Urban Tree Risk

Assessment - A
pictorial guide
Publisher details:

INSTITUTE OF WOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Indian Council of Forestry Research & Education
(An Autonomous body under the Ministry of Environment, Forests &
Climate Change, Government of India)
th
18 Cross, Malleshwaram, Bangalore – 560003 (Karnataka)
Ph: 080-22190100 Fax: 080-23340529

© 2019, IWST (ICFRE), Bangalore

All rights are reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission
of the publisher.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Preface

Urban Tree Risk Assessment - A Pictorial Guide is a

fully illustrated manual, easy to understand, worked
out for public and private work staff, tree care
practitioners, urban foresters and administrators. The
manual explains with pictorial mode how to detect
and assess various hazardous defects in urban trees.
A team of experts in plant pathology, tree anatomy,
plant physiology and forest health worked together to
bring out this guide. The authors genuinely hope that
this guide will be a useful resource for readers to
improve public safety and tree health management.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

About this guide
The guide is prepared based on a study conducted by the
authors on the subject “Assessment of the potential hazard
risk of ageing urban trees in Bangalore City”. The study was
conducted in street trees of Sampige and Margosa road at
Malleshwaram, Bangalore. The health assessment was
undertaken following visual tree assessment method
corroborated with non-invasive internal decay detection. As an
outcome of the study, the authors have attempted to illustrate
in detail the different types of defects and their risk profiling
in this guide. The categories of defects and its expression has
been taken as reference from the manual “Urban Tree Risk
Management: A Community Guide to Program Design and
Implementation” published by Jill D. Pokorny, Plant Pathologist
(co-ordinating author), USDA Forest Service Northeastern
Area State and Private Forest, for preparation of the present
guide.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

 Contents
• Introduction

• Tree Risk Assessment

• Proactive Tree Risk Management Approach

• Experiences

• Tree Risk Zone Categories

• Health Assessment of Trees

• Assessment of Hazardous Defects in Trees

• Tree Decay Assessment Methods and Tools

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Introduction

Trees are recognized in international, national and local

government policies, and many governmental and non-
governmental organizations have policies dedicated to conserve
trees and their biodiversity. Urban trees contribute to increased
quality of life for their communities and residents. Most people
prefer to live, recreate, and work in communities of healthy and
well-maintained urban forests. Healthy trees and urban forests
contribute to the overall value of property in cities.

Social values of urban trees

• Townscape character
• Cultural heritage
• Place making/
amenity
• Health & well-being
• Increase property
value
• Reduce surface flood
water run-off
• Mitigates urban heat island
effect
• Habitats for birds & animals
Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide
As much as 10 to 30 percent of residential property values can be
assigned to the entire landscape that includes trees. However,
people’s safety is undoubtedly an important consideration,
whether trees are managed for their cultural, amenity, heritage
or environmental benefits or for timber production and other
commercial interests.

Figure No. 1:
Weak
underground
roots could not
sustain the
above ground
trunk and
canopy
(Picture source:
THE HINDU)

Trees or tree parts can fail and cause damage or personal injury,
particularly during natural loading events such as wind and
storms (Fig. No. 1). The failure of limbs or entire trees, however,
is often predictable, detectable, and preventable. Therefore
management of trees in an urban ecosystem is important
considering the social values of urban trees and public safety
(Fig. No. 2).
Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide
Figure No. 2:
Dysfunction of
root system of
a tree, when
not managed
appropriately
are threat to
people’s life
(Picture source:
THE TIMES OF
INDIA)

Tree Risk Assessment

Tree risk assessment involves the process of inspecting and
assessing trees for their potential to injure people or damage
property. Municipal or community managers in co-operation
with urban forest officers have the obligation to establish and
maintain a safe and useful urban forest for their constituents.
The foresters need the training and expertise to recognize
varying levels of risk, and to manage the tree at an acceptable
level of risk. One of the first publications concerning tree risk
from an urban perspective was Matheney and Clark (1994), and
subsequent works moved away from qualitative risk assessment
to quantifications of tree failure probability. An understanding
of tree and forest biology is also an integral component of any
tree risk management program.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Managing tree risks involves the incorporation of a tree risk
management plan into the overall urban forest management
master program. The tree risk management plan should be
fully integrated with tree planting and tree pruning programs,
and share a common goal of promoting healthy and structurally
sound trees. The plan should focus on the prevention and
correction of high-risk tree defects, and provide a written,
systematic procedure for inspecting and evaluating potentially
hazardous trees, and implementing corrective treatments. The
process of developing, implementing, and maintaining a tree
risk management program is often a political process that is
ideally designed to do what’s best for the community. The
political process results from the interaction among the tree
management professionals, citizens, and decision-makers such
as city managers, city councils and others. All of these
stakeholders should be involved in the tree risk management
program development. A mutually-developed policy
encourages learning, understanding, and acceptance.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Tree risk management programs should be designed to
complement a community’s overall street and park tree
management program goals, and should be fully integrated
with the planting, tree care maintenance, and emergency
response programs, which should be proactive, not reactive
approach.

Proactive Tree Risk Management Approach

The reactive approach is management taken in response to tree
failure, whereas the proactive approach identifies the risks and
manages them, thereby damage caused by failures are reduced.
The objective of proactive risk management is to increase tree
health and integrity. This approach has the benefits of reducing
failure as well as increasing tree longevity, improving tree
structure, tree amenity and biodiversity values.

Proactive tree risk management approach comprises;

a) establishing a register of priority trees which may include trees
of high value, high failure potential, high exposure or high
public concern
b) assessing (inter alia) tree failure risk
c) identifying actions to manage risk
d) establishing and following a program to implement actions
e) ongoing tree surveillance and maintenance of the tree register

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Figure No. 3: THE KARNATAKA PRESERVATION OF TREES ACT, 1976, states
about Establishment and duties of the Tree Authority and Officers, Restriction on
felling of Trees and Liability for Preservation of Trees, Penalties and Procedure.
(Picture source: KFD)

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

States have their own tree preservation acts and forest revenue
laws, which broadly speaks about duties and responsibilities of
authorities for conservation of trees and the legalities involved
in felling (Fig. No.3). Though many states have policy and legal
framework for conservation of urban forests, there is no
provision for tree risk management program especially for
urban trees. However, in 2014, Forest Policy Division, Ministry
of Environment, Forest & Climate Change issued an office
memorandum (dated 11/07/2014) with subject “Draft
Guidelines for conservation, development and management of
Urban Greens”. The draft was elaborative with technical
guidance for development and maintenance of trees and greens
in urban areas. It emphasizes Tree Management as a
specialised skill, which needs professional approach. Therefore
R&D for proper management of trees needs to be strengthened.
Institutionalisation of Tree Experts (Arboriculture), Tree
Surgeons and formal training in management of urban greens
were also emphasized. Apart from this the draft also covered
policy and legal framework approach for conservation of urban
greens, standards and strategies to enhance urban green cover.
The implementation of Tree Management Program as proposed
above would immensely help in conservation of urban trees in
cities of India.
Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide
Experiences
Consistent acquaintance and experience about how and when
trees fail helps in key understanding for the successful
development of a tree risk management program. The major
cause for failure of a tree is wind/storm causing deaths and
property damage every year. These storms can also immobilise
community public service and emergency response systems
(Fig. No.4).

Figure No.4: Failure of root system around Tree Protection Zone (TPZ – next page).
Severe and frequent damage to trunk collar due to excavation, paving, soil
compaction and trenching for repair of roads make this collar region weak and
susceptible for wind - a common phenomena in urban cities. (PICTURE SOURCE: DECCAN
CHRONICLE)

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Tree Protection Zone : It is a designated area estimated for
protection of a tree. Any anthropogenic activity within this area
may impact the tree root system drastically (Fig. No.5).

Tree Protection Zone (AS4970-2009)

Successful management of a tree is to provide appropriate Tree

Protection Zone @ DBH x12 for healthy growth of the tree. This
prescription varies with different species and to the context
they live in. A large old tree is not as tolerant as a young
resilient specimen, and therefore the TPZ should be adjusted
accordingly.
Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide
Figure No. 5: Encroachment of Tree Protection Zone by anthropogenic activities

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

 Figure No.6: Most of street trees (a to f) in Sampige and Margosa road at Malleshwaram does not

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

have appropriate or prescribed tree protection zone, therefore roots of all such trees are in stress
and are prone to failure anytime.
 Figure No.7: Failure of
root system around to
anchor the tree. (PICTURE
SOURCE: THE HINDU)

The failure of such defective trees due to wind or storm provide

lessons for better proactive management of urban trees. After
math storm surveys of damaged trees provide forensic evidence
about tree failure patterns and structural defects that are
commonly associated with tree failures (Fig. No. 7 & 8).

Figure No.8:
Close
proximity of
concrete and
tar structures
around tree
trunk collar
zone is the
reason for
failure of this
tree. (PICTURE
SOURCE: YOUTUBE)

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

The experience or knowledge gained about how and when trees
fail can help us to accurately assess the degree of risk
associated with specific tree defects, which further helps in tree
risk assessment. The lesson learnt from the effect of storms
strongly demonstrate the need for prevention of formation of
structural defects through proper tree planting and pruning
practices. The experience also emphasize the need to inspect
trees on a regular basis to detect, assess, and correct hazardous
tree defects before it results in tree failures (Fig. No.9).

(a) (b)

Figure No.9: A proactive approach of scientific pruning would have prevented

failure of such partial crown (a) and limbs (b).

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Figure No.10: Many of roots were lost due to excavation, paving, soil compaction,
regrading, trenching leading to root decay and tree fall.

Figure No.11:
(a) Weak branch union is prone for
failure during windy period due to
presence of included bark and
associated decay.
(b) Failure of a branch created by
splitting of bark and crack. As
unattended for many years the split
has advanced to inrolled crack and
decay. Also this tree is critically
located in close proximity to
targets (college, pedestrian path,
public road).
Thus categorising this tree under
high risk failure.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

 (a) (b)

Figure No.12: Sampige Road, Malleshwaram, Bangalore City (a) Tree

before 2019 monsoon, indicating weak or infected joints (b) Same tree after
2019 monsoon, where the tree lost most of its limbs, as it was un attended
– a scene of reactive management approach.

Most street and park tree plantation plan states the need to
remove standing dead or nearly dead trees and branches on top
priority, but the tree plantation plan does not have provision
for systematic detection, assessment and to rectify hazardous
defects in trees (Fig. No. 10, 11 & 12).
A proactive tree risk management plan integrating
sound tree planting and tree care maintenance practices,
regularly scheduled tree inspections, and the timely
implementation of corrective maintenance actions will
prevent or correct many structural defects, before the
trees become hazardous.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

 colour codes with
examples of roadways,
public buildings and use

Tree risk zone categories areas, and tree

characteristics that
pertain to each tree risk
zone

Hazard Zone Colour Examples

Categories Codes

Very High 1. Emergency access routes

Hazard 2. Medical and emergency facilities and shelters, handicap access
areas
3. School playgrounds
4. In high-use parks/public areas: permanent structures and drive-in
campsites
RED

5. Individual trees or neighbourhoods with very high-risk tree

characteristics such as;
• standing dead trees or those with very poor condition class ratings
• severely storm-damaged trees
• trees that visually obstruct traffic signs, stop lights, or security
lights
• tree roots causing severe sidewalk buckling

High Hazard 1. Main thoroughfares: congested intersections and visually

obstructed traffic signs and stoplights.
2. High-use parks, playgrounds, and picnic areas.
3. Golf courses
4. Parking lots adjacent to high-use public areas.
ORANGE

5. Bus stops along high-use thoroughfares.

6. Individual trees or neighbourhoods with high-risk tree
characteristics such as;
• old growth trees
• high density of large diameter, mature, or “problem” tree species
• root injury caused by sidewalk or road construction
• storm-damaged trees

Moderate 1. Secondary roadways: congested intersections and visually

Hazard obstructed traffic signs and stoplights.
YELLOW

2. Neighbourhoods with a moderate density of large diameter,

mature or “problem” tree species.
3. Moderate-use parks, playgrounds and picnic areas.
4. Parking lots adjacent to moderate-use areas.

Low Hazard 1. Low-use roads and public areas with dispersed recreation.
GREEN

2. Open areas, woods, riparian zones, and peripheral areas with

limited use or access.
3. Neighbourhoods with a low density of large diameter, mature, or
“problem” tree species.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

 Figure No.13: Most of street trees in Sampige and Margosa road at Malleshwaram falls in tree risk zone of “Very High

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Hazard”. (A hazard tree is a tree with target. Here the target can be anything of value that may be struck when a tree fails;
e.g. person, building, fence, vehicle).
Figure No.14: Pictorial representation emphasize the need for assessment of health of
trees in the entire city for public safety.

Figure No. 15: Suggested minimum schedule for inspection for tree monitoring program

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Health Assessment of Trees
Health assessment of trees is knowing more about the
condition of a tree influenced by various biotic, abiotic and
other ecological factors; precisely meant to assess risk and
management of urban trees.
Risk assessment involves identifying and evaluating risk factors: what
makes tree balance and limb failure likely?; how are people and
infrastructure exposed to falling trees and limbs?; are the risks are
acceptable or unacceptable? (Fig. No. 16)

Risk management involves developing options (i) to reduce the likelihood

of tree and limb failure and (ii) to eliminate or reduce the exposure of people
and infrastructure to failure hazards. Risk management options therefore
include measures to maintain tree health and integrity, to prune and
remove dangerous trees and to plan tree planting or buildings, footpaths,
roads and other infrastructure to reduce exposure.

(a) (b)

Figure No.16: (a): Symmetrical balance is, where there is an even distribution of
branches and the foliage crown around the vertical axis of the trunk (b)
Asymmetrical imbalance is, where there is an uneven distribution of branches and
the foliage crown or root plate around the vertical axis of the trunk.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Risk assessment methods generally rely on visual inspection of
trees by experts who assess the likelihood of tree or limb
failure from defects or weakness in the tree (Fig. No.17). Based
on these inspections, a number of risk management options
can then be carried out. Inspections may be conducted when a
hazardous tree is identified, as part of a strategic tree
monitoring program, or when trees are being evaluated for
removal for some other purpose, such as to allow
developments. Effective risk management will reduce the
likelihood or severity of a risk to an acceptable level. A range of
options may be available to achieve this. The most appropriate
option must be chosen with respect to costs, which will
include; impacts on habitat value, impacts on amenity value,
impacts on heritage value and the monetary cost of the works.

Figure No. 17: (a):

Tree with broken
limbs prone to
decay fungi
(b) open external
cavity by decay
fungi with infection
protruded towards
central leader. Hole
in stem revealing
internal column of
advanced decay

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Assessment of Hazardous Defects in Trees
Trees are natures gift, designed to
coexist with normal wind and rainy Categories of defects:
storms, yet these trees fail when the 1. Decayed wood
load of crown canopy exceeds the 2. Cracks
mechanical strength of their branches, 3. Root problems
stems or root systems. This condition
4. Weak branch unions
5. Cankers
remains same for healthy and
6. Poor tree
unhealthy/defective trees, but
architecture
unhealthy/defective trees can only 7. Dead trees, tops, or
withstand a fraction of the load that branches
healthy trees can withstand.
In general defective trees fails sooner than healthy tree. A
healthy tree becomes potentially dangerous when the tree’s
woody structure is weakened by one or more defects (Fig.No.18 ).

Figure No. 18: (a):

Old epicormic shoot
from main branch
of tree (b) Broken,
severely infected
and dried branch,
probability of extent
of decay fungi
towards main trunk

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Most defects can be linked to man-made wounds and decay,
pest infestations, severe storms, or to growing conditions that
limited the root system. These man-made defects not only
weakens injured area, also weakens nearby wood and are
predisposed to fail at the location of the defects during storms
(Fig. No.19). Defects are predictable visible signs that a tree has
the potential to fail and the location of a defect signals where
failure is most likely to occur.

Figure No.19: (a): Debarking or

injury to trunk when trees were
young and kept un-noticed paves
way for defects by decay organisms (a)
over a period of time. (Street trees
are injured by many factors viz.,
vehicle movements, unscientific
pruning to avoid electric wires,
unlawful/unethical and casual
puncturing or nailing for
advertisement plates, debarking for
numbering of trees, shearing of
roots and collar region while
pavement and road construction,
chopping of branches behaving (b)
obstacles to commercial buildings
and advertisements, branches
converted to stubs to make
provisions to hang cable and other
utility wires and chopping of street
tree roots entering construction
area of private building, thereby
critical root radius (CRR) is
compromised). (b): Advance stage of
debarking - Rotten wood or cavities
indicate advanced decay.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Decayed Wood
Wood decay by nature is a biological process, where the two
most abundant organic compounds on Earth i.e., cellulose and
lignin are converted to carbon dioxide and water with a release
of energy to maintain ecological processes. Wood decay cycles
essential nutrients needed for the regeneration of small trees to
replace dead, decaying trees (Fig. No. 20), however wood decay
in living trees is a major disease causing phenomena (Fig. 21).

Figure No. 20:Hundreds of fungus species decay wood. Fungi can be differentiated by
their fruiting bodies, Some fungi grow as parasites on living trees, but most
decompose dead wood. Some fungi attack carbohydrates, while others attack lignin or
suberin (lipid polymers). Fungi grow from cell to cell through pit apertures or
enzymatically dissolve cell walls. They cause discoloration as blue stain or randomly
green wood, or decay patterns as brown rot, soft rot and white rot. Their natural
variability is much more diverse.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

 Figure No.21: Fruiting bodies indicate
advance decay. Within the tree, spores
produce hyphal mycelial mat, which in
turn produce external fruiting bodies, a
key indicator.

Wood decay is an internal long term interaction between fungi

and tree, with few external indicators. Indicators of advanced
decay are rotten wood, fungal fruiting bodies, cavities, holes,
open cracks or bulges in the wood (Fig. No. 22 to 25). Advance
wood decay and cavities in living trees reduces the structural
strength and stability (Fig. No. 26 to 29).
Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide
 Figure No.23: Hole in stem
Figure No.22: Decay is always
revealing internal column of
associated with inrolled cracks.
advanced decay.

Figure No. 24: Bulges often Figure No. 25: Cavities indicate
indicate decay. advanced decay.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Figure No.26: Old wound with wood Figure No.27: Rotten or punky wood
discoloration, initial phase of decay. or cavities indicate advanced decay.

Figure No.28: Old pruning wound Figure No.29: Man-made canker,

with decay. prone for internal decay.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

TREE DECAY CONCEPT
Pioneer bacteria thrive in discoloured wood that is not well
aerated, and a wet condition can develop that is called wet-wood
(Fig. No.30). Bacteria growing in live trees can cause a fluxing
and odour problem. Pioneer fungi generally have small spores
that can be transported in sap, long lived and may persist with
bacteria in wet-wood or may cause a soft-rot of well-preserved
wood, making it more easily decayed once the wood partly dries
and becomes aerated (Fig. No. 31).

Figure No. 30: Bacteria are the only

major organisms associated with a
condition called wet-wood. The
infected wood may or may not be
darkly discoloured. The infected
wood may have a bleached or glassy
appearance.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

(a)
Figure No. 31: Development of columns of discoloured
and decaying wood. Common features include (a)
Expansion of discoloration by opportunistic stain
fungi before decay. The discoloration process slows the
decay process, giving the tree’s vascular cambium time
to grow and add new wood. At the boundary between
(b) infected discoloured wood and sapwood, a dark
margin appears. This reaction zone retards the spread
of the decay causing pathogen. The production of this
marginal zone resulting from the interaction of the
wood decay pathogen and live cells of sapwood is
called compartmentalization. (b) Spreading infection
is compartmentalized by live sapwood. Rapid growth,

(c) strong wound-wood formation for wound closure, and

strong compartmentalization to wall-off infections
initiated by wounds mean years of gain of sound high
quality wood. However, slow growth, weak wound-
wood formation delaying wound closure, and weak
compartmentalization that fails to limit the spread of
wood pathogens means rapid loss of wood quality. (c)
Decay process ends in a hollow tree because
(d) compartmentalization allowed the tree to continue to
produce sound wood and bark on the outside while old
wood decayed on the inside. (d) External injury in tree
buttresses facilitates advance decay. The un-decayed
layer surrounding the compartmentalized decay
column is called the shell.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Figure No. 32: There needs to be at least 1 inch of sound wood in the shell (S)
for each 6 inches of stem diameter (D). Measure in the same location on the
tree.

Figure No. 33: There needs to be at least 2 inches of sound wood in the shell
for each 6 inches of diameter when openings occur in the stem. The openings
must be smaller than 30% of the stem circumference.

The un-decayed layer surrounding the compartmentalized decay column is called

the shell. If the shell thickness is thin relative to the size of the tree, the shell is
likely to fracture causing the tree to fail. Studies have shown that, if a tree has
less than one inch of sound wood in its shell for every six inches of stem
diameter, then the tree is very likely to fail (Fig. No. 32 & 33) (Mattheck &
Breloer 1998). Measure stem (or branch) diameter where decay is present. If
possible, determine where the shell is the thinnest and take your measurement
there because the tree is most likely to fail where the shell is the thinnest.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Cracks
Cracks form when the load exceeds the capacity of the stem to
withstand the load. The vast majority of cracks are caused by
improper closure of wounds, by the splitting of weak branch
unions, or by flush-cut pruning. Cracks are of shear (Fig. No.
34), inrolled (Fig. No. 35), ribbed (Fig. No. 36) and horizontal
(Fig. No. 37) types that can occur in branches, stems, or roots.
The wood behind the crack may be sound, decayed, or missing
(cavity).

Figure No. 34: Shear cracks, a type of
vertical crack, become hazardous
when they go completely through the
stem and separate the stem into two
halves. A shear crack always has a high
potential for failure. Formed by
codominant stems that commonly
split, creating a shear crack.
Figure No. 35: Another type of vertical
crack is an inrolled crack, the margins
of this type of crack curl inward on
each of its sides and forms inrolled
bark and wood. Serious decay is
always associated with an inrolled
crack because the crack margins
rewound the tree each year allowing
decay to spread rapidly.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

 Figure No. 36: A ribbed crack creates a
ridge-like protruberance from the
main stem. A ribbed crack can fail
when associated with extensive
advanced decay or another crack.
Ribbed cracks are created as the tree
attempts to seal over a wound.
Margins of the crack meet and mesh
but are reopened due to tree
movement. Thicker annual rings are
created in order to stabilize the
developing crack at the location of the
crack. This forms the ribbed
appearance over a period of many
years.

Figure No. 37: Horizontal cracks run

across the grain of the wood.
Horizontal cracks are rarely found
because they develop just before the
trees fail. Horizontal cracks are a sign
of imminent failure in leaning trees.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Root Problems
When a tree has extensive root damage, the whole tree usually
displays decline symptom (Fig. No.38), tips over and falls to
the ground because the roots can no longer provide adequate
anchoring. Roots can be lost due to excavation, trenching, soil
compaction, grading, paving, fungal decay, or environmental
stress, such as drought or flooding.

Figure No. 38: Trees

maintain a dynamic
equilibrium between
their live branches
and their roots.
When the
equilibrium is
disrupted by root
disease, root decay,
or root loss, decline
symptoms appear in
the branches. The
loss of essential roots
is followed by the
decline and dieback
of twigs and
branches. If too
much of the root
system is lost, the
crown will decline
and the tree will die
or it will fail.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Common symptoms of root problems include: decline or
dieback symptoms in the crown (Fig. No.39), dead roots,
missing roots, broken roots, decayed roots, leaning trees, and
presence of fungal fruiting bodies at the root collar.

Figure No. 39: Failure of root system to anchor the tree. Roots can be lost due to
excavation, paving, soil compaction, regrading, trenching, and root decay.

CRITICAL ROOT RADIUS: To determine how much damage the root system did
sustain, estimate how much of the critical rooting area was damaged based on the
pattern of damage. Critical rooting area is defined by the Critical Root Radius (CRR).
The CRR is a circular area around the stem of the tree, usually larger than the area
defined by the tree=s dripline. A tree is adequately anchored when the roots inside the
area defined by the CRR are sound and alive. (CRR = DBH x 1.5 foot per inch of DBH)

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

 Figure No. 40: A leaning tree with a
soil mound at the base of the tree,
also had advanced decay in the root
collar. Root system failed to anchor
tree and tree developed a “new
lean.” (Inspection - Look for soil
mound, soil cracking near root
collar, or broken roots sticking out
of the soil).
In cases, particularly for root decay,
it is difficult to see the pattern of
damage in the root system. One
means to assess the soundness of
the main roots is to use a metal
probe to locate and test them for
the presence of advanced decay. At
least 60-70 percent of the buttress
and main roots need to be sound in
order to have the tree adequately
anchored (Mattheck and Breloer,
1994).

The stability and vigour of the trees are compromised when

the trees have a restricted root system, which is determined by
site conditions like shallow soils, compacted clay soils,
saturated soils, or confined rooting areas e.g. pavements,
roads and buildings (Fig. No.40). Due to the asymmetrical
nature of restricted root systems, these trees may be at more
risk than the normal rooted trees. When ever pavements were
installed or trenches dug for utility installation, roots are
more likely to be damaged or removed during the
construction process, such trees are highly unstable for many
years due to their asymmetrical and reduced root systems
(Fig. No.41 to 43).
Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide
Figure No.41: When ever pavements were installed or trenches dug for utility
installation, roots are more likely to be damaged or removed during the construction
process, such trees are highly unstable for many years due to their asymmetrical and
reduced root systems

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Figure No.42: Restricted root systems will compromise the tree’s stability and
vitality. The roots are restricted by various restriction structures like impervious
surfaces (concrete pavements, tar roads), iron barricades, concrete walls and
channels.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

 (a)

(b)
(c)

Figure No.43: Restricted root systems

generally grow in a linear pattern, along the
length of the concrete structures,
compromising the tree’s stability and
vitality.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Another condition where trees restrict their own roots is
girdling of roots, a man-made problem. Girdling of stem
occurs when a tree is planted too deeply, roots encircle the
stem below the ground. Stem girdled trees most commonly
break at a point just below the girdling roots (Fig. No.44).

(a) (b)

Figure No. 44: A tree can be

restricted by its own roots when
“stem girdling roots” encircle the
stem (a to c). Stem girdling roots
develop when the tree is young and
become a problem in a decade or
two. If seedlings are planted too
deeply, stem girdling roots can
develop. Trees most commonly
decline in health or suddenly fail in
windstorms when stem compression
reaches a point where more than 40
percent of the stem circumference is
girdled.
(c)

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Weak branch union

Tree branches undergo growth imperfections like included

bark and epicormic branch that can lead to failure at the
union of the branch and main stem (Fig. No. 45 to 47).

Figure No.45: Codominant stems Figure No.46: Included barks and

with included barks. Canker injury bulging in the union of codominant
adjacent to included bark makes left stems weakens the branch union.
side stem highly prone to failure.

(a) (b)

Figure No. 47: (a & b) Failure of branch union from weak included bark.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

 The term for bark
Defect by included bark
growing inside the
tree is “included
bark.” One type of
weak branch union
occurs when a
branch and stem
(or two or more
codominant stems)
grow so closely
together that bark
grows between
them, inside the
tree. As more and
more bark is
included inside the
tree, the weak
union is more likely
to fail. Some species
are notorious for
having included
bark.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

 Figure No. 48: Epicormic branches formed as a response to failure of injured
and decayed trunk.

Epicormic branches (also called water sprouts) are formed as a

response to injury or environmental stress. Epicormic branches are
new branches that replaced injured, pruned, or declining branches
(Fig. No.48). Commonly, epicormic branches form on the stems and
branches of topped trees. When old, large epicormic branches are
growing on decaying stems or branches, the epicormics are very likely
to fail. Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide
Cankers
Canker is a symptomatic character expressed as dead bark
and/or cambium on a branch, stem, or root. The cankered
area will not be able to add new annual ring of wood each
year unlike non injured area. Cankers may be large or small
depending on the injury or damage and can predispose a tree
to fail because there is not enough wood to support the tree at
cankered area (Fig. No. 49 & 50).
Stems and branches often fracture on or near their cankers.
There are different factors responsible for canker viz., fungi,
insects, lightning, or mechanical damage/injury caused by
vehicles, unscientific chopping for utility wires, debarking for
numbering and advertisements boards. Once injured bark
may not adhere to the canker face, thereby exposing the inner
wood for fungi. Fungal cankers are long-term, tree-fungus
associations that prevent normal wood formation at the
canker location. Sometimes fungal cankers quickly girdle the
tree, killing the stem and branches above the canker.
Regardless of origin, cankers can lead to tree failure if they
affect 40 percent or more of the trees circumference. If decay
is also present, the combination of decay and canker can
weaken the tree very quickly. When decay is present,
evaluation of shell thickness and size of opening caused by
the canker is necessary.
Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide
Figure No.49: Different faces of canker formed by man-made injury. A canker is an
area where the bark and the cambium are dead. Wood below the canker is also
disfigured.
Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide
Figure No.50: High risk of failure:
When canker with decay affects 40
percent or more of the tree’s
circumference. When canker or
canker and decay affect 25 percent
to 40 percent of the tree’s
circumference it is moderate risk
of failure.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Poor Architecture

It may be a trees structural

imbalance or leaning posture
or a branch problem
(Fig. No.51), in most cases
poor architecture is a product
of past changes in the trees
environment or growth
pattern, or damage to the tree.
Figure No.51: Branch failure of a tree
caused due to structural imbalance in
the crown area.

Leaning trees are the most common example of poor

architecture. All trees lean to some extent. A leaning tree with
a serious defect in the lower
stem or root collar is very likely
to fail because it has both a
structural imbalance and a
weakness in the stem and roots
(Fig. No. 52). Bends, twists,
and crooks can indicate poor
architecture in branches.

Figure No. 52: When an established tree

leans excessively (40 degrees or more),
then target or the tree should be removed.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Dead Tree, Top or Branch
Living trees fail in location with defects, however dead trees
break/fracture anywhere. Dead trees also fail where there is a
pre-existing defect. The dead top or branches may remain
attached to live trees for several years or may fall off suddenly
depending on extent of defects and wind velocity. Branches on
dead trees usually decay and fall first, leaving a slowly decaying
main stem that may stand for many years (Fig. No. 53). Dead
trees within striking distance of a target should always be
removed as soon as possible, simply because we cannot predict
how fast the tree will decompose and fail, especially near its
defects. (b)
(a)
(c)

Figure No.53: (a) Lodged branches have already failed and only wait to be
dislodged and fall to the ground. (b) Dead branches or dead tree tops also pose a
high risk of failure because they can break off at any time (c) High risk of failure:
Any dead tree, tree top or branch.

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Tree species and defects assessed
S. No. Tree Species Commonly found defects Reason behind defects
1 Millingtonia Branch breakage Branches of old tall trees
hortensis susceptible to wind break
Decay Basal stem rot fungi, prone to
internal decay
Root problems Restricted root system
Weak branch unions Codominant branching and
included bark
Cavities Injured branch with deep cavity
2 Peltophorum Decayed wood Basal rot fungi by injury, prone to
ferrugineum internal decay (Fig. No.54, 55)
Cracks Unscientific pruning and ripping of
branches
Root problems Restricted root system
Weak branch unions Multiple branching, susceptible to
breakage
Cankers Produced by injury
Poor tree architecture Due to poor collar formation
Dead trees or branches Wood itself is weak and tends to
break
3 Delonix regia Decayed wood Common in older stems, usually
large columns of decay, prone to
internal decay
Cracks Unscientific pruning and ripping of
branches
Root problems Restricted root system
Weak branch unions Multiple branching, susceptible to
breakage
Cavities Susceptible to deep external
cavities
Poor tree architecture Due to poor collar formation
Dead trees, tops, or branches Wood itself is weak and tends to
break
4 Pongemia Root problems Restricted root system
pinnata Weak branch unions Common in old trees
Cankers Prone due to injury
Branch breakage Branch shedding in large, old trees
Susceptible to root rot fungi
Decay

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

S. Tree Species Commonly found Reason behind defects
No. defects
5 Azadirachta Cracks Due to injury
indica Root problems Restricted root system
Cankers Due to injury
6 Swietenia Decayed wood Heart and butt rot
mahogani Root problems Restricted root system
Weak branch unions Included bark
Cankers Due to injury
Poor tree architecture Random removal of branches
7 Swietenia Decayed wood Heart and butt rot, prone to
macrophylla internal decay
Cracks Due to injury
Root problems Restricted root system
Weak branch unions Multiple branching, Included
bark
Cankers Injury prone
Poor tree architecture Random removal of branches
8 Michelia Root problems Restricted root system
champaca Weak branch unions Prone to wind break
Cankers Due to injury
Poor tree architecture Random removal branches
9 Grevillea Decayed wood Root rot
robusta Dead trees, tops, or branches Tall grown trees are highly
prone to break in midway of the
tree
Cavities Mature trees are more
susceptible to form cavities
10 Spathodea Decayed wood Basal root rot, prone to internal
companulata decay
Root problems Restricted root system
Weak branch unions Break at unions due to injured
collar
Cankers Injury prone
Poor tree architecture Random removal of branches

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

S. Tree Species Commonly found Reason behind defects
No. defects
11 Ficus religiosa Root problems Restricted root system
Cankers Due to injury
12 Bauhinia Decayed wood Butt rot
purpurea Root problems Restricted root system
Weak branch unions Included bark
Poor tree architecture Random removal of branches
13 Samanea Decayed wood Heart and butt rot
samana Root problems Restricted root system
Weak branch unions Multiple branching, included
bark
Poor tree architecture Random removal of branches
14 Tabebuia rosea Root problems Restricted root system
Weak branch unions Included bark, branches prone
Cankers to wind break
Due to injury
15 Syzygium Root problems Restricted root system
cumini Cankers Due to injury
Internal decay Trunk portion detected with
internal decay of 40%
16 Artocarpus Root problems Restricted root system
heterophyllus Cankers Due to injury
Decay Cankered area prone to decay
17 Tabebuia Root problems Restricted root system
argentea Weak branch unions Prone to wind break
18 Stereospermum Root problems Restricted root system
tetragonum Weak branch unions Prone to wind break
Cankers Due to injury
Poor tree architecture Random removal branches
19 Tamarindus Root problems Restricted root system
indica Cankers Due to injury
Internal decay Trunk detected with internal
decay of 40%
20 Terminalia Root problems Restricted root system
arjuna Cankers Due to injury

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Figure No.54: Internal decay detection of a standing Peltophorum ferrugineum
using acoustic instrument (Red colour indicate decay status)

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Figure No.55: Internal decay detection of Delonix regia using acoustic
instrument

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

Tree Decay Assessment Methods and Tools
Conventional methods
• Visual inspection for external indicators of decay, structural
weakness followed by instrumental analysis (for location and
extent of decay column)
• Multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based method

Contemporary instrumental methods

• Invasive technique – involves penetrating xylem for detecting
decays in trees
• Increment borer
• Borescope
• Decay detecting drill
• Shigometer
• Fractometer
• Radiographic meter (X Ray and Gamma Ray)
• Non-Invasive techniques – involves non penetrating
mechanism for detecting decays in trees
• Electric resistance (ER) based on wood moisture content and
Relative Impedance
• Nuclear Magnetic Resonance or Magnetic Induction
Technique
• Microwave imaging based on measurement configurations
viz., free space transmission and near field probe using
modulated scattering technique
• Acoustic instruments

Urban Tree Risk Assessment – A pictorial guide

References
• Urban Tree Risk Management (1992): A Community Guide to
Program Design and Implementation” published by Jill D.
Pokorny, Plant Pathologist (co-ordinating author), USDA
Forest Service Northeastern Area State and Private Forest.
• Brian Cunningham (2011). Independent inquiry into
management of trees on public land: Final report extract; The
12th National Street Tree Symposium.
• Walter C. Shortle and Kenneth R. Dudzik (2011). Wood Decay
in Living and Dead Trees: A Pictorial Overview.
• Goh Chlew Loon, Mohammed Hahiz Fazalul Rahaman (2018).
Sensing wood decay in standing trees: A review; Sensora and
Actuators A 269: 276-282.
• Mattheck Clous and Helge Breloer (1994). Field guide for
visual tree assessment (VTA). Arboricultural Journal 18.1:1-
23.
• Matheny N and Clark J (1994). A photographic guide to the
evaluation of hazard trees in urban areas. Champaign, IL:
International Society of Arboriculture. Periodic Biologorum,
vol.115.3-447-453.
• Mattheck Clous and H Breloer (1998). The Body Language of
Trees. The Stationery Office. London, England. 240 pp.
The Authors

Dr. Muthu Kumar Arunachalam

Scientist E
Forest Protection Division
Institute of Wood Science & technology
Indian Council of Forestry Research & Education (MoEF, GOI)
Malleswaram
Bangalore 560003

Mr. Manoj Kumar P E

Project Assistant
Forest Protection Division
Institute of Wood Science & technology
Indian Council of Forestry Research & Education (MoEF, GOI)
Malleswaram
Bangalore 560003
Acknowledgement
We thank Dr. M. P. Singh, I.F.S, the Director of IWST,
Shri N. Mohan Karnat, I.F.S (former Director, IWST) and Shri.
Surendra Kumar, I.F.S (former Director, IWST) for their kind
support in appellate decisions in all research aspects relevant to this
guide. We thank Dr. V. P. Tewari, Scientist G, Group Co-ordinator
Research, IWST, Dr. K. K. Pandey, Scientist G, WP Division
(former, Group Co-ordinator Research), Dr. R. Sundararaj,
Scientist G, Head of Department, Forest Protection, IWST, Dr.
Shakthi Singh Chauhan, Scientist G, WP Division, IWST, Dr. M. V.
Durai, SFM Division, IWST, Dr. Anil Kumar Sethy, WPU Division,
IWST, Shri. M. Srinivasa Rao, I.F.S, Former HoD, PRM Division,
IWST, Shri. V. Soundararajan, Scientist C, IT Cell, IWST and Shri.
Selva Kumar, I.F.S (retd. PCCF, KSFD) for providing valuable
guidance and moral support during the course of our study. We
thank Dr. Y. M. Dubey, Scientist F (retd.), Shri. R. Ezhumalai,
Scientist D and Shri. Bhim Prakash, Timber Mechanic Division,
FRI, Dehradun for supporting in data analysis for internal decay
assessment. We thank Mr. Abhilash and Ms. Divya Bharathi,
students in Forest Protection Division who served their time and
support for compilation of this guide. We thank Urban tree officer,
BBMP, Bangalore and his staffs for their guidance and support in
execution of our study at Malleshwaram, Bangalore. Finally, we
thank Karnataka Forest Department who funded our research and
provided us an opportunity to come out with this guide.
 INSTITUTE OF WOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
18th Cross, Malleshwaram, Bangalore – 560003 (Karnataka)
Ph: 080-22190100 Fax: 080-23340529