Questions Histology:

6. Morphofunctional characteristics of the organs of the male and female reproductive

system. Age features(embryonic sources and their development).

1. Ovary

The name of specimen/stain: Ovary of cat, general view. Hematoxylin-eosin.

Research objects: 1-Germinal epithelium and tunica albuginea;

2-Cortex;

3-Medulla;

4-Primordial follicles;

5-Secondary follicles.

Structural features: The ovary from the surface is covered with a single layer of squamous
epithelium - mesothelium, passing here from the peritoneum. Under it is the tunica albuginea (1),
formed by dense fibrous connective tissue. The parenchyma of the ovary is subdivided into the
cortex (2), which occupies the main part of the organ, and the medulla (3), a narrow, like a cord,
area deep in the ovary. There are connective tissue, from which layers (with vessels and nerves)
go through the cortex to the tunica albuginea; as well as the remains of the tubules of the primary
kidney, forming epithelial cords and tubules - the ovarian network. The main components of the
ovary are concentrated in its cortex. These are, firstly, follicles - resting (primordial (4)),
developing (primary, secondary (5) and tertiary) and atresizing. Primordial follicles (4) are
located in the subcapsular zone of the ovary and are very are numerous, in size - the smallest,
and their follicular cells are flat and lie around the reproductive cell in one layer. Primary
follicles: much larger than primordial follicles, around oocyte appears a zona pellucida of
glycoproteins and glycosaminoglycans; follicular cells are no longer flat, but cubic and lie in 1-2
layers. Secondary follicles - around oocyte- still the zona pellucida, follicular epithelium
becomes stratified; Tertiary follicles (Graaf vesicles): The main distinguishing feature is that the
bulk of the follicle is occupied by a large cavity with fluid. In this regard, the follicular
epithelium is subdivided into the parietal layer (still lying on the basement membrane facing the
teca) and the granular layer surrounding the zona pellucida of the oocyte.
The function: They perform a generative function, that is, they are the place where female
reproductive cells develop and mature, and are also endocrine glands and produce sex hormones
(endocrine function).

Uterus.

The name of specimen/stain:Uterus .General view. Azocarmine.

Research objects: 1-Lumen of uterine cavity, 2-Uterine glands, 3-Lamina propria of tunica
mucosa, 4,5,6-Submucous, vascular and longitudinal layers of muscular tunic, 7-Perimetrium.

Structural features: The uterine wall includes three membranes: mucosa (endometrium) (3),
muscle (myometrium) and serous (perimetry) (7). Endometrium contains a single-layer prismatic
epithelium and its own plate, which is penetrated uterine glands (2) .In the epithelium uterus (as
in the epithelium of the oviducts) - two types of cells: ciliated and glandular (mucus-forming).
The proper lamina (3) is formed by a loose fibrous connective tissue. But in it, some connective
tissue cells are transformed into decidual cells - large, rounded, with inclusions of glycogen and
lipoproteins. endometrium: superficial functional layer -rejected during menstruation - and the
basal layer - preserved during menses. Myometrium is the most pronounced (in thickness) lining
of the uterus. Its main component is smooth muscle tissue. 3 layer: submucosal (4) (this layer
should not be confused with the submucosa other organs), vascular (5) (very rich in large
vessels) and supravascular - the outermost, outer shell, perimetry. loose fibrous connective tissue
with a large number of vessels. Around the cervix there is an accumulation of adipose tissue -
parametrium. From the surface, most of the uterus is covered with mesothelium.

Function: It functions to nourish and house a fertilized egg until the fetus, or offspring, is ready
to be delivered.
 Mammary gland of cow

The name of specimen/stain: Mammary gland of cow. Hematoxylin-eosin.

Research objects: 1-Interlobular connective tissue;

2-Lobules;

3-Alveoli;

4-Interlobular excretory duct.

Structural features: Each gland contains 15-20 individual glands, or lobules, which are separated
by layers of connective tissue and clusters of fat cells. In the lactating gland, the end sections
include two components: alveoli (3) - hollow sacs filled with secretion, and the lactiferous
alveolar passages extending from them.

The alveolar wall is formed by one layer of lactocytes - cubic cells with round nuclei and lying
on the basement membrane.

Myoepithelial cells are also located in the wall: they surround the alveolus from the outside,
covering it with their processes, and differ in rod-shaped nuclei. In the lumen of the alveoli there
are drops of secretion.

The cells that form the lactiferous alveolar duct also lie in one layer. The milky alveolar passages
pass into the branched intralobular ducts, and those into the interlobular ducts (4). They are
lined with cubic and prismatic epithelium.

Function: The main function of the mammary glands is the synthesis and secretion of milk. The
structure and function of the mammary glands change significantly at different stages of the
menstrual cycle, pregnancy, lactation. These changes are determined by the function of the
endocrine glands.
 Oviduct.

The name of specimen/stain: Oviduct. Azocarmine.

Research objects:

1- Lumen of oviduct;
2- Lamina propria of tunica mucosa;
3- Fimbria of uterine tube;
4- Circular and longitudinal muscles;
5- Serous tunic.
Structural features: The oviducts (fallopian tubes) are paired muscular tubes with great mobility, each
about 12 cm long. With one edge (funnel) they open into the abdominal cavity near the ovary; along the
edge of the funnel, there are fringes - a border, consisting of finger-like protrusions. The other edge - the
intramural part - passes through the wall of the uterus and opens into the cavity of this organ. The wall of
the fallopian tube is formed by three membranes: 1) The mucous membrane; 2) A thick muscular
membrane, represented by smooth muscle tissue, which is located in the form of an inner circular or
spiral layer and an outer longitudinal layer; 3) The serous membrane, consisting of the visceral
peritoneum.

The mucous membrane of the fallopian tube forms longitudinal folds, which are most numerous in the
ampulla. On transverse sections, the lumen of the ampoule resembles a labyrinth. These folds become
smaller in the areas of the fallopian tube that lie near the uterus. In the intramural (intramural) part, the
folds of the mucous membrane are reduced to small protrusions into the lumen, so its inner surface here
becomes almost smooth. The mucous membrane of the fallopian tube is formed by a single-layer
columnar epithelium and its own lamina, consisting of loose connective tissue. The epithelium contains
two types of cells: cells of one type have cilia, while others are secretory. The beating of the cilia is
carried out in the direction of the uterus, causing the movement of a film of viscous fluid that covers the
surface of the epithelium. This fluid consists mainly of secretory cell products located between the
ciliated cells.
7. The structure of the testis and spermatogenesis, endocrine functions of the testis.

The name of specimen/stain: Testis. Hematoxylin-eosin.

Research objects: 1-Spermatogonia; 2-Primary and secondary spermatocytes; 3-Spermatids; 4-

Spermatozoa; 5-Interstitium of testis.

Structural features: The testicle is surrounded by large number shells. Of these, the innermost is the
tunica albuginea, composed of dense fibrous connective tissue. Shell continuing into fabric testicles,
forms the mediastinum testicles - incomplete vertical septum and radial partitions radiating from
mediastinum as from the center. The septa divide the testicle into about 250 lobules; each lobule contains
1 to 4 convoluted seed (or spermatogenic) tubules. Loop ends of each seminiferous tubule merge with
each other and with a number of adjacent tubules, continuing into tubules of a different type. From here
the vas deferens begins. These are the parts of them which are located in the testicle itself: direct
testicular tubules – direct continuation of the seminiferous tubules; tubules of the reticulum - located in
the thickness mediastinum; form a network into which straight lines flow from one side tubules, and on
the other side of which the testicular efferent tubules depart. There is another important component: in the
connective tissue located between the tubules (i.e. in the interstitium), there are interstitial cells (Leydig
cells) that produce the male sex hormone testosterone. Outside, the seminiferous tubule has a thin shell
of its own composition includes: the outer layer of fibroblast-like cells and the formed by them a layer of
collagen fibers, also the inner layer of myoid cells and the basement membrane formed by
them,spermatogenic "epithelium" , or epithelialospermatogenic layer, It contains only one type of
epithelial cells, which has a number of names: Sertoli cells, sustentocytes(supporting cells), follicular
cells; as well as spermatogenic cells - stem and maturing. At different stages of their development, they
have different names: spermatogonia,spermatocytes, spermatids, sperm.

Function: 1. Spermatogenesis 2. Exocrine (secretion of semen components and estrogen binding

proteins) 3. The testes have the distinction of being an endocrine gland because they secrete testosterone
—a hormone that is vital to the normal development of male physical characteristics.

НА ВСЯКИЙ СЛУЧАЙ!!! (ЕСТЬ И ДРУГИЕ ПРЕПАРАТЫ):

 Testis.Hematoxylin-eosin.

Research objects: 1-tunica albuginea; 2-interstitium of testis; 3-convoluted seminiferous tubules

Testis.Hematoxylin-eosin.

Research objects: 1-convoluted seminiferous tubules; 2-interstitium of testis

8. The vas deferens. Accessory organs/glands of the male reproductive system.

Epididymis

The name of specimen/stain: Epididymis, duct of epididymis. Hematoxylin-eosin.

Research objects: 1-Lamina propria of ductus epididymis with smooth muscle cells;

2-Birowed epithelium;

3-Spermatozoa in the lumen of duct;

4- Fibrous connective tissue.

OR THIS!!!!

Epididymis

The name of specimen/stain: Epididymis.Efferent channels. Hematoxylin-eosin.

Research objects: 1-High ciliated cells, 2-Secretory cells, 3-Blood vessels.

Structural features: The epididymis consists of the head, body, and tail. The head is formed by 12-15
efferent tubules. Their lumen has an uneven contour, since the single-layer epithelium lining the inside of
the tubules consists of cells of different heights. The taller cells on the apical surface have ciliated cilia
and are called ciliated epithelial cells. They promote the movement of sperm through the tubules. Low
cells located in the "pits" of the epithelium have microvilli. They are characterized by the apocrine type of
secretion and reabsorption of fluid from the lumen.

The duct of the epididymis is one highly convoluted tube about 4-6 m long. Together with the
surrounding connective tissue and blood vessels, this long canal forms the epididymis, in particular its
body and tail. It is lined with multi-row columnar epithelium, consisting of rounded basal cells and
columnar cells.

These cells are located on the supporting basal plate and are surrounded by smooth muscle cells,
peristaltic contractions that propel the sperm through the duct, as well as loose connective tissue rich in
blood capillaries. On the surface of these cells there are long branching microvilli of an irregular shape -
stereocilia.

The main function: 1) reservoir (depot) of spermatozoa,

2) Liquefaction of sperm by the secretion of epithelial cells,

3) The advancement of sperm into the vas deferens,

4) The formation of sperm glycocalyx, which prevents development of immune reactions when sperm
enters outflow duct and into the vagina,

5) Maturation of sperm.
The vas deferens. (Можно как Structural features:) The duct of the epididymis then passes into the
vas deferens (ductus deferens), in which the muscular membrane develops significantly, consisting of
three layers - the inner longitudinal, the middle circular and the outer longitudinal. In the thickness of the
muscular membrane, there is a nerve plexus formed by an accumulation of ganglion cells that innervate
bundles of smooth muscle cells. The contractions of these cells ensure the ejaculation of sperm. Due to
the significant development of the muscular membrane, the mucous membrane of the vas deferens is
collected in longitudinal folds. The distal end of this duct is ampulliform. Outside, the vas deferens along
the entire length are covered with a connective tissue adventitia membrane.

Function: The advancement of sperm from the epididymis is carried out along the vas deferens.

The accessory glands of the male reproductive system include seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and
bulbourethral glands.

Seminal vesicles. The seminal vesicles develop as protrusions in the wall of the vas deferens in its distal
(upper) part. These are paired glandular organs that produce a liquid mucous secretion, slightly alkaline
reaction, rich in fructose, which is mixed into the semen and liquefies it. In the wall of the vesicles there
are membranes, the boundaries between which are not clearly expressed: mucous, muscular, adventitious.
The mucous membrane is collected in numerous branched folds, sometimes fused together, as a result of
which it takes on a cellular appearance. The mucous membrane is covered with a single-layer columnar
epithelium overlying a thin basement membrane. There are many elastic fibers in the lamina propria of
the mucous membrane. In the mucous membrane, there are terminal sections of the alveolar-type glands,
consisting of mucous exocrinocytes (exocrinocytus mucosus).

The muscular layer is well expressed and consists of two layers of smooth muscle cells - the inner circular
and the outer longitudinal. The adventitia membrane consists of dense fibrous connective tissue with a
high content of elastic fibers.

The function of the seminal vesicles is the production of a weakly alkaline mucous secretion, in which
sperm become motile. The secret, mixed with semen, neutralizes and liquefies it, and also provides sperm
with energy material - fructose. Due to the liquid from each bubble, the volume of ejaculate increases by
1-3 ml.
 Seminal vesicles

Prostate gland. The prostate gland, or prostate, is a muscular-glandular organ that encompasses a part of
the urethra (urethra), into which the ducts of numerous prostatic glands open.

The name of specimen/stain: Prostate gland. Hematoxylin-eosin.

Research objects: 1-Capsule;2-Grandular acini; 3-Interlobular connective tissue with the bands of
smooth muscle cells;4-Smooth muscle cells.

Structural features: The prostate gland is a lobular gland covered with a connective tissue capsule. Its
parenchyma consists of numerous separate mucous glands, the excretory ducts of which open into the
urethra. The glands are located around the urethra in three groups: central, peripheral and transitional.

The central group consists of small glands in the mucous membrane directly around the urethra. An
intermediate group in the form of a ring lies in the connective tissue of the submucosa.

The peripheral group consists of the prostate glands proper. It takes up the rest, most of the organ. The
end sections of the alveolar-tubular prostate glands are formed by tall mucous exocrinocytes ,between the
bases of which small intercalated cells are located. The excretory ducts before flowing into the urethra
expand in the form of irregular ampoules lined with multi-row prismatic epithelium. The muscular-elastic
stroma of the gland is formed by loose fibrous connective tissue and powerful bundles of smooth muscle
cells, radially diverging from the center of the prostate gland and dividing it into lobules. Each lobule and
each gland is surrounded by longitudinal and circular layers of smooth muscle cells, which, by
contracting, eject secretions from the prostate glands at the time of ejaculation. Behind the seed tubercle
is the prostate uterus (utriculus prostaticus), which opens onto the surface of the seed tubercle.

The functions of the prostate gland. 1. Exocrine a) secretion of mucus with alkaline buffering properties
b) the formation of a secret containing immunoglobulins, enzymes,vitamins
2. Endocrine a) secretion of prostaglandins b) secretion of serotonin and somatostatin c) secretion of
factors - nerve growth

- sexual differentiation of the hypothalamus

- pacemaker activity

- activation of the nerve endings of the penis

3. Mechanical a) ejaculation b) separation of streams of semen and urine

НА ВСЯКИЙ СЛУЧАЙ!!! (ЕСТЬ И ДРУГИЕ ПРЕПАРАТЫ):

The name of specimen/stain: Prostate gland. Hematoxylin-eosin.

Research objects: 1-Bands of smooth muscle cells; 2-One-rowed columnar glandular epithelium; 3-
Terminal secretory parts of prostate glandules; 4-Prostatic fluid.

The bulbourethral glands

(Littre's glands) are alveolar-tubular in structure, opening their ducts in the upper part of the urethra.
Their end sections and excretory ducts have an irregular shape. The terminal tubular-alveolar sections are
connected in places with each other and consist of mucous cells (exocrinocytus mucosus). In the enlarged
alveoli of these glands, the epithelium is most often flattened, in the rest of the gland - cubic or prismatic.
The epithelial cells are filled with mucoid droplets and peculiar rod-shaped inclusions. Between the end
sections are layers of loose fibrous loose connective tissue containing bundles of smooth muscle cells.

The function: 1.Helps to lubricate the urethra for the passage of sperm through it; 2) Protects the mucous
membrane of the urethra from irritation by urine; 3) Neutralizes traces of acidic urine in the urethra and
helps to remove any residual urine or foreign matter.

The male has the penis and scrotum for accessory organs.

The Penis

The penis is a copulatory organ. Its bulk is formed by three cavernous bodies, which, filling with blood,
become rigid and provide an erection. Outside, the cavernous bodies are surrounded by a tunica
albuginea, formed by dense fibrous connective tissue. This tissue is replete with elastic fibers and
contains a significant number of smooth muscle cells. In the middle of the lower corpus cavernosum, the
urethra passes through which sperm is secreted. It is divided into the prostate part, the membranous part
and the spongy part.

The base of the glans penis consists of dense fibrous connective tissue, which contains a network of
anastomosing veins that overflow with blood during an erection. In their thick wall, longitudinal and
circularly located bundles of smooth muscle cells are located. The skin covering the glans penis is thin; it
contains the sebaceous (preputial) glands.

The main function: The primary functions of the penis are sexual and urinary. The urinary function of
the penis is achieved by the passage of the urethra from the bladder, through the penis, to the exterior of
the body. The sexual function of the penis can be erectile and ejaculatory. The erectile function of the
penis is controlled by the flow of blood into and out of the three erectile bodies—two corpus cavernosa
and the corpus spongiosum.

Scrotum The scrotum is a loose sac that expands the abdominal wall. It is located between the penis and
the anus. On the other hand, the scrotum wall itself has a rather complex structure - it consists of three
layers: outer shell, myofascial protection, and inner shell.

The outer lining of the scrotum includes elements such as the skin, the contractile membrane, and the
external seminal fascia. The first is the expansion of the skin of the abdominal wall. However, as a rule, it
is slightly darker than the skin of other parts of the body. Its structure is different - sometimes wrinkled,
sometimes smooth. Inside the skin of the scrotum, the sebaceous glands are clearly visible, except for
them there are sweat glands and hair. The contractile membrane of the scrotum is equivalent to the
subcutaneous layer. It surrounds the entire scrotum, including it is thanks to her that the scrotum can
perform its function. The last element of the outer part of the scrotum is the external seminal fascia,
which corresponds to the subcutaneous fascia and includes the epididymis and testis.

9. The structure of the ovaries and oogenesis, endocrine functions of the ovaries (structure
and development of the corpus luteum. Age features)

The ovaries are small, oval-shaped glands that are located on either side of the uterus. The ovaries
produce eggs and hormones. Fallopian tubes: These are narrow tubes that are attached to the upper part
of the uterus and serve as pathways for the ova (egg cells) to travel from the ovaries to the uterus.

The ovaries are covered on the outside by a layer of simple cuboidal epithelium called germinal (ovarian)
epithelium. This is actually the visceral peritoneum that envelops the ovaries. Underneath this layer is a
dense connective tissue capsule, the tunica albuginea. The substance of the ovaries is distinctly divided into an
outer cortex and an inner medulla. The cortex appears more dense and granular due to the presence of
numerous ovarian follicles in various stages of development. Each of the follicles contains an oocyte, a
female germ cell. The medulla is a loose connective tissue with abundant bloodvessels, lymphatic vessels,
and nerve fibers.

Oogenesis involves three key phases: proliferation, growth, and maturation, during which PGCs progress
to primary oocytes, secondary oocytes, and then to mature ootids

 Multiplication Phase: During foetal development, it should be noticed that certain cells present in the
germinal epithelium of the female ovary are bigger than others. Hence, these cells split by mitosis,
creating a couple of million oogonia or mother egg cells in each ovary present in the foetus. There are
no more oogonia which are formed or augmented after birth.

 Growth Phase: This particular procedure of the primary oocyte tends to be very long. In this, the
oogonium nurtures into bigger primary oocytes. After this, each primary oocyte gets surrounded by a
granulosa cells layer to create primary follicle. Later, a large number of follicles get debased during the
duration from birth to puberty. Therefore, at puberty around 60,000 to 80,000 primary follicles can be
found in each ovary.

 Maturation Phase: Similar to a primary spermatocyte, every primary oocyte experiences two

maturation divisions. However, the outcomes of maturation divisions under oogenesis are quite
different to those which occur in spermatogenesis. Considering the first meiotic division, the primary
oocyte segregates into two uneven haploid daughter cells. These are known as the large secondary
oocyte and a small polocyte.
Later, considering the second maturation separation, the initial polar body might split to create two, second polar
bodies. Here, the secondary oocyte once again divides to form unfit daughter cells.

In addition to their role in producing ova, the ovaries also have the distinction of being an endocrine gland
because they secrete hormones—primarily estrogen and progesterone—that are vital to normal
reproductive development and fertility.

The corpus luteum is made up of lutein cells (from the Latin luteus, meaning “saffron-yellow”),
which developimmediately following ovulation, when yellow pigment and lipids accumulate within the
granulosa cells lining the follicle. The size of the corpus luteum is highly variable.

10. The structure of the uterus. Structure of the mammary gland (structure of the oviduct,
ovarian-menstrual cycle and its regulation)
The uterus, also known as the womb, is a female reproductive organ that is responsible for many
functions in the processes of implantation, gestation, menstruation, and labor. The round ligament
connects the uterus to the abdominal wall and includes the artery of Sampson.

The uterus is a thick-walled muscular organ capable of expansion to accommodate a growing fetus. It is

connected distally to the vagina, and laterally to the uterine tubes. The uterus has three parts; Fundus –
top of the uterus, above the entry point of the uterine tubes.

The uterus is a hollow muscular organ located in the female pelvis between the bladder and rectum. The
ovaries produce the eggs that travel through the fallopian tubes. Once the egg has left the ovary it can be
fertilized and implant itself in the lining of the uterus.

The human uterus is pear-shaped and about 7.6 cm (3.0 in) long, 4.5 cm (1.8 in) broad (side to side), and
3.0 cm (1.2 in) thick.

the mammary glands produce milk; structurally, they are modified sweat glands. Mammary glands, which
are located in the breast overlying the pectoralis major muscles, are present in both sexes, but usually
are functional only in the female.

The structure of the mammary gland is divided into three parts, which include the skin, the parenchyma,
and the stroma. Skin: It consists of a nipple and areola

The female reproductive hormones, estrogens, progesterone, and prolactin, have a major impact on
breast cancer and control postnatal mammary gland development.

The oviduct is also known as the fallopian or uterine tube. It is the passageway through which the ovum
passes from the ovary to the uterine cavity. The oviducts are part of the genital tract. They have a wall of
smooth muscle, an inner mucosal lining and an outer layer of loose supporting tissue (serosa).

The menstrual cycle is the regular natural change that occurs in the female reproductive system

The four phases of the menstrual cycle are menstruation, the follicular phase, ovulation and the luteal

phase. Common menstrual problems include heavy or painful periods and premenstrual syndrome
(PMS).

Menstruation is the elimination of the thickened lining of the uterus (endometrium) from the body through the
vagina. Menstrual fluid contains blood, cells from the lining of the uterus (endometrial cells) and mucus. The
average length of a period is between three days and one week.

The follicular phase starts on the first day of menstruation and ends with ovulation. Prompted by the hypothalamus,
the pituitary gland releases follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). 

Ovulation is the release of a mature egg from the surface of the ovary. This usually occurs mid-cycle, around two
weeks or so before menstruation starts.

During ovulation, the egg bursts from its follicle, but the ruptured follicle stays on the surface of the ovary. For the
next two weeks or so, the follicle transforms into a structure known as the corpus luteum. This structure starts
releasing progesterone, along with small amounts of oestrogen. This combination of hormones maintains the
thickened lining of the uterus, waiting for a fertilised egg to stick (implant).