐶𝐿) =
𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿) + 1
In most applications, 𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿) is greater than 10 and the equation simplifies to:
𝑓2(𝐶𝐿) =
𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿)
For instance, when 𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿) is 10:
1 𝑀𝐻𝑧
𝑓2(𝐶𝐿) = = 100 𝑘𝐻𝑧
10
If 𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿) is 100:
1 𝑀𝐻𝑧
𝑓2(𝐶𝐿) = = 10 𝑘𝐻𝑧
100
The equation can be rearranged into:
𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿) 𝑓2(𝐶𝐿)
Notice that the unity-gain frequency equals the product of gain and bandwidth. For this reason,
many data sheets refer to the unity-gain frequency as the gain-bandwidth product (GBW).
Bias and Off sets

Negative feedback reduces the output error caused by input bias current, input offset current, and
input offset voltage. The three input error voltages and the equation for total output error voltage
is:
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿 (𝑉1𝑒𝑟𝑟 + 𝑉2𝑒𝑟𝑟 + 𝑉3𝑒𝑟𝑟 )
When negative feedback is used, this equation may be written as:
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 ≅ ±𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿 (±𝑉1𝑒𝑟𝑟 ± 𝑉2𝑒𝑟𝑟 ± 𝑉3𝑒𝑟𝑟 )
where 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 is the total output error voltage.
In mass production, the input errors may add up in the worst possible way. The equations of input
errors are:
𝑉1𝑒𝑟𝑟 = (𝑅𝐵1 − 𝑅𝐵2 )𝐼𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠)
𝐼𝑖𝑛(𝑜𝑓𝑓)
𝑉2𝑒𝑟𝑟 = (𝑅𝐵1 + 𝑅𝐵2 )
2
𝑉3𝑒𝑟𝑟 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛(𝑜𝑓𝑓)
When 𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿) is small, the total output error given by the equation of 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 may be small enough
to ignore. If not, resistor compensation and offset nulling will be necessary.
In an inverting amplifier, 𝑅𝐵2 is the Thevenin resistance seen when looking back from the inverting
input toward the source. This resistance is given by:
𝑅𝐵2 = 𝑅1 || 𝑅𝑓
If it is necessary to compensate for input bias current, an equal resistance 𝑅𝐵1 should be
connected to the noninverting input. This resistance has no effect on the virtual-ground
approximation because no ac signal current flows through it.
The Noninverting Amplifier

The noninverting amplifier is another basic op-amp circuit. It uses negative feedback to stabilize
the overall voltage gain. With this type of amplifier, the negative feedback also increases the input
impedance and decreases the output impedance.
Basic Circuit
The figure below shows the ac-equivalent circuit of a noninverting amplifier. An input voltage 𝑣𝑖𝑛
drives the noninverting input. This input voltage is amplified to produce the in-phase output
voltage shown. Part of output voltage is fed back to the input through a voltage divider. The
voltage across 𝑅1 is the feedback voltage applied to the inverting input. This feedback voltage is
almost equal to the input voltage. Because of the high open-loop voltage gain, the difference
between 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 is very small. Since the feedback voltage opposes the input voltage, we have
negative feedback.
Here is how the negative feedback stabilizes the overall voltage gain: If the open-loop voltage
gain 𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿 increases for any reason, the output voltage will increase and feed back more voltage
to the inverting input. This opposing feedback voltage reduces the net input voltage 𝑣1 – 𝑣2 .
Therefore, even though 𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿 increases, 𝑣1 – 𝑣2 decreases, and the final output increases much
less than it would without the negative feedback. The overall result is only a very slight increase
in output voltage.
Virtual Short
When we connect a piece of wire between two points in a circuit, the voltage of both points with
respect to ground is equal. Furthermore, the wire provides a path for current to flow between the
two points. A mechanical short (a wire between two points) is a short for both voltage and current.
A virtual short is different. This type of short can be used for analyzing noninverting amplifiers.
With a virtual short, we can quickly and easily analyze noninverting amplifiers and related circuits.
The virtual short uses these two properties of an ideal op amp:
1. Since 𝑅𝑖𝑛 is infinite, both input currents are zero.
2. Since 𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿 is infinite, 𝑣1 – 𝑣2 is zero.
The figure above shows a virtual short between the input terminals of the op amp. The virtual
short is a short for voltage but an open for current. As a reminder, the dashed line means that no
current can flow through it. Although the virtual short is an ideal approximation, it gives very
accurate answers when used with heavy negative feedback.
Here is how we will use the virtual short: Whenever we analyze a noninverting amplifier or a
similar circuit, we can visualize a virtual short between the input terminals of the op amp. As long
as the op amp is operating in the linear region (not positively or negatively saturated), the open-
loop voltage gain approaches infinity and a virtual short exists between the two input terminals.
One more point: Because of the virtual short, the inverting input voltage follows the noninverting
input voltage. If the noninverting input voltage increases or decreases, the inverting input voltage
immediately increases or decreases to the same value. This follow-the-leader action is called
bootstrapping (as in “pulling yourself up by your bootstraps”). The noninverting input pulls the
inverting input up or down to an equal value. Described another way, the inverting input is
bootstrapped to the noninverting input.
Voltage Gain
In the following figure, visualize a virtual short between the input terminals of the op amp. Then,
the virtual short means that the input voltage appears across 𝑅1 , as shown. So, we can write:
𝑣𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖1 𝑅1
Since no current can flow through a virtual short, the same 𝑖1 current must flow through 𝑅𝑓 , which
means that the output voltage is given by:
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑖1 (𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅1 )
Divide 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 by 𝑣𝑖𝑛 to get the voltage gain:
𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅1
𝑅1
or
𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿) = +1
𝑅1
This is easy to remember because it is the same as the equation for an inverting amplifier, except
that we add 1 to the ratio of resistances. Also, note that the output is in phase with the input.
Therefore, no (-) sign is used in the voltage gain equation.
Other Quantities
The closed-loop input impedance approaches infinity. Since the open-loop input impedance is
already very high (2 MΩ for a 741C), the closed-loop input impedance will be even higher.
The effect of negative feedback on bandwidth is the same as with an inverting amplifier:
𝑓2(𝐶𝐿) =
𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿)
Again, we can trade off voltage gain for bandwidth. The smaller the closed-loop voltage gain, the
greater the bandwidth.
The input error voltages caused by input bias current, input offset current, and input offset voltage
are analyzed the same way as with an inverting amplifier. After calculating each input error, we
can multiply by the closed-loop voltage gain to get the total output error.
𝑅𝐵2 is the Thevenin resistance seen when looking from the inverting input toward the voltage
divider. This resistance is the same as for an inverting amplifier:
𝑅𝐵2 = 𝑅1 ||𝑅𝑓
If it is necessary to compensate for input bias current, an equal resistance 𝑅𝐵1 should be
connected to the noninverting input. This resistance has no effect on the virtual-short
approximation because no ac signal current flows through it.
Output Error Voltage Reduces MPP

If we are amplifying ac signals, we can capacitively couple the output signal to the load. In this
case, we can ignore the output error voltage unless it is excessively large. If the output error
voltage is large, it will significantly reduce the MPP, the maximum unclipped peak-to-peak output.
In other words, the greater the output error voltage, the smaller the MPP value.
Two Op-Amp Applications

The following are two practical circuits of an op-amp.
The Summing Amplifier
Whenever we need to combine two or more analog signals into a single output, the summing
amplifier of the figure below is a natural choice.
For simplicity, the circuit shows only two inputs, but we can have as many inputs as needed for
the application. A circuit like this amplifies each input signal. The gain for each channel or input
is given by the ratio of the feedback resistance to the appropriate input resistance. For instance,
the closed-loop voltage gains of the figure above are:
−𝑅𝑓 −𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑣1(𝐶𝐿) = and 𝐴𝑣2(𝐶𝐿) =
𝑅1 𝑅2
The summing circuit combines all the amplified input signals into a single output, given by:
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝑣1(𝐶𝐿) 𝑣1 + 𝐴𝑣2(𝐶𝐿) 𝑣2
It is easy to prove the equation above. Since the inverting input is a virtual ground, the total input
current is:
𝑣1 𝑣2
𝑖𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 = +
𝑅1 𝑅2
Because of the virtual ground, all this current flows through the feedback resistor, producing an
output voltage with a magnitude of:
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (𝑖1 + 𝑖2 ) 𝑅𝑓 = − ( 𝑣1 + 𝑣 )
𝑅1 𝑅2 2
Here you see that each input voltage is multiplied by its channel gain and added to produce the
total output. The same result applies to any number of inputs.
In some applications, all resistances are equal, as shown in the figure above. In this case, each
channel has a closed-loop voltage gain of unity (1) and the output is given by:
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −(𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + … + 𝑣𝑛 )
This is a convenient way of combining input signals and maintaining their relative sizes. The
combined output signal can then be processed by more circuits.
A final point: If a summing circuit needs to be compensated by adding an equal resistance to the
noninverting input, the resistance to use is the Thevenin resistance looking from the inverting
input back to the sources. This resistance is given by the parallel equivalent of all resistances
connected to the virtual ground:
𝑅𝐵2 = 𝑅1 ||𝑅2 ||𝑅𝑓 || … ||𝑅𝑛
Voltage Follower
The figure above shows the ac-equivalent circuit for a voltage follower. Although it appears
deceptively simple, the circuit is very close to ideal because the negative feedback is maximum.
As you can see, the feedback resistance is zero. Therefore, all the output voltage is fed back to
the inverting input. Because of the virtual short between the op-amp inputs, the output voltage
equals the input voltage:
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑣𝑖𝑛
which means that the closed-loop voltage gain is:
𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿) = 1
We can get the same result by calculating the closed-loop voltage gain using the equation
𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿) = 𝑅 + 1 . Since 𝑅𝑓 = 0 and 𝑅1 = ∞:
1
𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿) = +1=1
𝑅1
Therefore, the voltage follower is a perfect follower circuit because it produces an output voltage
that is exactly equal to the input voltage (or close enough to satisfy almost any application).
Furthermore, the maximum negative feedback produces a closed-loop input impedance that is
much higher than the open-loop input impedance (2 MΩ for a 741C). Also, a maximum negative
feedback produces a closed-loop output impedance that is much lower than the open-loop output
impedance (75 Ω for a 741C). Therefore, we have an almost perfect method for converting a high-
impedance source to a low-impedance source.
The following figure illustrates the idea. The input ac source has a high output impedance 𝑅ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ .
The load has a low impedance 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑤 . Because of the maximum negative feedback in a voltage
follower, the closed-loop input impedance 𝑧𝑖𝑛(𝐶𝐿) is incredibly high and the closed-loop output
impedance 𝑧𝑜𝑢𝑡(𝐶𝐿) is incredibly low. As a result, all the input source voltage appears across the
load resistor.
The crucial point to understand is this: The voltage follower is the ideal interface to use between
a high-impedance source and a low-impedance load. Basically, it transforms the high-impedance
voltage source into a low-impedance voltage source. You will see the voltage follower used a
great deal in practice.
Since 𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿) = 1 in a voltage follower, the closed-loop bandwidth is maximum and equal to:
𝑓2(𝐶𝐿) = 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦
Another advantage is the low output offset error because the input errors are not amplified. Since
𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿) = 1, the total output error voltage equals the worst-case sum of the input errors.
Linear ICs
Op amps represent about a third of all linear ICs. With op amps, we can build a wide variety of
useful circuits. Although the op amp is the most important linear IC, other linear ICs, such as audio
amplifiers, video amplifiers, and voltage regulators, are also widely used.
There are two more characteristics that is essential in the discussion of op amps. First, there is
the power supply rejection ratio (PSRR). This quantity is defined as:
∆𝑉𝑖𝑛(𝑜𝑓𝑓)
∆𝑉𝑆
In words, the equation says that the power-supply rejection ratio equals the change in the input
offset voltage divided by the change in the supply voltages. In making this measurement, the
manufacturer varies both supplies simultaneously and symmetrically. If 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = +15 𝑉 , 𝑉𝐶𝐶 =
−15 𝑉, and ∆𝑉𝑆 = +1 𝑉, then 𝑉𝐶𝐶 becomes +16 𝑉 and 𝑉𝐸𝐸 becomes −16 𝑉.
Here is what this equation means: Because of the imbalance in the input diff amp plus other
internal effects, a change in the supply voltage will produce an output error voltage. Dividing this
output error voltage by the closed-loop voltage gain gives the change in the input offset voltage.
For instance, the LF353 has a PSRR in decibels of 276 dB. When we convert this to an ordinary
number, we get:
−76 𝑑𝐵
𝑃𝑆𝑅𝑅 = 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 0.000158
20
or, as it is sometimes written:
𝑃𝑆𝑅𝑅 = 158 𝜇𝑉/𝑉
This tells us that a change of 1 𝑉 in the supply voltage will produce a change in the input offset
voltage of 158 𝜇𝑉. Therefore, we have one more source of input error that joins the three input
errors discussed earlier.
The last parameter shown for the LF353 is the drift of 10 μV/°C. This is defined as the temperature
coefficient of the input offset voltage. It tells us how much the input offset voltage increases with
temperature. A drift of 10 μV/°C means that the input offset voltage increases 10 V for each degree
increase in degrees Celsius. If the internal temperature of the op amp increases by 50°C, the
input offset voltage of an LF353 increases by 500 μV.
Not all op amps need two supply voltages. For instance, the LM324 has four internally
compensated op amps. Although it can operate with two supplies like most op amps, it was
specifically designed for a single power supply, a definite advantage in many applications.
Internal compensation is convenient and safe because an internally compensated op amp will not
break into oscillations under any condition. The price paid for this safety is a loss of design control.
This is why some op amps offer external compensation. Overcompensation can improve low-
frequency operation, whereas under compensation can increase the bandwidth and slew rate.
All op amps have imperfections, as we have seen. Precision op amps try to minimize these
imperfections. Precision op amps are necessary for stringent applications such as measurement
and control.
Activities/Assessments
1. Objective type quiz and problem solving
a. Use the answer sheet below for the objective type quiz.
b. Answers must be handwritten on the space provided.
c. Submission is on the next lecture period.
LESSON 2: Differential Amplifiers
The input circuit used in most op amps is the differential amplifier. This amplifier configuration
establishes many of the IC’s input characteristics. The differential amplifier may also be
configured in a discrete form to be used in communications, instrumentation, and industrial control
circuits.
Differential Amplifier
Transistors, diodes, and resistors are the only practical components in typical ICs. Capacitors
may also be used, but they are small, usually less than 50 pF. For this reason, IC designers
cannot use coupling and bypass capacitors the way a discrete circuit designer can. Instead, the
IC designer has to use direct coupling between stages and also needs to eliminate the emitter
bypass capacitor without losing too much voltage gain.
The differential amplifier (diff amp) is the key. The design of this circuit is extremely clever
because it eliminates the need for an emitter bypass capacitor. For this and other reasons, the
diff amp is used as the input stage of almost every IC op amp.
Differential Input and Output

The figure below shows a diff amp. It is two CE stages in parallel with a common emitter resistor.
Although it has two input voltages (𝑣1 and 𝑣2 ) and two collector voltages (𝑣𝑐1 and 𝑣𝑐2 ), the overall
circuit is considered to be one stage. Because there are no coupling or bypass capacitors, there
is no lower cutoff frequency.
The ac output voltage 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 is defined as the voltage between the collectors with the polarity:
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑣𝑐2 − 𝑣𝑐1
This voltage is called a differential output because it combines the two ac collector voltages into
one voltage that equals the difference of the collector voltages. Note: We will use lowercase letters
for 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 , 𝑣𝑐1, and 𝑣𝑐2 because they are ac voltages that include zero Hertz (0 Hz) as a special
case.
Ideally, the circuit has identical transistors and equal collector resistors. With perfect symmetry,
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 is zero when the two input voltages are equal. When 𝑣1 is greater than 𝑣2 , the output voltage
has the polarity shown in the figure above. When 𝑣2 is greater than 𝑣1 , the output voltage is
inverted and has the opposite polarity.
The diff amp of the previous figure has two separate inputs. Input 𝑣1 is called the noninverting
input because 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 is in phase with 𝑣1 . On the other hand, 𝑣2 is called the inverting input because
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 is 180° out of phase with 𝑣2 . In some applications, only the noninverting input is used and
the inverting input is grounded. In other applications, only the inverting input is active and the
noninverting input is grounded.
When both the noninverting and inverting input voltages are present, the total input is called a
differential input because the output voltage equals the voltage gain times the difference of the
two input voltages. The equation for the output voltage is:
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝑣 (𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )
where 𝐴𝑣 is the voltage gain.
Single-Ended Output
A differential output like that of the previous figure requires a floating load because neither end of
the load can be grounded. This is inconvenient in many applications since loads are often single-
ended; that is, one end is grounded.
The figure below shows a widely used form of the diff amp. This has many applications because
it can drive single-ended loads like CE stages, emitter followers, and other circuits. As you can
see, the ac output signal is taken from the collector on the right side. The collector resistor on the
left has been removed because it serves no useful purpose.
Because the input is differential, the ac output voltage is still given by 𝐴𝑣 (𝑣1 − 𝑣2 ). With a single-
ended output, however, the voltage gain is half as much as with a differential output. We get half
as much voltage gain with a single-ended output because the output is coming from only one of
the collectors.
Incidentally, the following figure shows the block-diagram symbol for a diff amp with a differential
input and a single-ended output. The same symbol is used for an op amp. The plus sign (1)
represents the noninverting input, and the minus sign (2) is the inverting input.
Noninverting-Input Configurations
Often, only one of the inputs is active and the other is grounded, as shown in the left figure below.
This configuration has a noninverting input and a differential output. Since 𝑣2 = 0:
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝑣 (𝑣1 )
The right figure above shows another configuration for the diff amp. This one has a noninverting
input and a single-ended output. Since 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 is the ac output voltage, the equation above is still
valid, but the voltage gain 𝐴𝑣 will be half as much because the output is taken from only one side
of the diff amp.
Inverting-Input Configurations
In some applications, 𝑣2 is the active input and 𝑣1 is the grounded input, as shown in the left figure
below.
In this case, the equation simplifies to:

𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝐴𝑣 (𝑣2 )
The minus sign indicates phase inversion.
The right figure above shows the inverting input with a single-ended output. In this case, the ac
output voltage is still the same previously given equation.
Conclusion
The table below summarizes the four basic configurations of a diff amp. The general case has a
differential input and differential output. The remaining cases are subsets of the general case.
When the input is single-ended, either the noninverting input 𝑣1 or the inverting input 𝑣2 may be
used.
Input Output 𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡
Differential Differential 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 𝑣𝑐2 − 𝑣𝑐1
Differential Single-ended 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 𝑣𝑐2
Single-ended Differential 𝑣1 𝑜𝑟 𝑣2 𝑣𝑐2 − 𝑣𝑐1
Single-ended Single-ended 𝑣1 𝑜𝑟 𝑣2 𝑣𝑐2
DC Analysis of a Diff Amp

The figure below shows the dc-equivalent circuit for a diff amp. Throughout this unit, we will
assume identical transistors and equal collector resistors. Also, both bases are grounded in this
preliminary analysis.
Ideal Analysis
A diff amp is sometimes called a long-tail pair because the two transistors share a common
resistor 𝑅𝐸 . The current through this common resistor is called the tail current. If we ignore the
𝑉𝐵𝐸 drops across the emitter diodes of the figure above, then the top of the emitter resistor is
ideally a dc ground point. In this case, all of 𝑉𝐸𝐸 appears across 𝑅𝐸 and the tail current is:
𝑉𝐸𝐸
𝐼𝑇 =
𝑅𝐸
This equation is fine for troubleshooting and preliminary analysis because it quickly gets to the
point, which is that almost all the emitter supply voltage appears across the emitter resistor.
When the two halves of the figure above are perfectly matched, the tail current will split equally.
Therefore, each transistor has an emitter current of:
𝐼𝑇
𝐼𝐸 =
2
The dc voltage on either collector is given by this familiar equation:
𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶
Second Approximation
We can improve the dc analysis by including the 𝑉𝐵𝐸 drop across each emitter diode. In the figure
below, the voltage at the top of the emitter resistor is one VBE drop below ground. Therefore, the
tail current is:
𝑉𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝑇 =
𝑅𝐸
where 𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 0.7 V for silicon transistors.
Effect of Base Resistors on Tail Current

In the figure above, both bases are grounded for simplicity. When base resistors are used, they
have a negligible effect on the tail current in a well-designed diff amp. Here is the reason: When
base resistors are included in the analysis, the equation for tail current becomes:
𝑉𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝑇 =
𝑅𝐸 + 𝑅𝐵 /2𝛽𝑑𝑐
In any practical design, 𝑅𝐵 /2𝛽𝑑𝑐 is less than 1 percent of 𝑅𝐸 . This is why we prefer using either
the previous equations of 𝐼𝑇 to calculate tail current.
Although base resistors have a negligible effect on the tail current, they can produce input error
voltages when the two halves of the diff amp are not perfectly symmetrical.
AC Analysis of a Diff Amp

Theory of Operation
The following figure shows a noninverting input and single-ended output. With a large 𝑅𝐸 , the tail
current is almost constant when a small ac signal is present. Because of this, the two halves of a
diff amp respond in a complementary manner to the noninverting input.
In other words, an increase in the emitter current of Q1 produces a decrease in the emitter current
of Q2. Conversely, a decrease in the emitter current of Q1 produces an increase in the emitter
current of Q2.
The left transistor Q1 acts like an emitter follower that produces an ac voltage across the emitter
resistor. This ac voltage is half of the input voltage 𝑣1 . On the positive half-cycle of input voltage,
the Q1 emitter current increases, the Q2 emitter current decreases, and the Q2 collector voltage
increases. Similarly, on the negative half-cycle of input voltage, the Q1 emitter current decreases,
the Q2 emitter current increases, and the Q2 collector voltage decreases. This is why the amplified
output sine wave is in phase with the noninverting input.
Single-Ended Output Gain

The figure on the left below shows the ac-equivalent circuit. Notice that each transistor has an
𝑟′𝑒 . Also, the biasing resistor 𝑅𝐸 is in parallel with the 𝑟′𝑒 of the right transistor because the base
of Q2 is grounded. In any practical design, 𝑅𝐸 is much greater than 𝑟′𝑒 . Because of this, we can
ignore 𝑅𝐸 in a preliminary analysis.
The figure on the right above shows the simplified equivalent circuit. Notice that the input voltage
𝑣1 is across the first 𝑟′𝑒 in series with the second 𝑟′𝑒 . Since the two resistances are equal, the
voltage across each 𝑟′𝑒 is half of the input voltage. Its ac output voltage is:
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝐶
and the ac input voltage is:
𝑣𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖𝑒 𝑟′𝑒 + 𝑖𝑒 𝑟′𝑒 = 2𝑖𝑒 𝑟′𝑒
Dividing 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 by vin gives the voltage gain:
𝑅𝐶
𝐒𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 − 𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐝 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭: 𝐴𝑣 =
2r′𝑒
A final point: a quiescent dc voltage 𝑉𝐶 exists at the output terminal. This voltage is not part of the
ac signal. The ac voltage 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 is any change from the quiescent voltage. In an op amp, the
quiescent dc voltage is removed in a later stage because it is unimportant.
Differential-Output Gain
This figure shows the ac-equivalent circuit for a noninverting input and differential output. The
analysis is almost identical to the previous example, except that the output voltage is twice as
much since there are two collector resistors:
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑣𝑐2 − 𝑣𝑐1 = 𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝐶 − (−𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝐶 ) = 2𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝐶
(Note: The second minus sign appears because the 𝑣𝑐1 signal is 180° out of phase with 𝑣𝑐2 , as
shown in the figure.)
The ac input voltage is still equal to:
𝑣𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑖𝑒 𝑟′𝑒
Dividing the output voltage by the input voltage gives the voltage gain:
𝑅𝐶
𝐃𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭: 𝐴𝑣 =
r′𝑒
This is easy to remember because it is the same as the voltage gain for a CE stage.
Inverting-Input Configurations
The left figure below shows an inverting input and single-ended output. The ac analysis is almost
identical to the noninverting analysis. In this circuit, the inverting input v2 produces an amplified
and inverted ac voltage at the final output. The r′𝑒 of each transistor is still part of a voltage divider
in the ac-equivalent circuit. This is why the ac voltage across R 𝐸 is half of the inverting input
voltage. If a differential output is used, the voltage gain is twice as much as previously discussed.
The diff amp in the right figure above is an upside-down pnp version of the left figure. Frequently,
pnp transistors are used in transistor circuits using positive power supplies. These pnp transistors
are drawn in an upside-down configuration. As with the npn versions, the inputs and outputs may
be either differential or single-ended.
Differential-Input Configurations
The differential-input configurations have both inputs active at the same time. The ac analysis can
be simplified by using the superposition theorem as follows:
Since we know how a diff amp behaves with noninverting and inverting inputs, we can
combine the two results to get the equations for differential-input configurations.
The output voltage for a noninverting input is:

A𝑣 (v1 )
and the output voltage for an inverting input is:
v𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −A𝑣 (v2 )
By combining the two results, we get the equation for a differential input:
v𝑜𝑢𝑡 = A𝑣 (v1 − v2 )
Table of Voltage Gains

The table below summarize the voltage gains for the diff-amp configurations. As you can see, the
voltage gain is maximum with a differential output. The voltage gain is cut in half when a single-
ended output is used. Also, when a single-ended output is used, the input may be noninverting or
inverting.
Input Output vin vout
Differential Differential RC/r'e Av (v1 – v2)
Differential Single-ended RC/2r'e Av (v1 – v2)
Single-ended Differential RC/r'e Avv1 or – Avv2
Single-ended Single-ended RC/2r'e Avv1 or – Avv2
Input Impedance
In a CE stage, the input impedance of the base is:
z𝑖𝑛 = 𝛽r′𝑒
In a diff amp, the input impedance of either base is twice as high:
z𝑖𝑛 = 2𝛽r′𝑒
The input impedance of a diff amp is twice as high because there are two ac emitter resistances
r′𝑒 in the ac-equivalent circuit instead of one. The equation of z𝑖𝑛 in a diff-amp is valid for all
configurations because any ac input signal sees two ac emitter resistances in the path between
the base and ground.
Input Characteristics of an Op Amp

Assuming perfect symmetry in a diff amp is a good approximation for many applications. But in
precision applications, we can no longer treat the two halves of a diff amp as identical. There are
three characteristics on the data sheet of every op amp that a designer uses when more accurate
answers are needed. They are the input bias current, the input offset current, and the input offset
voltage.
Input Bias Current
In an integrated op amp, the dc of each transistor in the first stage is slightly different, which
means that the base currents in the figure above are slightly different. The input bias current is
defined as the average of the dc base currents:
𝐼𝐵1 + 𝐼𝐵2
𝐼𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠) =
2
For instance, if 𝐼𝐵1 = 90 nA and 𝐼𝐵2 = 70 nA, the input bias current is:
90 𝑛𝐴 + 70 𝑛𝐴
Iin(bias) = = 80 𝑛𝐴
2
With bipolar op amps, the input bias current is typically in nanoamperes. When op amps use
JFETs in the input diff amp, the input bias current is in picoamperes.
The input bias current will flow through the resistances between the bases and ground. These
resistances may be discrete resistances, or they may be the Thevenin resistances of the input
sources.
Input Off set Current

The input offset current is defined as the difference of the dc base currents:
𝐼𝑖𝑛(𝑜𝑓𝑓) = 𝐼𝐵1 − 𝐼𝐵2
This difference in the base currents indicates how closely the transistors are matched. If the
transistors are identical, the input offset current is zero because both base currents will be equal.
But almost always, the two transistors are slightly different, and the two base currents are not
equal.
The Q1 transistor has 20 nA more base current than the Q2 transistor. This can cause a problem
when large base resistances are used.
Base Currents and Off sets

By rearranging the previous 2 equations, we can derive these two equations for the base currents:
𝐼𝐵1 = 𝐼𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠) +
2
𝐼𝐵2 = 𝐼𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠) −
2
Data sheets always list 𝐼𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠) and 𝐼𝑖𝑛(𝑜𝑓𝑓) , but not 𝐼𝐵1 and 𝐼𝐵2 . With these equations, we can
calculate the base currents. These equations assume that 𝐼𝐵1 is greater than 𝐼𝐵2 . If 𝐼𝐵2 is greater
than 𝐼𝐵1 , transpose the equations.
Effect of Base Current
Some diff amps operate with a base resistance on only one side, as shown in the figure above.
Because of the base current direction, the base current through 𝑅𝐵 produces a noninverting dc
input voltage of:
𝑉1 = −𝐼𝐵1 𝑅𝐵
(Note: Capital letters are used here and elsewhere for dc error voltages like 𝑉1. For simplicity, we
will treat 𝑉1 as an absolute value. This voltage has the same effect as a genuine input signal.
When this false signal is amplified, an unwanted dc voltage 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 appears across the output, as
shown in the figure above.)
Effect of Input Off set Current

One way to reduce the output error voltage is by using an equal base resistance on the other side
of the diff amp, as shown in the figure below. In this case, we have a differential dc input of:
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝐵1 𝑅𝐵 − 𝐼𝐵2 𝑅𝐵 = (𝐼𝐵1 − 𝐼𝐵2 )𝑅𝐵
or
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑖𝑛(𝑜𝑓𝑓) 𝑅𝐵
Since 𝐼𝑖𝑛(𝑜𝑓𝑓) is usually less than 25 percent of 𝐼𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠) , the input error voltage is much less when
equal base resistors are used. For this reason, designers often include an equal base resistance
on the opposite side of a diff amp, as shown above.
Input Offset Voltage

When a diff amp is integrated as the first stage of an op amp, the two halves are almost, but not
quite, identical. To begin with, the two collector resistances may be different, as shown in the left
figure below. Because of this, an error voltage appears across the output.
Another source of error is the different 𝑉𝐵𝐸 curves for each transistor. For instance, suppose that
the two base-emitter curves have the same current. Because the curves are slightly different,
there is a difference between the two 𝑉𝐵𝐸 values. This difference adds to the error voltage.
Besides 𝑅𝐶 and 𝑉𝐵𝐸 , other transistor parameters may differ slightly on each half of the diff amp,
as shown in the chart above.
The input offset voltage is defined as the input voltage that would produce the same output error
voltage in a perfect diff amp. As an equation:
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝑉𝑖𝑛(𝑜𝑓𝑓) =
𝐴𝑣
In this equation, 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 does not include the effects of input bias and offset current because both
bases are grounded when Verror is measured.
Combined Effects
In the figure above, the output voltage is the superposition of all input effects. To begin with, there
is the ideal ac input:
𝑣𝑖𝑛 = 𝑣1 − 𝑣2
This is what we want. It is the voltage coming from the two input sources. It is amplified to produce
the desired ac output:
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴(𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )
Then, there are the three unwanted dc error inputs. With the previously given equations, we can
derive these formulas:
V1err = (R B1 − R B2 )Iin(bias)
Iin(off)
V2err = (R B1 + R B2 )
2
V3err = Vin(off)
The advantage of these formulas is that they use Iin(bias) and Iin(off), quantities on the data sheet.
The three dc errors are amplified to produce the output error voltage:
Verror = Av (V1err + V2err + V3err )
In many cases, Verror can be ignored. This will depend on the application. For instance, if we are
building an ac amplifier, Verror may not be important. It is only when we are building some kind of
precision dc amplifier that Verror needs to be taken into account.
Equal Base Resistances
When the bias and offset errors cannot be ignored, here are the remedies. As already mentioned,
one of the first things a designer can do is to use equal base resistances: R B1 = R B2 = R BB. This
brings the two halves of the diff amp into a closer alignment because the previously given
equations of the errors become:
V1err = 0
V2err = R B Iin(off)
V3err = Vin(off)
If further compensation is necessary, the best approach is to use the nulling circuits suggested
on the data sheets. Manufacturers optimize the design of these nulling circuits, which should be
used if output error voltage is a problem.
Conclusion
The following table summarizes the sources of output error voltage. In many applications, the
output error voltage is either small enough to ignore or not important in the particular application.
In precision applications in which the dc output is important, some form of nulling is used to
eliminate the effects of input bias and offset. Designers usually null the output with methods
suggested on the manufacturer’s data sheet.
Description Cause Solution
Input bias current Voltage across a single Use equal RB on
RB other side
Input offset current Unequal current gains Data sheet nulling
methods
Input offset voltage Unequal RC and VBE Data sheet nulling
methods
Common-Mode Gain
The figure below shows a differential input and single-ended output. The same input voltage
𝑣𝑖𝑛(𝐶𝑀) is being applied to each base. This voltage is called a common-mode signal. If the diff
amp is perfectly symmetrical, there is no ac output voltage with a common-mode input signal
because 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 . When a diff amp is not perfectly symmetrical, there will be a small ac output
voltage.
In this figure, equal voltages are applied to the noninverting and inverting inputs. Nobody would
deliberately use a diff amp this way because the output voltage is ideally zero. The reason for
discussing this type of input is because most static, interference, and other kinds of undesirable
pickup are common-mode signals.
Here is how a common-mode signal appears: The connecting wires on the input bases act like
small antennas. If the diff amp is operating in an environment with a lot of electromagnetic
interference, each base acts like a small antenna that picks up an unwanted signal voltage. One
of the reasons the diff amp is so popular is because it discriminates against these common-mode
signals. In other words, a diff amp does not amplify common-mode signals.
Here is an easy way to find the voltage gain for a common-mode signal: We can redraw the circuit,
as shown in the left figure below. Since equal voltages 𝑣𝑖𝑛(𝐶𝑀) drive both inputs simultaneously,
there is almost no current through the wire between the emitters. Therefore, we can remove the
connecting wire, as shown in the right figure below.
With a common-mode signal, the right side of the circuit is equivalent to a heavily swamped CE
amplifier. Since 𝑅𝐸 is always much greater than 𝑟′𝑒 , the swamped voltage gain is approximately:
RC
Av(CM) =
2R F
With typical values of R C and 𝑅𝐸 , the common-mode voltage gain is usually less than 1.
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio

The common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is defined as the voltage gain divided by common-
mode voltage gain. In symbols:
Av
CMMR =
Av(CM)
For instance, if Av = 200 and Av(CM) = 0.5, CMRR = 400.
The higher the CMRR, the better. A high CMRR means that the diff amp is amplifying the wanted
signal and discriminating against the common-mode signal.
Data sheets usually specify CMRR in decibels, using the following formula for the decibel
conversion:
CMRRdB = 20 log CMRR
a. Use the answer sheet below for the objective type test.
LESSON 3: Linear Op-Amp Applications
The output of a linear op-amp circuit has the same shape as the input signal. If the input is
sinusoidal, the output is sinusoidal. At no time during the cycle does the op amp go into saturation.
There are a variety of linear op-amp circuit applications including inverting amplifiers, noninverting
amplifiers, differential amplifiers, instrumentation amplifiers, current boosters, controlled current
sources, and automatic gain control circuits.
Inverting-Amplifier Circuits
The inverting amplifier is the most basic op-amp circuit. It uses negative feedback to stabilize
the overall voltage gain. The reason we need to stabilize the overall voltage gain is because 𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿
is too high and unstable to be of any use without some form of feedback. For instance, the 741C
has a minimum 𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿 of 20,000 and a maximum 𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿 of more than 200,000. An unpredictable
voltage gain of this magnitude and variation is useless without feedback. Hence, one advantage
of this amplifier is that its voltage gain equals the ratio of the feedback resistance to the input
resistance.
High-Impedance Probe
The figure below shows a high-impedance probe that can be used with a digital multimeter.
Because of the virtual ground in the first stage, the probe has an input impedance of 100 MV at
low frequencies. The first stage is an inverting amplifier with a voltage gain of 0.1. The second
stage is an inverting amplifier with a voltage gain of either 1 or 10. The circuit gives you the basic
idea of the 10:1 probe. It has a very high input impedance and an overall voltage gain of either
0.1 or 1. In the X10 position of the switch, the output signal is attenuated by a factor of 10. In the
X1 position, there is no attenuation of the output signal. The basic circuit shown here can be
improved by adding more components to increase the bandwidth.
Noninverting-Amplifier Circuits
The noninverting amplifier is another basic op-amp circuit. Advantages include stable voltage
gain, high input impedance, and low output impedance. Here are some applications.
Audio Distribution Amplifier
The following figure shows an ac-coupled noninverting amplifier driving three voltage followers.
This is one way to distribute an audio signal to several different outputs. The closed-loop voltage
gain and bandwidth of the first stage are given by the familiar equations shown in the figure below.
For the values shown, the closed-loop voltage gain is 40. If 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 is 1 MHz, the closed-loop
bandwidth is 25 kHz.
Incidentally, an op amp like an LM348 is convenient to use in a circuit like the one above because
the LM348 is a quad 741—four 741s in a 14-pin package. One of the op amps can be the first
stage, and the others can be the voltage followers.
Voltage Reference
The MC1403 is a special-function IC called a voltage reference, a circuit that produces an
extremely accurate and stable output voltage.
For any positive supply voltage between 4.5 and 40 V, it produces an output voltage of 2.5 V with
a tolerance of ±1 percent. The temperature coefficient is only 10 ppm/°C. The abbreviation ppm
stands for “parts per million” (1 ppm is equivalent to 0.0001 percent). Therefore, 10 ppm/°C
produces a change of only 2.5 mV for a 100°C change in temperature (10 × 0.0001 percent × 100
× 2.5 V).
The point is that the output voltage is ultra-stable and equal to 2.5 V over a large temperature
range. The only problem is that 2.5 V may be too low a voltage reference for many applications.
For instance, suppose we want a voltage reference of 10 V. Then, one solution is to use an
MC1403 and a noninverting amplifier as shown in the following figure. With the circuit values
shown, the voltage gain is:
30 𝑘Ω
Av = +1=4
10 𝑘Ω
and the output voltage is:
Vout = 4(2.5 𝑉) = 10 𝑉
Because the closed-loop voltage gain of the noninverting amplifier is only 4, the output voltage
will be a stable voltage reference of 10 V
Inverter/Non-inverter Circuits
The following are circuit applications where the input signal drives both inputs of the op am
simultaneously. When an input signal drives both inputs, we get both inverting and non-inverting
amplification at the same time. This produces some interesting results because the output is the
superposition of two amplified signals.
The total voltage gain with an input signal driving both sides of the op amp equals the voltage
gain of the inverting channel plus the voltage gain of the noninverting channel:
Av = Av(inv) + Av(non)
Switchable Inverter/Non-inverter
The figure below shows an op amp that can function as either an inverter or a non-inverter. With
the switch in the lower position, the noninverting input is grounded and the circuit is an inverting
amplifier. Since the feedback and input resistances are equal, the inverting amplifier has a closed-
loop voltage gain of:
−𝑅
Av == −1
𝑅
When the switch is moved to the upper position, the input signal drives both the inverting and the
noninverting inputs simultaneously. The voltage gain of the inverting channel is still:
Av(inv) = −1
The voltage gain of the noninverting channel is:
𝑅
Av(non) =+1 = 2
𝑅
The total voltage gain is the superposition or algebraic sum of the two gains:
Av = Av(inv) + Av(non) = −1 + 2 = 1
The circuit is a switchable inverter/non-inverter. It has a voltage gain of either 1 or -1, depending
on the position of the switch. In other words, the circuit produces an output voltage with the same
magnitude as the input voltage, but the phase can be switched between 0° and -180°. As an
example, if vin is +5 V, vout will be either +5 V or -5 V depending on the switch position.
Inverter with Adjustable Gain

When the variable resistor of the figure below is zero, the noninverting input is grounded and the
−R
circuit becomes an inverting amplifier with a voltage gain of 2.
R1
When the variable resistor is increased to R 2 , equal voltages drive the noninverting and inverting
inputs of the op-amp (common-mode input). Due to common-mode rejection, output voltage is
approximately zero.
Example:
1. Using the figure above, what are the values of the maximum and minimum
voltage gain if R1 = 1.2 kΩ and R 2 = 91 kΩ?
Solution:
The maximum voltage gain is:
−91 𝑘𝛺
𝐴𝑣 = = −75.8
1.2 𝑘𝛺
The minimum voltage gain is zero.
Sign Changer
The circuit below is called a sign changer, a rather unusual circuit because its voltage gain can
be varied from 21 to 1. Here is the theory of operation: When the wiper is all the way to the right,
the noninverting input is grounded and the circuit has a voltage gain of:
Av = −1
When the wiper is all the way to the left, the input signal drives the noninverting input as well as
the inverting input. In this case, the total voltage gain is the superposition of the inverting and
noninverting voltage gains:
Av(non) = 2
Av(inv) = −1
Av = Av(inv) + Av(non) = 1
In summary, when the wiper is moved from right to left, the voltage gain changes continuously
from -1 to 1. At the crossover point (wiper at center), a common-mode signal drives the op amp
and the output is ideally zero.
Differential Amplifiers
One of the most important characteristics of a differential amplifier is its CMRR because the typical
input signal is a small differential voltage and a large common-mode voltage.
Basic Differential Amplifier

The following figure shows an op amp connected as a differential amplifier. The resistor R1′ has
the same nominal value as R1 but differs slightly in value because of tolerances. For instance, if
the resistors are 1 kΩ ±1 percent, R1 may be as high as 1010 Ω and R1′ may be as low as 990 Ω,
and vice versa. Similarly, R 2 and R 2′ are nominally equal but may differ slightly because of
tolerances.
In the figure, the desired input voltage vin is called the differential input voltage to distinguish it
from the common-mode input voltage vin(CM) . This circuit amplifies the differential input voltage
vin to get an output voltage of vout . Using the superposition theorem, it can be shown that:
vout = Av vin
where
−𝑅2
𝐴𝑣 =
𝑅1
This voltage gain is called the differential voltage gain to distinguish it from the common-mode
voltage gain 𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝑀) . By using precision resistors, we can build a differential amplifier with a precise
voltage gain.
A differential amplifier is often used in applications in which the differential input signal vin is a
small dc voltage (millivolts) and the common-mode input signal is a large dc voltage (volts). As a
result, the CMRR of the circuit becomes a critical parameter. For instance, if the differential input
signal is 7.5 mV and the common-mode signal is 7.5 V, the differential input signal is 60 dB less
than the common-mode input signal. Unless the circuit has a very high CMRR, the common-mode
output signal will be objectionably large.
CMRR of the Op Amp

In the following figure, two factors determine the overall CMRR of the circuit.
1. CMRR of the op amp itself. (741C’s minimum CMRR is 70 dB)
2. Tolerance of the resistors
Calculating CMRR
In a circuit like the one above, resistors with a tolerance of ±0.1 percent are commonly used.
When 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 , the differential voltage gain is:
−𝑅2
𝐴𝑣 = = −1
𝑅1
And the common-mode voltage gain is:
𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝑀) = ±2(0.1%) = ±2(0.001) = ±0.002
The CMRR has a magnitude of:
|𝐴𝑣 | 1
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 = = = 500
|𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝑀) | 0.002
which is equivalent to 54 dB.
Instrumentation Amplifiers
An instrumentation amplifier has a large voltage gain, a high CMRR, low input offsets, low
temperature drift, and high input impedance.
Basic Instrumentation Amplifier
The figure below shows the classic design used for most instrumentation amplifiers. The output
op amp is a differential amplifier with the voltage gain of unity. The resistors used in this output
stage are usually matched to within ±0.1 percent or better. This means that the CMRR of the
output stage is at least 54 dB.
Precision resistors are commercially available from less than 1 Ω to more than 10 MΩ, with
tolerances of ±0.01 to ±1 percent. If we use matched resistors that are within ±0.01 percent of
each other, the CMRR of the output stage can be as high as 74 dB. Also, temperature drift of
precision resistors can be as low as 1 ppm/°C.
Example:
1. In the previous figure, 𝑅1 = 1 kΩ, 𝑅2 = 100 kΩ, and 𝑅 = 10 kΩ. What is the
differential voltage gain of the instrumentation amplifier? What is the common-
mode voltage gain if the resistor tolerances in the second stage are ±0.01
percent? If 𝑣𝑖𝑛 = 10 mV and 𝑣𝑖𝑛(𝐶𝑀) = 10 V, what are the values of the
differential and common-mode output signals?
Solution:
The voltage gain of the preamp is:
100 𝑘Ω
𝐴𝑣 = + 1 = 101
1 𝑘Ω
Since the voltage gain of the second stage is -1, the voltage gain of the
instrumentation amplifier is -101.
The common-mode voltage gain of the second stage is:
𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝑀) = ±2(0.01%) = ±2(0.0001) = ±0.0002
A differential input signal of 10 mV will produce an output signal of:
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ±0.0002(10 𝑉) = ±2 𝑚𝑉
Current Boosters
The short-circuit output current of an op amp is typically 25 mA or less. One way to get more
output current is to use a power op amp like the LM675 or LM12. These op amps have short-
circuit output currents of 3 and 10 A. Another way to get more short-circuit output current is to use
a current booster, a power transistor or other device that has a current gain and a higher current
rating than the op amp.
Unidirectional Booster
The figure below shows one way to increase the maximum load current. The output of an op amp
drives an emitter follower. The closed-loop voltage gain is:
𝑅2
𝐴𝑣 = +1
𝑅1
In this circuit, the op amp no longer has to supply the load current. Instead, it only has to supply
base current to the emitter follower. Because of the current gain of the transistor, the maximum
load current is increased to:
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝛽𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝑆𝐶
where ISC is the short-circuit output current of the op amp. This means that an op amp like a 741C
can have a maximum output current of 25 mA increased by a factor of 𝛽𝑑𝑐 .
The circuit can drive low-impedance loads because the negative feedback reduces the output
impedance of the emitter follower by a factor of 1 + 𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿 𝐵. Since the emitter follower already has
a low output impedance, the closed-loop output impedance will be very small.
Bidirectional Current
The disadvantage of the current booster shown in the previous figure is its unidirectional load
current. The figure below shows one way to get a bidirectional load current. An inverting amplifier
drives a Class-B push-pull emitter follower. In this circuit, the closed-loop voltage gain is:
−𝑅2
𝐴𝑣 =
𝑅1
When the input voltage is positive, the lower transistor is conducting and the load voltage is
negative. When the input voltage is negative, the upper transistor is conducting and the output
voltage is positive. In either case, the maximum output current is increased by the current gain of
the conducting transistor. Since the Class-B push-pull emitter follower is inside the feedback loop,
the closed-loop output impedance is very small.
Example:
1. In the previously given circuit, 𝑅1 = 1 kΩ and 𝑅2 = 51 kΩ. If a 741C is used for
the op amp, what is the voltage gain of the circuit? What is the closed-loop
output impedance? What is the shorted-load of the circuit if each transistor has
a current gain of 125?
Solution:
The voltage gain is:
51 kΩ
𝐴𝑣 = − = −51
1 kΩ
The feedback fraction is:
1 kΩ
𝐵= = 0.0192
1 kΩ + 51 kΩ
Since the 741C has a typical voltage gain of 100,000 and an open-loop
output impedance of 75 Ω, the closed-loop output impedance is:
75 Ω
𝑧𝑜𝑢𝑡 = = 0.039 Ω
1 + (100,000)(0.0192)
Since the 741C has a shorted-load current of 25 mA, the boosted value of
the shorted-load current is:
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 125(25 𝑚𝐴) = 3.13 𝐴
Voltage-Controlled Current Sources
All circuits that allow an input voltage to control an output current are variations of the VCIS
prototype. This means that they are voltage-controlled current sources, also known as voltage-
to-current converters.
Floating Load
Below illustrates the VCIS prototype.
The load may be a resistor, a relay, or a motor. Because of the virtual short between the input
terminals, the inverting input is bootstrapped to within microvolts of the noninverting input. Since
voltage 𝑣𝑖𝑛 appears across 𝑅, the load current is:
𝑣𝑖𝑛
𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑅
Since the load resistance does not appear in this equation, the current is independent of the load
resistance. In other words, the load appears to be driven by a very still current source.
If the load resistance is too large, the op amp goes into saturation and the circuit no longer acts
like a stiff current source. The maximum load voltage is:
𝑉𝐿(max) = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑣𝑖𝑛
Since the load current equals 𝑣𝑖𝑛 /𝑅, we can derive this equation for the maximum load resistance
that can be used without saturating the op amp:
𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝑅𝐿(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 𝑅 ( − 1)
𝑣𝑖𝑛
Another limitation on a voltage-controlled current source is the short-circuit output current of the
op amp. As an equation:
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝑆𝐶
where 𝐼𝑆𝐶 is the short-circuit output current of the op amp.
Example:
1. If the current source of the figure above has 𝑅 = 10 kΩ, 𝑣𝑖𝑛 = 1 V, and 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 15
V, what is the output current? What is the maximum load resistance that can
be used with this circuit if vin can be as large as 10 V?
Solution:
The output current is:
𝑣𝑖𝑛 1𝑉
𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡 == = 0.1 𝑚𝐴
𝑅 10 𝑘𝛺
The maximum load resistance is:
𝑉𝐶𝐶 15 𝑉
𝑅𝐿(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 𝑅 ( − 1) = (10 𝑘𝛺) ( − 1) = 5 𝑘𝛺
𝑣𝑖𝑛 10 𝑉
Grounded Load
If a floating load is all right and the short-circuit current is adequate, the VCIS prototype circuit
that was previously shown works well. But if the load needs to be grounded or more short-circuit
current is needed, we can modify the basic circuit as shown below.
Since the collector and emitter currents of the transistor are almost equal, the current through 𝑅
is approximately equal to the load current.
Because of the virtual short between op-amp inputs, the inverting input voltage approximately
equals 𝑣𝑖𝑛 .
Therefore, the voltage across 𝑅 equals 𝑉𝐶𝐶 minus 𝑣𝑖𝑛 and the current through 𝑅 is given by:
𝑉𝐶𝐶 −𝑣𝑖𝑛
𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑅
Notice that the circuit uses a current booster on the output side. This increases the short-circuit
output current to:
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝛽𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝑆𝐶
Single-Supply Operation
Using dual supplies is the typical way to power op amps. But this is not necessary or even
desirable in some applications.
Inverting Amplifier
The following figure shows a single-supply inverting voltage amplifier that can be used with ac
signals. The 𝑉𝐸𝐸 supply (pin 4) is grounded, and a voltage divider applies half the 𝑉𝐶𝐶 supply to
the noninverting input. Because the two inputs are virtually shorted, the inverting input has a
quiescent voltage of approximately +0.5𝑉𝐶𝐶 .
In the dc-equivalent circuit, all capacitors are open and the circuit is a voltage follower that
produces a dc output voltage of +0.5𝑉𝐶𝐶 . Input offsets are minimized because the voltage gain is
unity.
In the ac-equivalent circuit, all capacitors are shorted and the circuit is an inverting amplifier with
a voltage gain of -𝑅2 /𝑅1 . The figure above also shows the analysis equations, which we use to
calculate the three lower cutoff frequencies. A bypass capacitor is used on the noninverting input.
This reduces the power-supply ripple and noise appearing at the noninverting input. To be
effective, the cutoff frequency of this bypass circuit should be much lower than the ripple
frequency out of the power supply.
Noninverting Amplifier
In the following figure, only a positive supply is being used. To get maximum output swing, you
need to bias the noninverting input at half the supply voltage, which is conveniently done with an
equal-resistor voltage divider. This produces a dc input of ±0.5𝑉𝐶𝐶 at the noninverting input.
Because of the negative feedback, the inverting input is bootstrapped to the same value. In the
dc-equivalent circuit, all capacitors are open and the circuit has a voltage gain of unity, which
minimizes the output offset voltage. The dc output voltage of the op amp is ±0.5𝑉𝐶𝐶 , but this is
blocked from the final load by the output coupling capacitor. In the ac-equivalent circuit, all
capacitors are shorted. When an ac signal drives the circuit, an amplified output signal appears
across 𝑅𝐿 . If a rail-to-rail op amp is used, the maximum peak-to-peak unclipped output is 𝑉𝐶𝐶 .
Included in the figure are the equations for calculating the cutoff frequencies.
Single-Supply Op Amps
Although we can use ordinary op amps with a single supply, there are some op amps that are
optimized for single- supply operation. For instance, the LM324 is a quad op amp that eliminates
the need for dual supplies. It contains four internally compensated op amps in a single package,
each with an open-loop voltage gain of 100 dB, input biasing current of 45 nA, input offset current
of 5 nA, and input offset voltage of 2 mV. It runs off a single positive supply voltage that can have
any value between 3 and 32 V. Because of this, the LM324 is convenient to use as an interface
with digital circuits that run off a single positive supply of +5 V.
LESSON 4: Non-Linear Op-Amp Applications
Monolithic op amps are inexpensive, versatile, and reliable. They can be used not only for linear
circuits like voltage amplifiers, current sources, and active filters, but also for nonlinear circuits
such as comparators, wave-shapers, and active-diode circuits. The output of a nonlinear op-amp
circuit usually has a different shape from the input signal because the op amp saturates during
part of the input cycle. Because of this, we have to analyze two different modes of operation to
see what happens during an entire cycle.
Comparators with Zero Reference

Often we want to compare one voltage with another to see which is larger. In this situation, a
comparator may be the perfect solution. A comparator is similar to an op amp because it has two
input voltages (noninverting and inverting) and one output voltage. It differs from a linear op-amp
circuit because it has a two-state output, either a low or a high voltage. Because of this,
comparators are often used to interface with analog and digital circuits.
Basic Idea
The simplest way to build a comparator is to connect an op amp without feedback resistors, as
shown in the left figure below. Because of the high open-loop voltage gain, a positive input voltage
produces positive saturation, and a negative input voltage produces negative saturation.
This comparator is called a zero-crossing detector because the output voltage ideally switches
from low to high or vice versa whenever the input voltage crosses zero. The right figure above
shows the input-output response of a zero-crossing detector. The minimum input voltage that
produces saturation is:
±𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑣𝑖𝑛(min) =
𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿
If 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 14 𝑉, the output swing of the comparator is from approximately -14 to +14 V. If the open-
loop voltage gain is 100,000, the input voltage needed to produce saturation is:
±14 𝑉
𝑣𝑖𝑛(min) = = ±0.14 𝑚𝑉
100,000
This means that an input voltage more positive than +0.140 mV drives the comparator into positive
saturation, and an input voltage more negative than -0.140 mV drives it into negative saturation.
Input voltages used with comparators are usually much greater than ±0.140 mV. This is why the
output voltage is a two-state output, either +𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 or −𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 . By looking at the output voltage, we
can instantly tell whether the input voltage is greater than or less than zero.
Lissajous Pattern
A Lissajous pattern appears on an oscilloscope when harmonically related signals are applied to
the horizontal and vertical inputs. One convenient way to display the input/output response of any
circuit is with a Lissajous pattern in which the two harmonically related signals are the input and
output voltages of the circuit.
The slightest positive input voltage produces positive saturation, and the slightest negative input
produces negative saturation.
Inverting Comparator
Sometimes, we may prefer to use an inverting comparator like the figure below. The noninverting
input is grounded. The input signal drives the inverting input of the comparator. In this case, a
slightly positive input voltage produces a maximum negative output. On the other hand, a slightly
negative input voltage produces a maximum positive output.
Diode Clamps
One of the uses of diode clamps is to protect sensitive circuits. The circuit of the inverting
comparator above is a practical example. Here we see two diode clamps protecting the
comparator against excessively large input voltages. For instance, the LM311 is an IC comparator
with an absolute maximum input rating of ±15 V. If the input voltage exceeds these limits, the
LM311 will be destroyed.
We can protect a comparator against destructively large input voltages by using the diode clamps.
These diodes have no effect on the operation of the circuit as long as the magnitude of the input
voltage is less than 0.7 V. When the magnitude of the input voltage is greater than 0.7 V, one of
the diodes will turn on and clamp the magnitude of the inverting input voltage to approximately
0.7 V.
When using one of the IC comparators, we have to add an external resistor in series with the
input terminal. This series resistor will limit the internal diode currents to a safe level.
Converting Sine Waves to Square Waves
The trip point (also called the threshold or reference) of a comparator is the input voltage that
causes the output voltage to switch states (from low to high or from high to low). In the
noninverting and inverting comparators discussed earlier, the trip point is zero because this is the
value of input voltage where the output switches states. Since a zero-crossing detector has a two-
state output, any periodic input signal that crosses zero threshold will produce a rectangular
output waveform.
For instance, if a sine wave is the input to a noninverting comparator with a threshold of 0 V, the
output will be the square wave shown in the figure on the left below. As we can see, the output of
a zero-crossing detector switches states each time the input voltage crosses the zero threshold.
The figure on the right above shows the input sine wave and the output square wave for an
inverting comparator with a threshold of 0 V. With this zero-crossing detector, the output square
wave is 180° out of phase with the input sine wave.
Linear Region
The following figure shows a zero-crossing detector. If this comparator had an infinite open-loop
gain, the transition between negative and positive saturation would be vertical.
When the sensitivity of the 2 channel is changed to 200 μV/Div, we can see that the transition is
not vertical. It takes approximately ±100 μV to get positive or negative saturation. This is typical
for a comparator. The narrow input region between approximately -100 and +100 μV is called the
linear region of the comparator. During a zero crossing, a changing input signal usually passes
through the linear region so quickly that we see only a sudden jump between negative and positive
saturation, or vice versa
Interfacing Analog and Digital Circuits
Comparators usually interface at their outputs with digital circuits such as CMOS, EMOS, or TTL
(stands for transistor-transistor logic, a family of digital circuits).
The figure on the left below shows how a zero-crossing detector can interface with an EMOS
circuit. Whenever the input voltage is greater than zero, the output of the comparator is high. This
turns on the power FET and produces a large load current.
On the other hand, the figure on the right below shows a zero-crossing detector interfacing with
a CMOS inverter. The idea is basically the same. A comparator input greater than zero produces
a high input to the CMOS inverter.
Most EMOS devices can handle input voltages greater than ±15 V, and most CMOS devices can
handle input voltages up to ±15 V. Therefore, we can interface the output of a typical comparator
without any level shifting or clamping. TTL logic, on the other hand, operates with lower input
voltages.
Clamping Diodes and Compensating Resistors

When a current-limiting resistor is used with clamping diodes, a compensating resistor of equal
size may be used on the other input of the comparator. This is still a zero-crossing detector, except
that it now has a compensating resistor to eliminate the effect of input bias current. As before, the
diodes are normally off and have no effect on the operation of the circuit. It is only when the input
tries to exceed ±0.7 V that one of the clamping diodes turns on and protects the comparator
against excessive input voltage.
Bounded Output
The output swing of a zero-crossing detector may be too large in some applications. If so, we can
bound the output by using back-to-back zener diodes, as shown below. In this circuit, the inverting
comparator has a bounded output because one of the diodes will be conducting in the forward
direction and the other will be operating in the breakdown region.
Another approach to bounding the output is to connect zener diodes across the output.
Comparators with Nonzero References

In some applications, a threshold voltage different from zero may be preferred. By biasing either
input, we can change the threshold voltage as needed.
Moving the Trip Point
In this circuit, a voltage divider produces the following reference voltage for the inverting input:
𝑅2
𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐶𝐶
When 𝑣𝑖𝑛 is greater than 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑓 , the differential input voltage is positive, and the output voltage is
high. When 𝑣𝑖𝑛 is less than 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑓 , the differential input voltage is negative, and the output voltage
is low.
A bypass capacitor is typically used on the inverting input. This reduces the amount of power-
supply ripple and other noise appearing at the inverting input. To be effective, the cutoff frequency
of this bypass circuit should be much lower than the ripple frequency of the power supply. The
cutoff frequency is given by:
1
𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋(𝑅1 || 𝑅2 ) 𝐶𝐵𝑌
The graph above shows the transfer characteristic (input/output response). The trip point is now
equal to 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑓 . When 𝑣𝑖𝑛 is greater than 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑓 , the output of the comparator goes into positive
saturation. When 𝑣𝑖𝑛 is less than 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑓 , the output goes into negative saturation.
A comparator like this is sometimes called a limit detector because a positive output indicates that
the input voltage exceeds a specific limit. With different values of 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 , we can set the limit
anywhere between 0 and 𝑉𝐶𝐶 . If a negative limit is preferred, connect -𝑉𝐸𝐸 to the voltage divide,
as shown below.
Now a negative reference voltage is applied to the inverting input. When 𝑣𝑖𝑛 is more positive than
𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑓 , the differential input voltage is positive and the output is high. When 𝑣𝑖𝑛 is more negative
than 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑓 , the output is low.
Single-Supply Comparator
A typical op amp like the 741C can run on a single positive supply by grounding the -𝑉𝐸𝐸 pin as
shown in the circuit below. The output voltage has only one polarity, either a low or a high positive
voltage. For instance, with 𝑉𝐶𝐶 equal to +15 V, the output swing is from approximately +1.5 V (low
state) to around +13.5 V (high state).
When 𝑣𝑖𝑛 is greater than 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑓 , the output is high, as illustrated in the graph below. When 𝑣𝑖𝑛 is less
than 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑓 , the output is low. In either case, the output has a positive polarity. For many digital
applications, this kind of positive output is preferred.
IC Comparators
An op amp like a 741C can be used as a comparator, but it has speed limitations because of its
slew rate. With a 741C, the output can change no faster than 0.5 V/μs. Because of this, a 741C
takes more than 50 μs to switch output states with supplies of ±15 V. One solution to the slew-
rate problem is to use a faster op amp like an LM318. Since it has a slew rate of 70 V/μs, it can
switch from −𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 to +𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 in approximately 0.3 μs
Another solution is to eliminate the compensating capacitor found in a typical op amp. Since a
comparator is always used as a nonlinear circuit, a compensating capacitor is unnecessary. A
manufacturer can delete the compensating capacitor and significantly increase the slew rate.
Open-Collector Devices
The following figure on the left is a simplified schematic diagram for an open-collector
comparator. Notice that it runs off a single positive supply. The input stage is a diff amp (Q1 and
Q2). A current source Q6 supplies the tail current. The diff amp drives an active-load Q4. The
output stage is a single transistor Q5 with an open collector. This open collector allows the user
to control the output swing of the comparator.
A typical op amp has an output stage that can be described as an active-pullup stage because it
contains two devices in a Class-B push-pull connection. With the active pullup, the upper device
turns on and pulls the output up to the high output state. On the other hand, an open-collector
output stage of the circuit below needs external components to be connected to it.
For the output stage to work properly, the user has to connect the open collector to an external
resistor and supply voltage, as illustrated on the figure on the right above. The resistor is called a
pullup resistor because it pulls the output voltage up to the supply voltage when Q5 is cut off.
When Q5 is saturated, the output voltage is low. Since the output stage is a transistor switch, the
comparator produces a two-state output.
With no compensating capacitor in the circuit, the output can slew very rapidly because only small
stray capacitances remain in the circuit. The main limitation on the switching speed is the amount
of capacitance across Q5. This output capacitance is the sum of the internal collector capacitance
and the external stray wiring capacitance.
The output time constant is the product of the pullup resistance and the output capacitance. For
this reason, the smaller the pullup resistance, the faster the output voltage can change. Typically,
R is from a couple of hundred to a couple of thousand ohms.
Examples of IC comparators are the LM311, LM339, and NE529. They all have an open-collector
output stage, which means that you have to connect the output pin to a pullup resistor and a
positive supply voltage. Because of their high slew rates, these IC comparators can switch output
states in a microsecond or less.
Not all IC comparators have an open-collector output stage. Some, like the LM360, LM361, and
LM760, have an active-collector output stage. The active pullup produces faster switching. These
high-speed IC comparators require dual supplies.
Comparators with Hysteresis
If the input to a comparator contains a large amount of noise, the output will be erratic when 𝑣𝑖𝑛
is near the trip point. One way to reduce the effect of noise is by using a comparator with positive
feedback. The positive feedback produces two separate trip points that prevent a noisy input from
producing false transitions.
Noise
Noise is any kind of unwanted signal that is not derived from or harmonically related to the input
signal. Electric motors, neon signs, power lines, car ignitions, lightning, and so on produce
electromagnetic fields that can induce noise voltages into electronic circuits. Power-supply ripple
is also classified as noise since it is not related to the input signal. By using regulated power
supplies and shielding, we usually can reduce the ripple and induced noise to an acceptable level.
Thermal noise, on the other hand, is caused by the random motion of free electrons inside a
resistor, as shown in the figure on the left below. The energy for this electron motion comes from
the thermal energy of the surrounding air. The higher the ambient temperature, the more active
the electrons.
The motion of billions of free electrons inside a resistor is pure chaos. At some instants, more
electrons move up than down, producing a small negative voltage across the resistor. At other
instants, more electrons move down than up, producing a positive voltage. If this type of noise
were amplified and viewed on an oscilloscope, it would resemble the figure on the right below.
Like any voltage, noise has rms or effective value. As an approximation, the highest noise peaks
are about four times the rms value.
The randomness of the electron motion inside a resistor produces a distribution of noise at virtually
all frequencies. The rms value of this noise increases with temperature, bandwidth, and
resistance.
Noise Triggering
The high open-loop gain of a comparator means that an input of only 100 μV may be enough to
switch the output from one state to another. If the input contains noise with a peak of 100 μV or
more, the comparator will detect the zero crossings produced by the noise.
When the noise peaks are large enough, they produce unwanted changes in the comparator
output. When an input signal is present, the noise is superimposed on the input signal and
produces erratic triggering.
Schmitt Trigger
The standard solution for a noisy input is to use a comparator, as shown in the figure on the left
below. The input voltage is applied to the inverting input. Because the feedback voltage at the
noninverting input is aiding the input voltage, the feedback is positive. A comparator using positive
feedback like this is usually called a Schmitt trigger.
When the comparator is positively saturated, a positive voltage is fed back to the noninverting
input. This positive feedback voltage holds the output in the high state. Similarly, when the output
voltage is negatively saturated, a negative voltage is fed back to the noninverting input, holding
the output in the low state. In either case, the positive feedback reinforces the existing output
state. The feedback fraction is:
𝑅1
𝐵=
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
When the output is positively saturated, the reference voltage applied to the noninverting input is:
𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑓 = +𝐵𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
When the output is negatively saturated, the reference voltage is:
𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑓 = −𝐵𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
The output voltage will remain in a given state until the input voltage exceeds the reference
voltage for that state. For instance, if the output is positively saturated, the reference voltage is
1BVsat. The input voltage must be increased to slightly more than 1BVsat to switch the output
voltage from positive to negative, as shown in Fig. 20-18b. Once the output is in the negative
state, it will remain there indefi nitely until the input voltage becomes more negative than 2BVsat.
Then, the output switches from negative to positive, refer to the graph above.
Hysteresis
The unusual response of the graph above has a useful property called hysteresis.
The trip points are defined as the two input voltages where the output voltage changes states.
The upper trip point (UTP) has the value:
𝑈𝑇𝑃 = 𝐵𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
and the lower trip point (LTP) has the value:
𝐿𝑇𝑃 = −𝐵𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
The difference between these trip points is defined as the hysteresis (also called the deadband):
𝐻 = 𝑈𝑇𝑃 + 𝐿𝑇𝑃
Using the two previously given formula, this becomes:
𝐻 = 𝐵𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 − (−𝐵𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 )
which equals:
𝐻 = 2𝐵𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
Positive feedback causes hysteresis. If there were no positive feedback, B would equal zero and
the hysteresis would disappear because both trip points would equal zero.
Hysteresis is desirable in a Schmitt trigger because it prevents noise from causing false triggering.
If the peak-to-peak noise voltage is less than the hysteresis, the noise cannot produce false
triggering. For instance, if UTP = +1 V and LTP = -1 V, then H = 2 V. In this case, the Schmitt
trigger is immune to false triggering as long as the peak-to-peak noise voltage is less than 2 V.
Noninverting Circuit
The figure on the left below shows a noninverting Schmitt trigger. The input/output response
has a hysteresis loop, as shown in the graph on the right. Here is how the circuit works: If the
output is positively saturated, the feedback voltage to the noninverting input is positive, which
reinforces the positive saturation. Similarly, if the output is negatively saturated, the feedback
voltage to the noninverting input is negative, which reinforces the negative saturation.
Assume that the output is negatively saturated. The feedback voltage will hold the output in
negative saturation until the input voltage becomes slightly more positive than UTP. When this
happens, the output switches from negative to positive saturation. Once in positive saturation, the
output stays there until the input voltage becomes slightly less than LTP. Then, the output can
change back to the negative state.
The equations for the trip points of a noninverting Schmitt trigger are given by:
𝑅1 −𝑅1
𝑈𝑇𝑃 = 𝑉 𝐿𝑇𝑃 = 𝑉
𝑅2 𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑅2 𝑠𝑎𝑡
The ratio of 𝑅1 to 𝑅2 determines how much hysteresis the Schmitt trigger has. A designer can
create enough hysteresis to prevent unwanted noise triggers.
Speed-Up Capacitor
Besides suppressing the effects of noise, positive feedback speeds up the switching of output
states. When the output voltage begins to change, this change is fed back to the noninverting
input and amplified, forcing the output to change faster. Sometimes a capacitor 𝐶2 is connected
in parallel with 𝑅2 , as shown below.
Known as a speed-up capacitor, it helps to cancel the bypass circuit formed by the stray
capacitance across 𝑅1 . This stray capacitance 𝐶1 has to be charged before the noninverting input
voltage can change. The speed-up capacitor supplies this charge.
To neutralize the stray capacitance, the minimum speed-up capacitance must be at least:
𝑅1
𝐶2 = 𝐶
𝑅2 1
As long as 𝐶1 is equal to or greater than the value given, the output will switch states at maximum
speed.
Example:
1. If 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 13.5 V, what are the trip points and
hysteresis in the figure below?
Solution:
The feedback fraction is:
1 𝑘𝛺
𝐵= = 0.0208
48 𝑘𝛺
The trip points are:
𝑈𝑇𝑃 = (0.0208)(13.5) = 0.281 𝑉
𝐿𝑇𝑃 = (−0.0208)(13.5 𝑉) = −0.281 𝑉
The hysteresis is:
𝐻 = 2𝐵𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 2(0.0208)(13.5 𝑉) = 0.562 𝑉
This means that the Schmitt trigger can withstand a peak-to-peak noise
voltage up to 0.562 V without false triggering.
The Integrator
An integrator is a circuit that performs a mathematical operation called integration. The most
popular application of an integrator is in producing a ramp of output voltage, which is a linearly
increasing or decreasing voltage. The integrator is sometimes called the Miller integrator, after
the inventor.
Basic Circuit
The circuit above is an op-amp integrator. As you can see, the feedback component is a capacitor
instead of a resistor. The usual input to an integrator is a rectangular pulse, as illustrated on the
graph above. The width of this pulse is equal to T. When the pulse is low, 𝑣𝑖𝑛 = 0. When the pulse
is high, 𝑣𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 . Visualize this pulse applied to the left end of R.
Because of the virtual ground on the inverting input, a high input voltage produces an input current
of:
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝑖𝑛 =
𝑅
All this input current goes into the capacitor. As a result, the capacitor charges and its voltage
increases with the polarity. The virtual ground implies that the output voltage equals the voltage
across the capacitor. For a positive input voltage, the output voltage will increase negatively.
Since a constant current is flowing into the capacitor, the charge Q increases linearly with time.
This means that the capacitor voltage increases linearly, which is equivalent to a negative ramp
of output voltage. At the end of the pulse period, the input voltage returns to zero and the capacitor
charging stops. Because the capacitor retains its charge, the output voltage remains constant at
a negative voltage of -V. The magnitude of this voltage is given by:
𝑇
𝑉= 𝑉
𝑅𝐶 𝑖𝑛
A final point: Because of the Miller effect, we can split the feedback capacitor into two equivalent
capacitances, as shown in the following figure.
The closed-loop time constant 𝜏 for the input bypass circuit is:
𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶(𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿 + 1)
For the integrator to work properly, the closed-loop time constant should be much greater than
the width of the input pulse (at least 10 times greater). As a formula:
𝜏 > 10 𝑇
In the typical op-amp integrator, the closed-loop time constant is extremely long, so this condition
is easily satisfied.
Eliminating Output Offset

The circuit of the original op-amp integrator needs a slight modification to make it practical.
Because a capacitor is open to dc signals, there is no negative feedback at zero frequency.
Without negative feedback, the circuit treats any input offset voltage as a valid input voltage. The
result is that the capacitor charges and the output goes into positive or negative saturation, where
it stays indefinitely.
One way to reduce the effect of input offset voltage is to decrease the voltage gain at zero
frequency by inserting a resistor in parallel with the capacitor, as shown in the figure on the left
below. This resistor should be at least 10 times larger than the input resistor. If the added
resistance equals 10R, the closed-loop voltage gain is 10 and the output offset voltage is reduced
to an acceptable level. When a valid input voltage is present, the additional resistor has almost
no effect on the charging of a capacitor, so the output voltage is still almost a perfect ramp.
Another way to suppress the effect of input offset voltage is to use a JFET switch, as shown in
the figure on the right below. The reset voltage on the gate of the JFET is either 0 V or −𝑉𝐶𝐶 ,
which is enough to cut off the JFET. Therefore, we can set the JFET to a low resistance when the
integrator is idle and to a high resistance when the integrator is active.
The JFET discharges the capacitor in preparation for the next input pulse. Just before the
beginning of the next input pulse, the reset voltage is made equal to 0 V. This discharges the
capacitor. At the instant the next pulse begins, the reset voltage becomes −𝑉𝐶𝐶 , which cuts off
the JFET. The integrator then produces an output voltage ramp.
Example:
1. In Fig. 20-26, what is the output voltage at the end of the input pulse? If the
741C has an open-loop voltage gain of 100,000, what is the closed-loop time
constant of the integrator?
Solution:
The magnitude of the negative output voltage at the end of the pulse is:
𝑇 1 𝑚𝑠
𝑉= 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = (8 𝑉) = 4 𝑉
𝑅𝐶 (2 𝑘Ω)(1 𝜇𝐹)
The closed-loop time constant is:
𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶(𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿 + 1) = (2 𝑘Ω)(1 𝜇𝐹)(100,001) = 200 𝑠
Since the pulse width of 1 ms is much smaller than the closed-loop time
constant, only the earliest part of an exponential function is involved in the
capacitor charging. Because the initial part of an exponential function is
almost linear, the output voltage is almost a perfect ramp.
Active-Diode Circuits
Op amps can enhance the performance of diode circuits. For one thing, an op amp with negative
feedback reduces the effect of the knee voltage, allowing us to rectify, peak-detect, clip, and
clamp low-level signals (those with amplitudes less than the knee voltage). And because of their
buffering action, op amps can eliminate the effects of the source and load on diode circuits.
Half-Wave Rectifier
The figure below is an active half-wave rectifier. When the input signal goes positive, the output
goes positive and turns on the diode. The circuit then acts like a voltage follower, and the positive
half-cycle appears across the load resistor. When the input goes negative, the op-amp output
goes negative and turns off the diode. Since the diode is open, no voltage appears across the
load resistor. The final output is almost a perfect half-wave signal.
There are two distinct modes or regions of operation. First, when the input voltage is positive, the
diode is conducting and the operation is linear. In this case, the output voltage is fed back to the
input, and we have negative feedback. Second, when the input voltage is negative, the diode is
nonconducting and the feedback path is open. In this case, the op-amp output is isolated from
the load resistor.
The high open-loop voltage gain of the op amp almost eliminates the effect of the knee voltage.
For instance, if the knee voltage is 0.7 V and 𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿 is 100,000, the input voltage that just turns on
the diode is 7 μV.
The closed-loop knee voltage is given by:
𝑉𝐾
𝑉𝐾(𝐶𝐿) =
𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿
where 𝑉𝐾 = 0.7 V for a silicon diode. Because the closed-loop knee voltage is so small, the active
half-wave rectifier may be used with low-level signals in the microvolt region.
Active Peak Detector

To peak-detect small signals, we can use an active peak detector like the one shown below.
Again, the closed-loop knee voltage is in the microvolt region, which means that we can peak-
detect low-level signals. When the diode is on, the negative feedback produces a Thevenin output
impedance that approaches zero. This means that the charging time constant is very low, so the
capacitor can quickly charge to the positive peak value. When the diode is off, the capacitor has
to discharge through RL. Because the discharging time constant RLC can be made much longer
than the period of the input signal, we can get almost perfect peak detection of low-level signals.
If the peak-detected signal has to drive a small load, we can avoid loading effects by using an op-
amp buffer.
Often, a reset is included with an active peak detector. The reason you may need a reset is
because the long discharge time constant means that the capacitor will hold its charge for a long
time, even though the input signal is removed.
The Differentiator
A differentiator is a circuit that performs a calculus operation called differentiation. It produces
an output voltage proportional to the instantaneous rate of change of the input voltage. Common
applications of a differentiator are to detect the leading and trailing edges of a rectangular pulse
or to produce a rectangular output from a ramp input.
RC Differentiator
An RC circuit like the one shown in this figure can be used to differentiate an input signal. The
typical input signal is a rectangular pulse, as shown in the graph above. The output of the circuit
is a series of positive and negative spikes. The positive spike occurs at the same instant as the
leading edge of the input, and the negative spike occurs at the same instant as the trailing edge.
Spikes like these are useful signals because they indicate when the rectangular input signal starts
and ends.
Op-Amp Differentiator
The figure below shows an op-amp differentiator. Notice the similarity to the op-amp integrator.
The difference is that the resistor and capacitor are interchanged. Because of the virtual ground,
the capacitor current passes through the feedback resistor, producing a voltage across this
resistor. The capacitor current is given by this fundamental relation:
𝑑𝑣
𝑖=𝐶
𝑑𝑡
The quantity dv/dt equals the slope of the input voltage.
One common application of the op-amp differentiator is to produce very narrow spikes, as shown
in the graph below. The advantage of an op-amp differentiator over a simple RC differentiator is
that the spikes are coming from a low-impedance source, which makes driving typical load
resistances easier.
Practical Op-Amp Differentiator
The op-amp differentiator above has a tendency to oscillate. To avoid this, a practical op-amp
differentiator usually includes some resistance in series with the capacitor, below.
A typical value for this added resistance is between 0.01R and 0.1R. With this resistor, the closed-
loop voltage gain is between 10 and 100. The effect is to limit the closed-loop voltage gain at
higher frequencies, where the oscillation problem arises.
Class-D Amplifier
The Class-D amplifier uses output transistors operated as switches. Instead of operating in a
linear region, these transistors are alternately driven into saturation and cutoff by the output signal
of a comparator circuit. The Class-D amplifier is capable of very high circuit efficiencies and is
gaining popularity in portable equipment needing audio amplification.
LESSON 5: Analog to Digital Conversion
In many applications, it is necessary to convert measured analog data to digital form for
processing in a computer or other digital device. The analog output of a sample-and-hold circuit
is applied to an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The output of the ADC is a series of binary
codes that represent each of the sampled values of the input signal.
Analog-to-digital conversion is the process of converting the output of the sample-and-hold circuit
to a series of binary codes that represent the amplitude of the analog input at each of the sample
times. The sample-and-hold process keeps the amplitude of the analog input signal constant
between sample pulses; therefore, the analog-to-digital conversion can be done using a constant
value rather than having the analog signal change during a conversion interval, which is the time
between sample pulses.
Conversion Parameters
1. Resolution. An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) translates a continuous analog signal into
a series of binary numbers. Each binary number represents the value of the analog signal at
the time of conversion. The resolution of an ADC can be expressed as the number of bits
(binary digits) used to represent each value of the analog signal. A 4-bit ADC can represent
sixteen different values of an analog signal because 24 = 16. An 8-bit ADC can represent 256
different values of an analog signal because 28 = 256. A 12-bit ADC can represent 4096
different values of the analog signal because 212 = 4096. The more bits, the more accurate is
the conversion and the greater is the resolution because more values of a given analog signal
can be represented.
2. Conversion Time. In addition to resolution, another important characteristic of ADCs is
conversion time. The conversion of an analog voltage into a digital quantity is not an
instantaneous event, but it is a process that takes a certain amount of time. The conversion
time can range from microseconds for fast converters to milliseconds for slower devices.
Conversion time is illustrated in a basic way in the figure below. As you can see, the analog
voltage (𝑣0 ) to be converted occurs at time 𝑡0 but the conversion is not complete until time 𝑡1 .
3. Quantization Error. The term quantization in this context refers to determining a value for a
changing analog voltage. Ideally, we would like to assign a number to the voltage at a given
instant and convert it immediately to digital form. This is, of course, impossible because of the
conversion time of ADCs. Since an analog signal may change during a conversion time, the
voltage at the end of the conversion time may not be the same as it was at the beginning. This
change in voltage during the conversion time, Δ𝑣, produces what is called the quantization
error, as illustrated below.
One way to avoid or at least minimize quantization error is to use a sample-and-hold circuit at
the input to the ADC. a sample-and-hold circuit quickly samples the analog input and then
holds the sampled voltage for a certain time. When used in conjunction with an ADC, the
sample-and-hold is held constant for the duration of the conversion time. This allows the ADC
to convert a constant voltage to digital form and avoids the quantization error. A basic
illustration of this process is shown below. When compared to the conversion in the figure
below, you can see that a more accurate value of the analog input at the desired sample point
is achieved.
Sampling
In A/D conversion, an analog waveform is sampled at a given point and the sampled value is then
converted to a binary number. Since it takes a certain interval of time to accomplish the
conversion, the number of samples of an analog waveform during a given period of time is limited.
For example, if a certain ADC can make one conversion in 1 ms, it can make 1000 conversions
in one second. That is, it can convert 1000 different analog values to digital form in a one-second
interval.
In order to represent an analog waveform, the sample rate must be greater than twice the
maximum frequency component of the analog signal. The theoretical minimum limit of the
sampling rate is known as the Nyquist rate or frequency. At the Nyquist rate, an analog signal is
sampled and converted two times per cycle. In practice, however, a signal must be sampled more
than twice per cycle. Obviously, a greater number of samples per cycle of the analog signal results
in a more accurate representation of the analog signal. The following figures illustrates two
different sample rates. As shown, the higher rate produces a more accurate result.
To process a continuous signal in a computer or other digital system, you must sample it:
1. Time Quantization
 Samples taken (almost always) at regular intervals: sample frequency of 𝑓𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝
 This causes aliasing: a frequency of 𝑓 is indistinguishable from frequencies 𝑘𝑓𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝 ± 𝑓 for
all integers 𝑘
1
 No information lost if signal contains only frequencies below 2 𝑓𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝 (Nyquist limit).
2. Amplitude Quantization
 Amplitude of each sample can only take one of a finite number of different values
 This adds quantization noise: an irreversible corruption of the signal
 For low amplitude signals, it also adds distortion. This can be eliminated by adding dither
before sampling.
Quantization Noise
Take a signal 𝑉𝑖𝑛 , digitize this using a ADC to produce X[N-1:0] and then convert this back to
analog using a DAC to produce 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 . 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 is restricted to discrete levels so it cannot follow 𝑉𝑖𝑛
exactly. The error, 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 is the quantization noise and has an amplitude of ±½LSB.
If you assume that the input signal is random and therefore the amplitude of the quantization noise
is equally likely to take on a value between - ½ LSB and + ½ LSB, the RMS value of the
quantization noise is:
1
+
2
1
√ ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = = 𝟎. 𝟑 𝑳𝑺𝑩
1
√12
−
2
What is the Signal-to-Noise ratio of an n-bit converter? This can also be calculated easily.
Consider a sine wave with an amplitude of ±2𝑛−1 . We choose this amplitude because this is
centered around 0 (no dc component) and 1 LSB = 1 V, making this easier to express everything
in LSB. The RMS value of this sine wave is easily shown to be 0.71 × 2𝑛−1 or 0.35 × 2𝑛 . SNR is:
0.35 × 2𝑛
20 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (1.2 × 2𝑛 ) = 𝟏. 𝟖 + 𝟔𝒏 𝐝𝐁
0.3
Therefore, for such a sine wave, the SNR is 1.8 + 6𝑛 dB. In other words, for every extra bit of
ADC/DAC resolution, we add an extra 6dB to the SNR.
Threshold Voltages
Each value of X corresponds to a range of values of 𝑉𝑖𝑛 . The voltage at which 𝑣𝑖𝑛 switches from
one value of X to the other is called a threshold voltage.
The task of an A/D converter is to discover which of the voltage ranges 𝑉𝑖𝑛 belongs to. To do this,
the converter must compare 𝑉𝑖𝑛 with the threshold voltages.
The threshold voltages corresponding to X are at (X±½) LSB.
Methods of Analog-to-Digital Conversion

Several methods can be used in analog-to-digital conversion, such as the simultaneous or flash
method, using DAC, and successive approximation.
Flash A/D Converter
This is the simplest method to convert analog to digital. The flash method uses several
comparators to compare reference voltages with the analog input from a sample-and-hold circuit.
When the analog voltage exceeds the reference level for a given comparator, a high-level output
is produced by the comparator.
The comparator outputs go to a priority encoder, which is a digital circuit that produces a binary
output code that represents the level of the input. Priority encoder logic must determine the
highest 𝐺𝑛 input that equals 1.
For an n-bit converter, we have 2𝑛 − 1 threshold voltages. Consequently, 2𝑛 − 1 comparators are
required for this converter. The large number of comparators needed for a practical size binary
code is one disadvantage of the flash method. Its chief advantage is that it provides a fast
conversion time.
For a 12-bit converter, it needs 4095 comparators on a single chip. The following figure shows a
bipolar converter.
A Naïve ADC Using a Counter
This is a simple ADC using a DAC, a comparator and a binary counter.
The START signal is a short pulse that asynchronously reset the counter to zero. This starts the
ADC conversion. If 𝑉𝑖𝑛 is above the lowest value from DAC, the counter is enabled (HIGHER=1).
The counter then counts up until 𝑉𝑖𝑛 is now lower than the DAC output, and counter is disabled,
and the DONE signal goes high. X3:0 shows the value of the counter that makes the DAC just
over the 𝑉𝑖𝑛 value.
The disadvantage of this converter is that the time it takes to perform a conversion is dependent
on the value of 𝑣𝑖𝑛 . Furthermore, if this is a 16-bit converter, it could take over 65,000 clock cycles
– therefore the conversion time can be very long.
A/D conversion with sample/hold

So far, we assumed that while the ADC is performing conversion, the input signal is held at a fixed
voltage level. If the input signal is in fact changing, the converted digital value will not be an
accurate measure of 𝑉𝑖𝑛 at the time of sampling. To ensure that the ADC input is held at a fixed
voltage, we usually include follow-and-hold circuit.
An analog switch is normally turn ON, so that 𝑉𝑖𝑛 is continuously charging the capacitor C. When
the START pulse activates the ADC to take a sample, the DONE signal immediately goes low.
This should open the switch and hold the 𝑉𝑖𝑛 value at the time the conversion started. This means
that 𝑉𝐴𝐷𝐶 remains constant (HOLD).
Choice of C is a compromise:
𝑑𝑉 𝐼𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒
 Big C keeps constant voltage despite leakage currents since 𝑑𝑡
= 𝐶
𝑑𝑉 𝐼𝑖𝑛
 Small C allows faster acquisition time for any given input current since 𝑑𝑡
= 𝐶
Other types of Converter
There is another class of converters known as oversampling converters. These use a sigma-
delta ∑∆ modulator circuit which sample the input signal at a much high frequency than the
Nyquist frequency demands.
Normally it produces a 1-bit digital signal which is than down sampled and filtered to produce an
accurate analog output for a DAC, and a multi-bit digital value for an ADC. For example, CD
players use an oversample DAC with sampling rate of 6.4MHz. This is then down sampled to
produce an output sample rate of 50KHz – a oversampling ratio of 128 times.
1. Objective type quiz
b. Submission is on the next lecture period.
LESSON 6: Digital to Analog Conversion
Although digital technology dominates modern electronic systems, the physical world remains
mostly analog in nature. The most important components that link the analog world to digital
systems are analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters (ADCs and DACs).
Simple DAC
A DAC converts a binary number into a voltage proportional to its value.
(𝑉3 − 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 )𝐺3 + ⋯ + (𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 )𝐺0 = 0
𝑉3 𝐺3 + 𝑉2 𝐺2 + 𝑉1 𝐺1 + 𝑉0 𝐺0
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 =
𝐺3 + 𝐺2 + 𝐺1 + 𝐺0
1
𝑅𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛 =
𝐺3 + 𝐺2 + 𝐺1 + 𝐺0
Hence, 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 is a weighted sum of 𝑉3 , ⋯ , 𝑉0 with weights proportional to the conductances

𝐺3 , ⋯ , 𝐺0 .
The simplest DAC can be constructed using a number of resistors with binary weighted values.
X[3:0] is the 4-bit digital value to be converter to an analog voltage 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 . The 4-bit number is used
as input to buffer circuits (the rectangular blocks labelled “1”). The outputs of the four buffers are
V[3:0] respectively.
Using Kirchhoff current law, the current at node 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 sums to zero, and this gives the first
equation. (𝐺0 is 1/𝑅0 etc.) Rearranging the equation produces the equation for 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 .
The digital value X[3:0] can therefore be converted to an analog voltage in the correct binary
weighting if 𝐺3 : 𝐺2 : 𝐺2 : 𝐺0 have the ratio of 8:4:2:1.
Since the digital buffer is very fast and the resistor network has no (or negligible) capacitance or
inductance, this DAC can be very fast. However, this DAC has two problems:
1. The output impedance of the DAC is the Thevenin equivalent circuit resistance.
Choosing too high a resistance value results in the DAC having a high output impedance;
choosing too low a resistance value draws lots of current from the buffers and is inefficient
on power.
2. It requires very large resistance ratio if the number of bits of X is large. For example, for
a 10-bit DAC, the ratio is 1024:1. Such a DAC is difficult and expensive to manufacture.
Instead of only using binary weighting, it is possible for you to choose five arbitrary 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 values.
If you add another resistor 𝑅4 connecting from 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 to the power supply, and set X[3:0] to 0000,
0001, 0010, 0100 and 1000, you can easily work out the required value of the resistances in order
to give you the five arbitrary voltages.
Improved DAC with Output Op-Amp
The high output impedance of the previous circuit can be circumvented using an operational
amplifier. The following figure shows a summing amplifier.
The voltage at the junction of all the resistors (the virtual earth node) is now held constant by the
feedback. Hence, current drawn from V3 is independent of the other voltages 𝑉3 , …, 𝑉0 . Hence,
any gate non-linearity has no effect, making it more accurate.
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 is given by this simple linear equation. The output impedance is that of the op amp and is
very low.
−𝑅𝐹
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = ⨯ 𝑉𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛 = −𝑅𝐹 (𝑉3 𝐺3 + 𝑉2 𝐺2 + 𝑉1 𝐺1 + 𝑉0 𝐺0 )
𝑅𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛
Unfortunately, the output voltage of this circuit cannot change very fast. It is limited by the slew
rate of the op amp. (Slew rate is a measure of how fast the output voltage can change, and it is
in units of V/sec.)
Making binary weighted resistors is still difficult because it is hard to make accurate resistors
covering a wide range of values in an IC. Also, it is expensive if the number of bits in the DAC is
high.
Further Improvement with Reference Voltage Source

Instead of driving the resistor network directly from the digital output, which is not very accurate,
most DAC actually use the digital signal to control electronic switches which switch in or out a
reference voltage 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 . This reference voltage can be made very accurate, thus providing
accurate output voltage values.
DAC Specification Jargon
Here are the important specifications found in a datasheet that defines the performance of a DAC.
Here we use the line from full range value to the origin as reference. We will express all voltage
in terms of the delta-v ∆V corresponding to one LSB.
1. Resolution – the voltage step equivalent to one least significant bit (1 LSB) of the digital input.
Assuming that the input is an N-bit number, then resolution of the DAC is:
1 𝐿𝑆𝐵 = Δ𝑉 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑋 → 𝑋 + 1
𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
=
2𝑛 − 1
2. Accuracy – maximum error as compared to the perfect reference line.
3. Linearity – Instead of using the reference line, we can join to max-point with the min-point to
form another straight line. Linearity is the maximum deviation from this new line.
4. Differential Linearity – Worse case error inΔ𝑉 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑋 → 𝑋 + 1. It measures smoothness.
5. Monotonic DAC – One that always goes up as the input number X[3:0] increases.
6. Settling time – Time taken to reach final value within ±1 LSB as input changes.
DAC Designs
Thermometer DAC using Resistor String
Instead of using binary weighted resistor network, we could use a series string of identical
resistors as shown here. With this architecture, 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 to 0 is divided into 8 equal steps (including 0
value). The 3-bit digital input is decoded into 8 possible binary one-hot codes. For example, 000
results in the lowest switch being connected and 111 will switch the upper most switch on.
Advantages:
 It is simple, uses only one resistor value R everywhere, therefore easy to manufacture using
semiconductor process.
 Only operating two switches at anyone time, so the glitches are smaller.
 It is low power and inherently monotonic.
 It is widely used with modern technology with small feature sizes
Disadvantages:
 It needs a large number of resistors
 It is only useful for low to medium resolution DAC
 Since it needs large resistance, it results to higher noise
DAC using R-2R Ladder

String resistor network is good for, say, up to 10-bit DAC (requiring 1024 identical resistors). If
you want a 16-bit DAC, you would need 65536 resistors! That is obviously not practical or too
expensive. A better solution is to use R-2R Ladder network.
This circuit is very clever. The basic idea is to produce current 𝐼0 , 2𝐼0, 4𝐼0 etc, using only identical
resistors connected in a special way.
The best way to understand the working of this R-2R network is to consider just two resistors both
with values 2𝑅. If the current flowing through each resistor is I 0, then the total current at node Vo
must be 𝐼1 = 2𝐼0 . The Thevenin equivalent resistance of these two resistor is 2𝑅 || 2𝑅 = 𝑅. Now
we add an extra resistor R in series with these two 2R network. Together they form a resistance
2𝑅. If we add the next step of the ladder as shown here, the total current at 𝑉1 is 2𝐼1 = 4𝐼0 = 4I0.
As you can see, adding each extra step of the ladder doubles the current. If the voltage drop
across the horizontal resistors therefore also increases in ratios of 2 for each step. We can repeat
adding resistors in series, this process indefinitely and, using only two resistor values, can
generate a whole series of currents where
𝐼𝑛 = 2𝑛 𝐼0
From the voltage drop across the horizontal resistors, we see that:
𝑉𝑛 = 2𝑅𝐼𝑛 = 2𝑛+1 𝑅𝐼0
For an N-bit ladder, the input voltage is therefore
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑁 𝑅𝐼0 ⇒ 𝐼0 = 2−𝑁 𝑉𝑖𝑛 /𝑅
Current-Switched DAC
For a practical DAC circuit, the R/2R ladder network is connected to the virtual earth of the op
amp as shown here.
The current is either sent to the virtual earth node if the digital value is 1, or switched to earth if it
is 0. In that way, the output voltage 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 is a converter analog value of X[3:0].
The total current into summing junction is 𝑋3: 0 × 𝐼0 . Hence, 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑋3: 0 × 𝑉𝑖𝑛 /16𝑅 × −𝑅𝑓 .
We switch currents rather than voltages so that all nodes in the circuit remain at a constant
voltage. Note that this switching of current from one branch to another branch is known as current
steering. Since there is no need to charge or discharge node capacitances, current steering is
much faster than turning the current on and off.
As required by R/2R ladder, all switch output terminals are at 0V. Ladder outputs are always
connected to either to ground or to a virtual earth.
Digital Attenuator (Amplifier)

Instead of using 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 , a fixed reference voltage, we could use an analog input 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (such as an
audio signal), and then use the DAC as a digitally control amplifier or attenuator. This is also
known as a multiplying DAC.
The output of the DAC is proportional to the product of an analog voltage (𝑉𝑖𝑛 ) and a digital number
(X3:0).
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑋3: 0 × 𝑉𝑖𝑛 /16𝑅 × −𝑅𝑓
Bipolar DAC
A bipolar DAC is one that can give out both positive and negative voltages according to the sign
of its input. There are two aspects of the circuit that we need to change:
1. Number Representation
It is more convenient to use offset-binary notation (using zero to represent the most negative
value instead of a negative number. For example, for a range from -512 to 511, use the range
0 to 1023 by adding to your number an offset of 512)
2. Positive and Negative Currents
We need to alter our R/2R ladder circuit so that we can get an output current that can be
positive or negative according to the sign of the input number. To do this, we will use an analog
component known as current mirror. (The current mirror simply mirrors the current on one
branch of the circuit to a second branch of the circuit.
Pulse-width Modulated (PWM) DAC

Instead of using analog resistor network, it is possible to build a simple DAC using only digital
components. The simple idea is, PWM signal is generated by comparing a triangular reference
signal with the input data value.
Here is a circuit schematic for a pulse-width modulated DAC. Here the counter is used to produce
a count value A that ramps up linearly in a sawtooth manner. The digital value we want to convert
to analog value is 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 , which is stored as B in the input register. A digital comparator circuit
compares this input data with the counter value (which is ramping up). While A is less than B, the
output of the comparator is high. As soon as A exceeds B, the output goes low. In this way, the
pulse width is proportional to the value of B (or 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 ) in a linear manner. Passing this PWM
signal through a lowpass filter will give an analog output which is linearly related to 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 .
LESSON 7: Basic Measurement Theory
Instrumentation is the art of measuring the value of some plant parameter, pressure, flow, level
or temperature to name a few and supplying a signal that is proportional to the measured
parameter. The output signals are standard signal and can then be processed by other equipment
to provide indication, alarms or automatic control. There are a number of standard signals;
however, those most common in a plant are the 4-20 mA electronic signal and the 20-100 kPa
pneumatic signal.
Temperature Measurement
Temperature is the most common physical parameter that is measured and converted to electrical
form. Several types of temperature transducers respond to temperature and produce a
corresponding indication by a change or alteration in a physical characteristic that can be detected
by an electronic circuit. Common types of temperature transducers are thermocouples, resistance
temperature detectors (RTDs), and thermistors.
The Thermocouple
A thermocouple is formed by joining two dissimilar metals. A
small voltage, called the Seebeck voltage, is produced
across the junction of the two metals when heated, as
illustrated in the figure below.
The amount of voltage produced is dependent on the types of metals and is directly proportional
to the temperature of the junction (positive temperature coefficient); however, this voltage is
generally much less than 100 mV. The voltage versus temperature characteristic of
thermocouples is somewhat nonlinear, but the amount of nonlinearity is predictable.
Thermocouples are widely used in certain industries because they have a wide temperature range
and can be used to measure very high temperatures.
Some common metal combinations used in commercial thermocouples are chromel-alumel
(chromel is a nickel-chromium alloy and alumel is a nickel-aluminum alloy), iron-constantan
(constantan is a copper-nickel alloy), chromel-constantan, tungsten-rhenium alloys, and
platinum10% Rh/Pt. Each of these types of thermocouple has a different temperature range,
coefficient, and voltage characteristic and is designated by the letter K, J, E, W, and S,
respectively. The overall temperature range covered by thermocouples is from to Each type
covers a different portion of this range, as shown in the graph above.
Thermocouple-to-Electronics Interface. When a thermocouple is connected to a signal-

conditioning circuit, as illustrated below, an unwanted thermocouple is effectively created at the
point(s) where one or both of the thermocouple wires connect to the circuit terminals made of a
dissimilar metal. The unwanted thermocouple junction is sometimes referred to as a cold junction
in some references because it is normally at a significantly lower temperature than that being
measured by the measuring thermocouple. These unwanted thermocouples can have an
unpredictable effect on the overall voltage that is sensed by the circuit because the voltage
produced by the unwanted thermocouple opposes the measured thermocouple voltage and its
value depends on ambient temperature.
An example of the Thermocouple-to-Electronics interface is the following. As shown in the

following figure, a copper/constantan thermocouple (known as type T) is used, in this case, to
measure the temperature in an industrial temperature chamber. The copper thermocouple wire is
connected to a copper terminal on the circuit board, and the constantan wire is also connected to
a copper terminal on the circuit board. The copper-to-copper connection is no problem because
the metals are the same. The constantan-to-copper connection acts as an unwanted
thermocouple that will produce a voltage𝑉𝑥 , , in opposition to the thermocouple voltage because
the metals are dissimilar.
Since the unwanted thermocouple connection is not at a fixed temperature, its effects are
unpredictable and it will introduce inaccuracy into the measured temperature. One method for
eliminating an unwanted thermocouple effect is to add a reference thermocouple at a constant
known temperature (usually 0°C).
The figure above shows that by using a reference thermocouple that is held at a constant known
temperature, the unwanted thermocouple at the circuit terminal is eliminated because both
contacts to the circuit terminals are now copper-to-copper. The voltage produced by the reference
thermocouple is a known constant value and can be compensated for in the op-amp circuitry.
Compensation. It is bulky and expensive to maintain a reference thermocouple at a fixed

temperature (usually an ice bath is required). Another approach is to compensate for the
unwanted thermocouple effect by adding a compensation circuit as shown in the following figure.
This is sometimes referred to as cold-junction compensation. The compensation circuit
consists of a resistor and an integrated circuit temperature sensor with a temperature coefficient
that matches that of the unwanted thermocouple.
The current source in the temperature sensor produces a current that creates a voltage drop, 𝑉𝐶 ,
across the compensation resistor, 𝑅𝐶 . The resistance is adjusted so that this voltage drop is equal
and opposite the voltage produced by the unwanted thermocouple at a given temperature. When
the ambient temperature changes, the current changes proportionally, so that the voltage across
the compensation resistor is always approximately equal to the unwanted thermocouple voltage.
Since the compensation voltage, 𝑉𝐶 , is opposite in polarity to the unwanted thermocouple voltage,
the unwanted voltage is effectively cancelled.
Most thermocouple applications require the cold-junction compensation illustrated in Figure 6 as
well as other signal conditioning such as isolation and linearization. These functions are available
in special integrated circuits and hybrid modules called thermocouple signal conditioners.
The 1B51 is an example of a thermocouple signal conditioner. It includes a transformer isolation
unit and is designed with very high common-mode rejection because thermocouples have a small
signal, which is susceptible to interference, particularly in industrial environments. A built-in 3 Hz
low-pass filter helps reject interfering signals such as power line pickup. The cutoff frequency is
set to be very low because the thermocouple cannot respond immediately to temperature
changes. The 1B51 generates its own input side power to provide channel-to-channel isolation
when multiple thermocouples are used.
Signal conditioning is widely used in industrial environments, so sophisticated controllers with
multiple isolated inputs and outputs have been developed for use with thermocouples and other
sensors. Outputs from these controllers include wireless transmitters, USB, Ethernet, PCI, IEEE-
488 and other computer interfaces, making it simple to log data on a computer or dedicated data
logger.
Thermocouple Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:
 Thermocouples are used on most transformers. The hot junction is inside the transformer oil
and the cold junction at the meter mounted on the outside. With this simple and rugged
installation, the meter directly reads the temperature rise of oil above the ambient temperature
of the location.
 In general, thermocouples are used exclusively around the turbine hall because of their
rugged construction and low cost.
 A thermocouple is capable of measuring a wider temperature range than an RTD.
Disadvantages:
 If the thermocouple is located some distance away from the measuring device, expensive
extension grade thermocouple wires or compensating cables have to be used.
 Thermocouples are not used in areas where high radiation fields are present (for example, in
the reactor vault). Radioactive radiation (e.g., Beta radiation from neutron activation), will
induce a voltage in the thermocouple wires. Since the signal from thermocouple is also a
voltage, the induced voltage will cause an error in the temperature transmitter output.
 Thermocouples are slower in response than RTDs
 If the control logic is remotely located and temperature transmitters (milli-volt to milli- amp
transducers) are used, a power supply failure will of course cause faulty readings.
Failure Modes:
An open circuit in the thermocouple detector means that there is no path for current flow, thus it
will cause a low (off-scale) temperature reading.
A short circuit in the thermocouple detector will also cause a low temperature reading because it
creates a leakage current path to the ground and a smaller measured voltage.
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

A second major type of temperature transducer is the RTD (resistance temperature detector).
The RTD is a resistive device in which the resistance changes directly with temperature (positive
temperature coefficient). The RTD is more nearly linear than the thermocouple. RTDs are
constructed in either a wire-wound configuration or by a metal-film technique. The most common
RTDs are made of either platinum, nickel, or nickel alloys.
Generally, RTDs are used to sense temperature in two basic ways. First, as shown in the figure
on the left below, the RTD is driven by a current source and, since the current is constant, the
change in voltage across it is proportional (by Ohm’s law) to the change in its resistance with
temperature.
Second, as shown in the figure on the right above, the RTD is connected in a 3-wire bridge circuit;
and the bridge output voltage is used to sense the change in the RTD resistance and, thus, the
temperature.
The 3-Wire Bridge. To avoid subjecting the three bridge resistors to the same temperature that
the RTD is sensing, the RTD is usually remotely located to the point where temperature variations
are to be measured and connected to the rest of the bridge by long wires. The resistance of the
three bridge resistors must remain constant. The long extension wires to the RTD have resistance
that can affect the accurate operation of the bridge.
The circuit below shows the RTD connected in the bridge with a 2-wire configuration. Notice that
the resistance of the long connecting wires is shown as “lumped” resistors RA and RB in the
circuit. These resistors are in the same leg of the bridge as the RTD. Recall that and the bridge
is balanced when if The wire resistances will throw the bridge off balance when and will cause an
error in the output voltage for any value of the RTD resistance because they are in series with the
RTD in the same leg of the bridge.
The 3-wire configuration in the following figure overcomes the wire resistance problem. By
connecting a third wire to one end of the RTD as shown, the resistance of wire A is now placed
in the same leg of the bridge as R3 and the resistance of wire B is placed in the same leg of the
bridge as the RTD.
Because the wire resistances are now in opposite legs of the bridge, their effects will cancel if
both wire resistances are the same (equal lengths of same type of wire). The resistance of the
third wire has no effect; essentially no current goes through it because the output terminals of the
bridge are open or are connected across a very high impedance. The balance condition is
expressed as
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝐷 + 𝑅𝐵 = 𝑅3 + 𝑅𝐴
If 𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝐵 , then they cancel in the equation and the balance condition is completely independent
of the wire resistances.
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝐷 = 𝑅3
The method described here is important in many measurements that use a sensitive transducer
and a bridge. It is often used in strain gauge measurements
Basic RTD Temperature-Sensing Circuits. Two simplified RTD measurement circuits are
shown in the figure below.
This circuit is one implementation of an RTD driven by a constant current. The operation is as
follows. The input current and the current through the feedback path are essentially equal
because the input impedance of the op-amp is ideally infinite. Therefore, the constant current
through the RTD is set by the constant input voltage, 𝑉𝐼𝑁 , and the input resistance, 𝑅1 , because
the inverting input is at virtual ground. The RTD is in the feedback path and, therefore, the output
voltage of the op-amp is equal to the voltage across the RTD. As the resistance of the RTD
changes with temperature, the voltage across the RTD also changes because the current is
constant.
The circuit below shows a basic circuit in which an instrumentation amplifier is used to amplify the
voltage across the 3-wire bridge circuit. The RTD forms one leg of the bridge; and as its resistance
changes with temperature, the bridge output voltage also changes proportionally. The bridge is
adjusted for balance at some reference temperature, say 0°C. This means that 𝑅3 is selected to
equal the resistance of the RTD at this reference temperature.
Example:
1. Determine the output voltage of the instrumentation amplifier in the RTD circuit
in the figure below if the RTD resistance is at the measured temperature.
Solution:
The bridge output voltage is
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝐷 𝑅2
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇(𝐵) = ( ) 15𝑉 − ( ) 15𝑉
𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝐷 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
1320 Ω 10 𝑘Ω
= ( ) 15𝑉 − ( ) 15𝑉 = 8.53 𝑉 − 7.5 𝑉 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟑 𝑽
2320 Ω 20 𝑘Ω
The voltage gain of the INA333 instrumentation amplifier is
100 𝑘Ω
𝑅𝐺 =
𝐴𝑣 − 1
100 𝑘Ω
𝐴𝑣 = + 1 = 5.0 + 1 = 𝟔. 𝟎
𝑅𝐺
The output voltage from the amplifier is
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇(𝐴) = (6.0)(1.03 𝑉) = 𝟔. 𝟏𝟖 𝑽
RTD Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:
 The response time compared to thermocouples is very fast – in the order of fractions of a
second.
 An RTD will not experience drift problems because it is not self-powered.
 Within its range it is more accurate and has higher sensitivity than a thermocouple.
 In an installation where long leads are required, the RTD does not require special extension
cable.
 Unlike thermocouples, radioactive radiation (beta, gamma and neutrons) has minimal effect
on RTDs since the parameter measured is resistance, not voltage.
Disadvantages:
 Because the metal used for a RTD must be in its purest form, they are much more expensive
than thermocouples.
 In general, an RTD is not capable of measuring as wide a temperature range as a
thermocouple.
 A power supply failure can cause erroneous readings
 Small changes in resistance are being measured, thus all connections must be tight and free
of corrosion, which will create errors.
 Among the many uses in a nuclear station, RTDs can be found in the reactor area
temperature measurement and fuel channel coolant temperature.
Failure Modes
 An open circuit in the RTD or in the wiring between the RTD and the bridge will cause a high
temperature reading.
 Loss of power or a short within the RTD will cause a low temperature reading
Thermistors
A third major type of temperature transducer is the thermistor, which is a resistive device made
from a semiconductive material such as nickel oxide or cobalt oxide. The resistance of most
thermistors changes inversely with temperature (negative temperature coefficient). The
temperature characteristic for thermistors is more nonlinear than that for thermocouples or RTDs;
in fact, a thermistor’s temperature characteristic is essentially logarithmic. Also, like the RTD, the
temperature range of a thermistor is more limited than that of a thermocouple. Thermistors have
the advantage of a greater sensitivity than either thermocouples or RTDs and are generally less
expensive. This means that their change in resistance per degree change in temperature is
greater. Since they are both variable-resistance devices, the thermistor and the RTD can be used
in similar circuits.
Thermistors have a relatively narrow range of temperatures over which they can respond (about
-40°C to 160°C) and are highly nonlinear; however, compensation circuits can make up for
nonlinearity. Despite these shortcomings, thermistors have important advantages over other
types of sensors when working within their temperature range. They are small, inexpensive, very
sensitive, and can be highly accurate within their temperature range. Because they are small and
have a small thermal mass, they can respond quickly to temperature change
Like the RTD, thermistors can be used in a constant-current configuration or a Wheatstone bridge.
The constant-current configuration forces a constant current through the thermistor and the
voltage drop produced is measured.
Applications for Thermistor. Thermistors are used in many applications for which temperature
monitoring is important. Heating systems use thermistors in thermostats to sense the temperature
in a heated or cooled space and also to sense duct temperatures. The signals from these
thermistors are used by a controller for turning on or off heat and fans.
Automobiles use thermistors in engine and power-train management and control, inside
temperature control including duct temperatures, and overheating sensors for monitoring coolant
temperature. Medical applications include highly accurate patient thermometers and infant
monitoring, temperature baths, and respiratory probes.
Zener-Based IC Precision Temperature Sensor

Various types of solid-state temperature sensors exploit various temperature dependencies in
semiconductors, which include resistivity effects and the change in the base-emitter voltage with
temperature of a forward-biased transistor. One type uses the zener diode breakdown voltage as
a temperature indicator. The breakdown of a zener diode is directly proportional to the absolute
(Kelvin) temperature. The zener breakdown voltage equals +10 mV/K.
The absolute temperature in kelvins (K) is equal to 273 + °C. Unlike thermistors, the output of the
zener temperature sensor is linear. This type of sensor has the advantage of being small,
accurate, and linear; however, these sensors are limited in the temperature range over which they
can operate (about -40°C to 150°C).
The LM135, LM235, and LM335 are examples of zener-based temperature sensors and differ
only in the range of temperatures over which they can operate. The symbol for this type of sensor
is shown in the following figure. Notice that it is a zener diode symbol but with an adjustment input
for calibration purposes. It is not necessary to use the adjustment input unless high accuracy is
required.
The adjustment input allows you to calibrate the device at one temperature if high accuracy is
required. By calibrating the output correctly at one temperature, the output at all temperatures is
correct because of the linearity.
Strain, Pressure, and Flow Rate Measurements

A variety of applications require the measurement of strain, pressure, and flow rate. The flow rate
of a fluid can be measured indirectly by measuring pressure.
The Strain Gauge

Strain is the deformation, either expansion or compression, of a material due to a force acting on
it. For example, a metal rod or bar will lengthen slightly when an appropriate force is applied, as
illustrated below.
Also, if a metal plate is bent, there is an expansion of the upper surface, called tensile strain, and
a compression of the lower surface, called compressive strain, as shown in the following figure.
Strain gauges are based on the principle that the resistance of a wire increases if its length
increases and decreases if its length decreases. This is expressed by the following formula:
𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
This formula states that the resistance of a wire depends directly on the resistivity (𝜌) and the
length (𝐿) and inversely on the cross-sectional area (𝐴).
A strain gauge is basically a long very thin strip of resistive material that is bonded to the surface
of an object on which strain is to be measured, such as a wing or tail section of an airplane under
test. When a force acts on the object to cause a slight elongation, the strain gauge also lengthens
proportionally and its resistance increases.
Most strain gauges are formed in a pattern similar to that in the figure below to achieve enough
length for a sufficient resistance value in a smaller area. It is then placed along the line of strain.
The Gauge Factor of a Strain Gauge. An important characteristic of strain gauges is the gauge
factor (GF), which is defined as the ratio of the fractional change in resistance to the fractional
change in length along the axis of the gauge. For metallic strain gauges, the GFs are typically
around 2.
The concept of gauge factor is illustrated above, and expressed in the following equation where
𝑅 is the nominal resistance and 𝛥𝑅 is the change in resistance due to strain. The fractional
change in length (𝛥𝐿 ∕ 𝐿) is designated strain (𝜀) and is usually expressed in parts per million,
called microstrain (designated 𝜇𝜀).
𝛥𝑅 ∕ 𝑅
𝐺𝐹 =
𝛥𝐿 ∕ 𝐿
Example:
1. A certain material being measured under stress undergoes a strain of 5 parts
per million (5 𝜇𝜀). The strain gauge has a nominal (unstrained) resistance of 320
Ω and a gauge factor of 2.0. Determine the resistance change in the strain
gauge.
Solution:
𝛥𝑅 ∕ 𝑅 𝛥𝑅 ∕ 𝑅
𝐺𝐹 = =
𝛥𝐿 ∕ 𝐿 𝜀
𝛥𝑅 = (𝐺𝐹)(𝑅)(𝜀) = 2.9(320 Ω)(5 × 10−6 ) = 𝟑. 𝟐 𝒎𝛀
Basic Strain Gauge Circuits. Because a strain gauge exhibits a resistance change when the
quantity it is sensing changes, it is typically used in circuits similar to those used for RTDs. The
basic difference is that strain instead of temperature is being measured. Therefore, strain gauges
are usually applied in bridge circuits or in constant-current-driven circuits, as shown below. They
can be used in applications in the same way as RTDs and thermistors. The 1B31 is an example
of a strain gauge signal conditioner. The 1B31 includes an instrumentation amplifier, a low-pass
filter, and adjustable transducer excitation
Pressure Transducers
Pressure transducers are devices that exhibit a change in resistance proportional to a change in
pressure. Basically, pressure sensing is accomplished using a strain gauge bonded to a flexible
diaphragm as shown below.
Pressure transducers typically are manufactured using a foil strain gauge bonded to a stainless
steel diaphragm or by integrating semiconductor strain gauges (resistors) in a silicon diaphragm.
Either way, the basic principle remains the same.
Pressure transducers come in three basic configurations in terms of relative pressure
measurement. The absolute pressure transducer measures applied pressure relative to a
vacuum, as illustrated below.
The gauge pressure transducer measures applied pressure relative to the pressure of the
surroundings (ambient pressure), as illustrated in the figure on the left below. The differential
pressure transducer measures one applied pressure relative to another applied pressure, as
shown in the figure on the right below. Some transducer configurations include circuitry such as
bridge completion circuits and op-amps within the same package as the sensor itself, as indicated.
Pressure-Measuring Circuits
Because pressure transducers are devices in which the resistance changes with the quantity
being measured, they are usually in a bridge configuration as shown by the basic op-amp bridge
circuit in the following figure.
In some cases, the complete circuitry is built into the transducer package, and in other cases the
circuitry is external to the sensor. The symbols illustrated below are sometimes used to represent
the complete pressure transducer with an amplified output. The first symbol represents the
absolute pressure transducer, the second symbol represents the gauge pressure transducer, and
the last symbol represents the differential pressure transducer.
Pressure Transducer Applications. Pressure transducers are used anywhere there is a need
to determine the pressure of a substance. In medical applications, pressure transducers are used
for blood pressure measurement; in aircraft, pressure transducers are used for altitude pressure,
cabin pressure, and hydraulic pressure; in automobiles, pressure transducers are used for fuel
flow, oil pressure, brake line pressure, manifold pressure, and steering system pressure, to name
a few applications.
Flow Rate Measurement

One common method of measuring the flow rate of a fluid through a pipe is the differential-
pressure method. A flow restriction device such as a Venturi section (or other type of restriction
such as an orifice) is placed in the flow stream. The Venturi section is formed by a narrowing of
the pipe, as indicated in the following figure. Although the velocity of the fluid increases as it flows
through the narrow channel, the volume of fluid per minute (volumetric flow rate) is constant
throughout the pipe.
Because the velocity of the fluid increases as it goes through the restricted area, the pressure
also increases. If pressure is measured at a wide point and at a narrow point, the flow rate can
be determined because flow rate is proportional to the square root of the differential pressure.
Motion Measurement
Displacement Transducers
Displacement is a quantity that indicates the change in position of a body or point. Angular
displacement refers to a rotation that can be measured in degrees or radians. Displacement
transducers can be either contacting or non-contacting.
Contacting transducers typically use a sensing shaft with a coupling device to follow the position
of the measured quantity. A contacting type of displacement sensor that relates a change in
inductance to displacement is the linear variable differential transformer (LVDT).
The sensing shaft is connected to a moving magnetic core inside a specially wound transformer.
A typical LVDT is shown in the following figure.
The primary of the transformer is in line and located between two identical secondaries. The
primary winding is excited with ac (usually in the range of 1 to 5 kHz). When the core is centered,
the voltage induced in each secondary is equal. As the core moves off center, the voltage in one
secondary will be greater than the other. With the demodulator circuit shown, the polarity of the
output changes as the core passes the center position. The transducer has excellent sensitivity,
linearity, and repeatability
Noncontacting displacement transducers include optical and capacitive transducers. Photocells
can be arranged to observe light through holes in an encoding disk or to count fringes painted on
the surface to be measured. Optical systems are fast; but noise, including background light
sources, can produce spurious signals in optical sensors. It is useful to build hysteresis into the
system if noise is a problem.
Fiber-optic sensors make excellent proximity detectors for close ranges. Reflective sensors use
two fiber bundles, one for transmitting light and the other for receiving light from a reflective
surface, as illustrated below.
Light is transmitted in the fiber bundle without any significant attenuation. When it leaves the
transmitting fiber bundle, it forms a spot on the target that is inversely proportional to the square
of the distance. The receiving bundle is aimed at the spot and collects the reflected light to an
optical sensor. The light intensity detected by the receiving bundle depends on the physical size
and arrangement of the fibers as well as the distance to the spot and the reflecting surface, but
the technique can respond to distances approaching 1 microinch. The major disadvantage is
limited dynamic range.
Capacitive sensors can be made into very sensitive displacement and proximity transducers. The
capacitance is varied by moving one of the plates of a capacitor with respect to the second plate.
The moving plate can be any metallic surface such as the diaphragm of a capacitive microphone
or a surface that is being measured. The capacitor can be used to control the frequency of a
resonant circuit to convert the capacitive change into a usable electrical output.
Velocity Transducers
Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement. It follows that velocity can be
determined indirectly with a displacement sensor and measuring the time between two positions.
A direct measurement of velocity is possible with certain transducers that have an output
proportional to the velocity to be measured. These transducers can respond to either linear or
angular velocity. Linear velocity transducers can be constructed using a permanent magnet inside
a concentric coil, forming a simple motor by generating a voltage proportional to the velocity.
Either the coil or the magnet can be fixed and the other moved with respect to the fixed
component. The output is taken from the coil.
A variety of transducers are designed to measure angular velocity. Tachometers, a class of
angular velocity transducers, provide a dc or ac voltage output. A dc tachometer is basically a
small generator with a coil that rotates in a constant magnetic field. A voltage is induced in the
coil as it rotates in the magnetic field. The average value of the induced voltage is proportional to
the speed of rotation, and the polarity is indicative of the direction of rotation, an advantage with
dc tachometers. AC tachometers can be designed as generators that provide an output frequency
that is proportional to the rotational speed.
Another technique for measuring angular velocity is to rotate a shutter over a photosensitive
element. The shutter interrupts a light source from reaching the photocells, causing the output of
the photocells to vary at a rate proportional to the rotational speed.
Acceleration Transducers
Acceleration is usually measured by use of a spring-supported seismic mass, mounted in a
suitable enclosure as shown below. Damping is provided by a dashpot, which is a mechanical
device to reduce the vibration. The relative motion between the case and the mass is proportional
to the acceleration. A secondary transducer such as a resistive displacement transducer or an
LVDT is used to convert the relative motion to an electrical output. Ideally, the mass does not
move when the case accelerates because of its inertia; in practice, it moves because of forces
applied to it through the spring. The accelerometer has a natural frequency, the period of which
should be shorter than the time required for the measured acceleration to change. Accelerometers
used to measure vibration should also be used at frequencies less than the natural frequency.
An accelerometer that uses the basic principle of the LVDT can be constructed to measure
vibration. The mass is made from a magnet that is surrounded with a coil. Voltage induced in the
coil is a function of the acceleration.
Another type of accelerometer uses a piezoelectric crystal in contact with the seismic mass. The
crystal generates an output voltage in response to forces induced by the acceleration of the mass.
Piezoelectric crystals are small in size and have a natural frequency that is very high; they can be
used to measure high-frequency vibration. The drawback to piezoelectric crystals is that the
output is very low and the impedance of the crystal is high, making it subject to problems from
noise.
Level Measurement
Accurate continuous measurement of volume of fluid in containers has always been a challenge
to industry. This is even more so in the nuclear station environment where the fluid could be
acidic/caustic or under very high pressure/temperature.
Level Measurement Basics

Very simple systems employ external sight glasses or tubes to view the height and hence the
volume of the fluid. Others utilize floats connected to variable potentiometers or rheostats that will
change the resistance according to the amount of motion of the float. This signal is then inputted
to transmitters that send a signal to an instrument calibrated to read out the height or volume.
We will examine the more challenging situations that require inferential level measurement. This
technique obtains a level indication indirectly by monitoring the pressure exerted by the height of
the liquid in the vessel.
The pressure at the base of a vessel containing liquid is directly proportional to the height of the
liquid in the vessel. This is termed hydrostatic pressure. As the level in the vessel rises, the
pressure exerted by the liquid at the base of the vessel will increase linearly. Mathematically, we
have:
𝑃 =𝑆∙𝐻
where
P = Pressure (Pa)
S = Weight density of the liquid (N/m3) = ρg
H = Height of liquid column (m)
ρ = Density (kg/m3)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
The level of liquid inside a tank can be determined from the pressure reading if the weight density
of the liquid is constant.
Differential Pressure (DP) capsules are the most commonly used devices to measure the
pressure at the base of a tank. When a DP transmitter is used for the purpose of measuring a
level, it will be called a level transmitter.
To obtain maximum sensitivity, a pressure capsule has to be used, that has a sensitivity range
that closely matches the anticipated pressure of the measured liquid. However, system pressures
are often much higher than the actual hydrostatic pressure that is to be measured. If the process
pressure is accidentally applied to only one side of the DP capsule during installation or removal
of the DP cell from service, over ranging of the capsule would occur and the capsule could be
damaged causing erroneous indications.
Level Compensation
It would be idealistic to say that the DP cell can always be located at the exact the bottom of the
vessel we are measuring fluid level in. Hence, the measuring system has to consider the
hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in the sensing lines themselves. This leads to two compensations
required.
Effect of Temperature on Level Measurement

Level measurement systems that use differential pressure Δ𝑃 as the sensing method, are by their
very nature affected by temperature and pressure.
Recall that the measured height 𝐻 of a column of liquid is directly proportional to the pressure 𝑃
exerted at the base of the column and inversely proportional to the density 𝜌 of the liquid.
𝐻 ∝ 𝑃/𝜌
Density (mass per unit volume) of a liquid or gas is inversely proportional to its temperature.
𝜌 ∝ 1/𝑇
Thus, for any given amount of liquid in a container, the pressure 𝑃 exerted at the base will remain
constant, but the height will vary directly with the temperature.
𝐻∝𝑇
Effect of Pressure on Level Measurement

Level measurement systems that use differential pressure Δ𝑃 as the sensing method, are also
affected by pressure, although not to the same degree as temperature mentioned in the previous
section.
Again the measured height 𝐻 of a column of liquid is directly proportional to the pressure 𝑃𝐿
exerted at the base of the column by the liquid and inversely proportional to the density 𝜌 of the
liquid:
𝐻 ∝ 𝑃𝐿 /𝜌
Density (mass per unit volume) of a liquid or gas is directly proportional to the process or system
pressure 𝑃𝑆 .
𝜌 ∝ 𝑃𝑆
Thus, for any given amount of liquid in a container, the pressure 𝑃𝐿 (liquid pressure) exerted at
the base of the container by the liquid will remain constant, but the height will vary inversely with
the process or system pressure.
𝐻 ∝ 1/𝑃𝑆
Most liquids are fairly incompressible and the process pressure will not affect the level unless
there is significant vapor content.
Level Measurement System Errors

The level measurement techniques described in this module use inferred processes and not direct
measurements. Namely, the indication of fluid level is based on the pressure exerted on a
differential pressure (DP) cell by the height of the liquid in the vessel. This places great importance
on the physical and environmental problems that can affect the accuracy of this indirect
measurement.
1. Connections
As amusing as it may sound, many avoidable errors occur because the DP cell had the
sensing line connections reversed.
In systems that have high operating pressure but low hydrostatic pressure due to weight of
the fluid, this is easy to occur. This is particularly important for closed tank systems.
With an incorrectly connected DP cell the indicated level would go down while the true tank
level increases.
2. Over-Pressuring
Three valve manifolds are provided on DP cells to prevent over-pressuring and aid in the
removal of cells for maintenance. Incorrect procedures can inadvertently over-pressure the
differential pressure cell. If the cell does not fail immediately the internal diaphragm may
become distorted. The measurements could read either high or low depending on the mode
of failure.
Note that if the equalizing valve on the three-valve manifold is inadvertently opened, the level
indication will of course drop to a very low level as the pressure across the DP cell equalizes.
3. Sensing lines
The sensing lines are the umbilical cord to the DP cell and must be functioning correctly. Some
of the errors that can occur are:
a. Obstructed sensing lines
The small diameter lines can become clogged with particulate, with resulting inaccurate
readings. Sometimes the problem is first noted as an unusually sluggish response to a
predicted change in level. Periodic draining and flushing of sensing lines is a must.
b. Draining sensing lines

As mentioned previously, the lines must be drained to remove any debris or particulate
that may settle to the bottom of the tank and in the line. Also, in closed tank dry leg
systems, condensate must be removed regularly to prevent fluid pressure building up on
the low-pressure impulse line. Failure to do so will of course give a low tank level reading.
Procedural care must be exercised to ensure the DP cell is not over-ranged inadvertently
during draining. Such could happen if the block valves are not closed and equalizing valve
opened beforehand
Neutron Flux Measurement

A CANDU reactor generates thermal power from heat produced by nuclear fission. However,
measuring the actual thermal power output proves to be too slow for the purpose of controlling
the reactor (there is a time lag of about 25 seconds between neutron flux change and thermal
output measurement). To control the reactor adequately, it is necessary to have fast responding
instrumentation. The method of measuring reactor power by observing the radiation directly
associated with the fission process is used. Each time a fission occurs; radiation (neutron, beta,
gamma or alpha) is produced. The magnitude of these radiations is directly proportional to the
number of fissions, which is in turn directly related to the reactor power level. The radiation we
choose to monitor is neutron flux. If we can measure the neutron flux, we can estimate the thermal
output of the reactor. In addition, monitoring neutron flux acts as a safeguard against the
possibility of losing control of the reactor. If neutron flux exceeds a predetermined limit, shutdown
systems will be triggered by the sensed neutron signal.
Neutron Flux Detection

Power produced by thermal nuclear reactors is generated through fission induced by slow
neutrons. Hence, nuclear sensors that are part of the reactor control or safety systems are
generally based on detectors that respond primarily to slow neutrons. The control of a reactor is
necessary over a wide range of neutron flux levels from zero to full reactor power at 1014 n/(cm2s).
The level of 107 n/(cm2s) is approximately zero thermal power for all practical purposes and
significant thermal power contribution does not occur until the flux rises to ~1012 (1% FP). The
normal operating range of the reactor is in usually between 1013 and 1014 n/(cm2s).
It is more convenient to describe the flux density in terms of the logarithmic value, with 14 being
full power (1014 N/(cm2s) = 100%FP). By terminology, the neutron flux is said to have gone
through 14 decades from zero to full power.
As there are different detectors used, overlap of the detectors is necessary to provide a smooth
transfer of reactor control throughout the three areas and to provide backup instrumentation if the
main detectors are in question.
Neutron Detection Methods
Neutrons, like gamma rays, have no charge and therefore cannot directly interact with
instrumentation, as do charged particles and electrons. Neutrons can also travel through many
centimeters of matter without any type of interaction and thus can be totally invisible to a detector
of common size. When a neutron does interact it is with a nucleus of the absorbing material. This
interaction may either cause the neutron to disappear totally and be replaced by one or more
secondary radiations or change the energy or direction of the neutron significantly.
Secondary radiations resulting from neutron interactions are almost always heavy charged
particles. These particles may be produced either as a result of neutron-induced nuclear reactions
or they may be the nuclei of the absorbing material itself which have gained energy from the
neutron collisions.
Most neutron detectors utilize some means of converting the incident neutron into secondary
charged particles that can then be detected directly. For slow (thermal) neutrons, which have a
small amount of kinetic energy, several different neutron reactions can be used. These include;
(l) prompt capture of neutrons resulting in charged particle emission, (2) delayed activation
reactions where an activated nucleus emits some form of radiation within a convenient half-life
and energy and (3) fission reaction resulting from neutron capture.
Fission neutron detectors

The detectors that use the fission reaction to detect neutrons are called fission chambers. These
small ion chambers are typically made of stainless steel walls and electrodes, with an operating
voltage from 50V to 300V. The chamber walls are usually lined with highly enriched uranium to
enhance the ionization current.
Argon is the common choice for the chamber fill gas and it is used at a pressure of several
atmospheres. The elevated pressure ensures that the range of fission fragments within the gas
does not exceed the detectorís small dimension. The pulses produced by fission fragments
entering the sensitive volume of the detector are large and because the ion chamber does not
produce large current flows, the output from the fission chamber is a series of pulses that can be
counted.
When the detector is operating, the fissionable material on the detector walls is being consumed
(by fission). To help slow the rate of depletion, a fast neutron absorber such as 238U is sometimes
added to the fissionable material on the wall. When 238U absorbs a fast neutron, 239Pu is created
after beta emission. The 239Pu is itself a fissionable material.
Miniaturized fission chambers can be tailored for in-core use over any power range likely to be
encountered in reactor operation. These detectors can be used as traveling detectors and as a
reference point to calibrate self-powered detectors.
Ion chamber neutron detectors

An ion chamber measures the electric charge of ions generated from the interaction of neutrons
and the chamber structure and are located on the outside of the reactor core. The output of an
ion chamber is a flow of current directly proportional to the incident neutron rate.
Since neutrons are uncharged, the lining of the chamber must be a coating of material, which will
emit charged particles under neutron bombardment. Boron-10 was chosen because its high
cross-section for the (n, α) reaction with thermal neutrons gives high sensitivity. This is important
because ion chambers are mounted outside the reactor core where the number of neutrons is
limited. The figure below indicates a representative location of the ion chambers, although the
positioning can vary.
In-Core Neutron Detectors

Although ion chambers are very accurate neutron detectors, their relatively large size and delicate
construction make them impractical to be used to detect flux distribution inside the reactor. For
this purpose, simple and relatively inexpensive in-core detectors (ICD) have been developed.
They are also known as Hilborn detectors, self-powered neutron (SPN) detectors or in-core flux
detectors (ICFD).
The advantages of self-powered detectors when compared to other neutron sensors include size,
low cost and the relatively simple electronics required to use them. Disadvantages stem from the
low level of output current produced by the devices, a relatively high sensitivity of the output
current to changes in the neutron energy spectrum and for many types, for instance vanadium
detectors, a rather slow response time.
The basic construction of an In-Core Detector (ICD) is shown in the figure below with a platinum
emitter, although other types of emitter materials can be used.
The detector operates by generating an electric current after the central emitter has captured the
neutrons. This current is proportional to the rate at which neutrons are captured in the detector.
The detector itself resembles a coaxial cable usually about a meter in length and consists of an
outer inconel (an alloy of nickel, chromium and iron) sheath and an inner emitter wire, separated
by a layer of insulation (usually magnesium oxide, MgO). Magnesium oxide is most commonly
used as it can withstand the extreme temperature and radiation environment in the reactor core.
In-core detectors are usually denoted by the material of their emitters, which in CANDU reactors
are made of vanadium, platinum, platinum clad inconel (inconel 600 core wire with a thin surface
layer of platinum) and inconel.
Operation of these detectors requires no external power supply and that is why they are called
self-powered. The operation is quite simple. The current that corresponds to the beta rays given
off by the emitter is measured between the emitter and the outer shell, called the collector.
In-core detectors can be either coiled (on an inner zircaloy tube) as shown in Figure 9 or Straight
Individually Replaceable (SIR) in a flux monitor assembly. (ICD assemblies could be of various
types, i.e., wet, encapsulated and HESIR or hybrid encapsulated straight individually replaceable
and positioned either vertically or horizontally in the reactor core.)
LESSON 8: Sensors and Transducers
In order for an electronic circuit or system to perform any useful task or function it needs to be
able to communicate with the “real world”. An electronic system or circuit can do this by using
sensors and transducers.
Transducer
A transducer is any device which converts one form of energy into another. Examples of common
transducers include the following:
 A microphone converts sound into electrical impulses and a loudspeaker converts
electrical impulses into sound (i.e., sound energy to electrical energy and vice versa).
 A solar cell converts light into electricity and a thermocouple converts thermal energy
into electrical energy.
 An incandescent light bulb produces light by passing a current through a filament. Thus,
a light bulb is a transducer for converting electrical energy into optical energy.
 An electric motor is a transducer for conversion of electricity into mechanical energy or
motion.
A transducer is defined as a substance or a device that converts (or transfers) an input energy
into a different output energy. Because of this broad definition, transducers come in many
varieties converting many different types of energy. Following are different types of transducers.
Types of Transducers
Electrochemical Transducers
Some common electrochemical transducers include the following:
 pH probe – Converts chemical energy into an electrical energy
 Molecular electric transducer – Converts motion in an electrolytic solution into electrical energy
 Battery – Converts chemical energy directly into electrical energy
 Fuel cell – Converts the energy from a reaction within a fuel cell to electrical energy
Let’s take a closer look at the electrochemical battery illustrated above. This battery converts
chemical energy directly into electrical energy. A cathode and an anode (typically two dissimilar
metals) are each immersed in an electrolyte solution containing salts of their respective metals.
A medium (the salt bridge) separates the two electrodes, but allows ions to flow between the two
solutions. Due to the flow of ions between the two solutions a potential difference (or voltage) is
created. An electrical current flows if a wire is connected between the two pieces of metals. The
amount of voltage developed between the cathode and the anode depends on the materials that
make up the battery.
The fabrication of micro-batteries has been a challenge but a challenge that needs to be met.
Micro-sized sensors require micro-sized batteries in order to operate, especially when those
sensors are placed in remote areas such as the ocean floor or embedded below the surface of
bridges and roads. So how do you get a long-lasting electrochemical battery from a device that is
smaller than the diameter of a strand of hair? “Traditional batteries have a two-dimensional array
of positive and negative electrodes stacked on top of one another like sheets of paper. Increasing
battery power means adding more electrode layers, more weight and more size.”1 One solution
to this problem is to fabricate 3-dimensional microelectrode arrays consisting of high aspect ratio
(tall and thin) carbon posts. These posts serve as the electrodes for electrochemical micro-sized
batteries.
Electroacoustic, Electromagnetic, and Electrostatic Transducers

Common electroacoustic transducers:
 Loudspeaker – Converts an electrical signal into sound
 Microphone – Converts sound waves in air into an electrical signal
 Hydrophone - Converts sound waves in water into an electrical signal.
Common electromagnetic transducers:
 Magnetic cartridge – Converts motion in a magnetic field into an electrical energy
 Generator – Converts motion in a magnetic field into electrical energy
Common electrostatic transducers:
 Electrometer – Converts static or energy from a vibrating reed into electricity
 Van de Graaf generator – Converts static into high voltage
Electromechanical Transducers
Electromechanical Transducers – (Some are also called actuators)
 Strain gauge – Converts the deformation (strain) of an object into electrical resistance
 Galvanometer – Converts the electric current of a coil in a magnetic field into movement
 Generators – Converts mechanical energy (motion) into electrical energy.
 Motor – Converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
Other Types of Transducers

Photoelectric Transducers:
 Cathode ray tube (CRT) –Converts electrical signals into light energy for a visual output
 Light bulb –Converts electrical energy into visible light and heat
 Laser diode – Converts electrical energy into light energy
 Photodiode - Converts light energy into electrical energy
Thermoelectric Transducers:
 Thermocouple – Converts heat energy into electrical energy
 Temperature sensitive resistor (Thermister) – a variable resistor affected by temperature
changes (heat energy to electrical energy)
Other types of Transducers:
 Geiger-Müller tube – Converts radioactive energy into electrical energy
 Quartz Crystal – Converts mechanical stress into electricity (electrical energy)
Sensors
A sensor is a device that receives and responds to a signal. This signal must be produced by
some type of energy, such as heat, light, motion, or chemical reaction. Once a sensor detects
one or more of these signals (an input), it converts it into an analog or digital representation of the
input signal.
Sensors detect the presence of energy, changes in or the transfer of energy. Sensors detect by
receiving a signal from a device such as a transducer, then responding to that signal by converting
it into an output that can easily be read and understood. Typically sensors convert a recognized
signal into an electrical – analog or digital – output that is readable. In other words, a transducer
converts one form of energy into another while the sensor that the transducer is part of converts
the output of the transducer to a readable format.
Consider the previous examples of transducers. They convert one form of energy to another, but
they do not quantify the conversions. The light bulb converts electrical energy into light and heat;
however, it does not quantify how much light or heat. A battery converts chemical energy into
electrical energy but it does not quantify exactly how much electrical energy is being converted.
If the purpose of a device is to quantify an energy level, it is a sensor.
An environmental energy condition that is commonly sensed is temperature. A thermometer
senses and converts temperature into a readable output, thus it is a sensor. This output can be
direct or indirect. A mercury thermometer which uses a level of mercury against a fixed scale is a
direct output. A digital readout thermometer is an indirect output. For a digital readout
thermometer, a converter is used to convert the output of the temperature transducer to an input
for the digital display. The measured temperature is displayed on a monitor. The thermometer is
both a transducer (usually a thermocouple that transfers heat energy to voltage) and a sensor
(quantifies the transducer output with a readable format).
The mercury thermometer utilizes mercury’s property of expanding or contracting when heated
or cooled, respectively. In a mercury thermometer a temperature increase is sensed by the
mercury contained in a small glass tube. The thermal energy from the temperature increase is
transferred into the mercury (the transducer) causing the mercury to expand. The expansion of
mercury is scaled to numbers on the tube indicating the temperature.
Types of Sensors
Following are different types of sensors which are classified by the type of energy they detect.
1. Thermal Sensors
 Thermometer – measures absolute temperature (discussed in the previous section)
 Thermocouple gauge– measures temperature by its affect on two dissimilar metals
 Calorimeter – measures the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes and heat
capacity
A thermocouple is a device that directly converts thermal energy into electrical energy. When
two dissimilar metal wires are connected at one end forming a junction, and that junction is
heated, a voltage is generated across the junction (see the figure below). If the opposite ends
of the wires are connected to a meter, the amount of generated voltage can be measured.
This effect was discovered by Thomas Seebeck, and thus named the Seebeck Effect or
Seebeck coefficient. The voltage created in this situation is proportional to the temperature of
the junction.
2. Mechanical Sensors
 Pressure sensor – measures pressure
 Barometer – measures atmospheric pressure
 Altimeter – measures the altitude of an object above a fixed level
 Liquid flow sensor – measures liquid flow rate
 Gas flow sensor – measures velocity, direction, and/or flow rate of a gas
 Accelerometer – measures acceleration
Barometers determine the level of atmospheric pressure. The figure below illustrates a
simple mercury barometer. A tube is initially filled with mercury and then inverted into a
dish. Some of the mercury from the tube flows into the dish (reservoir) creating a vacuum
in the upper portion of the tube. The flow stops when equilibrium is reached between the
pressures on the surfaces of the mercury inside the tube and in the reservoir. When the
atmospheric pressure increases, the level of the mercury in the tube rises. This is due to
an increase in pressure on the mercury’s surface in the reservoir. A decrease in the level
of mercury in the tube is seen when the atmospheric pressure drops.
Markings on the tube (in orange) indicate the barometric pressure by measuring the level
of mercury. Therefore, a barometer converts the energy from the pressurized gases of the
atmosphere into a change in the mercury’s height (potential energy) in the column, as
read by the markings. Question for thought: How does a mercury barometer differ from a
mercury thermometer?
Another type of barometer is the aneroid barometer which senses changes in
atomospheric pressure by the expansion or compression of an aneroid capsule (a thin,
disk-shaped capsule, usually metallic, and partially evacuated of gas). An external spring
is connected to the capsule and a needle is mechanically linked to the spring. As the
pressure on the outside of the capsule increases, the spring moves the needle indicating
an increase in barametric pressure. As the pressure drops, the spring moves in the
opposite direction as the capsule expands, moving the needle to show a decrease in
barametric pressure.
3. Electrical Sensors
 Ohmmeter – measures resistance
 Voltmeter – measures voltage
 Galvanometer – measures current
 Watt-hour meter – measures the amount of electrical energy supplied to and used by
a residence or business
A Galvanometer is a specific type of ammeter used for sensing an electrical current (see
figure below). Current flows through a coil (the red wire wound around a metal cylinder)
creating a magnetic field. Permanent magnets surround the coil. The interaction of these
two magnetic fields causes the coil/cylinder combination to pivot around its central axis.
The amount and direction of the pivot moves the needle on a readout (right image) left or
right, indicating the level of current and its polarity (negative or positive, respectively). This
device uses two energy conversions to sense and quantify an electric current: electrical
to magnetic and magnetic to mechanical rotation.
4. Chemical Sensors
Chemical sensors detect the presence of certain chemicals or classes of chemicals and
quantify the amount and/or type of chemical detected.
 Oxygen sensor – measures the percentage of oxygen in a gas or liquid being
analyzed
 Carbon dioxide detector – detects the presence of CO2
Chemical sensing is an application that really benefits from the use of microtechnology.
Just like the macro-sized components, MEMS chemical sensors can detect a wide variety
of different gases. The advantage of the MEMS sensors is that they can be incorporated
into objects for continuous sensing of a gas or selection of gases. These devices have
numerous medical, industrial, and commercial applications such as environmental, quality
control, food processing, and medical diagnosis. Such devices are sometimes referred to
an ENose or electronic nose.
Other Types of Sensors

Optical
 Light sensors (photodetectors) – detects light and electromagnetic energy
 Photocells (photoresistor) – a variable resistor affected by intensity changes in ambient
light.
 Infra-red sensor – detects infra-red radiation
Acoustic
 Seismometers – measures seismic waves
 Acoustic wave sensors – measures the wave velocity in the air or an environment to
detect the chemical species present
Other
 Motion – detects motion
 Speedometer – measures speed
 Geiger counter – detects atomic radiation
 Biological – monitors human cells
LESSON 9: Basic Control Devices
Control devices are used to "turn on" or "turn off" current flow in an electrical circuit. Control
devices include a variety of switches, relays, capacitors, diodes, and transistors.
Switches
Switches serve as OFF/ON devices in a circuit by opening or closing the circuit. Switches can be
manually controlled or operated automatically, based on a circuit or vehicle condition.
Switches can be normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC). Normally open means the at-rest
position of the switch opens the circuit. Normally closed means the at-rest position of the switch
closes the circuit.
A hinged pawl switch is the simplest type of switch. It either opens or closes the circuit.
Simple Switch
1. In
2. Hinged pawl switch
3. Wiper
4. Contact
5. Out
Switches have one or more poles (inputs) and throws (outputs). For example, a single-pole,
double-throw switch has one input and two outputs. A ganged switch has two or more wipers that
operate in unison (mechanically linked) from a single control. The following illustrations show
three types of switches.
Single Pole, Single Throw (SPST) switch

1. In
2. Out
Single Pole, Double Throw (SPDT) switch

1. In
2. Out
3. Out
Double Pole, Double Throw (DPDT) switch
1. In
2. Out
3. Out
Momentary Contact Switch

The momentary contact switch has a spring-loaded contact; the spring keeps the contact from
completing the circuit.
A typical example of a momentary contact switch is the horn button. When the button is pressed,
the horn sounds. Releasing the button breaks the contact and the sound stops.
Momentary contact switch operation

1. Operation button
2. Spring
3. Horn (load)
4. Contacts
5. From power source
Diodes
A diode is a semiconductor device used to prevent current flow in an undesired direction or path.
Diodes are often made of specially modified silicon that acts as an insulator until enough voltage
of the correct polarity is applied. When voltage is present in the correct direction (polarity), the
diode changes to a conductor and current flows in the circuit. If the applied voltage or current
flows in the wrong direction, the diode remains an insulator and blocks current flow.
Regular diode and symbol

1. Positive (anode)
2. Negative (cathode)
There are many different types of diodes used in automotive applications. Diodes are used for:
 rectification – changing AC to DC
 controlling voltage spikes and surges that could cause damage to solid state circuits
 indicators on instrument panels
 voltage regulation
Capacitors
Capacitors absorb or store electrical charges. The capacitor is made of two or more conducting
plates with non-conducting material between them. Direct current cannot flow through a capacitor,
but alternating current can.
The slight flow of direct current that does occur is useful in soaking up voltage spikes, preventing
arcing across opening contacts. Capacitors also serve as “noise” filters when used in audio
applications. Capacitors are rated in units called Farads (F)
Transistors
Transistors are semiconductor devices with three leads. A very small current or voltage at one
lead can control a much larger current flowing through the other two leads. This means transistors
can be used as amplifiers and switches.
The three layers of a transistor are the emitter, base and collector. The base is very thin and is
less conductive than the emitter and collector. A very small base-emitter current causes a much
larger collector-emitter current to flow.
NPN transistor and symbol
1. Negative
2. Positive
3. Negative
4. Collector (c)
5. Base (b)
6. Emitter (e)
Though there are many different types of transistors, the most common used in automotive
circuits is the NPN (negative-positive-negative) transistor.
When the voltage difference between the base-emitter is less than 0.6V, the transistor is closed.
If the voltage difference is increased to 0.6V the transistor opens, and current flows through the
load and through the transistor from collector to emitter. The amount of current is dependent on
the amount of current flowing from base to emitter.
NPN transistor used in a circuit PNP transistor used in a circuit

(1 : direction of current flow)
Another type of transistor is the PNP. A PNP transistor operates similar to an NPN transistor
except a PNP transistor opens when the voltage difference between the emitter and base is 0.6V
PNP transistor and symbol
1. Positive
2. Negative
3. Positive
4. Collector (c)
5. Base (b)
6. Emitter (e)
Circuit Protection Devices

Common circuit protection devices
1. Small wire
2. Splice
3. Circuit conductor
4. Fusible link
5. Good fuse
6. Blown fuse
7. Circuit breaker
8. Bi-metal arm
9. Contacts
In some instances, high current flow can exist in a circuit. Without some means of protecting the
circuit, a short allows the total amount of available current to flow. If the current is more than the
circuit was designed to carry, the wiring may overheat and burn.
Each electrical circuit contains one or more circuit protection devices to prevent damage to
electrical wiring and electronic components. These devices can be fuses, fusible links, circuit
breakers, or a combination of these. Some computers on an automobile protect themselves by
shutting down in an overload or when voltage exceeds specifications.
Fuses
Fuses are plug-in devices with two terminals connected by a conductor that is designed to melt
(blow) when a specified amperage rating is exceeded. Fuses must be replaced after the circuit
problem has been corrected.
Types of fuses
1. Cartridge fuse
2. Maxifuse
3. Standard blade type fuse
4. Miniature blade type (minifuse)
There are basically four types of fuses: the cartridge fuse, high-current (or maxifuse), the standard
blade type, and the miniature blade type. Blade type fuses are the most common and have a
specific amperage rating and are color-coded. They are permanently marked with the amperage
rating and the voltage rating. Two slots in the fuse body allow the technician to check for voltage
drop, available voltage, or continuity
Fuses are constructed so that if current reaches a certain level, the metal melts and breaks,
causing an open in the circuit. This opens the circuit and protects circuit wiring and components
from excessive current flow.
Fuses are rated by amperage handling ability. For example, a 10 amp fuse opens if current in the
circuit increases too far above 10 amps for a certain length of time.
Never replace a fuse with a higher rated fuse. Always consult the workshop manual or owner
manual to be sure that you replace each circuit protection device with the exact equivalent
specified.
Fusible Links
The fusible link is installed close to the voltage source. The fusible link usually protects large
portions of the vehicle wiring where fuses or circuit breakers are not practical. If an overload
occurs, the lighter gauge wire in the fusible link melts and opens the circuit before damage can
occur.
Fusible link construction

1. Small wire
2. Splice
3. Circuit conductor
4. Fuse link burn out in this area
when too much current flows
through
Circuit Breakers
A circuit breaker can be a separate plug-in assembly or can be mounted in a switch or motor
brush holder. A set of contacts inside these devices opens the circuit temporarily when a specified
amperage rating is exceeded.
Unlike fuses, circuit breakers do not have to be replaced each time they open. However, if a circuit
opens, the cause of the overload or short in the circuit must still be found and repaired, or further
damage to the circuit results.
Generally, there are two types of circuit breakers – cycling and non-cycling.
1. Cycling circuit breakers
The cycling circuit breaker contains a strip built from two different metals. Each metal expands
at a different rate when heated. When an excessive amount of current flows through the bi-
metal strip, the high-expansion metal bends due to the heat buildup and opens the contact
points. With the circuit open and no current flowing, the metal strip cools and shrinks until the
contact points again close the circuit.
Cycling circuit breaker construction

1. Side view (external)
2. Bi-metal arm
3. Side view (internal)
4. Contacts
In actual operation, the contact opens very quickly. If the overload is continuous, the circuit
breaker repeatedly cycles (opens and closes) until the condition is corrected.
2. Non-cycling circuit breakers

A non-cycling circuit breaker uses a wire coil wrapped around a bi-metal arm which maintains
a high-resistance current path in the circuit even after the contact points open. The heat from
the wire coil does not allow the bi-metal strip to cool enough to close the contact points until
the source voltage is removed from the circuit.
Non-cycling circuit breaker construction

1. Side view (external)
2. Contacts
3. Side view (internal)
4. Coil
5. Bi-metal arm
When voltage is removed, the bi-metal strip cools and the circuit is restored. With a non-
cycling circuit breaker, once the breaker opens the circuit, voltage must be removed from the
circuit to reset the breaker. A non-cycling of circuit breaker cannot be used in crucial circuits
such as headlamps, because a temporary short terminates the circuit voltage until the breaker
can be reset.
Electromagnetic Devices
Many electrical devices operate on the principle of electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic
induction is the process of producing electrical current in a conductor as the conductor passes
through a magnetic field or another current-carrying conductor, such as a coil.
Relays, motors, generators and solenoids are examples of electromagnetic devices.
Relays
A relay is an electric switch that uses a small current to control a larger current. Relays consist of
a control circuit, an electromagnet, an armature, and a set of contacts, as shown.
Relay
3. Normally closed contact
4. To load
5. Ground (control circuit)
Applying a small current to the control circuit energizes the electromagnet which moves the
armature. The movement of the armature either opens or closes the contacts mounted on the
armature.
When the control circuit for the relay is closed, the electromagnet draws the armature toward the
core. This closes the contact points and provides the larger current for the load. When the control
switch is open, no current flows to the relay coil. The electromagnet is de-energized and the
armature returns to its normal, or rest position.
There are many automotive applications for relays including the fuel pump, horn, and starter
system.
Solenoids
Solenoids are electromagnets with a moveable core or plunger. The core or plunger converts
electrical current flow into mechanical movement. The figure shows a typical automotive solenoid
application, the remote latch mechanism in the luggage compartment.
Solenoid operation
1. Voltage source
2. Momentary contact switch
3. Trunk latch
4. Core or plunger
5. Ground
Motors
Motors are devices that convert electrical energy into mechanical motion. Electric motors can
meet a wide range of service requirements that include starting, accelerating, running, braking,
holding, and stopping a load.
Motor operation
1. Permanent magnet
2. Armature
3. Commutator
4. Battery
5. Conductor
The figure shows the construction of a simple DC motor which consists of a horseshoe-shaped
permanent magnet with a wire-wound coil (armature), mounted so it can rotate between the north
and south poles of the magnet. The commutator reverses the current fed to the coil on each half-
turn. The armature rotates due to the force exerted on a conductor carrying the current in a
magnetic field.
APPENDICES
POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
SANTA MARIA BULACAN CAMPUS
Km. 39, Sitio Gulod, Pulong Buhangin, Santa Maria, Bulacan
Computer Engineering Program
Fundamentals of Mixed Signals & Sensors

CMPE 30153
Portfolio
Midterm Final Term
Lesson 1 Lesson 5
Lesson 2 Lesson 6
Lesson 3 Lesson 7
Lesson 4 Lesson 8
Assignment Lesson 9
Portfolio
Class Standing Class Standing
Grade (70%) Grade (70%)
Examination (30%) Examination (30%)
Grade Grade
________________________
Signature over Student Name
ENGR. CONRAD A. POPULI

Instructor
_______________
Date of Completion
REFERENCES
Bates, D. J., & Malvino, A. P. (2016). Electronic Principles, (8th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
Buchla, D. L., & Floyd T. L. (2014). Electronics Fundamentals Circuits, Devices and Applications,
(8th ed.). Pearson Education Limited.
Cheung, P. (2019). “Lecture 9: Digital-to-Analogue Conversion”. Department of Electrical &
Electronic Engineering, Imperial College London
Cheung, P. (2019). “Lecture 11: Analogue-to-Digital Conversion”. Department of Electrical &
Electronic Engineering, Imperial College London
Morris, A. S., & Langari R. (2016). Measurement and Instrumentation Theory and Application,
(2nd ed.). Elsevier Inc.
Theraja, B. L., & Theraja A. K. (2005). Electrical Technology, (24th ed.). S. Chand & Company
Ltd.
Internet Sources:
 https://web.itu.edu.tr/~yalcinme/files/courses/MMG/ch2_1%20Sensors%20and%20trans
ducers.pdf
 https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/io/io_1.html
 http://www.ieec.uned.es/investigacion/Dipseil/PAC/archivos/More%20on%20Transducer
s%20Sensors%20and%20Actuators.pdf

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Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL FOR

Fundamentals of Mixed Signals and Sensors

Course Grading System:

Class Standing 70%

 Objective Type and Problem Solving Quizzes

Midterm / Final Examinations 30%

Midterm Grade + Final Term Grade = FINAL GRADE

LESSON 1: Operational Amplifiers ........................................................................................................ 6

Introduction to Operational Amplifiers

Operation of 741 Op Amp

Bias and Offsets

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

The Inverting Amplifier

Inverting Negative Feedback

Bias and Off sets

The Noninverting Amplifier

Output Error Voltage Reduces MPP

Two Op-Amp Applications

Differential Input and Output

In this case, the equation simplifies to:

DC Analysis of a Diff Amp

Effect of Base Resistors on Tail Current

AC Analysis of a Diff Amp

Single-Ended Output Gain

The output voltage for a noninverting input is:

Table of Voltage Gains

Input Characteristics of an Op Amp

Input Bias Current

Input Off set Current

Base Currents and Off sets

Effect of Base Current

Effect of Input Off set Current

Input Offset Voltage

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio

Inverter with Adjustable Gain

Basic Differential Amplifier

CMRR of the Op Amp

Comparators with Zero Reference

Clamping Diodes and Compensating Resistors

Comparators with Nonzero References

Moving the Trip Point

Eliminating Output Offset

Active Peak Detector

Methods of Analog-to-Digital Conversion

A Naïve ADC Using a Counter

This is a simple ADC using a DAC, a comparator and a binary counter.

A/D conversion with sample/hold

Hence, 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 is a weighted sum of 𝑉3 , ⋯ , 𝑉0 with weights proportional to the conductances

Further Improvement with Reference Voltage Source

DAC using R-2R Ladder

Digital Attenuator (Amplifier)

Pulse-width Modulated (PWM) DAC

Thermocouple-to-Electronics Interface. When a thermocouple is connected to a signal-

An example of the Thermocouple-to-Electronics interface is the following. As shown in the

Compensation. It is bulky and expensive to maintain a reference thermocouple at a fixed

Thermocouple Advantages and Disadvantages

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

RTD Advantages and Disadvantages

Zener-Based IC Precision Temperature Sensor

Strain, Pressure, and Flow Rate Measurements