Tradition

Ways to celebrate holidays may be passed down as traditions, as in this Polish Christmas meal and decorations

A tradition is a ritual, belief or object passed down within a society, still maintained in the present, with origins in the past.[1][2] Common examples includeholidays or impractical but socially meaningful clothes (like lawyer wigs or military officer spurs), but the idea has also been applied to social norms such as greetings. Traditions can persist and evolve for thousands of yearsthe word "tradition" itself derives from the Latin tradere or traderer literally meaning to transmit, to hand over, to give for safekeepingand new traditions continue to appear today. While it is commonly assumed that traditions have ancient history, many traditions have been invented on purpose, whether that be political or cultural, over short periods of time. Certain scholarly fields, such asanthropology and biology, have adapted the term "tradition," defining it more carefully than its conventional use in order to facilitate scholarly discourse. The concept of tradition, as the notion of holding on to a previous time, is also found in political and philosophical discourse. For example, the political concept of traditionalism is based around it, as are strands of many world religions including traditional Catholicism. In artistic contexts, tradition is used to decide the correct display of an art form. For example, in the performance of traditional genres (such as traditional dance), adherence to guidelines dictating how an art form should be composed are given greater importance than the performer's own preferences. A number of factors can exacerbate the loss of tradition, including industrialization, globalization, and the assimilation or marginalization of specific cultural groups. In response to this, tradition-preservation attempts have now been started in many countries around the world, focusing on aspects such as traditional languages. Tradition is usually contrasted with the goal of modernity and should be differentiated from customs, conventions, laws, norms, routines, rules and similar concepts.

Definition of tradition
Olin Levi Warner, Tradition (1895). Bronze tympanumover the main entrance, Library of Congress Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C.

The English word "tradition" comes from the Latin traditio, the noun from the verb traderere or tradere (to transmit, to hand over, to give for safekeeping); it was originally used in Roman law to refer to the concept of legal transfers and inheritance.[3][4] According to Anthony Giddensand others, the modern meaning of tradition can be seen as having evolved in the European discourse in the last two hundred years, during theEnlightenment period, as philosophers and thinkers counter posed the concept of modernity with the concept of tradition, in the context ofprogress.[3][5][6] As with many other generic terms, there are many definitions of tradition. [1][2][4][7] The concept includes a number of interrelated ideas; the unifying one is that tradition refers to beliefs, objects or customs performed or believed in in the past, originating in it, transmitted through time by being taught by one generation to the next, and are performed or believed in the present.[1][2] Tradition can also refer to beliefs or customs that are Prehistoric, with lost or arcane origins, existing from time immemorial.[8] Originally, traditions were passed orally, without the need for a writing system. Tools to aid this process include poetic devices such as rhyme andalliteration. The stories thus preserved are also referred to as tradition, or as part of an oral tradition. Even such traditions, however, are presumed to have originated (been "invented" by humans) at some point.[2][3] Traditions are often presumed to be ancient, unalterable, and deeply important, though they may sometimes be much less "natural" than is presumed. [9][10] It is presumed that at least two transmissions over three generations are required for a practice, belief or object to be seen as traditional.[8] Some traditions were deliberately invented for one reason or another, often to highlight or enhance

the importance of a certain institution.[11] Traditions may also be adapted to suit the needs of the day, and the changes can become accepted as a part of the ancient tradition. [9][12] Tradition changes slowly, with changes from one generation to the next not being seen as significant.[13] Thus, those carrying out the traditions will not be consciously aware of the change, and even if a tradition undergoes major changes over many generations, it will be seen as unchanged.[13] There are various origins and fields of tradition; they can refer to: 1. the forms of artistic heritage of a particular culture.[14] 2. beliefs or customs instituted and maintained by societies and governments, such as national anthems and national holidays, such as Federal holidays in the United States.[9][10] 3. beliefs or customs maintained by religious denominations and church bodies that share history, customs, culture, and, to some extent, body of teachings.[15][16] For example, one can speak ofIslam's tradition or Christianity's tradition (see also traditionalism (religion)). Many objects, beliefs and customs can be traditional.[2] Rituals of social interaction can be traditional, with phrases and gestures such as saying "thank you", sending birth announcements, greeting cards, etc.[2][17][18] Tradition can also refer to larger concepts practiced by groups (family traditions at Christmas[18]), organizations (company's picnic) or societies, such as the practice of national and public holidays. [9][10] Some of the oldest traditions include monotheism (three millennia) and citizenship (two millennia).[19] It can also included material objects, such as buildings, works of art or tools.[2] Tradition is often used as an adjective, in contexts such as traditional music, traditional medicine, traditional values and others.[1] In such constructions tradition refers to specific values and materials particular to the discussed context, passed through generations.[16]

[edit]Invention

of tradition

The term "invention of tradition", introduced by E. J. Hobsbawm, refers to situations when a new practice or object is introduced in a manner that implies a connection with the past that is not necessarily present. [20] A tradition may be deliberately created and promulgated for personal, commercial, political, or national selfinterest, as was done in colonial Africa; or it may be adopted rapidly based on a single highly publicized event, rather than developing and spreading organically in a population, as in the case of the white wedding dress, which only became popular after Queen Victoriawore a white gown at her wedding to Albert of Saxe-Coburg.[21] An example of an invention of tradition is the rebuilding of the Palace of Westminster (location of the British Parliament) in the Gothic style.[20] Similarly, most of the traditions associated with monarchy of the United Kingdom, seen as rooted deep in history, actually date to 19th century. [12] Other examples include the invention of tradition in Africa and other colonial holdings by the occupying forces.[22] Requiring legitimacy, the colonial power would often invent a "tradition" which they could use to legitimize their own position. For example, a certain succession to a chiefdom might be recognized by a colonial power as traditional in order to favour their own candidates for the job. Often these inventions were based in some form of tradition, but were exaggerated, distorted, or biased toward a particular interpretation. Invented traditions are a central component of modern national cultures, providing a commonality of experience and promoting the unified national identity espoused by nationalism.[23] Common examples include public holidays (particularly those unique to a particular nation), the singing of national anthems, and traditional national cuisine (see national dish). Expatriate and immigrant communities may continue to practice the national traditions of their home nation.

Preservation of tradition
In many countries, concerted attempts are being made to preserve traditions that are at risk of being lost. A number of factors can exacerbate the loss of tradition, including industrialization,globalization, and the assimilation or marginalization of specific cultural groups. among the traditions that are sought to be preserved.
[39][40] [38]

Customary celebrations and lifestyles are

Likewise, the concept of tradition has been

[41]

used to defend the preservation and reintroduction of minority languages such as Cornish under the auspices of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Specifically, the charter holds

that these languages "contribute to the maintenance and development of Europe's cultural wealth and traditions". The Charter goes on to call for "the use or adoption... of traditional and correct forms of placenames in regional or minority languages".
[42]

Similarly, UNESCO includes both "oral tradition" and

[43]

"traditional manifestations" in its definition of a country's cultural properties and heritage. It therefore works to preserve tradition in countries such as Brazil.

In [Japan], certain artworks, structures, craft techniques and performing arts are considered by the Japanese government to be a precious legacy of the Japanese people, and are protected under the Japanese Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties.
[44]

This law also identifies people skilled at

[45]

traditional arts as "National Living Treasures", and encourages the preservation of their craft.

For native peoples like the Mori in New Zealand, there is conflict between the fluid identity assumed as part of modern society and the traditional identity with the obligations that accompany it; the loss of language heightens the feeling of isolation and damages the ability to perpetuate tradition.
[38

FOOD TRENTS
New Zealand cuisine is largely driven by local ingredients and seasonal variations. Occupying an island nation with a primarily agricultural economy, New Zealanders enjoy quality local produce from land and sea. Similar to the cuisine of Australia, the cuisine of New Zealand is a diverse British-based cuisine with Mediterranean and Pacific Rim influences as the country becomes more cosmopolitan. Historical influences came from Mori culture. New American cuisine, Southeast Asian, East

Asian and Indian traditions have become popular since the 1970s. In New Zealand households, dinner (also known as "tea") is the main meal of the day, when families gather and share their evening together. Restaurants and takeaways provide an increasing proportion of the diet.

Mori cuisine
When Mori (New Zealand's indigenous people) first arrived in New Zealand from tropical Polynesia, they brought with them a number of food plants, includingkmara (sweet potato), taro, t plants, as well as dogs and rats which were also eaten. The plants grew well only in the north of the North Island, and would not grow at all in the colder parts of the South Island. Native New Zealand plants such as fernroot became a more important part of the diet, along with insects such as the huhu grub. Problems with horticulture were made up for by an abundance of bird and marine life. The large flightless moa were soon hunted to extinction. Rhui (resource restrictions) included forbidding the hunting of certain species in particular places or at certain times of year, so that the numbers could regenerate. Like other Polynesian people, Mori cooked their food in earth ovens, known in New Zealand as hngi, although the word umu was also used as in other Pacific languages. Stones are heated by fire and food parcels, packed in leaves, are placed on top. The packs are further covered with foliage and cloth, or, nowadays wet sacks, then earth. Other cooking methods included roasting and, in geothermal areas, boiling or steaming using natural hot springs and pools. Occasionally food would be boiled in nongeothermal areas by putting hot stones into a bowl with water and the food; and some food was also cooked over the open fire. Some foods were preserved using smoke, air-drying, or layers of fat particularly muttonbirds. Mori were one of the few people to have no form of alcoholic beverage. [edit]Food

and religion

In traditional Mori religion, food was noa, or non-sacred. This meant care had to be taken to prevent it coming into contact with tapu places or objects. If it did, the tapu of the place or object, and often the people associated with it, would be at risk. High chiefs, and people engaged in tapu work such as tattooing, were tapu and were restricted in how they could deal with food; the most tapu needing to be fed by others. One story tells of a war party which had to be postponed as no non-tapu people were available to load the food supplies into the party's waka. [edit]Pkeh

influences

When Europeans (Pkeh) first arrived in New Zealand from the late eighteenth century, they brought their own foods with them. Some of these, especially pork and potatoes, were quickly adopted by Mori and helped end the threat of food shortages that had long plagued many Mori tribes. Potatoes were

particularly popular as they were grown in a similar way to kmara but produced a much higher yield with less effort. Other European foods such as wheat, pumpkin, mutton, sugar and many types of fruit also became a common part of the Mori diet. American sailors brought new varieties of sweet potato to New Zealand, and these high-yield varieties quickly superseded the original varieties of kmara. Alcohol, initially rejected as 'wai piro' (stinking water), also became part of Mori life.
[1]

Most Mori tribes

grew surpluses of food for trade with other tribes and with European visitors and settlers. Some tribes grew wealthy from this trade, although the Mori food industry declined in the mid-nineteenth century because of land loss and competition from settler farmers. Many traditional food sources, such as the kerer (wood pigeon) and other birds, as well as some types of fish and plants, became scarce as forests were destroyed and species were over-hunted. [edit]Mori

cuisine today

Present day Mori cuisine is a mixture of Mori tradition, old-fashioned English cookery, and contemporary dishes. Most large Mori gatherings feature a hngi, which is likely to contain foods brought to New Zealand by Mori and by Pkeh, including processed food and takeaways. In recent decades there has been much concern that Mori have picked up the worst of European eating habits and as a result are disproportionately likely to suffer from obesity, heart disease and diabetes. Two dishes regarded as distinctively Mori are the boil-up - of pork, potatoes, kmara, and dumplings, and pork and puha (sow thistle) which combine introduced and indigenous foods. Both dishes owe much to nineteenth century British cooking methods.

British Isles settler food

Nineteenth century British settlers in New Zealand tried as much as possible to reproduce the foods of their homeland. In the early stages of colonisation this was difficult as many ingredients were unavailable. Pkeh settlers ate native birds and fish, and used local ingredients in substitution for those which were unavailable, for example brewing tea and beer using unconventional plants. Most of these innovations were abandoned as the Pkeh population increased and conventional ingredients began to be mass-imported or produced in New Zealand. One innovation which was commonly served on New Zealand tables until the mid 1980s was colonial goose, a stuffed leg of lamb which substituted for goose.
[2]

A major difference between British and Pkeh food was that meat was much more readily

available to all social classes in New Zealand. Whereas in nineteenth century Britain, labourers ate meat in very small quantities, in New Zealand they could have it for every meal. Since meat was a high status food in Britain, British settlers in New Zealand ate vast quantities of it.
[3]

It is noted Scotland provided the largest number of British ancestors of today's Pkeh. The Scottish legacy on food could be seen through a traditional preference of sweet foods, and a wealth of baking dishes to celebrate important occasions, reflected through cakes, scones, muffins and other mainly sweet baking dishes. The country's most iconic recipe book, the Edmonds Cookery Book, originally began as publicity material for a baking powder company, and contains a high proportion of baking recipes. [edit]From
[4]

Antipodean British fare to Asia-Pacific fusion

For most of the twentieth century, Caucasian New Zealand cuisine remained highly derivative of British food, with more exotic offerings often regarded as "foreign muck". From about the 1960s, the advent of

affordable air travel allowed New Zealanders to travel overseas more easily. Most Caucasians went to Europe on OE, where they discovered French and Italian cooking, and also the Indian and Chinese restaurants of Britain as well as the New British cuisine. When the sojourners returned home they helped create a demand for better quality food and more variety.
[4]

They also tried to discover what New Zealand

cuisine was, experimenting with hangi and gaining a greater appreciation of New Zealand produce. The United Kingdom's joining of the European Economic Community (EEC) (now the European Union) in 1973 sounded the death knell of New Zealand's identity as an agricultural producer for the British Isles, and the formal cultural ties, including cuisine, with the United Kingdom started to become diluted. During this period, certain non-British or Irish European dishes, such as beef bourguignon, had shed the 'ethnic' connotation and entered the mainstream New Zealand cooking. The 1980s was marked with economic liberalisation dubbed Rogernomics (named for the then Minister of Finance, Roger Douglas) that abolished farm subsidies, forcing many farmers to find ingenious means of survival. Many chose to produce specialty cheeses such as Brie, Stilton(not authentic), Havarti, and growing olives
[5]

or grapes instead of traditional meat and dairy farming. Avocado oil for cooking was

invented in New Zealand in 1999 by a group of farmers based in Tauranga region, that subsequently developed into The Grove brand. Rogernomics also abolished much of import tariffs and instituted a more relaxed agricultural product import quarantine regime. This allows hereunto prohibited or prohibitively expensive specialty foods, such as genuine serrano ham from Spain, extra virgin olive oil from Italy, and mango from Thailand, to be available in New Zealand at reasonable costs. These two developments from Rogernomics have given birth to a proliferation of specialist food products available in New Zealand. On top of changes in available ingredients, the 1980s also witnessed a wholescale liberalisation in attitude towards the formerly 'foreign muck' cooking styles and segmentation of lifestyles according to income and socio-economic status. New Zealand had by this time developed a largely distinct cultural outlook away from the British Isles, and this also made foreign cooking styles more acceptable among the general public.
[6]

The same era also saw the moneyed populations feeling free to openly emulate the

luxurious eating and drinking habits of upper and upper middle classes overseas, as the traditional New Zealand preference of egalitarianism, manifested in widespread prejudice against any deviation from lower middle class lifestyles, waned in influence. In the words of New Zealand-based

anthropologist David Veart, this period of seachange in New Zealand's culinary culture was akin to "being let out after a long school detention"