sensors

Review
Optical Sensors for Multi-Axis Angle and
Displacement Measurement Using Grating Reflectors
Yuki Shimizu *, Hiraku Matsukuma and Wei Gao
Precision Nanometrology Laboratory, Department of Finemechanics, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8579, Japan;
hiraku.matsukuma@nano.mech.tohoku.ac.jp (H.M.); gaowei@cc.mech.tohoku.ac.jp (W.G.)
* Correspondence: yuki.shimizu@nano.mech.tohoku.ac.jp; Tel.: +81-22-795-6950




Received: 27 September 2019; Accepted: 29 November 2019; Published: 1 December 2019


Abstract: In dimensional metrology it is necessary to carry out multi-axis angle and displacement
measurement for high-precision positioning. Although the state-of-the-art linear displacement sensors
have sub-nanometric measurement resolution, it is not easy to suppress the increase of measurement
uncertainty when being applied for multi-axis angle and displacement measurement due to the
Abbe errors and the influences of sensor misalignment. In this review article, the state-of-the-art
multi-axis optical sensors, such as the three-axis autocollimator, the three-axis planar encoder, and the
six-degree-of-freedom planar encoder based on a planar scale grating are introduced. With the
employment of grating reflectors, measurement of multi-axis translational and angular displacement
can be carried out while employing a single laser beam. Fabrication methods of a large-area planar
scale grating based on a single-point diamond cutting with the fast tool servo technique and the
interference lithography are also presented, followed by the description of the evaluation method of
the large-area planar scale grating based on the Fizeau interferometer.

Keywords: optical sensor; multi-axis angle and displacement measurement; dimensional metrology;
planar encoder; planar scale grating; interference lithography

1. Introduction
Measurement of angle and displacement is a fundamental activity in various areas of dimensional
metrology [1–3]. In a precision positioning system, it is necessary to carry out multi-axis angle
and displacement measurement for accurately specifying the position of a target in a plane or in
three-dimensional (3D) space [4]. For this purpose, multi-axis coordinate measurement methods based
on the multi-axis Cartesian coordinate system, the multi-axis polar coordinate system, the triangulation
system or the multilateration system are employed [4,5]. The target position with respect to the
origin of a given coordinate system can be determined by employing several linear displacement
sensors and/or angle sensors. It should be noted that the angles obtained by angle sensors such as
optical rotary encoders will be employed in the measurement methods based on the multi-axis polar
coordinate system and the triangulation system. Meanwhile, the increase of the uncertainty of position
measurement cannot be avoided when the measured angles are employed for specifying the target
position in a plane or in 3D space, since the error in angle measurement could be amplified with the
increase of the distance between the target and each of the angle sensors. Therefore, measurement
methods based on the multi-axis Cartesian coordinate system, which are the main focus of this review
article, are often employed for the applications requiring high positioning accuracy [4,6]. The most
straightforward method for specifying the position of a target in a plane or in 3D space based on the
multi-axis Cartesian coordinate system is to employ orthogonally placed multiple linear displacement
sensors such as laser interferometers [6,7] and/or linear encoders [8,9]. Capacitive displacement

Sensors 2019, 19, 5289; doi:10.3390/s19235289 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 2 of 33

sensors [10], high-precision strain gauges [11,12] and fiber sensors [13] can also be employed when the
required measurement range is up to several-tens of micrometers.
One of the main features of the laser interferometers, in which the wavelength of light is employed
as the ruler for displacement measurement, is the easiness of use for designing a multi-axis measurement
system [14,15]. By designing the optical setup in such a way that each of the orthogonally placed axes of
laser interferometers coincides with the corresponding motion axis of the target, the Abbe errors [16,17],
which is one of the main contributors in measurement uncertainty for precision positioning [4], can
be minimized [18–20]. It is also easy to realize displacement measurement traceable to the primary
standard of length [20,21]. However, on the other hand, displacement measurement based on laser
interferometers can be affected by the change of the refractive index of air caused by environmental
disturbances such as the changes in temperature, humidity, and air pressure [21]. Although many
efforts have been made so far [4,22–27], the influence of the refractive index error is a major concern
when employing laser interferometers in a multi-axis measurement system. In addition, the alignment
of the multiple laser beams is a time-consuming task. On the contrary, linear encoders are relatively
strong against environmental disturbances. Among several types of linear encoders [28–31], optical
linear encoders can achieve a high resolution and good stability due to the short grating pitch and a short
optical path length [4,28]. Although it is difficult to assure high accuracy because there are some critical
issues such as a periodic error, a distortion error, and a thermal error, optical linear encoders are often
employed in precision positioning systems in machine tools and measuring instruments due to their
high resolutions and easy-to-use designs. Many efforts have been made so far to improve the resolution
of optical linear encoders [28,32–42], and nowadays state-of-the-art optical linear encoders can realize a
sub-nanometer resolution comparable to that of the laser interferometers [4,6,7]. Furthermore, absolute
linear encoders enable machine tools, measuring instruments and fabrication equipment to be operated
without the initialization of their positioning systems [43], which is mandatory when the incremental
laser interferometers and/or linear encoders are employed. Due to the improvements in the resolution
and bandwidth of such absolute linear encoders, in recent years, the share of optical linear encoders is
increasing [4,44]. Meanwhile, due to the principle of the linear encoder where the scale graduations are
read by the reading head placed with respect to the scale with a short working distance, it is difficult to
align the measurement axis of the linear encoder to coincide with the corresponding motion axis of the
object. As a result, it is difficult to avoid the Abbe error that will be generated in accordance with the
angular motion errors of the target of interest [2,19].
One of the solutions for the above issues is to measure the angular motion errors and compensate
for their influences by using high-precision angle sensors in the measurement system [2,45].
For this purpose, high-precision compact angle sensors capable of detecting dynamic angular
motion/displacement are required. In responding to the above requirements, two-axis optical angle
sensors [46–51] based on the laser autocollimation [51], as well as the three-axis autocollimator [52],
have been developed. The applications of planar encoders or surface encoders [53–79], which can
carry out simultaneous detection of the position in a plane or in 3D space with the enhancement of a
planar scale grating, is another possible solution. The planar encoders/surface encoders are expected to
achieve multi-axis angle and/or displacement measurement, while complying with the Abbe principle
and avoiding the increase of measurement uncertainty due to the increase of the degrees of freedom.
In this review article, optical sensors for measurement of multi-axis angle and displacement
are treated. In Section 2, optical angle sensors for measurement of multi-axis small angular
displacements/motions of a target of interest in a positioning system are introduced, while focusing
on the optical angle sensors based on the laser autocollimation [47,51]. In addition, the principle
of the three-axis autocollimator [52] that can carry out three-axis angle measurement by using a
single measurement laser beam with the enhancement of a reflective diffraction grating is introduced.
In Section 3, optical displacement sensors for measurement of multi-axis displacement of a target
of interest in a positioning system are described. After the brief introduction of conventional
multi-axis measurement systems based on laser interferometers and/or linear encoders, principles
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 3 of 33

of surface encoders / planar encoders capable of detecting the multi-axis displacement in a plane or
in 3D space [53,56–59] with the employment of a planar scale grating are introduced. In addition,
the six-degree-of-freedom planar encoder [54,55], which can be realized by combining the principle of
three-axis autocollimator and that of the three-axis planar encoder, is introduced. Furthermore, in the
following section, the fabrication method of large-area planar scale gratings based on the fast-tool-servo
technique [80,81], the non-orthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer [82–85], as well as the
evaluation technique of the large-area planar scale gratings based on the Fizeau interferometer [86–88]
are presented.

2. Multi-Axis Optical Angle Sensors

2.1. Conventional Optical Sensors for Multi-Axis Angle Measurement

As described in the Introduction, high-precision optical angle sensors capable of detecting dynamic
angular motion of a target of interest must compensate for the influences of Abbe errors in multi-axis
coordinate measurement methods based on the multi-axis Cartesian coordinate system [2,4]. In the
case of the measurement system employing laser interferometers, the dynamic angular motion can be
detected by employing additional laser interferometers in the measurement system [89]. For example,
by placing an additional laser interferometer (output: X2 ) for measurement of the X-displacement
with the Y-directional offset ∆dY with respect to the original X-directional laser interferometer (output:
X1 ), the angular displacement about the Z-axis (∆θZ ) can be obtained as ∆θZ =arctan((∆X2 -∆X1 )/∆dY ).
In the same manner, the angular displacements about the X- and Y-axes can be measured by adding
measurement laser beams. However, it is a time-consuming task to carry out precision alignments of the
multiple laser beams and the reflective mirrors in a positioning system. Furthermore, a well-controlled
environment for suppressing the refractive index error is necessary for accurate measurement [22–27].
On the contrary, optical angle sensors, in which the angular displacement of a target of interest is
measured by detecting the angle of reflectance of the reflected light, can carry out high precision
angular displacement measurement by using a simple optical setup.
Several types of angle sensors based on the optical lever method [2,90], the critical angle
method [91], the optical fiber-based method [92] or the autocollimation method [2,93] have been
developed so far. Among them, the angle sensors based on the autocollimation method are suitable
for the evaluation of the angular displacements of a multi-degree-of-freedom stage system, since
the distance between a measurement target and the reading head will not affect the measurement of
the angular displacements. Simple and compact optical setups are another advantage of the angle
sensors based on the autocollimation method. Figure 1 shows the optical setup of an optical angle
sensor based on the autocollimation method [94]. As can be seen in the figure, a pair of targets
(G1 and G2 ) is placed at the conjugating front and focal planes of an objective lens, respectively. G1 is
imaged on the plane of G2 through the objective lens having the focal length f. With a small angular
displacement ∆θ of the reflective mirror, the position of the image of G1 shifts 2f ∆θ with respect
to the optical axis of the objective lens; namely, the angular displacement ∆θ of the mirror reflector
can be converted into the image displacement on a back focal plane of the objective lens. In most of
the cases, in recent years, photoelectric autocollimators having photodetectors are employed. In the
case of the autocollimator having a two-dimensional (2D) CCD (charge-coupled device) sensor or a
position-sensitive detector (PSD) as the photodetector, the two-dimensional angular displacement of a
mirror reflector can be detected simultaneously. In addition, in recent years, a LED (light-emitting
diode) is often employed as the light source for the photoelectric autocollimator, instead of conventional
light sources such as a halogen lamp. Most of the commercially-available autocollimators have a
resolution of up to 0.01 arc-second with a measurement range from several-ten arc-seconds to over
2000 arc-seconds. In addition, a high resolution of better than 0.005 arc-second has already been
achieved by some commercial products [48]. It should be noted that, in the case of the optical angle
sensors employing a 2D CCD or a 2D PSD, what the angle sensor can detect is the angular displacement
Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 33
Sensors 2019, 19, x5289
FOR PEER REVIEW 44 of
of 33
33

detect is the angular displacement of a target of interest or low-frequency motion due to the
detect is the angular displacement of a target of interest or low-frequency motion due to the
low-frequency bandwidth
of a target of interest of the photodetector.
or low-frequency motion due It
tois thetherefore difficult
low-frequency to carry out
bandwidth thephotodetector.
of the detection of
low-frequency bandwidth of the photodetector. It is therefore difficult to carry out the detection of
the
It isdynamic
therefore angular
difficultmotion
to carryofout
thethe
target with high-frequency
detection of the dynamic components,
angular which
motion of is required
the to
target with
the dynamic angular motion of the target with high-frequency components, which is required to
compensate
high-frequency for the influence of Abbe errors in the multi-axis displacement measurement. In
compensate for components,
the influencewhich of Abbeis required to compensate
errors in the multi-axis for displacement
the influence of Abbe errors In
measurement. in
addition,
the the size
multi-axis of an optical
displacement angle sensorInbased
measurement. addition,on the
the autocollimation
size of an opticalmethod
angle becomes
sensor large
based on
addition, the size of an optical angle sensor based on the autocollimation method becomes large
when it is designedmethod
the autocollimation to have a high large resolution, which is proportional
to have a to the focal length of is
a
when it is designed to havebecomes when it
a high resolution, is designed
which is proportional high
to theresolution, which
focal length of a
collimator
proportional objective employed
to the focal lengthin the optical setup [2]. employed in the optical setup [2].
collimator objective employed inofthe
a collimator objective
optical setup [2].

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Optical
Opticalangle
anglesensor
sensorbased
basedon
onthe
the autocollimation
autocollimation method.
method.
Figure 1. Optical angle sensor based on the autocollimation method.

Meanwhile,
Meanwhile, the the optical
optical angle
angle sensors
sensors based
based onon the
the laser
laser autocollimation,
autocollimation, in in which
which aa laser
laser and
and
Meanwhile, the optical angle sensors based on the laser autocollimation, in which a laser and
photodiodes
photodiodes are are employed
employed as as the
the light
light source
source andand the
the photodetectors,
photodetectors, respectively,
respectively, cancan realize
realize the
the
photodiodes are employed as the light source and the photodetectors, respectively, can realize the
high-precision
high-precision measurement of the dynamic angular motion [4,51]. Figure 2 shows the setupan
measurement of the dynamic angular motion [4,51]. Figure 2 shows the setup of of
high-precision measurement of the dynamic angular motion [4,51]. Figure 2 shows the setup of an
optical angle
an optical sensor
angle based
sensor basedon onthethelaser
laserautocollimation
autocollimation [51],
[51],ininwhich
whicha alaser
laserdiode
diode (LD)(LD) and
and
optical angle sensor based on the laser autocollimation [51], in which a laser diode (LD) and
photodiodes
photodiodes are areemployed
employed as light
as the the source
light source
and the and the detectors,
detectors, respectively, respectively, suitable for
suitable for measurement
photodiodes are employed as the light source and the detectors, respectively, suitable for
measurement of small angular displacements and dynamic angular motion
of small angular displacements and dynamic angular motion in a positioning system [2]. For the in a positioning system
sake
measurement of small angular displacements and dynamic angular motion in a positioning system
[2]. For the sake
of simplicity, of simplicity, the
the one-dimensional one-dimensional
angular angular ofdisplacement/motion
displacement/motion a mirror reflector about of the
a mirror
X-axis
[2]. For the sake of simplicity, the one-dimensional angular displacement/motion of a mirror
reflector
is treatedabout
in thethe X-axisThe
figure. is treated in theemitted
laser beam figure. from
The laser
LD isbeam emittedby
collimated from LD is collimated
a collimating by is
lens, and a
reflector about the X-axis is treated in the figure. The laser beam emitted from LD is collimated by a
collimating
projected onto lens, and is reflector
a mirror projectedthrough
onto a mirror reflector
a polarizing beam through
splittera (PBS)
polarizing
and abeam splitter (PBS)
quarter-wave plate
collimating lens, and is projected onto a mirror reflector through a polarizing beam splitter (PBS)
and
(QWP).a quarter-wave
The laser beam plate (QWP).byThe
reflected the laser
mirrorbeam reflected
reflector passes bythrough
the mirrorQWP reflector passes through
again, reflected by PBS,
and a quarter-wave plate (QWP). The laser beam reflected by the mirror reflector passes through
QWP
and isagain,
focusedreflected
onto a by PBS, and is by
photodetector focused onto a photodetector
the collimator objective with bythe
the collimator
length objective
f. It shouldwith
QWP again, reflected by PBS, and is focused onto a photodetector by thefocal
collimator objective be
with
the focal
noted length
that f. It should
PBS and QWP act beasnoted that PBS
an optical and QWP act as an optical isolator.
isolator.
the focal length f. It should be noted that PBS and QWP act as an optical isolator.

Y
Y

X Z LD
X Z LD
Collimate lens
Collimate lens Collimator objective
Δθ Z
Δθ Z Collimator objective
YY
ΔdΔd

QPD
QPD
QWP PBS
QWP PBS
Plane mirror
Plane mirror
Figure 2. Optical angle sensor based on the laser autocollimation.
Figure 2. Optical angle sensor based on the laser autocollimation.
Figure 2. Optical angle sensor based on the laser autocollimation.
When the normal of the mirror reflector has an angular displacement ∆θ with respect to the
When the normal of the mirror reflector has an angular displacement Δθ with respect to the
Whenlaser
projected the beam,
normaltheoffocused
the mirror
laserreflector
beam onhasthe an angular displacement
photodetector Δθ with respect
will have a displacement δ that
to can
the
projected laser beam, the focused laser beam on the photodetector will have a displacement δ that
projected laser beam, the focused laser
be described by the following equation [2]:beam on the photodetector will have a displacement δ that
can be described by the following equation [2]:
can be described by the following equation [2]:

δ = f tan (( 2Δθ ))
δ δ==f ftan 2Δθ)
tan(2∆θ (1)
(1)
(1)
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 5 of 33

Since f is a known design parameter, ∆θ can be obtained by detecting δ with the photodetector.
It should be emphasized that the detection of ∆θ will not be affected by the working distance of the
optical setup, as can be seen in Equation (2); this feature is different from that of the optical angle
sensors based on the optical lever technique [2,90], and is suitable for the evaluation of an angular
motion error of a target having a long travel range such as a long-stroke linear slide.
In addition, the employment of a four-cell, two-cell or single-cell photodiode instead of
two-dimensional sensors such as a 2D CCD or a 2D PSD makes the sensitivity of optical angle
sensor independent from the focal length f of the collimator objective [2]. Now we assume that
the focused laser beam on the photodetector has uniform light intensity distribution, for the sake
of simplicity. Denoting the diameter of the collimated laser beam made incident to the collimator
objective as D, and that of the focused laser beam as d, the output HOut from the angle sensor can be
described as follows [2]:
8δ
HOut = × 100 [%] (2)
πd
Assuming that the collimator objective is an ideal lens without aberrations, the following
relationship can be found between D and d:

d = 2.44 f λ/D (3)

From Equations (1), (2) and (3), the following equation can be found:

HOut ∝ (D/λ)∆θ (4)

The above equation indicates that the sensor sensitivity is independent of the focal length f of
the collimator objective; this fact means that the setup of the optical angle sensor based on the laser
autocollimation can be designed in a compact size by employing a collimator objective having a short
focal length [2,46,95]. It should be noted that the measurement range of the optical angle sensor
depends on the diameter d of the focused laser beam on a photodiode. Meanwhile, by employing
a photodiode having multiple cells, the measurement range can be expanded without sacrificing
the resolution [49]. Furthermore, by employing a measurement laser beam having a large diameter
D and single-cell photodiodes, a high resolution better than 0.001 arc-second can be achieved [47].
The two-axis laser autocollimator has also been applied for surface topography measurement [96,97].
It should be noted that the applications of above mentioned optical angle sensors having a laser source
are limited for measurement of mirror-finished surfaces or the angle of a target capable of mounting a
mirror reflector due to coherence matters such as speckle and diffraction.

2.2. Three-Axis Autocollimator Using Diffraction Grating Reflector

The above described optical angle sensors, in which a flat mirror is employed as the target reflector
for angle measurement, can carry out two-axis angle measurement. However, they cannot detect
the angular displacement of the mirror reflector about the laser beam axis, in principle. This can be
measured by employing a pair of orthogonally arranged two-axis optical angle sensors. However,
the measurement setup becomes large and costs too much. Several methods have therefore been
developed so far to carry out three-axis angle measurement by using a single laser beam [98,99].
For example, a method employing a target reflector having a leaf spring mechanism has realized the
measurement of the three-axis angular displacement while employing a conventional photoelectric
two-axis autocollimator [98], although the system has suffered from the mechanical instability of
the target reflector. A method has also been developed based on the optical lever method, while
employing a reflective-type diffraction grating as the target reflector for angle measurement [99]. In the
method, angular displacement about the laser beam axis is detected by monitoring the diffracted
beams. Meanwhile, since the method is based on the optical lever method, the measurement result is
affected by the working distance of the angle sensor.
Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 33
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 6 of 33
To address the aforementioned problems, the three-axis autocollimator has been proposed [52].
Figure 3 shows an optical setup of the three-axis autocollimator. The three-axis autocollimator is
basedToon address the aforementioned
the conventional problems, the[51]
laser autocollimation three-axis
while autocollimator
utilizing a grating has been proposed
reflector [52].
for angle
Figure 3 shows an optical setup of the three-axis autocollimator. The three-axis
measurement. In the figure, diffracted beams whose orders are equal to or higher than two are not autocollimator is based
on the conventional
indicated for the sake laser autocollimation
of simplicity. [51] while
The laser beam utilizing
emitted afrom
grating reflector
a laser diodefor angle
(LD) measurement.
is collimated by
using a lens, and is projected onto the grating reflector. The zeroth-order diffracted beam and for
In the figure, diffracted beams whose orders are equal to or higher than two are not indicated the
either
sakepositive
the of simplicity. The laser
or negative beam emitted
first-order diffractedfrombeam
a laser diode
are (LD)on
focused is collimated
each of thebyphotodiodes.
using a lens, In and theis
projected onto
three-axis the grating reflector.
autocollimator, the angularThe displacements
zeroth-order diffracted
ΔθX andbeamΔθY of andtheeither the positive
grating reflectororabout
negativethe
first-order diffracted beam are focused on each
X and Y axes, respectively, can be described as follows [52]: of the photodiodes. In the three-axis autocollimator,
the angular displacements ∆θX and ∆θY of the grating reflector about the X and Y axes, respectively,
can be described as follows [52]: Δθ X = Δx0 / Kθ X (5)
∆θX = ∆x0 /KθX (5)
ΔθY = Δy0 / Kθ Y (6)
∆θY = ∆y0 /KθY (6)
where KθX and KθY (=2f) are the conversion ratios of the angular displacements ΔθX and ΔθY to the
linear KθX and KθY (=2f
wheredisplacements Δx0 )and
are Δy
the0 of
conversion
the beamratios spot ofof the
the zeroth-order diffracted ∆θ
angular displacements X and
beam, ∆θY to the
respectively.
linear
As be seen in the ∆x
candisplacements 0 and ∆ythe
equations, 0 oftwo-axis
the beamangular
spot ofdisplacements
the zeroth-order Δθdiffracted beam, respectively.
X and ΔθY can be detected by
As can be seen in the equations, the two-axis angular displacements
using the zeroth-order diffracted beam. Meanwhile, the zeroth-order diffracted ∆θ X and ∆θ can be
Ybeam is detected
insensitive by
using
to the the zeroth-order
angular diffracted
displacement ΔθZbeam.
of the Meanwhile, the zeroth-order
grating reflector about thediffracted
Z-axis. On beam theis contrary,
insensitivethe to
the angular displacement ∆θ of the grating reflector about the Z-axis.
first-order diffracted beam is sensitive against the angular displacements ΔθX, ΔθY, and ΔθZ.
Z On the contrary, the first-order
diffracted beam
Denoting is sensitive
the X-and against the
Y-directional angular displacements
displacements ∆θX , ∆θY,diffracted
of the first-order and ∆θZ . Denoting
beam spot theonX-and
the
Y-directional displacements of the first-order diffracted beam spot on the
photodetector due to the angular displacements as Δx1 and Δy1, respectively, the following equation photodetector due to the
angular displacements
can be obtained [52]: as ∆x 1 and ∆y 1 , respectively, the following equation can be obtained [52]:

∆xΔ1 x=
1 =KK ΔθXX
θ X∆θ
θX (7)
(7)

∆y1Δy=1 =KθY
Kθ ∆θ
Y Δθ +L
YY + Δθ ZZ
L∆θ (8)
(8)
From Equations
From Equations (6),
(6), (7)
(7) and
and (8),
(8), the
the following
following equation
equation can
can be
be obtained:
obtained:

∆θΔZθ=
Z = ( Δy11 −− ∆y
(∆y Δy00))//L
L (9)
(9)

As can be
As can be seen
seen in
in the
the above
above equations, ΔθΖ can
equations, ∆θ be detected by utilizing both the zeroth and the
Z can be detected by utilizing both the zeroth and the
first-order diffracted beams.
first-order diffracted beams.

Figure
Figure 3.
3. Three-axis
Three-axis autocollimator
autocollimator [52].
[52].

A photograph
A photograph ofof the
the optical
optical sensor
sensor head
head for the three-axis autocollimator is shown in Figure 4a.
By using the developed sensor head, the angular motion
By using the developed sensor head, the angular motion of
of aa precision
precision tilt
tilt stage
stage about
about each
each ofof the
the
axes with aa small
axes smallvibration
vibrationamplitude
amplitudewas wasmeasured,
measured,while placing
while a grating
placing reflector
a grating on the
reflector ontilt
thestage
tilt
table. table.
stage FigureFigure
4b shows
4b the results.
shows the The experimental
results. results have
The experimental demonstrated
results that the developed
have demonstrated that the
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 7 of 33
Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 33

developedautocollimator
three-axis three-axis autocollimator has to
has the ability thedistinguish
ability to distinguish 0.01 arc-second
0.01 arc-second angular
angular motion in motion
all threein
all three
axes [52]. axes [52]. Itbeshould
It should noted be noted
that that thesensor
the optical opticalhead
sensor head
of the of the three-axis
three-axis autocollimator
autocollimator can be
can be designed in a compact size as same as that for a conventional linear encoder.
designed in a compact size as same as that for a conventional linear encoder. By placing the optical By placing the
opticalhead
sensor sensorof head of the three-axis
the three-axis autocollimator
autocollimator in the
in the same same manner
manner as the
as that of thatconventional
of the conventional
linear
linear encoder,
encoder, simultaneous
simultaneous measurement
measurement of three-axis
of three-axis angular angular displacement
displacement can be can be achieved
achieved over over
the
the wide
wide traveltravel
rangerange of a measurement
of a measurement target,target,
while while employing
employing a single
a single measurement
measurement laser [100].
laser beam beam
It[100].
shouldIt should
be notedbe that
notedthethat the straightness/flatness
straightness/flatness error oferror of thegrating
the scale scale grating
attachedattached to thetable
to the slide slide
table could affect the measurement of angular error motions about the X-axis
could affect the measurement of angular error motions about the X-axis (roll) and the Z-axis (yaw), (roll) and the Z-axis
(yaw),
and are and are required
required to be compensated.
to be compensated.

Figure4.4.AAphotograph
Figure photographofofthethe developed
developed three-axis
three-axis autocollimator,
autocollimator, andand
the the reading
reading outputs
outputs fromfrom
the
the optical
optical sensorsensor
head ofhead of the three-axis
the three-axis autocollimator.
autocollimator. (a) A photograph
(a) A photograph of the three-axis
of the developed developed
three-axis autocollimator.
autocollimator. (b) Reading (b)outputs
Readingfrom
outputs from the
the optical optical
sensor sensor
head head
when when sinusoidal
sinusoidal motion
motion with a
with a frequency of 1 Hz is given to each of the rotational
frequency of 1 Hz is given to each of the rotational axes [52].axes [52].

3.3.Multi-Axis
Multi-AxisOptical
OpticalDisplacement
DisplacementSensors
Sensors
3.1. Conventional Optical Sensors for Multi-Axis Displacement Measurement
3.1. Conventional Optical Sensors for Multi-Axis Displacement Measurement
As described in the Introduction, multi-axis displacement measurement in the multi-axis Cartesian
As described in the Introduction, multi-axis displacement measurement in the multi-axis
coordinate system can be carried out by employing multiple linear displacement sensors such as laser
Cartesian coordinate system can be carried out by employing multiple linear displacement sensors
interferometers or optical linear encoders. In recent years, the optical linear encoders are expanding
such as laser interferometers or optical linear encoders. In recent years, the optical linear encoders
their applications [4,44]. Among several types of linear encoders, optical linear encoders employing
are expanding their applications [4,44]. Among several types of linear encoders, optical linear
a diffraction grating as the ruler for displacement measurement can realize a high resolution [28],
encoders employing a diffraction grating as the ruler for displacement measurement can realize a
and are suitable for the employment in precision positioning systems. In the optical linear encoder,
high resolution [28], and are suitable for the employment in precision positioning systems. In the
sinusoidal interference signals, which are generated by superimposing the positive and negative
optical linear encoder, sinusoidal interference signals, which are generated by superimposing the
diffracted beams obtained by projecting a light onto the diffraction grating, are employed to detect the
positive and negative diffracted beams obtained by projecting a light onto the diffraction grating,
relative displacement between the optical reading head and the diffraction grating. By interpolating
are employed to detect the relative displacement between the optical reading head and the
the interference signals, a sub-nanometric resolution can be achieved [101–103]. Meanwhile, it is
diffraction grating. By interpolating the interference signals, a sub-nanometric resolution can be
sometimes difficult, although not impossible [104,105], to align the measurement axis of a linear
achieved [101–103]. Meanwhile, it is sometimes difficult, although not impossible [104,105], to align
encoder with respect to the motion axis of a target of interest due to the mechanical configuration of a
the measurement axis of a linear encoder with respect to the motion axis of a target of interest due
system in which the linear encoder is employed. In such a case, as can be seen in Figure 5 for example,
to the mechanical configuration of a system in which the linear encoder is employed. In such a case,
an offset exists between the motion axis of the target of interest and the measurement axis of the linear
as can be seen in Figure 5 for example, an offset exists between the motion axis of the target of
encoder; this offset generates a certain amount of error in measurement of the target displacement
interest and the measurement axis of the linear encoder; this offset generates a certain amount of
(which is often referred to as the Abbe error [19]) when the target has angular error motions. This error
error in measurement of the target displacement (which is often referred to as the Abbe error [19])
can be compensated if the angular error motions of the target can be detected precisely [4].
when the target has angular error motions. This error can be compensated if the angular error
motions of the target can be detected precisely [4].
It should be noted that a linear encoder cannot be applied for the applications such as a
multi-axis planar motion stage where the distance between the reading head and the diffraction
grating becomes large. In such applications, laser interferometers can be employed since they have
a long measurement range and a long working distance along the laser axis [101,106]. By aligning
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 8 of 33

SensorsIt2019,
should be noted
19, x FOR that a linear encoder cannot be applied for the applications such as a multi-axis
PEER REVIEW 8 of 33
planar motion stage where the distance between the reading head and the diffraction grating becomes
the laser
large. In beam to comply with
such applications, laserthe Abbe principle,
interferometers canthe
beinfluence
employedofsince
the Abbe errora can
they have longbemeasurement
minimized
[18,20,107,108].
range and a long Meanwhile, attention
working distance should
along be paid
the laser to stabilize
axis [101,106]. Bythe light wavelength
aligning the laser beamof to
thecomply
laser
beam since
with the it isprinciple,
Abbe employed theasinfluence
the ruleroffor
thedisplacement
Abbe error canmeasurement
be minimizedin[18,20,107,108].
the laser interferometers
Meanwhile,
[109].
attention should be paid to stabilize the light wavelength of the laser beam since it is employed as the
ruler for displacement measurement in the laser interferometers [109].

Figure
Figure 5.
5. Influence of
ofthe
theAbbe
Abbeerror
error
in in position
position measurement
measurement of a linear
of a linear slide by
slide table table by aencoder
a linear linear
encoder whose
whose scale scale is embedded
is embedded to the
to the side faceside face
of the of the
slide slide
table [4].table [4].

Inprinciple,
In principle,both
bothaalinear
linearencoder
encoderandandaalaser
laserinterferometer
interferometerare arelinear
lineardisplacement
displacementsensors.
sensors.
For multi-axis
For multi-axis displacement
displacementmeasurement,
measurement, several scales
several and/or
scales measurement
and/or laser beams
measurement laser are required
beams are
to be employed. In such a case, attention should be paid to suppress the
required to be employed. In such a case, attention should be paid to suppress the increase of increase of measurement
uncertainty due
measurement to the influence
uncertainty due toofthetheinfluence
Abbe error of atthe
each axiserror
Abbe as wellat as the axis
each influences
as well of as
optical
the
misalignments in a measurement system. Some novel positioning systems
influences of optical misalignments in a measurement system. Some novel positioning systems complying with the
Abbe principle have been developed so far [18,20,107,108]; for example, by
complying with the Abbe principle have been developed so far [18,20,107,108]; for example, by aligning the X-, Y-, and
Z-directional
aligning measurement
the X-, laser beams
Y-, and Z-directional of interferometers
measurement to intersect
laser beams at the measurement
of interferometers probeat
to intersect orthe
the
cutting tool, the Abbe error can be minimized [18,20,107,108]. However, in most
measurement probe or the cutting tool, the Abbe error can be minimized [18,20,107,108]. However, of the cases, it is not
somost
in easy of
to design a system
the cases, it is notto so
comply with
easy to the Abbe
design principle
a system due towith
to comply the restrictions that come
the Abbe principle due fromto
the restrictions
the mechanicalthatstructure
come of fromthe system. Although
the mechanical the influence
structure of the of the Abbe
system. error can
Although thebe minimized
influence of
by Abbe
the measuring
error and compensating
can be minimized by themeasuring
angular error
and motion of the target
compensating of interest
the angular error[4], it is desired
motion of the
to measure
target the multi-axis
of interest displacement
[4], it is desired of a the
to measure target of interest
multi-axis in a simpleof
displacement manner
a targetbyofusing a single
interest in a
optical sensor.
simple manner by using a single optical sensor.

3.2.Two-Axis
3.2. Two-AxisPlanar
PlanarEncoder
EncoderUsing
UsingTwo-Dimensional
Two-Dimensional Scale
Scale Grating
Grating
To address
To addressthe theissues
issuesof conventional
of conventional multi-axis displacement
multi-axis measurement
displacement systemssystems
measurement for precision
for
positioning, a two-axis planar encoder capable of measuring the two-axis displacement
precision positioning, a two-axis planar encoder capable of measuring the two-axis displacement of a targetof
of
ainterest
target by using a single
of interest reading
by using headreading
a single has beenhead
developed
has been[81].developed
By replacing theBy
[81]. line scale grating
replacing in a
the line
conventional linear encoder to a planar scale grating and modify the optical reading
scale grating in a conventional linear encoder to a planar scale grating and modify the optical head to read the
diffracted beam in both the X- and Y-directions, two-axis in-plane displacement
reading head to read the diffracted beam in both the X- and Y-directions, two-axis in-plane can be measured by
using a single can
displacement laserbebeam. A two-dimensional
measured planarlaser
by using a single encoder
beam.having a nanometric resolution
A two-dimensional planar along
encoderthe
X- and Y-direction over an area of φ230 mm with the employment of a two-axis
having a nanometric resolution along the X- and Y-direction over an area of ϕ230 mm with the grating with a grating
pitch of 4 µmofhas
employment already been
a two-axis made
grating withcommercially available
a grating pitch of 4 μm [110], and havebeen
has already already
made been applied for
commercially
semiconductor
available equipment
[110], and [111,112].
have already beenMeanwhile,
applied fordue to the limited
semiconductor working distance
equipment [111,112].ofMeanwhile,
the reading
due to the limited working distance of the reading head in the planar encoders, mostwhere
head in the planar encoders, most of their applications are limited to the positioning systems the
of their
distance between
applications the reading
are limited to thehead and the systems
positioning planar scale grating
where is kept almost
the distance betweenconstant. In addition,
the reading head
and the planar scale grating is kept almost constant. In addition, a space for mounting the planar
scale grating is required to be reserved in the positioning system; this restriction also limits the
application of the planar encoder.
Two-axis in-plane displacement can also be measured by employing an angle grid and an
optical angle sensor based on the laser autocollimation [56,60,113]. In the method, as can be seen in
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 9 of 33

a space for mounting the planar scale grating is required to be reserved in the positioning system;
this restriction also limits the application of the planar encoder.
Two-axis in-plane displacement can also be measured by employing an angle grid and an optical
Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 33
angle sensor based on the laser autocollimation [56,60,113]. In the method, as can be seen in Figure 6,
two-axis
Figure 6,in-plane
two-axisdisplacement can be detected
in-plane displacement bydetected
can be reading the two-dimensional
by reading local slope oflocal
the two-dimensional the
two-dimensional sinusoidal pattern
slope of the two-dimensional structures
sinusoidal patternon the angleon
structures grid. The angle
the angle grid. grid
The can begrid
angle fabricated
can be
precisely by using the fast tool servo technique [80,114,115].
fabricated precisely by using the fast tool servo technique [80,114,115].

Figure 6. Two-axis planar encoder using two-dimensional scale grating [56].

[56].

3.3. Three-Axis Planar

3.3. Three-Axis Planar Encoder
Encoder Using
Using Diffraction
Diffraction Scale
Scale Grating
Grating
3.3.1. Principle of the Three-Axis Planar Encoder
3.3.1. Principle of the Three-Axis Planar Encoder
A simultaneous three-axis displacement measurement, which includes the X- and Y-directional
A simultaneous three-axis displacement measurement, which includes the X- and
in-plane displacement as well as the Z-directional out-of-plane displacement, with a single reading
Y-directional in-plane displacement as well as the Z-directional out-of-plane displacement, with a
head can be realized by integrating the principle of the Michelson interferometer into that of the
single reading head can be realized by integrating the principle of the Michelson interferometer into
two-dimensional planar encoder with the planar scale grating [53,58]. Figure 7a shows a schematic of
that of the two-dimensional planar encoder with the planar scale grating [53,58]. Figure 7a shows a
the principle of the three-axis planar encoder [58], in which the planar scale grating and the reference
schematic of the principle of the three-axis planar encoder [58], in which the planar scale grating
grating are employed. In the three-axis planar encoder, the reference grating is held stationary in
and the reference grating are employed. In the three-axis planar encoder, the reference grating is
the same manner as the conventional Michelson interferometer, while the planar scale grating can be
held stationary in the same manner as the conventional Michelson interferometer, while the planar
moved in the X-, Y- and Z-directions. The employment of the reference grating enables the optical
scale grating can be moved in the X-, Y- and Z-directions. The employment of the reference grating
setup to measure the displacement of the planar scale grating along the Z-direction based on the
enables the optical setup to measure the displacement of the planar scale grating along the
principle of the conventional Michelson interferometer. By dividing a laser beam into two sub-beams
Z-direction based on the principle of the conventional Michelson interferometer. By dividing a laser
by a beam splitter and project each of them onto the planar scale grating and the reference grating,
beam into two sub-beams by a beam splitter and project each of them onto the planar scale grating
diffracted beams along the positive and negative X- and Y-directions can be obtained. Figure 7b shows
and the reference grating, diffracted beams along the positive and negative X- and Y-directions can
a schematic of the optical setup of the three-axis planar encoder. Positive/negative first-order diffracted
be obtained. Figure 7b shows a schematic of the optical setup of the three-axis planar encoder.
beams from the planar scale grating and the reference grating can be superimposed by using the pair
Positive/negative first-order diffracted beams from the planar scale grating and the reference
of transparent one-axis gratings as shown in the figure. This optical arrangement can generate the
grating can be superimposed by using the pair of transparent one-axis gratings as shown in the
following four interference signals IX+1 , IX-1 , IY+1, and IY-1 [58]:
figure. This optical arrangement can generate the following four interference signals IX+1, IX-1, IY+1,
and IY-1 [58]:
 
IX±1 = (UsX±1 + UrX±1 ) UsX±1 + UrX±1 = 2U0 2 [1 + cos ±K∆x + v(1 + cos θ)∆z ]

(10)

(
I X ±1 = U s
IY±1 = UsY±1 X+±1UrY±1 X ±U
)(
+ U r  1 U s X ±1 + U rX ±1 　
sY±1 + U rY±1 = 2U
)2
{
0 [1 + cos ±K∆y + v(1 + cos θ) ∆z ]
}
 ±K Δx + v (1 + cos θ ) Δz 
= 2U 02 1 + cos (10)
(11)

where ∆x, ∆y, Iand ∆z

( )( ) {
Y ±1 = U sY ±1 + U rY ±1 U sY ±1 + U rY ±1 = 2U 0 1 + cos ± K Δy + v (1 + cos θ ) Δz 
are displacements of the planar scale
}
2 grating along the X-, Y- and Z-directions,

respectively, while U0 and θ represent the complex amplitude and the diffraction angle of the first-order
(11)

diffracted
where Δx, beams,
Δy, andrespectively. In the above
Δz are displacements equations,
of the k = 2π/g
planar scale v = 2π/λ,
andalong
grating the X-,where
Y- andg isZ-directions,
the grating
respectively, while U0 and θ represent the complex amplitude and the diffraction angle of the
first-order diffracted beams, respectively. In the above equations, k=2π/g and v=2π/λ, where g is the
grating pitch, and λ is the laser wavelength. By observing the interference signals and carrying out
calculations, the signals SAα, SBα (α=X±1, Y±1) described by the following equations can be obtained:

SAX ±1 = cos ± ( 2π g ) Δx + ( 2π λ )(1 + cosθ ) Δz  (12)

Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 10 of 33

Sensors 2019, λ
pitch, and 19,isxthe
FORlaser
PEERwavelength.
REVIEW By observing the interference signals and carrying out calculations,
10 of 33
the signals SAα , SBα (α = X ± 1, Y ± 1) described by the following equations can be obtained:

SAY=
SAX±1 = cos
±1 cos ± ( 2π )g∆x
[±(2π/g ) Δ+y +(2π/λ
( 2π λ)()(11++ cos
cosθθ))Δ∆z
z ] (13)
(12)

SAY±1 = cos[±(2π/g)∆y + (2π/λ)(1 + cos θ)∆z] (13)

SBX ±1 = sin ± ( 2π g ) Δx + ( 2π λ )(1 + cosθ ) Δz  (14)
SBX±1 = sin[±(2π/g)∆x + (2π/λ)(1 + cos θ)∆z] (14)

SBY±1 = sin
SBY=±1sin ± ( 2π )∆y
[±(2π/g g ) Δ+y + ( 2π λ)()(11++ cos
(2π/λ cosθθ))Δz ]
∆z (15)

From
From the
the above
above equations,
equations, the
the three-dimensional displacements of
three-dimensional displacements of the
the target
target of
of interest
interest can
can be
be
detected simultaneously by a single measurement laser beam.
detected simultaneously by a single measurement laser beam.

Three-axis planar
Figure 7. Three-axis planar encoder
encoder [58].
[58]. (a)
(a) A
A schematic
schematic of
of the
the principle
principle of
of the three-axis planar
encoder; (b) The detailed optical setup of the reading sensor head.

Figure 88 shows
Figure shows aa photograph
photograph of of the
the developed
developed prototype
prototype of of the
the three-axis
three-axis planar
planar encoder
encoder [58].
[58].
Basic characteristics of the developed three-axis planar encoder were verified in
Basic characteristics of the developed three-axis planar encoder were verified in experiments. In the experiments. In the
experiments, the
experiments, the planar
planar scale
scale grating
grating was
was held
held stationary,
stationary, while
while measuring
measuring the the small
small translational
translational
displacement of the planar scale grating along the X-, Y- and Z-directions by
displacement of the planar scale grating along the X-, Y- and Z-directions by the optical sensor the optical sensor head
head
of the
of the three-axis
three-axis planar
planar encoder.
encoder. InIn the
the experiment,
experiment, aa commercially
commercially available
available laser
laser interferometer
interferometer
was also employed as the reference sensor. Figure 9 shows the result. The experimental
was also employed as the reference sensor. Figure 9 shows the result. The experimental results results have
have
demonstrated that a resolution of better than 1 nm in all the three axes can
demonstrated that a resolution of better than 1 nm in all the three axes can be achieved by be achieved by employing
the planar scale
employing gratingscale
the planar having a grating
grating pitcha of
having smaller
grating thanof1 µm
pitch [58]. than
smaller In the1 three-axis
μm [58]. planar
In the
encoder described above, the positive and negative first-order diffracted beams
three-axis planar encoder described above, the positive and negative first-order diffracted beams from the scale grating
are employed
from the scale to detectare
grating theemployed
three degree-of-freedom
to detect the threedisplacement of a targetdisplacement
degree-of-freedom of interest. Itofshould be
a target
noted
of that, Itbyshould
interest. employing the that,
be noted zeroth-order diffracted
by employing beam for measurement
the zeroth-order of thefor
diffracted beam out-of-plane
measurement (Z)
displacement, simultaneous measurement of the three-directional translational
of the out-of-plane (Z) displacement, simultaneous measurement of the three-directional displacements can also
be carried outdisplacements
translational [116]. can also be carried out [116].
In the above three-axis planar encoder, the X- and Y-directional positive and negative first-order
diffracted beams from the reflective-type planar scale grating and the reference grating are employed
to detect three-axis displacement. The three-DOF displacement measurement can also be carried
out by employing a semi-transmission 2D grating. Figure 10 shows an optical setup for three-DOF
displacement measurement with the semi-transmission 2D grating reflector [78]. The optical setup is
designed in such a way that the focused laser beam is projected onto the grating so that the interference
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 11 of 33

signals between the transparent zeroth-order diffracted beam and each of the first-order diffracted
beams can be obtained. By detecting the phase difference between the transparent zeroth-order
diffracted beam and the interference signals, in-plane displacement (along the X- and Y-directions) can
be obtained. In the optical setup, the axial displacement of the 2D grating (along the Z-direction) is
detected based on the principle of conventional Michelson interferometer. This setup can also detect
the three-dimensional displacements of the target of interest simultaneously by a single measurement
Sensorsbeam.
laser
Sensors 2019,19,
2019, 19,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 11of
11 of33
33

Figure8.
Figure
Figure 8.A
8. Aphotograph
A photographof
photograph ofthe
of theoptical
the opticalsensor
optical sensorhead
sensor headand
head andthe
and theplanar
the planarscale
planar scalegrating
scale grating[58].
grating [58].
[58].

Surfaceencoder
encoderXX Surfaceencoder
Surface encoderZZ
nm/div.

Surface
nm/div.

output11nm/div.
output11nm/div.

Sensoroutput
Sensoroutput

Sensor
Sensor

Interferometer11(X)
Interferometer (X) Interferometer33(Z)
Interferometer (Z)

00 50
50 100
100 150 200
150 200 250 250 300
300 00 50
50 100
100 150 200
150 200 250
250 300
300
Timems
Time ms Timems
Time ms

Surfaceencoder
encoderXX Surfaceencoder
encoderZZ
nm/div.

Surface
nm/div.

Surface
output11nm/div.
output11nm/div.

Sensoroutput
Sensoroutput

Sensor
Sensor

Interferometer11(X)
Interferometer (X) Interferometer33(Z)
Interferometer (Z)
50
50 55
55 60
60 65
65 70
70 75
75 50
50 55
55 60
60 65
65 70
70 75
75
Timems
Time ms Timems
Time ms
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)

Figure
Figure 9.9.Nanometric
Figure 9. Nanometricdynamic
Nanometric dynamic
dynamic motion
motion
motionof the
of scale
of the grating
the scale
scale measured
grating
grating by theby
measured
measured three-axis
by planar encoder.
the three-axis
the three-axis planar
planar
(a) X-directional
encoder.(a)
encoder. motion;
(a)X-directional(b) Z-directional
X-directionalmotion;
motion;(b) motion
(b)Z-directional [58].
Z-directionalmotion
motion[58].
[58].
3.3.2. Multi-Beam Planar Encoder with a Mosaic Scale Grating
In the
In the above
above three-axis
three-axis planar
planar encoder,
encoder, the the X-X- and
and Y-directional
Y-directional positive
positive and and negative
negative
In the
first-order semiconductor
diffracted beams industry,
from regarding
the a wafer
reflective-type size,
planar a travel
scale range
grating
first-order diffracted beams from the reflective-type planar scale grating and the reference grating of over
and the500 mm
reference in each
gratingof
the in-plane
areemployed
are employedto directions
todetect (X- and
detectthree-axis Y-directions)
three-axisdisplacement. is
displacement.The required for
Thethree-DOF a positioning
three-DOFdisplacement system.
displacementmeasurement Position
measurementcan sensors
canalso to
also
be
be employed
be carried outin
carried out by
by such a positioning
employing
employing system are thus
aa semi-transmission
semi-transmission 2D
2D required
grating.toFigure
grating. have a10
Figure 10measurement
shows an
shows rangesetup
an optical
optical enough
setup for
for
to cover
three-DOF the long stroke
displacement of the positioning
measurement system.
with the The measurement
semi-transmission
three-DOF displacement measurement with the semi-transmission 2D grating reflector [78]. The range
2D of
gratingthe three-axis
reflector planar
[78]. The
encoder
optical alongisisthe
optical setup
setup in-plane
designed
designed inaxes
in suchdepends
such aa way on the
way that
that the size
the focused of the
focused planar
laser
laser beam
beam scale grating. A
isis projected
projected sizethe
onto
onto of grating
the the planar
grating so
so
scale
that grating
the is therefore
interference required
signals to
between be larger
the than
transparent 500 mm × 500
zeroth-order mm to fulfill
diffracted
that the interference signals between the transparent zeroth-order diffracted beam and each of the the
beam requirement
and each from
of the
first-order diffracted
first-order diffracted beams
beams can can bebe obtained.
obtained. By By detecting
detecting the the phase
phase difference
difference between
between the the
transparent zeroth-order
transparent zeroth-order diffracted
diffracted beambeam and
and thethe interference
interference signals,
signals, in-plane
in-plane displacement
displacement (along(along
the X-
the X- and
and Y-directions)
Y-directions) can can bebe obtained.
obtained. InIn thethe optical
optical setup,
setup, thethe axial
axial displacement
displacement of of the
the 2D2D
grating (along
grating (along the the Z-direction)
Z-direction) isis detected
detected based
based on on the
the principle
principle of of conventional
conventional Michelson
Michelson
interferometer. This setup can also detect the three-dimensional
interferometer. This setup can also detect the three-dimensional displacements of the target displacements of the target of of
to cover the long stroke of the positioning system. The measurement range of the three-axis planar
encoder In along
the semiconductor
the in-planeindustry,
axes dependsregarding on thea wafer
sizesize, a travel
of the planar range
scaleof grating.
over 500 mmA sizein each of planar
of the
the in-plane directions (X- and Y-directions) is required for a positioning
scale grating is therefore required to be larger than 500 mm × 500 mm to fulfill the requirement system. Position sensors to
be employed in such a positioning system are thus required to have a measurement range enough
from the semiconductor industry [117]. However, it is not so easy to fabricate such a large-area
to cover the long stroke of the positioning system. The measurement range of the three-axis planar
planar scale
Sensors 2019,grating
19, 5289 in laboratories and/or institutes where fabrication facility and research 12 ofbudget
33
encoder along the in-plane axes depends on the size of the planar scale grating. A size of the planar
arescale
limited. Furthermore, the gravitational deformation of the planar scale grating could degrade
grating is therefore required to be larger than 500 mm × 500 mm to fulfill the requirement
thefrom
accuracy
the the of the three-axis
semiconductor
semiconductor industry planar
[117].
industry encoder.
However,
[117]. it is not
However, it so
is easy
not soto fabricate such a large-area
easy to fabricate planar scale
such a large-area
To overcome
grating
planar scalein grating theinaforementioned
laboratories and/or institutes
laboratories and/orissues
where onfabrication
institutes thewhere
large-area planar
facility
fabrication and scaleand
research
facility grating,
budget
researchaare
concept
limited.
budget of the
four-probe
areFurthermore,optical sensor head
the gravitational
limited. Furthermore, for the
deformation
the gravitational three-axis
of the planar
deformation planar
ofscaleencoder with
gratingscale
the planar a
couldgratingmosaic
degrade scale
the accuracy
could grating,
degrade of a
schematic
thethe
accuracyof which
three-axis is shown
planar
of the encoder.
three-axis in Figure
planar 11, has been proposed [61]. In the proposed method, with
encoder.
To
the enhancement overcome
To overcomeof the
thethe aforementioned
aforementioned
idea of mosaic issues
issues onon
gratings thethe large-area
large-area
[118,119], aplanar
planar
group scale
scale grating,
ofgrating,
small a concept
a concept
planar of of
scale thethe
gratings
four-probe
four-probe
arranged opticalsensor
in aoptical
matrix sensor
is readheadby anfor the
thethree-axis
foroptical three-axis
sensor planar
planar
head encoder with
encoder
having a mosaic
with
multiple scale grating,
a measurement
mosaic alaser
schematic
scale grating, a
probes so
of which
schematic is
of shown
which in
is Figure
shown 11,
in has
Figurebeen proposed
11, has been[61]. In the
proposed proposed
[61].
that the mosaic scale grating can be treated as an “effective” large-area planar scale grating. The In method,
the with
proposed the enhancement
method, with
theofenhancement
the idea of mosaic of thegratings
idea of[118,119], a group [118,119],
mosaic gratings of small planar
a groupscale gratings arranged in gratings
a matrix is
small planar scale grating is easier to fabricate compared with theoflarge-area
small planar scale
planar scale grating. In
read byinana optical
arranged matrix is sensor
read byheadan having
optical multiple
sensor head measurement
having multiplelaser probes so thatlaser
measurement the mosaic
probes scale
so
addition, fabrication costs can also be reduced. Furthermore, the mosaic scale grating can reduce
grating
that can be treated
the mosaic as an “effective”
scale grating can be treated large-area
as anplanar scale grating.
“effective” large-areaTheplanar
small planar scale grating
scale grating. The is
thesmall
influence
easier
planar
of the gravitational
to fabricate compared
scale grating is easier
deformation
withto the large-area
fabricate
ofplanar
the large-area
compared scale
withgrating.
planar scale
In addition,
the large-area
grating.
planarfabrication costsIncan
scale grating.
also be reduced.
addition, fabricationFurthermore, thebe
costs can also mosaic scaleFurthermore,
reduced. grating can reduce the influence
the mosaic of the can
scale grating gravitational
reduce
deformation of the large-area planar scale grating.
the influence of the gravitational deformation of the large-area planar scale grating.

Figure 10. System configuration for 3-DOF displacement measurement with the semi-transmission
Figure 10.10.
Figure System configuration
System configurationfor
for3-DOF
3-DOFdisplacement
displacementmeasurement
measurement with the
the semi-transmission
semi-transmission2D
2D2D
grating
grating
[78].
grating[78].
[78].

Figure 11. Four-probe three-axis planar encoder with a 2D mosaic scale grating [61].
Figure
Figure 11. 11. Four-probe
Four-probe three-axisplanar
three-axis planar encoder
encoder with
witha a2D
2Dmosaic
mosaicscale grating
scale [61].[61].
grating
A schematic of the three-axis planar encoder with a mosaic scale grating is shown in Figure 12.
A certain gap (width: gScale ) exists between neighboring two small planar scale gratings in the mosaic
Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 33

A schematic of the three-axis planar encoder with a mosaic scale grating is shown in Figure 12.
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 13 of 33
A certain gap (width: gScale) exists between neighboring two small planar scale gratings in the
mosaic scale grating. When a measurement laser beam from the optical sensor head is projected
onto
scalethe gap, the
grating. When accurate displacement
a measurement laser measurement
beam from thecannot opticalbe carried
sensor headout. Meanwhile,
is projected ontothis
the
problem
gap, thecan be overcome
accurate by employing
displacement a reading
measurement sensor
cannot head having
be carried multiple sub-beams
out. Meanwhile, this problem that
canarebe
arranged
overcometobyhave a distance
employing dBeamsensor
a reading largerhead
thanhaving
gScale. multiple
With thesub-beams
arrangement, at arranged
that are least onetoofhave the a
sub-beams can detect the three-axis displacement of the mosaic scale grating [61].
distance dBeam larger than gScale . With the arrangement, at least one of the sub-beams can detect the The sub-beams
can be generated
three-axis by using
displacement of conventional optical
the mosaic scale components;
grating [61]. The for example,
sub-beams four
can sub-beamsby
be generated can be
using
generated by dividing a single measurement laser beam with a pair of cube beam
conventional optical components; for example, four sub-beams can be generated by dividing a single splitters. In the
case of an optical
measurement lasersensor head ahaving
beam with pair of four
cube sub-beams
beam splitters.aligned in case
In the a matrix
of an of 2×2, sensor
optical since four
head
first-order diffracted beams (X-positive, X-negative, Y-positive and Y-negative) will
having four sub-beams aligned in a matrix of 2 × 2, since four first-order diffracted beams (X-positive, be generated
by each sub-beam
X-negative, projected
Y-positive onto the will
and Y-negative) mosaic scale grating,
be generated by eachtotally
sub-beam16 interference
projected onto signals are
the mosaic
required to betotally
scale grating, observed in the optical
16 interference sensor
signals head of to
are required thebethree-axis
observed in planar encoder.
the optical It should
sensor head ofbe the
noted that the optical sensor head can be designed in a simple manner by employing
three-axis planar encoder. It should be noted that the optical sensor head can be designed in a simple quadrant
photodiodes (QPDs) as the
manner by employing photodetectors
quadrant as shown
photodiodes (QPDs) in Figure
as the 12. In the opticalassensor
photodetectors shown head, each of
in Figure 12.
the sub-beams
In the acts ashead,
optical sensor an independent measurement
each of the sub-beams actsbeam, and can detect
as an independent three-axis displacement
measurement beam, and can
ofdetect
the mosaic scaledisplacement
three-axis grating. of the mosaic scale grating.

Figure12.
Figure 12. The
The optical
optical setup
setup of of
thethe four-probe
four-probe three-axis
three-axis planar
planar encoder
encoder with
with a mosaic
a mosaic scale
scale grating
grating [61].
[61].

Feasibilityof
Feasibility of the
the three-axis
three-axis planar
planarencoder
encoderhaving
havingsub-beams
sub-beams and
anda mosaic
a mosaic scale grating
scale has been
grating has
verified through some experiments by using the setup shown in Figure
been verified through some experiments by using the setup shown in Figure 13a. In the 13a. In the experiments, as can
be seen in Figure 13b, a mosaic scale grating was mounted on the moving table
experiments, as can be seen in Figure 13b, a mosaic scale grating was mounted on the moving table of a DC servo motor
ofstage,
a DCand themotor
servo relative motion
stage, andofthetherelative
movingmotion
table along
of thethe X-direction
moving in the the
table along figure was detected
X-direction by
in the
figure was detected by the four sub-beams (Beams-A, -B, -C and –D) in the optical reading head. It a
the four sub-beams (Beams-A, -B, -C and –D) in the optical reading head. It should be noted that
commercially
should be notedavailable
that alaser interferometric
commercially displacement
available sensor was employed
laser interferometric displacementas a reference
sensor sensor.
was
Figure 14a–c
employed as ashow the Y-displacement
reference sensor. Figure (corresponding
14a,b,c show tothe theY-displacement
out-of-straightness) of the moving
(corresponding to table
the
measured by each of the beams. In the figure, the region plotted in a dashed
out-of-straightness) of the moving table measured by each of the beams. In the figure, the region line corresponds to the
output obtained at the scale gap. As can be seen in the figure, Beam-A(C) could
plotted in a dashed line corresponds to the output obtained at the scale gap. As can be seen in the successfully detect
the scale
figure, Y-position
Beam-A(C) while
could Beam-B(D)detect
successfully couldthe notscale
detect the scale Y-position
Y-position while Beam-B(D)correctly while
could notit detect
was on
the scale gap. By stitching the outputs of Beams-A(C) and –B(D), the influence
the scale Y-position correctly while it was on the scale gap. By stitching the outputs of Beams-A(C) of the scale gap could
successfully
and –B(D), thebe avoidedofasthe
influence shown
scale in
gapFigure
could14b,c. These results
successfully haveasdemonstrated
be avoided shown in Figures the feasibility
14b and
14c. These results have demonstrated the feasibility of the proposed four-probe optical sensormosaic
of the proposed four-probe optical sensor head for the three-axis planar encoder with the head
scale
for thegrating.
three-axis planar encoder with the mosaic scale grating.
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 14 of 33
Sensors
Sensors2019,
2019,19,
19,x xFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 1414ofof3333

Figure
Figure 13.
Figure13.
13. Evaluation
Evaluation of of
Evaluation ofthe
the theout-of-straightness
out-of-straightness
out-of-straightness motion
motion
motion error
error
error of ofofthe
the linearthe linear
linear
slide slide by
slidethe
by using using
usingthe
byfour-probe
the
four-probe
four-probe three-axis
three-axisplanar
planar encoder
encoderwith
witha 2D
a 2Dmosaic
mosaicscale grating
scale grating [61].
[61].(a) A
(a) Apicture
picture of
ofthe
the
three-axis planar encoder with a 2D mosaic scale grating [61]. (a) A picture of the setup; (b) A schematic setup;
setup;
(b) AAschematic
of(b)
the schematicofofthe
setup. thesetup.
setup.

Figure
Figure14. Out-of-straightness
14.Out-of-straightness motion
Out-of-straightnessmotion error
motionerror
errorofofthe
thelinear
linearslide
slideevaluated
evaluatedby
bythe
thefour-probe
four-probethree-axis
three-axis
planar encoder
planarencoder with
encoderwith a 2D mosaic
witha a2D scale
2Dmosaic grating
mosaicscale [61].
scalegrating (a)
grating[61]. Y-directional
[61].(a) out-of-straightness;
(a)Y-directional out-of-straightness;stitched
(b) The
Y-directionalout-of-straightness; (b)
(b)The
The
Y-directional
stitched out-of-straightness;
stitchedY-directional
Y-directional (c) Residue
out-of-straightness;
out-of-straightness; (c)of
(c) the stitching.
Residue
Residue ofofthe
thestitching.
stitching.

ItItshould
It should be
shouldbebenoted
notedthat
noted thatthe
that themeasurement
the measurementsensitivity
measurement sensitivity ofofeach
sensitivityof each sub-beam
eachsub-beam
sub-beamcan can be
canbe compensated
becompensated
compensatedby by
by
using
using a
a sub-beam
sub-beam arbitrarily
arbitrarily chosen
chosen from
from the
the four
four sub-beams
sub-beams as
as a
a reference
reference
using a sub-beam arbitrarily chosen from the four sub-beams as a reference probe, and carry outprobe,
probe, and
and carry
carry out
out
matrix
matrix calculations
matrixcalculations [61]
calculations[61] while
[61]while measuring
whilemeasuring
measuringthe the same
thesame small
samesmall planar
smallplanar scale
planarscale grating.
scalegrating. In
grating.In the
Inthe same
thesame manner,
samemanner,
manner,
the
themisalignment
the misalignment
misalignment ofofeach of the
of each
each ofofsmall
the planar
the small scale
small planar gratings
planar scale arranged
scale gratings in a matrixincan
gratings arranged
arranged in a abe compensated.
matrix
matrix can
can bebe
Meanwhile,
compensated. one of the
compensated. Meanwhile, disadvantages
Meanwhile, one of
one ofof the this method is
the disadvantages that the
disadvantages ofof thismeasurement
this method uncertainty
method isis that
that the could increase
the measurement
measurement
uncertainty
uncertaintycould
couldincrease
increasedueduetotothetheerror
errorpropagation,
propagation,and andthe
theissue
issueisisrequired
requiredtotobe beaddressed
addressed
for
formeasurement
measurementofoflong-range
long-rangein-plane
in-planedisplacements.
displacements.
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 15 of 33

due to the error propagation, and the issue is required to be addressed for measurement of long-range
in-plane displacements.
Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 33

3.3.3.
3.3.3. A
A Six-Degree-Of-Freedom
Six-Degree-Of-Freedom Planar
Planar Encoder
Encoder
Both
Both thethe three-axis
three-axis autocollimator
autocollimator and and the
the three-axis
three-axis planar
planar encoder
encoder employemploy aa planar
planar scale
scale
grating as their target reflector. Therefore, by combining the functions
grating as their target reflector. Therefore, by combining the functions of the three-axis of the three-axis autocollimator
and the three-axis
autocollimator planar
and the encoder in the
three-axis same optical
planar encodersensor in thehead,same
a six-degree-of-freedom
optical sensor head, (DOF)a
planar encoder capable of simultaneously measuring the three-axis translational
six-degree-of-freedom (DOF) planar encoder capable of simultaneously measuring the three-axis displacement and
the three-axisdisplacement
translational angular displacement can be realized
and the three-axis angular [54]. Since the optical
displacement can besensor
realizedhead
[54].has onlythe
Since a
single measurement laser beam, the six-DOF planar encoder is expected
optical sensor head has only a single measurement laser beam, the six-DOF planar encoder is to be employed as a compact
multi-axis
expected to displacement
be employedsensor for precision
as a compact positioning.
multi-axis displacement sensor for precision positioning.
A schematic of the six-DOF planar encoder
A schematic of the six-DOF planar encoder is shown is shown ininFigure
Figure15 15
[54]. The
[54]. Theoptical sensor
optical sensorhead of
head
the six-DOF planar encoder is mainly composed of a displacement
of the six-DOF planar encoder is mainly composed of a displacement assembly and an angleassembly and an angle assembly
for the three-axis
assembly for the displacement measurement
three-axis displacement and the three-axis
measurement and the angle measurement,
three-axis respectively.
angle measurement,
The displacement
respectively. assembly has aassembly
The displacement referencehasgrating, a polarizing
a reference grating, beam splitter (PBS)
a polarizing beamand a PD(PBS)
splitter unit
composed of four QPDs, while the angle assembly has a beam splitter
and a PD unit composed of four QPDs, while the angle assembly has a beam splitter (BS), (BS), collimator objective (CO)
and two QPDs
collimator (QPD-C
objective andand
(CO) QPD-D). As can(QPD-C
two QPDs be seen in andtheQPD-D).
figure, theAsdisplacement
can be seen assembly and the
in the figure, the
angle
displacement assembly and the angle assembly share the collimated laser beam from a laser beam,
assembly share the collimated laser beam from a laser diode (LD) as the measurement laser diode
as well
(LD) asasthe
themeasurement
planar scale grating. Thisasoptical
laser beam, configuration
well as the planar scale enables the six-DOF
grating. planar
This optical encoder to
configuration
carry
enablesout the
three-axis
six-DOF displacement measurement
planar encoder to carryandout three-axis
three-axisangledisplacement
measurementmeasurement
simultaneouslyand at
the same point on the planar scale grating.
three-axis angle measurement simultaneously at the same point on the planar scale grating.

Figure 15. A
Figure15. A six-degree-of-freedom
six-degree-of-freedom planar
planarencoder
encoder[54].
[54].

Figure 16a shows the optical setu for the six-DOF planar encoder designed for the planarmotion
Figure 16a shows the optical setu for the six-DOF planar encoder designed for the
stage system [54,55]. In the displacement assembly, the three-axis displacement of the planar scale
planarmotion stage system [54,55]. In the displacement assembly, the three-axis displacement of the
grating is measured based on the principle of the three-axis planar encoder [53]. The measurement
planar scale grating is measured based on the principle of the three-axis planar encoder [53]. The
laser beam emitted from LD is divided into two beams by PBS, and the divided beams are projected
measurement laser beam emitted from LD is divided into two beams by PBS, and the divided
onto the scale grating and the reference grating after passing through a quarter-wave plate (QWP) to
beams are projected onto the scale grating and the reference grating after passing through a
generate positive and negative first-order diffracted beams.
quarter-wave plate (QWP) to generate positive and negative first-order diffracted beams.
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 16 of 33
Sensors
Sensors2019,
2019,19,
19,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 16
16 of
of33
33

Figure 16.
Figure The optical
16. The optical setup
optical setup
setup of
of the
the planar
planar encoder
encoder [54]. (a) A
[54]. (a) A schematic
schematic ofof the
the reading
the reading
reading head
head in
in the
the
six-degree-of-freedom planar encoder; (b) A photograph
six-degree-of-freedom planar encoder; (b) A photograph of theof the reading
the reading head.
reading head.
head.

As
As can
As can be
can be seen
be seen
seen in in the
in the figure,
figure, a
the figure, aa prism
prism unit
prism unit is
unit is employed
is employed
employed to to make
to make
make thethe diffracted
diffracted beams
the diffracted beams from
beams from the
from the
the
grating
grating
grating toto be
to be parallel
be parallel
parallel with with the
with the projected
the projected beam.
projected beam. The
beam. The diffracted
The diffracted beams
diffracted beams pass
beams pass through
pass through QWP
through QWP again,
QWP again, and
again, and
and
are
are superimposed
are superimposed
superimposed at at the
the PBS
at the PBS to
PBS to generate
to generate interference
generate interference signals.
interference signals. The
signals. The generated
The generated interference
generated interference signals
interference signals are
signals are
are
detected
detected
detected byby the
by the four
the four QPDs.
four QPDs. Meanwhile,
QPDs. Meanwhile,
Meanwhile, in in the
in theangle
the angle assembly,
angle assembly, the
assembly, the three-axis
the three-axis angular
three-axis angular displacement
angular displacement
displacement of
the
of scale
of the
the grating
scale
scale grating
grating is measured
is
is measured
measured based
based
basedon on
the principle
on the
the principle
principle of the
of three-axis
of the
the three-axisautocollimator
three-axis autocollimator
autocollimator [52]. AsAs
[52].
[52]. cancan
As be
can
seen
be in
be seen the
seen in figure,
in the the
the figure,
figure, thezeroth-order
the zeroth-order diffracted
zeroth-order diffracted beam
diffracted beamfrom the
beam from scale
from the grating
the scale is focused
scale grating
grating is on the
is focused
focused onQPD-C,
on the
the
while
QPD-C,
QPD-C, thewhile
first-order
while the diffracted
first-orderbeam
the first-order is focused
diffracted
diffracted beam
beam onis thefocused
is QPD-D.on
focused Figure
on the 16b
the showsFigure
QPD-D.
QPD-D. a photograph
Figure 16b
16b shows of the
shows aa
developed
photograph optical
of the sensor
developed head of the
optical six-DOF
sensor planar
head of encoder
the six-DOF
photograph of the developed optical sensor head of the six-DOF planar encoder [54]. [54].planar encoder [54].

Figure 17.
17. Translational
Figure 17.
Figure Translational motion
Translational motion and
motion and angular
and angular motion
angular motion of
motion of the
of the scale
the scale grating
scale grating measured
grating measured by
measured the
by the
by six-DOF
the six-DOF
six-DOF
planar
planar encoder
encoder [54].
[54]. (a)
(a) Y-directional
Y-directional translational
translational displacement;
displacement; (b)
(b) Angular
Angular displacement
displacement
planar encoder [54]. (a) Y-directional translational displacement; (b) Angular displacement about about
about
the
the
the Y-axis.
Y-axis.
Y-axis.

Experiments
Experiments were were carried
carried outout to
to verify
verify thethe feasibility
feasibility ofof the
the developed
developed six-DOF
six-DOF planar
planar encoder.
encoder.
In
In the
the experiments,
experiments,the the optical
theoptical sensor
opticalsensor head
sensorheadheadwas was held
washeld stationary,
heldstationary, while
stationary,while
whilethethe scale
thescale
scalegrating mounted onon
grating
grating mounted
mounted on
a
amulti-axis
a multi-axis
multi-axis piezoelectric
piezoelectric(PZT)
piezoelectric (PZT) stage
(PZT)stage system
systemtoto
stagesystem give
togive translational
givetranslational displacement
translationaldisplacement
displacementalong along
along the three axes
the three axes
and
and angular displacement about
angular displacement about thethe three axes.
axes. Figure
three axes. Figure 17a,b
17a,b show
show thethe Y-directional
Y-directional translational
translational
displacement
displacement
displacement and
and the
the angular
angular displacement
displacement
displacement about
about the
the Y-axis,
Y-axis, respectively,
respectively, detected
detected by
by the
the six-DOF
six-DOF
planar
planar encoder.
encoder. ItItItshould
shouldbe
should bebenoted
noted
noted that
that all
that the
allall displacements
thethe
displacements
displacements can be
be measured
cancan measured
be measured simultaneously.
simultaneously.
simultaneously. As
As
can be
cancan
As seen
be be
seen in
seen the
in inthethefigure,
figure,
figure,aa resolution
resolutionof
aresolution ofof222nmnmfor
nm forthe
for themeasurement
the measurement of
measurement of in-plane
in-plane andand out-of-plane
out-of-plane
translational displacements
translational displacements
displacements waswas
was achieved.
achieved.
achieved. Furthermore,
Furthermore,
Furthermore, resolutions
resolutions
resolutions of
of 0.1
0.1 arc-second,
of 0.1 arc-second, arc-second,
0.1 arc-second, 0.1
0.1
arc-second,
arc-second,
and and
and 0.3
0.3 arc-second 0.3 arc-second
arc-second
for measurementfor
for measurement
measurement
of the angular of
of the angular
angular displacements
thedisplacements about theabout
displacements about
X-, Y-the X-,
theand Y-
Y- and
X-, Z-axes,
and
Z-axes,
Z-axes, respectively,
respectively,
respectively, were achieved. were
were Itachieved.
should beItItnoted
achieved. should
should be
be noted
crosstalk noted
between crosstalk
crosstalk between
between the
the displacement the displacement
displacement
assembly and the
assembly
assembly andand thethe angle
angle assembly
assembly could could occur
occur since
since they
they share
share thethe first-order
first-order diffracted
diffracted beams
beams in in
the
the optical
optical sensor
sensor head head to to detect
detect translational
translational displacements
displacements and and angular
angular displacements
displacements [54]. [54].
Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 33

Meanwhile, the influence of the crosstalk can be minimized by optimizing the arrangement of the
assemblies and each of the optical components in the optical sensor head [55].

Sensors
4. 2019, 19, 5289
Fabrication and Verification of Scale Grating 17 of 33

4.1. Fast-Tool-Servo Cutting of Angular Scale Gratings

angle assembly could occur since they share the first-order diffracted beams in the optical sensor head
to detect translational
Multi-axis planardisplacements
encoders employ and angular displacements
two-dimensional [54]. Meanwhile,
pattern structures on the ainfluence
planar of the
scale
crosstalk
grating ascan be minimized
rulers for measurement by optimizing the arrangement
of the three-axis translationalof thedisplacement
assemblies and eachthe
and/or of the optical
three-axis
components
angular in the optical
displacement. Thesensor
pattern head [55]. are required to be fabricated over a large area, since
structures
the in-plane measurement range of the planar encoder depends on the size of the planar scale
4. Fabrication
grating. In most andofVerification
the precision of Scale Grating
measuring instruments such as a micro coordinate measuring
machine (CMM) or a scanning white-light interferometer, a measurement range of 100 mm along
4.1. Fast-Tool-Servo Cutting of Angular Scale Gratings
one axis is enough. In the case of positioning systems employed in the semiconductor industry, a
Multi-axisrange
measurement planar ofencoders
over 450employmm is two-dimensional
required; however, pattern structures
as described inonthea previous
planar scale grating
section, a
as rulers
mosaic for measurement
scale grating composed of the ofthree-axis
several small translational
scale gratingsdisplacement
(for example,and/or thethe three-axis
planar scale angular
grating
displacement.
having a size ofThe 100pattern
mm × structures
100 mm) can are required
be employed to beas fabricated
the largeover scalea large
grating,area, sinceavoiding
while the in-planethe
measurement
increase range ofcost
of fabrication the and
planar encoder
reducing thedepends
influence onof the size
the of the planar
gravitational scale grating.
deformation of theIn large
most
of thegrating
scale precision
[61].measuring instruments such as a micro coordinate measuring machine (CMM) or a
scanning white-light
Traditional line-patterninterferometer, a measurement
scale grating range of by
can be fabricated 100ruling
mm alongenginesone[120–122],
axis is enough. in whichIn thea
case of positioning
single-point diamond systems employed
cutting tool isinemployed
the semiconductor
to cut the industry, a measurement
line pattern structures. range Withof over
the
450 mm is required;
enhancement however, as described
of a high-precision positioning in the previous
system, section, a mosaic
a highly-accurate scale
line grating
pattern composed
structures canof
several
be small over
fabricated scale agratings (for example,
large area. Meanwhile, the itplanar scale grating
is difficult to apply having a size of 100
the traditional × 100 mm)
mm engines
ruling to
can be employed
fabricate as thegratings.
planar scale large scale Thisgrating,
issue while
can beavoiding
addressed the by
increase of fabrication
employing the fastcost toolandservoreducing
(FTS)
the influence
technique of the gravitational
[80,81,113–115]. Figure deformation
18 shows a schematicof the large of scale
the FTSgrating [61].
unit developed for the fabrication
Traditional line-pattern
of two-dimensional sinusoidalscalepattern
grating structures.
can be fabricatedThe FTS by ruling
unit engines
is mainly [120–122],
composed in whichof aa
single-point diamond cutting tool is employed to cut the line pattern
single-point diamond cutting tool, a precision PZT actuator that enables the FTS unit to generate structures. With the enhancement
of a in-feed
fast high-precision
motion positioning
of the cutting system, a highly-accurate
tool, and line pattern structures
a precision displacement sensor forcan thebe fabricated
detection of over
tool
a large area.
motion. Meanwhile,
By mounting theit FTS
is difficult
unit onto to apply the traditional ruling
an ultra-precision engines to fabricate
lathe, complicated planar scale
three-dimensional
gratings.such
profiles Thisas issue
the can be addressed by
two-dimensional employing
sinusoidal the fast
angle gridtoolwith servo (FTS) technique
a pattern pitch of 100 μm [80] can
[80,81,113–115].
Figure
be 18 shows
fabricated. a schematic
With of the FTSofunit
the employment developed
a diamond for thetool
cutting fabrication
having aoffurther
two-dimensional
smaller nose sinusoidal
radius,
pattern
the structures.
2D angle The FTS
grid with unit is mainly
a pattern pitch ofcomposed
smaller thanof a single-point
10 mm can diamond be fabricated cutting tool,
over a alarge
precision
area
PZT
[81]. actuator that enables the FTS unit to generate fast in-feed motion of the cutting tool, and a precision
displacement
Meanwhile, sensor for theadetection
it takes long time of tool
for motion. By mounting
the fabrication the FTS unit
of large-area ontograting,
scale an ultra-precision
and the
lathe, complicated
degradation three-dimensional
of fabrication accuracy due profiles
to the such
toolaswear
the two-dimensional
cannot be avoided. sinusoidal angle tool
In addition, gridmarks
with a
pattern pitch of 100 µm [80] can be fabricated. With the employment
on the fabricated grating surface could generate unnecessary ghost diffraction or stray light. of a diamond cutting tool having
a further smaller
Furthermore, nose radius,
the minimum the 2D
pattern angle
pitch thatgrid
canwith a pattern
be realized bypitch of smallercutting
the diamond than 10 is mm
limitedcanby be
fabricated over a large area
the tip radius of the cutting tool [81].[81].

Figure 18. Fabrication of an angular scale grating by using fast tool servo (FTS) technique on an
ultra-precision lathe [80]. (a) A schematic of the setup; (b) Profile of the fabricated two-dimensional
sinusoidal angle grid.
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 18 of 33

Meanwhile, it takes a long time for the fabrication of large-area scale grating, and the degradation
of fabrication accuracy due to the tool wear cannot be avoided. In addition, tool marks on the fabricated
grating surface could generate unnecessary ghost diffraction or stray light. Furthermore, the minimum
pattern pitch that can be realized by the diamond cutting is limited by the tip radius of the cutting
tool [81].

4.2. Interference Lithography of Diffraction Scale Gratings

For the multi-axis planar encoder employing diffracted beams from the planar scale grating,
the pitch of the pattern structures on the grating is designed to be in the scale of micrometers [110] or
sub-micrometer [54], while symmetric pattern structures having uniform amplitude over the entire scale
grating surface are preferred to obtain high diffraction efficiency along the X- and Y-directions. Such
fine pattern structures can be fabricated through the photolithography process. In the photolithography
process, grating pattern structures are fabricated by transferring the mask pattern onto the grating
substrate. By repeating the pattern exposure with the help of high-precision positioning technology,
fine grating pattern structures having micrometric or sub-micrometric pitch can be fabricated over
a wide area [123]. Meanwhile, the photolithography process requires expensive semiconductor
equipment and photo-masks, which make the grating fabrication expensive. On the contrary, the laser
interference lithography [124], in which interference fringe patterns generated by superimposing
several laser beams are transferred to the grating substrate, can fabricate grating pattern structures
having a micrometric or sub-micrometric pitch without using expensive photo-masks and expensive
equipment. Therefore, the laser interference lithography is suitable to fabricate planar scale gratings in
small companies or laboratories, where research budgets and fabrication facilities are limited.
There are two major types of optical configuration for the laser interference lithography: the one
is referred to as the division of amplitude system [59,125–129]. Figure 19a shows an optical setup of
the phase-shift laser interference lithography [59], which is a kind of division of amplitude system.
As can be seen in the figure, a laser beam is at first divided into two sub-beams by a beam splitter.
After that, the sub-beams are projected onto a substrate, while the angle of incidence of each sub-beam
is adjusted by a mirror. The optical path difference between the two sub-beams will generate line
interference fringe patterns on the substrate, and the fringe patterns will be transferred to the resist
layer prepared on the substrate surface. This optical setup can realize the fabrication of large-area
diffraction grating by expanding the sub-beams by using beam expanders. In addition, the grating
pitch can be adjusted by controlling the angles of incidence of the sub-beams with respect to the grating
substrate surface. Due to the principle of interference fringe generation, the Y-directional misalignment
of the substrate will not affect the grating pitch. By scanning the substrate along the X-direction with the
fringe locking system, line pattern structures can be exposed over a long travel range [124]. Meanwhile,
the optical setup based on the two-beam interference lithography tends to become complicated and
weak against external disturbances due to the long optical paths of the sub-beams. Some methods
have been proposed so far to overcome the problem [127–129]. For example, the angular motion errors
θX and θZ of the substrate about the X and Z-axes, respectively, will affect the profile uniformity
of the pattern structures as well as the grating pitch. The influences of these angular motion errors
can be compensated by using the optical angle sensor as shown in Figure 19b [129]. Furthermore,
by fabricating the array of one-axis grating as shown in the figure and preparing an optical sensor
head with a pair of optical probes based on the concept of mosaic scale grating, the pattern exposure
system can be simplified without the complicated fringe locking system [129].
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 19 of 33
Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 33

Figure 19.
Figure 19. Optical
Optical setups
setups for
for interference
interference lithography.
lithography. (a) An example
(a) An example ofof the
the division
division of
of amplitude
amplitude
systems [59];
systems [59]; (b)
(b) Compensation
Compensation of of angular
angular motion
motion error
error by
by the
the optical
optical angle
anglesensor
sensor[129].
[129].

Another major majortype typeof of optical

optical configuration
configuration for theforlaser
the interference
laser interferencelithography lithography is the
is the division
division
of wavefront of wavefront system [82,130–136].
system [82,130–136]. Figure 20 showsFigurean20optical
showssetupan optical setupmirror
of a Lloyd’s of a Lloyd’s mirror
interferometer,
interferometer,
which is a kind ofwhich is a kind
the division of the division
of wavefront systems of wavefront
[82]. The Lloyd’s systems
mirror[82]. The Lloyd’s
interferometer mirror
composed
interferometer
of a substrate and composed
a mirror, of which
a substrate and aatmirror,
is placed the right which
angle is with
placed at the to
respect right
the angle with respect
substrate. As can
to the
be seensubstrate. As can
in the figure, be seen
a part in the
of the beamfigure, a part
directly of the beam
projected ontodirectly projected
the substrate (directontobeam)
the substrate
will be
(direct beam) will
superimposed by thebe other
superimposed
part of the bybeam
the other partby
reflected of the
the mirror
beam reflected
(reflectedby the mirror
beam) (reflected
to generate line
beam) to generate
interference line interference
fringe patterns fringe patterns
on the substrate surface. onThethe substrate
direct surface.
beam shares mostTheofdirect beampath
the optical shares
in
most of the optical path in the simple optical setup with the reflected beam:
the simple optical setup with the reflected beam: this feature allows the Lloyd’s mirror interferometer to this feature allows the
Lloyd’s
have mirrorstability
superior interferometer to have disturbances.
against external superior stability against external
Furthermore, by employingdisturbances. Furthermore,
an additional mirror
bythe
to employing
conventional an additional mirror mirror,
one-axis Lloyd’s to the two-dimensional
conventional one-axis pattern Lloyd’s
structuresmirror,can be two-dimensional
fabricated at a
patternpattern
single structures can be
exposure fabricated
process at a single
[82,130–132] overpattern
a wideexposure
substrateprocess
surface.[82,130–132]
In the following over aofwide
this
substratefabrication
section, surface. Inofthe followingplanar
a large-area of thisscale
section, fabrication
grating of a large-areatwo-axis
by a non-orthogonal planar scale grating
Lloyd’s mirrorby
a non-orthogonal
interferometer two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer is presented.
is presented.
The conventional one-axis one-axis Lloyd’s
Lloyd’smirror
mirrorinterferometer
interferometercan canfabricate
fabricateline linepattern
pattern structures
structures at
a single
at a singleexposure
exposureprocess.
process.For Forthethefabrication
fabricationof of two-dimensional
two-dimensional pattern pattern structures, additional additional
exposure process
processafterafterrotating
rotating thethe substrate
substrate 90 degrees
90 degrees aboutabout the normal
the normal of the substrate
of the substrate is required. is
required. However,
However, this two-step this exposure
two-step exposure
process makesprocess themakes the amplitudes
amplitudes of patternofstructures
pattern structures
in the two in
the two orthogonal
orthogonal directions directions
different,different,
resultingresulting in the difference
in the difference of the diffraction
of the diffraction efficiencies efficiencies
in the two in
the two
axes [133].axes
This[133].
problemThis can
problem
easily can easily by
be solved be employing
solved by an employing
additional anmirror
additional mirror an
to construct to
construct antwo-axis
orthogonal orthogonal two-axis
Lloyd’s mirrorLloyd’s mirror interferometer
interferometer unit [87,130,131] unitas[87,130,131]
shown in Figure as shown in Figure
21a. However,
21a.the
for However,
fabricationfor the
of afabrication
large-areaof a large-area
planar planar scale
scale grating, a large grating, a large interferometer
interferometer unit will
unit will be required;
beisrequired;
it not so easyit istonot so easy such
construct to construct such a large interferometer
a large interferometer unit. In addition, unit. In addition,
severe optical severe optical
alignments
alignments
are requiredare forrequired
the pair of formirrors
the pair andof the
mirrors
angleand the angle of
of incidence ofthe
incidence
laser beam of the withlaser beamtowith
respect the
respect to the interferometer unit [132], while perfect polarization modulation
interferometer unit [132], while perfect polarization modulation control is difficult [134]. On the control is difficult
[134]. On the
contrary, theoptical
contrary, the optical of
configuration configuration of the non-orthogonal
the non-orthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s two-axis
mirror Lloyd’s mirror
interferometer,
interferometer,
in which a pair of in mirrors
which aare pair of mirrors
placed to have areangles
placed ofto + α)angles
(90have degrees of with
(90+α) degrees
respect with
to the respect
substrate
to the substrate
surface as shownsurface
in Figure as 21b,
shown in Figure
allows 21b, allows the
the interferometer unitinterferometer
to be designed unit to be designed
in a compact size and intoa
compact
be robustsize and optical
against to be robust against optical
misalignments of themisalignments
optical components of theandoptical components
the laser and the laser
beam projected onto
beam
the projected onto
interferometer the interferometer [82–85].
[82–85].
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 20 of 33
Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 33
Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 33

Figure Opticalsetups
Figure 20. Optical setupsfor
forinterference
interferencelithography
lithographybased
basedonon
thethe division
division of of wavefront
wavefront systems
systems [82].
[82].
Figure 20. Optical setups for interference lithography based on the division of wavefront systems [82].
AA schematic
schematic of of the
the optical
optical setup
setup for
for the
the non-orthogonal
non-orthogonal two-axis
two-axis Lloyd’s
Lloyd’s mirror
mirror interferometer
interferometer
is shown in Figure
A schematic
is shown in Figureof2222 [82].
the In
optical
[82]. the setup,
setup
In the a
for the
setup, laser beam is
non-orthogonal
a laser projected
beam is projected onto
two-axis
onto the
Lloyd’s substrate with
with aa right
mirror interferometer
the substrate right
angle.
angle. On
is shownOnthe substrate
inthe
Figure 22surface,
substrate Intwo-axis
[82].surface,
the setup,interference
two-axis a laser fringeispatterns
beam
interference fringe are
projected generated
onto
patterns theare as the consequence
substrate
generatedwithasa right
the
of the superposition
angle. On the
consequence of the of the
substrate direct
surface,
superposition beam, which
two-axis
of the is directly
interference
direct beam, projected
which fringe onto the
patterns
is directly substrate
projectedare onto surface,
generated and
as the
the substrate
the reflected
surface, and beams,
consequence the thewhich
of reflected are projected
superposition
beams, of the
which onto
are thebeam,
direct substrate
projected which
onto surface
the is after surface
directly
substrate being reflected
projected onto
after by
thethe
being X- or
substrate
reflected
Y-mirror.
surface,
by Now
the X-and thereflected
the
or Y-mirror.complexNow amplitude
beams, which
the complex ofare
the laser beam
projected
amplitude projected
ofonto
the the
laser onto projected
substrate
beam the substrate
surface ontosurface
after being can be
reflected
the substrate
described
surface X-byor
by the can bethe following
Y-mirror.
described byequation
Now thethe [82]: equation
complex
following amplitude of the laser beam projected onto the substrate
[82]:
surface can be described by the following 
→ →  
equation  [82]:
→ →

E n rEn =( r )E=n →eEnn eexp
n exp( ikn· r⋅ r+ )
+ φφn

i k (16)
(16)
  n
( )
n
   E n ( r ) = E n en exp ik n ⋅ r + φ n (16)
where→r→ n , en and φn are the position vector, electric field amplitude, unit vector of the
, E→
wherer , rE,n , E
where
polarization en φand
enn, and
direction nofare φthe
the position
are
n laser the
beam vector,
position
and the electric
initialfield
vector, electric
phase. amplitude,
Byfield unit vector
amplitude,
denoting of thevectors
unit
the wave polarization
vector of the
of the
direction
polarizationof the laser
beam, direction beam
the beamofreflected and the
the laserby initial
beamthe and phase. By
the initialdenoting
phase. and the wave
By denotingvectors of
the wavethe direct
vectorsbeam,
direct
  
X-mirror (X-beam) that reflected by the → of→
Y-mirror the
the beam
direct reflected
beam, the by the
beam X-mirror
reflected (X-beam)
by the and
X-mirror that reflected
(X-beam)
(Y-beam) as k1 , k2 and k3 , respectively, the interference fringe patterns to be generated on by
andthe Y-mirror
that (Y-beam)
reflected by as
the k , k
Y-mirror
1 the 2
→
(Y-beam)
substrate
and as k1 ,can
surface
k 3 , respectively, k 2the
beand k 3 , respectively,
described
interference by fringe
the following the interference
patterns equation
to be generated fringe patterns
[82]: to be generated
on the substrate surface canon be the
substrateby
described surface can be described
the following equationby the following equation [82]:
[82]:

Figure 21. Two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer [83]. (a) Orthogonal type; (b) Non-orthogonal type.
Figure 21.Two-axis
Figure21. Two-axisLloyd’s
Lloyd’smirror
mirrorinterferometer
interferometer[83].
[83].(a)
(a)Orthogonal
Orthogonal type;
type; (b)
(b) Non-orthogonal
Non-orthogonal type.
type.
3 3   
I (

r3) =  3 El
2
+
3 2  3
 
Ek El ek ⋅ el cos {( )
→kk −→kl ⋅ r + φk − φl  } (17)
 2
I r =I ( r )E=ll = El2 + 2l =
 
{( →
) }
→ X X X → →
1 2
+ 2 kE<klElEekkE·l eekl ⋅cos
el cosk k k−k − + φφkk −−φφ
k lkl · ⋅rr + ll (17)
(17)
   l=1 l =1 l=2 k<l
l = 2 k <l
where k1 , k2 and k3 can be expressed as follows:
where k1 , k 2 and k 3 can be expressed as follows:
0  sin 2θ1Y   0 
 2π    2π  sin 2θ   2π 
k1 = 00 , k2 =  0 1Y , k3 =  sin 2θ02 X  (18)
λ2π   λ2π   λ2π 
k1 = −10 , k2 = − cos 20θ1Y  , k3 = − sin
cos 2 θ  (18)
λ   λ   λ  2 X 
2 X

 −1  − cos 2θ1Y   − cos 2θ 2 X 
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 21 of 33

→ → →
where k 1 , k 2 and k 3 can be expressed as follows:

√ 
     
→
 0  →  sin 2θ1Y  → 0 
2π   2π  , k 3 = 2π  sin 2θ2X
  
k1 =  0 , k 2 = 0 (18)
 
λ  λ  λ 
  

−1 − cos 2θ1Y − cos 2θ2X
 
Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 33
In the above equations, λ is the light wavelength of the laser beam, while θY and θX are the angles
In thevectors
of tangent above of
equations,
the X- and λ is the light respectively,
Y-mirrors, wavelength of therespect
with laser beam, normalθYofand
to the while the θsubstrate.
X are the

anglesthe
From ofabove
tangent vectors the
equations, of the X- and
pitches of theY-mirrors,
interference respectively,
fringe gX and with respect
gY along thetoX-the
andnormal of the
Y-directions,
substrate. From the above equations, the
respectively, can be obtained as follows [82]: pitches of the interference fringe g X and g Y along the X-
and Y-directions, respectively, can be obtained as follows [82]:
λ λ
gX = λ ,g,Yg= = λ
g X =sin 2θ
(19)
sin 2θ
sin 2θy y Y sin 2θx x (19)

It should be noted that the interference fringe pattern component as the consequence of the
It should be noted that the interference fringe pattern component as the consequence of the
interference between the X-beam and Y-beam is not necessary for the fabrication of the two-dimensional
interference between the X-beam and Y-beam is not necessary for the fabrication of the
(2D) pattern structures for the planar scale grating; the influence of this component can effectively be
two-dimensional (2D) pattern structures for the planar scale grating; the influence of this
reduced by applying the polarization modulation control technique [82].
component can effectively be reduced by applying the polarization modulation control technique [82].

Figure 22. An optical setup for the non-orthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror
mirror interferometer
interferometer [82].
[82].

Figure
Figure 23a23a shows
shows aa schematic
schematic of of the
the non-orthogonal
non-orthogonal two-axis
two-axis Lloyd’s
Lloyd’s mirror
mirror interferometer
interferometer
designed
designed for the fabrication of large-area planar scale grating
the fabrication of large-area planar scale grating [83]. [83]. A laser beam from a He-Cd
He-Cd laser
laser
source
source isis at
at first
first collimated
collimated by by aa collimating
collimating lens.
lens. The collimated laser beam is then then expanded
expanded by by the
the
beam-expansion
beam-expansion unit, unit, which
which isis composed
composed of of aa beam
beam expander
expander based
based on
onthe
theKeplerian
Keplerianconfiguration.
configuration.
The
The collimated
collimatedlaser beam
laser beamwith a large
with diameter
a large is projected
diameter onto the
is projected interferometer
onto unit, which
the interferometer is
unit,
composed of the X- and
which is composed Y-mirrors
of the X- andand a substrate
Y-mirrors andwith a photoresist
a substrate withlayer. To eliminate
a photoresist theTo
layer. interference
eliminate
fringe component
the interference generated
fringe componentby the interference
generated by thebetween the X-between
interference and Y-beams, the Y-beams,
the X- and polarizationthe
modulation
polarizationcontrol unit composed
modulation of two
control unit half-waveofplates
composed is employed.
two half-wave Figure
plates 23b shows an
is employed. example
Figure 23b
of the large-area
shows an example planar scale
of the gratingsplanar
large-area fabricated
scalebygratings
the setup shown inby
fabricated Figure 23a. As
the setup can be
shown in seen in
Figure
the
23a.figure,
As can grating
be seenpattern structures
in the were successfully
figure, grating fabricatedwere
pattern structures over successfully mm × 100over
an area of 100fabricated mm on an
the
areasubstrate surface.mm on the substrate surface.
of 100 mm×100
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 22 of 33
Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 33

Figure TheThe
23. 23.
Figure non-orthogonal two-axis
non-orthogonal Lloyd’s
two-axis mirrormirror
Lloyd’s interferometer for thefor
interferometer fabrication of large-area
the fabrication of
two-dimensional scale gratings [83]. (a) Optical setup; (b) A photograph and microscopic images
large-area two-dimensional scale gratings [83]. (a) Optical setup; (b) A photograph and microscopic of the
fabricated
images oflarge-area two-dimensional
the fabricated scale grating. scale grating.
large-area two-dimensional

It should
It should be be
noted thatthat
noted thethe
optical setup
optical shown
setup shown in Figure 23a requires
in Figure large-scale
23a requires half-wave
large-scale plates
half-wave
whose
plates sizes are comparable
whose to the size to
sizes are comparable of the
the substrate
size of the to substrate
be exposed to by
be the interference
exposed by the fringe patterns.
interference
In fringe
general, such a large-scale
patterns. In general, half-wave plate with
such a large-scale small retardation
half-wave is difficult
plate with small to prepare,
retardation and hence
is difficult to
theprepare,
polarization and hence the polarization modulation control becomes imperfect, resulting in the2D
modulation control becomes imperfect, resulting in the distortion of the fabricated
pattern structures.
distortion of the This issue can
fabricated 2D be addressed
pattern by modifying
structures. This issuethe beam
can expansionby
be addressed assembly
modifying as shown
the
beam expansion
in Figure 24 [84]. Inassembly
the modifiedas shown
beaminexpansion
Figure 24assembly,
[84]. In the modified
the beam expansion
beam diameter is at first assembly,
adjusted so
theit beam
that woulddiameter is at
fit the size of first adjusted
half-wave so that
plates withitsmall
would fit the size After
retardation. of half-wave
that, theplates
beam with small
is magnified
retardation. After that, the beam is magnified by the beam expander
by the beam expander designed in the Galilean configuration. Furthermore, homogenization of the designed in the Galilean
configuration.
light intensity in Furthermore,
the collimatedhomogenization
laser beam with ofthe
theemployment
light intensityofina the collimated
beam laser could
shaper [135] beam with
reduce
the employment of a beam shaper [135] could reduce the amplitude
the amplitude deviation of the fabricated pattern structures on planar scale gratings [85]. deviation of the fabricated
pattern structures on planar scale gratings [85].
4.3. Evaluation of Pitch Deviations of a Two-Dimensional Scale Grating
4.3. Evaluation of Pitch Deviations of A Two-Dimensional Scale Grating
The accuracy of the grating pitch of a planar scale grating is important since the planar encoders
utilize The accuracypitch
the grating of the
as grating
the rulerpitch of a planar scale
for measurement grating
of the is important
displacement of asince
target theofplanar
interest.
encoders utilize the grating pitch as the ruler for measurement of the displacement of a target of
As can be seen in Equations (13)–(16), deviation of the grating pitch ∆g directly affects the interference
interest. As can be seen in Equations (13)–(16), deviation of the grating pitch Δg directly affects the
signals in the planar encoder, resulting in the nonlinear error components in the measurement of
interference signals in the planar encoder, resulting in the nonlinear error components in the
in-plane displacements. In addition, out-of-flatness of the planar scale grating would affect the
measurement of in-plane displacements. In addition, out-of-flatness of the planar scale grating
measurement of the out-of-plane displacement, and would result in the nonlinear error component in
would affect the measurement of the out-of-plane displacement, and would result in the nonlinear
the measured out-of-plane displacement. Therefore, it is important to evaluate the pitch deviation and
error component in the measured out-of-plane displacement. Therefore, it is important to evaluate
thethe
out-of-flatness
pitch deviation of the
andplanar scale grating and
the out-of-flatness compensate
of the planar scale for their influences
grating on the displacement
and compensate for their
measurement in the planar encoders.
influences on the displacement measurement in the planar encoders.
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 23 of 33
Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 33

Figure 24. Beam

Figure 24. Beam expansion unit in
expansion unit in the
the non-orthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s
non-orthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror
mirror interferometer
interferometer [84].
[84].
(a)
(a) the
the conventional
conventional beam
beam expansion
expansion assembly;
assembly; (b)
(b) the
the modified
modifiedbeam
beamexpansion
expansionassembly.
assembly.

AA pitch
pitch deviation
deviation of of thethe planar
planar scale scale grating
grating can can be be evaluated
evaluated by by using
using critical-dimension
critical-dimension
atomic
atomic force microscopes (CD-AFMs) [137–139]. Since the CD-AFMs can evaluate the
force microscopes (CD-AFMs) [137–139]. Since the CD-AFMs can evaluate the profile
profile of of each
each
pattern structure on the grating, pitch deviation can be obtained
pattern structure on the grating, pitch deviation can be obtained as well as the absolute grating as well as the absolute grating pitch.
Meanwhile,
pitch. Meanwhile, the measurement
the measurement throughput of the CD-AFM
throughput is not so high.
of the CD-AFM is notAlthough
so high.some Although efforts some
have
been made to expand the measurable area of the CD-AFMs
efforts have been made to expand the measurable area of the CD-AFMs [140], in most of the cases, [140], in most of the cases, the measurable
area is limited toarea
the measurable be several-hundred µm by several-hundred
is limited to be several-hundred µm. Therefore, μm.
μm by several-hundred it is not a realistic
Therefore, it isway
not
to apply the CD-AFMs for the evaluation of large-area planar
a realistic way to apply the CD-AFMs for the evaluation of large-area planar scale gratings. For scale gratings. For such a purpose,
optical diffractometers
such a purpose, opticalcan be employed;can
diffractometers by bedetecting
employed; the diffraction
by detecting angle
the of the diffracted
diffraction anglebeams
of the
from
diffracted beams from the scale grating in the Littrow configurations, the grating pitch canthe
the scale grating in the Littrow configurations, the grating pitch can be obtained based on be
grating
obtained equation
based on [141,142].
the grating Another candidate
equation for the
[141,142]. evaluation
Another of planar
candidate forscale gratings is the
the evaluation linear
of planar
scale
scale comparator
gratings is [143–145].
the linear In thecomparator
scale linear scale comparator,
[143–145]. Inanthe edge of each
linear scalegrating pattern structure
comparator, an edge of is
detected
each grating by using
pattern focused light, is
structure while the displacement
detected by using focused of the grating
light, whilepattern thestructure
displacement is measured
of the
by using a laser interferometer. Therefore, the linear scale
grating pattern structure is measured by using a laser interferometer. Therefore, the linear comparator can be employed to evaluate
scale
the grating pitch
comparator can be deviation
employed as well as the absolute
to evaluate the grating pitch.pitch
On the other hand,
deviation as well since
as the
the focused
absolutelight pitch.is
employed
On the other to detect
hand, the since edges
the of each grating
focused light ispattern
employed structure,
to detectit becomes
the edges more difficult
of each gratingto carry
patternout
the edge detection due to the light diffraction limit when the grating
structure, it becomes more difficult to carry out the edge detection due to the light diffraction limit pitch is reduced to be less than
awhen
few micrometers.
the grating pitch Furthermore,
is reducedtoto avoid the than
be less influences
a fewofmicrometers.
external disturbances
Furthermore, on displacement
to avoid the
measurement
influences of external disturbances on displacement measurement by the laserthis
by the laser interferometer, severe environmental control is required; prevents the
interferometer,
linear scale comparators to be employed in general-purpose
severe environmental control is required; this prevents the linear scale comparators to be employed laboratory conditions. Furthermore, it is
not so easy to modify
in general-purpose the mechanical
laboratory structure
conditions. of linear scale
Furthermore, it iscomparator
not so easyfor to the evaluation
modify of planar
the mechanical
scale gratings from the viewpoint of cost and the required
structure of linear scale comparator for the evaluation of planar scale gratings from the viewpointexperimental facilities. It should also be
noted that both the CD-AFMs and the linear scale comparators
of cost and the required experimental facilities. It should also be noted that both the CD-AFMs and cannot evaluate the out-of-flatness of
the
the target
linear grating.
scale comparators cannot evaluate the out-of-flatness of the target grating.
In
In responding
responding to to thethe background
background described described above, above, for for thethe evaluation
evaluation of of the
the pitch
pitch deviation
deviation of of
large-area planar scale gratings, a method based on the Fizeau
large-area planar scale gratings, a method based on the Fizeau interferometer has been proposed interferometer has been proposed [86–88].
In the proposed
[86–88]. method, not
In the proposed only the
method, notzeroth-order diffracted beam
only the zeroth-order but also
diffracted beamthe positive
but alsoand the negative
positive
first-order
and negative first-order diffracted beams from the scale grating are obtained by placing agrating
diffracted beams from the scale grating are obtained by placing a planar scale planar
under inspection in the Littrow configuration. By using the
scale grating under inspection in the Littrow configuration. By using the wavefront information in wavefront information in the obtained
beams,
the obtained the X-beams,
and Y-directional pitch deviations
the X- and Y-directional pitch and the out-of-flatness
deviations of the planar of
and the out-of-flatness scalethegrating
planar
can
scalebegrating
obtained canasbewell as the as
obtained out-of-flatness of the referenceofmirror
well as the out-of-flatness in the Fizeau
the reference mirrorinterferometer
in the Fizeau
simultaneously. Figure 25a shows
interferometer simultaneously. the setup
Figure for thethe
25a shows measurement
setup for the ofmeasurement
the zeroth-order diffracted
of the beam
zeroth-order
from the planar scale grating. The
diffracted beam from the planar scale grating. The wavefront phase I (x,y) can be expressed by using
0 wavefront phase I0(x,y) can be expressed by the out-of-flatness
eusing
Z (x,y)theof the planar scale egrating
out-of-flatness and that eRefscale
Z(x,y) of the planar
(x,y) of the reference
grating and thatmirror in of
eRef(x,y) thetheFizeau interferometer
reference mirror in
as follows [86]:
the Fizeau interferometer as follows [86]: 
I0 (x, y) = (4π/λ) eZ (x, y) − eref (x, y) (20)
I 0 ( x, y ) = ( 4π λ ) {eZ ( x, y ) − eref ( x, y )} (20)
where λ is the wavelength of the laser beam in the Fizeau interferometer.
where The λ is the wavelength
wavefront phases of of the
the positive
laser beam andinnegative
the Fizeau interferometer.
first-order diffracted beams can be obtained by
setting The thewavefront
planar scale phases
grating of the
in thepositive
Littrow and negative first-order
configuration. Figure 25b diffracted
shows abeams can be
schematic obtained
of the setup
by setting the planar scale grating in the Littrow configuration. Figure 25b shows a schematic of the
setup in the Fizeau interferometer for the measurement of the wavefront phases of the positive and
negative first-order diffracted beams.
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 24 of 33

in the Fizeau interferometer for the measurement of the wavefront phases of the positive and negative
first-order diffracted
Sensors 2019, beams.
19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 33

Figure
Figure 25.25.Evaluation
Evaluationof ofthe
thepitch
pitch deviation
deviation of
of large-area
large-areaplanar
planarscale
scalegratings
gratingsbased onon
based thethe
Fizeau
Fizeau
interferometer [88]. (a) Setup for measurement of zeroth-order diffracted beam wavefront;
interferometer [88]. (a) Setup for measurement of zeroth-order diffracted beam wavefront; (b) Setup (b) Setup
forfor measurementofofthe
measurement thepositive
positivefirst-order
first-order diffracted
diffracted beam
beam wavefront.
wavefront.

ByByrotating
rotatingthe theplanar
planarscalescale grating
grating about about the the Y-axis
Y-axis with with an angleofof±θ±θ/2,
anangle /2, wherewhereθ is
θ the
is the
positive first-order diffraction angle, the wavefront phases of
positive first-order diffraction angle, the wavefront phases of the positive and negative first-order the positive and negative first-order
diffractedbeams
beamsalongalongthe theX-direction
X-direction IIX+1 and IX-1, respectively, can be obtained by using the
diffracted X+1 and IX-1 , respectively, can be obtained by using the
Fizeau interferometer. IX+1 and IX-1 to be obtained by the Fizeau interferometer can be expressed as
Fizeau interferometer. IX+1 and IX-1 to be obtained by the Fizeau interferometer can be expressed as
follows [86]:
follows [86]:
= ( 2π) ·geX) ⋅(ex,X (yx), +
y) + ( 4π λ))·⋅ { eZ (x, cos(θ(θ/2
x, yy))⋅·cos 2 ) −)e− x,(yx,)}y)

IX+1 I=X +(12π/g (4π/λ refe(ref (21)(21)
IX−1 = −(2π/g) · eX (x, y) + (4π/λ) · eZ (x, y) · cos(θ/2) − eref (x, y)

(22)
I X −1 = − ( 2π g ) ⋅ e X ( x, y ) + ( 4π λ ) ⋅ { eZ ( x, y ) ⋅ cos (θ 2 ) − eref ( x, y )} (22)
where g is the ideal grating pitch, eX (x,y) and eY (x,y) are the pitch deviations at the position (x,y)
where
along theg X-
is the
andideal grating pitch,
Y-directions, eX(x,y) and
respectively. AsecanY(x,y) beareseentheinpitch
Figure deviations
25a andatthe theabove
position (x,y)
equations,
along the X- and Y-directions, respectively. As can be seen in Figure
the grating pitch deviation gX (x,y) affects both IX+1 and IX-1 , and can therefore be calculated through 25a and the above equations,
the grating
separating pitchand
eZ (x,y) deviation gX(x,y)
eref (x,y). In the affects
sameboth manner,IX+1 and IX-1, and canphases
the wavefront therefore of the be positive
calculated and through
negative
separating e Z(x,y) and eref(x,y). In the same manner, the wavefront phases of the positive and
first-order diffracted beam along the Y-axis IY+1 and IY-1 , respectively, can also be obtained by the
negative
Fizeau first-order diffracted
interferometer, and can be beam along the
expressed as Y-axis
followsIY+1 and IY-1, respectively, can also be obtained
[86]:
by the Fizeau interferometer, and can be expressed as follows [86]:
n o
θ/2
IY + 1 = ( 2π/g ) · e Y ( x, y ) + ( 4π/λ )
{
· eZ ( x, y ) · cos ( )
IY +1 = ( 2π g ) ⋅ eY ( x, y ) + ( 4π λ ) ⋅ eZ ( x, y ) ⋅ cos (θ 2 ) − eref ( x, y ) − e re
}f ( x, y ) (23)
(23)
n o
IY−1 = −(2π/g) · eY (x, y) + (4π/λ) · eZ (x, y) · cos(θ/2) − ere f (x, y) (24)
{
IY −1 = − ( 2π g ) ⋅ eY ( x, y ) + ( 4π λ ) ⋅ eZ ( x, y ) ⋅ cos (θ 2 ) − eref ( x, y ) } (24)
From the above equations, eX (x,y), eY (x,y), eref (x,y) and eZ (x,y) can be obtained as follows [86]:
From the above equations, eX(x,y), eY(x,y), eref(x,y) and eZ(x,y) can be obtained as follows [86]:

eX (x, y) = ( g/4π) IX+1 (x, y) − IX−1 (x, y) (25)
e X ( x, y ) = ( g 4π ){ I X +1 ( x, y ) − I X −1 ( x, y )} (25)

eY (x, y) = ( g/4π) IY+1 (x, y) − IY−1 (x, y) (26)
eY ( x, y ) =( g 4π ){ IY +1 ( x, y ) − IY −1 ( x, y )} (26)
λ
(x, y) + IX−1 (x, y) + 2I0 (x, y) cos(θ/2)

eRef (x, y) = 8π(1−cos (θ/2)) X+1
I
λ λ (27)
(x, y) + 2I (x, y) cos(θ/2)

= I (x, y) + I
eRef ( x, y ) =8π(1−cos(θ/2)) Y+{1I X +1 ( x, y ) +Y−1 I X −1 ( x, y ) + 2 I00 ( x, y ) cos(θ 2)}
8π (1 − cos(θ 2) ) 
λ
(27)
eZ (x, y) = 8π(1−cos λ (θ/2)) IX+1 (x, y) + IX−1 (x, y) − 2 · I0 (x, y)
= λ { IY +1 ( x, y ) + IY −1 ( x, y ) + 2 I 0 ( x, y ) cos(θ 2)} (28)
= (1 −(1−cos
8π 8π cos(θ(θ/2 ) IY+1 (x, y) + IY−1 (x, y) − 2 · I0 (x, y)
2) ))

As can be seen in the above equations, grating pitch deviations and the out-of-flatness of the
λ
planar scale grating, asewell ) =the out-of-flatness
Z ( x, yas {I Xof+1the ) + I X −1 ( xmirror
( x, yreference , y ) − 2 ⋅ Iin
0 (the }
x, y )Fizeau interferometer,
8π (1 − cos(θ 2) )
can be obtained simultaneously in short experiment time. (28)
λ
= {IY +1 ( x, y ) + IY −1 ( x, y ) − 2 ⋅ I 0 ( x, y )}
8π (1 − cos(θ 2) )
Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 25 of 33

As can be seen in the above equations, grating pitch deviations and the out-of-flatness of the planar
scale grating, as well as the out-of-flatness of the reference mirror in the Fizeau interferometer, can
be obtained
Sensors 2019, 19,simultaneously
5289 in short experiment time. 25 of 33

Figure 26 shows the X- and Y-directional pitch deviations and the out-of-flatness of a planar
scale grating evaluated by using a commercially-available Fizeau interferometer (ZYGO GPI-XP) [86].
The planar scale grating was placed in the field of view of the Fizeau interferometer while mounting
it onto a two-axis manual tilt stage so that the planar scale grating could be set in the Littrow
configurations. The required time for a whole experimental procedure was approximately five minutes.
These
Sensorsexperimental
2019, 19, x FOR results have demonstrated the feasibility of evaluating the grating pitch deviations
PEER REVIEW 25 of 33
while separating from the out-of-flatness of the scale grating and the reference mirror in the Fizeau
interferometer.
Figure
As can 26. The
be seen The validity
evaluated
in the of the obtained
abovelarge-area
equations, planar grating
scale
grating pitch
gratings
pitch deviations
[86].
deviations (a)and has been
Z-directional
the confirmed
out-of-flatness;
out-of-flatness through
(b)planar
of the
employing the as
scaleX-directional
grating, planar
pitch scale
thegrating
well deviation;
as in the three-axis
(c) Y-directional
out-of-flatness of pitch planar mirror
deviation.
the reference encoderinand
the comparing the measured
Fizeau interferometer, can
displacement along the X- and Y-directions
be obtained simultaneously in short experiment time. with those by the commercial laser interferometers [86].
Figure 26 shows the X- and Y-directional pitch deviations and the out-of-flatness of a planar
scale grating evaluated by using a commercially-available Fizeau interferometer (ZYGO GPI-XP)
[86]. The planar scale grating was placed in the field of view of the Fizeau interferometer while
mounting it onto a two-axis manual tilt stage so that the planar scale grating could be set in the
Littrow configurations. The required time for a whole experimental procedure was approximately
five minutes. These experimental results have demonstrated the feasibility of evaluating the grating
pitch deviations while separating from the out-of-flatness of the scale grating and the reference
mirror in the Fizeau interferometer. The validity of the obtained grating pitch deviations has been
confirmed through employing the planar scale grating in the three-axis planar encoder and
Figurethe
comparing 26. measured
The evaluated large-area planar
displacement along scale
the X-gratings [86]. (a) Z-directional
and Y-directions with those out-of-flatness; (b)
by the commercial
Figure 26. The evaluated large-area planar scale gratings [86]. (a) Z-directional out-of-flatness;
X-directional pitch
laser(b)
interferometers deviation; (c) Y-directional pitch deviation.
[86].
X-directional pitch deviation; (c) Y-directional pitch deviation.

Figure 26 shows the X- and Y-directional pitch deviations and the out-of-flatness of a planar
scale grating evaluated by using a commercially-available Fizeau interferometer (ZYGO GPI-XP)
[86]. The planar scale grating was placed in the field of view of the Fizeau interferometer while
mounting it onto a two-axis manual tilt stage so that the planar scale grating could be set in the
Littrow configurations. The required time for a whole experimental procedure was approximately
five minutes. These experimental results have demonstrated the feasibility of evaluating the grating
pitch deviations while separating from the out-of-flatness of the scale grating and the reference
mirror in the Fizeau interferometer. The validity of the obtained grating pitch deviations has been
confirmed through employing the planar scale grating in the three-axis planar encoder and
comparing the measured displacement along the X- and Y-directions with those by the commercial
laser interferometers [86].

Figure 27.
Figure 27. Verification of the
Verification of the obtained
obtained out-of-flatness
out-of-flatness and
and the
the pitch
pitch deviations
deviations [86].
[86]. (a)
(a) Experimental
Experimental
setup for evaluation of the measurement errors of the planar encoder; (b) Z-directional
setup for evaluation of the measurement errors of the planar encoder; (b) Z-directional out-of-flatness;
out-of-flatness; (c) X-directional pitch deviation; (d) Y-directional
(c) X-directional pitch deviation; (d) Y-directional pitch deviation. pitch deviation.

Figure 27a shows the the experimental

experimental setup
setup used
used for
for the
the experiment.
experiment. Figure
Figure 27b shows the
Z-directional position detection
detection error in the planar encoder. In the figure, the cross-sectional profile
of the corresponding Z-directional out-of-flatness of the planar scale grating shown in Figure 26a is
also indicated. As
As can
can be
be seen
seen in
in the
the figure, a good agreement can be found between the position
detection error and the evaluated out-of-flatness of the planar scale grating. In the same manner, the X-
and Y-directional measurement errors in the planar encoder were compared with the corresponding
X-and Y-directional pitch deviation of the planar scale grating as shown in Figure 27c,d, respectively.

Figure 27. Verification of the obtained out-of-flatness and the pitch deviations [86]. (a) Experimental
setup for evaluation of the measurement errors of the planar encoder; (b) Z-directional
out-of-flatness; (c) X-directional pitch deviation; (d) Y-directional pitch deviation.
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 26 of 33

From these results, the feasibility of the proposed fast evaluation method of the pitch deviation and
out-of-flatness error of a planar scale grating has been verified.

5. Conclusions
In this review article, multi-axis optical sensors for precision dimensional metrology have been
explained, while focusing on the three-axis planar encoder and the three-axis autocollimator that can
measure three-axis translational displacement and the three-axis angular displacements, respectively,
by employing a planar scale grating. In addition, a method of expanding the measurement range
of the planar encoder by using a mosaic scale grating and a multi-beam optical sensor head is also
explained. Furthermore, the six-degree-of-freedom planar encoder, which is capable of detecting
three-dimensional translational displacement as well as the three-dimensional rotational displacement
by using a single measurement laser beam, has been introduced. Since a planar scale grating is
employed as the ruler for displacement measurement, the fabrication of planar scale grating, as well
as the evaluation of the pitch deviation of the fabricated planar scale grating, is important tasks
to be addressed. In this review article, the non-orthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer,
which is based on the principle of interference lithography, for the fabrication of large-scale planar
scale gratings has been explained, as well as the pitch deviation measurement method based on the
Fizeau interferometer.
A sub-nanometric resolution for measurement of linear displacement and a resolution better
than 0.001 arc-second for measurement of angular displacement about a single axis have already
been achieved by the conventional technologies. Meanwhile, when these technologies are applied for
multi-axis displacement measurement, it suffers from the increase of measurement uncertainty due to
the increase of the degrees of freedom to be measured. Since demands on further higher positioning
accuracy in multi-axis positioning systems for precision dimensional metrology are increasing, it is
necessary to improve the accuracy of multi-axis translational and angular displacement measurements.
Furthermore, it is necessary to realize precision dimensional metrology traceable to the primary
standard of length. Some attempts have already been made to realize multi-axis measurement directly
traceable to the primary standard of length with the enhancement of a mode-locked femtosecond
laser [146–149]. The multi-axis optical sensor technologies explained in this paper as well as the new
measurement methods with the mode-locked femtosecond laser are expected to be a breakthrough
technology in next-generation precision engineering.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, W.G. and Y.S.; methodology, W.G. and Y.S.; software, W.G. and Y.S.;
validation, W.G. and Y.S.; formal analysis, W.G. and Y.S.; investigation, Y.S. and H.M.; resources, W.G. and Y.S.;
data curation, W.G., H.M. and Y.S.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.S.; writing—review and editing, W.G.
and Y.S.; visualization, Y.S. and W.G.; supervision, W.G.; project administration, W.G.; funding acquisition, W.G.,
Y.S. and H.M.
Funding: This research is supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS).
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank all our laboratory members who have joined the related
projects at Tohoku University for their contributions to the achievements described in this paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The founding sponsors had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, and in the
decision to publish the results.

References
1. Gao, W.; Haitjema, H.; Fang, F.Z.; Leach, R.K.; Cheung, C.F.; Savio, E.; Linares, J.M. On-machine and
in-process surface metrology for precision manufacturing. Cirp Ann.-Manuf. Technol. 2019, 68, 843–866.
[CrossRef]
2. Gao, W. Precision Nanometrology-Sensors and Measuring Systems for Nanomanufacturing; Springer: London,
UK, 2010.
3. Farago, F.T.; Curtis, M.A. Handbook of Dimensional Measurement; Industrial Press Inc.: New York, NY,
USA, 1994.
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 27 of 33

4. Gao, W.; Kim, S.W.; Bosse, H.; Haitjema, H.; Chen, Y.L.; Lu, X.D.; Knapp, W.; Weckenmann, A.; Estler, W.T.;
Kunzmann, H. Measurement technologies for precision positioning. Cirp Ann.-Manuf. Technol. 2015, 64,
773–796. [CrossRef]
5. Acosta, D.; Albajez, J.A.; Yagüe-Fabra, J.A.; Velázquez, J.V. Verification of Machine Tools Using Multilateration
and a Geometrical Approach. Nanomanuf. Metrol. 2018, 1, 39–44. [CrossRef]
6. Keysight Technologies Technical Overview. Optics and Laser Heads for Laser-Interferometer Positioning Systems;
Keysight Technologies: Santa Rosa, CA, USA, 2017.
7. Steinmetz, C.R. Sub-micron position measurement and control on precision machine tools with laser
interferometry. Precis. Eng. 1990, 12, 12–24. [CrossRef]
8. HEIDENHAIN. Catalogue. Exposed Linear Encoders, AKLIP21. 2014. Available online: https://www.
heidenhain.com/fileadmin/pdb/media/img/208960-2F_Exposed_Linear_Encoders_en.pdf (accessed on 30
November 2019).
9. Renishaw plc, Catalogue. ResoluteTM Absolute Optical Encoder with BiSS Serial Communications. 2014.
Available online: https://resources.renishaw.com/en/details/data-sheet-resolute-absolute-optical-encoder-
with-biss-serial-communications--111510 (accessed on 27 November 2019).
10. Capacitive Sensors; Physik Instrumente GmbH & Co.KG: Karlsruhe, Germany. Available online: https:
//www.physikinstrumente.com (accessed on 10 September 2019).
11. Peng, Y.; Ito, S.; Shimizu, Y.; Azuma, T.; Gao, W.; Niwa, E. A Cr-N thin film displacement sensor for precision
positioning of a micro-stage. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 2014, 11, 89–97. [CrossRef]
12. Adachi, K.; Matsukuma, H.; Sugawara, T.; Shimizu, Y.; Gao, W.; Niwa, E.; Sasaki, Y. Integration of a Cr–N
Thin-Film Displacement Sensor into an XY Micro-stage for Closed-Loop Nano-positioning. Nanomanuf.
Metrol. 2019, 2, 131–139. [CrossRef]
13. Mehta, A.; Mohammed, W.; Johnson, E.G. Multimode Interference-Based Fiber-Optic Displacement sensor.
IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 2003, 15, 1129–1131. [CrossRef]
14. Gao, Z.; Hu, J.; Zhu, Y.; Duan, G. A new 6-degree-of-freedom measurement method of X-Y stages based on
additional information. Precis. Eng. 2013, 37, 606–620. [CrossRef]
15. Fan, K.C.; Chen., M.J. A 6-degree-of-freedom Measurement System for the Accuracy of X–Y Stages. Precis. Eng.
2000, 24, 15–23. [CrossRef]
16. Abbe, E. Measuring instruments for physicists. J. Sci. Instrum. 1890, 10, 446–448. (In Germany)
17. Bryan, J.B. The Abbé principle revisited: An updated interpretation. Precis. Eng. 1979, 1, 129–132. [CrossRef]
18. Tam, R. Ultra-Precision Coordinate Measuring Machine—Design, Calibration and Error Compensation.
Ph.D. Thesis, Technische Universiteit Delft, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, 2001.
19. Leach, R. Abbe Error/Offset. In CIRP Encyclopedia of Production Engineering; Chatti, S., Laperrière, L.,
Reinhart, G., Tolio, T., The International Academy for Production, Eds.; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg,
Germany, 2018.
20. Manske, E.; Jäger, G.; Hausotte, T.; Füßl, R. Recent Developments and Challenges of Nanopositioning and
Nanomeasuring Technology. Meas. Sci. Technol. 2012, 23, 074001. [CrossRef]
21. Kunzmann, H.; Pfeifer, T.; Flügge, J. Scales vs Laser Interferometers. Performance and Comparison of Two
Measuring Systems. Cirp Ann.-Manuf. Technol. 1993, 42, 753–767. [CrossRef]
22. Haitjema, H. Achieving traceability and sub-nanometer uncertainty using interferometric techniques.
Meas. Sci. Technol. 2008, 19, 084002. [CrossRef]
23. Haitjema, H.; Cosijns, S.J.; Roset, N.J.J.; Jansen, M.J. Improving a commercially available heterodyne laser
interferometer to subnm uncertainty. In Proceedings of the SPIE, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, 20 November
2003; p. 5190. [CrossRef]
24. Meiners-Hagen, K.; Meyer, T.; Prellinger, G.; Pöschel, W.; Dontsov, D.; Pollinger, F. Overcoming the refractivity
limit in manufacturing environment. Opt. Express 2016, 24, 24092–24104. [CrossRef]
25. Pollinger, F.; Meyer, T.; Beyer, J.; Doloca, N.R.; Schellin, W.; Niemeier, W.; Jokela, J.; Hakli, P.; Abou-Zeid, A.;
Meiners-Hagen, K. The upgraded PTB 600 m baseline: A high-accuracy reference for the calibration and the
development of long distance measurement devices. Meas. Sci. Technol. 2012, 23, 094018. [CrossRef]
26. Pollinger, F.; Meiners-Hagen, K.; Wedde, M.; Abou-Zeid, A. Diode-laser based High-precision Absolute
Distance Interferometer of 20 m Range. Appl. Opt. 2009, 48, 6188–6194. [CrossRef]
27. Schödel, R. Ultra-High Accuracy Thermal Expansion Measurements with PTB’s Precision Interferometer.
Meas. Sci. Technol. 2008, 19, 084003. [CrossRef]
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 28 of 33

28. Teimel, A. Technology and application of grating interferometers in high-precision measurement. Precis.
Eng. 1992, 14, 147–154. [CrossRef]
29. Rieger, G.; Ludwig, K.; Hauch, J.; Clemens, W. GMR sensors for contactless position detection. Sens. Actuators
A Phys. 2001, 91, 7–11. [CrossRef]
30. Chen, Z.; Pu, H.; Liu, X.; Peng, D.; Yu, Z. A time-grating sensor for displacement measurement with long
range and nanometer accuracy. IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas. 2015, 64, 3105–3115. [CrossRef]
31. Shimizu, Y.; Ishida, A.; Matsuno, Y.; Matsukuma, H.; Gao, W. A Design Study of a Heat Flow-Type Reading
Head for a Linear Encoder Based on a Micro Thermal Sensor. Nanomanuf. Metrol. 2019, 2, 100–110. [CrossRef]
32. Lin, C.; Yan, S.; Du, Z.; Wang, G.; Wei, C. Symmetrical short-period and high signal-to-noise ratio heterodyne
grating interferometer. Chin. Opt. Lett. 2015, 13, 100501.
33. Zherdev, A.Y.; Odinokov, S.B.; Lushnikov, D.S. Optical position encoder on four-section diffraction grating.
In Proceedings of the SPIE, Prague, Czech Republic, 15 May 2017; Volume 10233, p. 102331I.
34. Williams, R.P.; Hord, S.K.; Hall, N.A. Optically read displacement detection using phase-modulated diffraction
gratings with reduced zeroth-order reflections. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2017, 110, 151104. [CrossRef]
35. Lv, Q.; Liu, Z.; Wang, W.; Li, X.; Li, S.; Song, Y.; Yu, H.; Li, W. Simple and compact grating-based
heterodyne interferometer with the Littrow configuration for high-accuracy and long-range measurement of
two-dimensional displacement. Appl. Opt. 2018, 57, 9455–9463. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
36. Shin, D.; Kim, B. A laser interferometer encoder with two micromachined gratings generating phase-shifted
quadrature. J. Micromech. Microeng. 2011, 21, 085036. [CrossRef]
37. Fan, K.C.; Zhang, Y.L.; Miao, J.W. Error compensation of grating interferometer due to angular error of linear
stage. In Proceedings of the IEEE/ASME International Conference on Advanced Intelligent Mechatronics,
Kachsiung, Taiwan, 11–14 July 2012; pp. 428–431.
38. Wu, C.C.; Hsu, C.C.; Lee, J.Y.; Chen, Y.Z.; Yang, J.S. Littrow-type self-aligned laser encoder with high tolerance
using double diffractions. Opt. Commun. 2013, 297, 89–97. [CrossRef]
39. Wu, C.C.; Chen, Y.Z.; Liao, C.H. Common-path laser planar encoder. Opt. Exp. 2013, 21, 18872–18883.
[CrossRef]
40. Tiemann, I.; Spaeth, C.; Wallner, G.; Metz, G.; Israel, W.; Yamaryo, Y.; Shimomura, T.; Kubo, T.; Wakasa, T.;
Morosawa, T.; et al. An International Length Comparison Using Vacuum Comparators and a Photoelectric
Incremental Encoder as Transfer Standard. Precis. Eng. 2008, 32, 1–6. [CrossRef]
41. Tamiya, H.; Taniguchi, K.; Yamazaki, K.; Aoyama, H. Detection principle and verification of non-contact
displacement meter with pico-meter resolution. J. Adv. Mech. Des. Syst. Manuf. 2018, 12. [CrossRef]
42. Guan, J.; Köchert, P.; Weichert, C.; Köning, R.; Siaudinyte, L.; Flügge, J. A differential interferometric
heterodyne encoder with 30 picometer periodic nonlinearity and sub-nanometer stability. Precis. Eng. 2017,
50, 114–118. [CrossRef]
43. Magnescale. Self-Compensating Absolute Laserscale. Available online: http://www.mgscale.com/mgs/
language/english/news/20141020-1.html (accessed on 12 September 2019).
44. Oiwa, T.; Katsuki, M.; Karita, M.; Gao, W.; Makinouchi, S.; Sato, K.; Oohashi., Y. Report of Questionnaire Survey
on Ultra-Precision Positioning; Technical Committee of Ultra-Precision Positioning, Japan Society for Precision
Engineering (JSPE): Tokyo, Japan, 2015.
45. Köning, R.; Flügge, J.; Bosse, H. A Method for the in situ Determination of Abbe Errors and Their Correction.
Meas. Sci. Technol. 2007, 18, 476–481. [CrossRef]
46. Gao, W.; Saito, Y.; Sato, H.; Kiyono, S.; Shimizu, H.; Hirose, J. Development of a Sensitive Two-Axis
Micro-Angle Sensor. J. Jpn. Soc. Precis. Eng. 2006, 72, 1174–1178. [CrossRef]
47. Shimizu, Y.; Tan, S.L.; Murata, D.; Maruyama, T.; Ito, S.; Chen, Y.L.; Gao, W. Ultra-sensitive angle sensor
based on laser autocollimation for measurement of stage tilt motions. Opt. Express 2016, 24, 2788–2805.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
48. Möller-Wedel Optical GmbH. Catalogue 2014, Electronic Autocollimators ELCOMAT HR. Available
online: https://www.haag-streit.com/moeller-wedel-optical/products/electronic-autocollimators/elcomat-
product-line/elcomat-hr/ (accessed on 27 November 2019).
49. Gao, W.; Ohnuma, H.; Shimizu, H.; Kiyono, S. A Precision Angle Sensor Using a Multi-Cell Photodiode
Array. Ann. Cirp 2004, 53, 425–428. [CrossRef]
50. Gao, W.; Kiyono, S.; Satoh, E. Precision Measurement of Multi-Degree-Of-Freedom Spindle Errors Using
Two-Dimensional Slope Sensors. Cirp Ann.-Manuf. Technol. 2002, 51, 447–450. [CrossRef]
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 29 of 33

51. Ennos, A.E.; Virdee, M.S. High Accuracy Profile Measurement of Quasi-Conical Mirror Surfaces by Laser
Autocollimation. Precis. Eng. 1982, 4, 5–8. [CrossRef]
52. Gao, W.; Saito, Y.; Muto, H.; Arai, Y.; Shimizu, Y. A Three-Axis Autocollimator for Detection of Angular Error
Motions of a Precision Stage. Cirp Ann.-Manuf. Technol. 2011, 60, 515–518. [CrossRef]
53. Li, X.; Shimizu, Y.; Ito, T.; Cai, Y.; Ito, S.; Gao, W. Measurement of six-degree-of-freedom planar motions by
using a multiprobe surface encoder. Opt. Eng. 2014, 53. Paper No.122405. [CrossRef]
54. Li, X.; Gao, W.; Muto, H.; Shimizu, Y.; Ito, S.; Dian, S. A Six-Degree-Of-Freedom Surface Encoder for Precision
Positioning of a Planar Motion Stage. Precis. Eng. 2013, 37, 771–781. [CrossRef]
55. Matsukuma, H.; Ishizuka, R.; Furuta, M.; Li, X.; Shimizu, Y.; Gao, W. Reduction in Cross-Talk Errors in a
Six-Degree-of-Freedom Surface Encoder. Nanomanuf. Metrol. 2019, 2, 111–123. [CrossRef]
56. Gao, W.; Dejima, S.; Shimizu, Y.; Kiyono, S. Precision Measurement of Two-Axis Positions and Tilt Motions
Using a Surface Encoder. Cirp Ann.-Manuf. Technol. 2003, 52, 435–438. [CrossRef]
57. Kimura, A.; Gao, W.; Zeng, L. Position and Out-of-Straightness Measurement of a Precision Linear Air-Bearing
Stage by Using a Two-Degree-Of-Freedom Linear Encoder. Meas. Sci. Technol. 2010, 21, 054005. [CrossRef]
58. Gao, W.; Kimura, A. A Three-Axis Displacement Sensor with Nanometric Resolution. Ann. Cirp 2007, 56,
529–532. [CrossRef]
59. Kimura, A.; Gao, W.; Kim, W.; Hosono, K.; Shimizu, Y.; Shi, L.; Zeng, L. A Sub-Nanometric Three-Axis
Surface Encoder with Short-Period Planar Gratings for Stage Motion Measurement. Precis. Eng. 2012, 36,
576–585. [CrossRef]
60. Gao, W.; Dejima, S.; Yanai, H.; Katakura, K.; Kiyono, S.; Tomita, Y. A Surface Motor-Driven Planar Motion
Stage Integrated with an XYθZ Surface Encoder for Precision Positioning. Precis. Eng. 2004, 28, 329–337.
[CrossRef]
61. Shimizu, Y.; Ito, T.; Li, X.; Kim, W.J.; Gao, W. Design and Testing of a Four-probe Optical Sensor Head for
Three-axis Surface Encoder with a Mosaic Scale Grating. Meas. Sci. Technol. 2014, 25, 09402. [CrossRef]
62. Hsu, C.C.; Wu, C.C.; Lee, J.Y.; Chen, H.Y.; Weng, H.F. Reflection type heterodyne grating interferometry for
in-plane displacement measurement. Opt. Commun. 2008, 281, 2582–2589. [CrossRef]
63. Lin, C.B.; Yan, S.H.; Ding, D.; Wang, G. Two-dimensional diagonal-based heterodyne grating interferometer
with enhanced signal-to-noise ratio and optical subdivision. Opt. Eng. 2018, 57, 064102. [CrossRef]
64. Lee, J.Y.; Hsieh, H.L.; Lerondel, G.; Deturche, R.; Lu, M.P.; Chen, J.C. Heterodyne grating interferometer based
on a quasi-common-optical path configuration for a two-degrees-of-freedom straightness measurement.
Appl. Opt. 2011, 50, 1272–1279. [CrossRef]
65. Wu, C.C.; Hsu, C.C.; Lee, J.Y.; Liu, C.Y. Optical heterodyne laser encoder for in-plane nanopositioning.
In Proceedings of the SPIE, San Diego, CA, USA, 11 August 2008; Volume 7063, p. 70631A.
66. Chung, Y.C.; Fan, K.C.; Lee, B.C. Development of a novel planar encoder for 2D displacement measurement
in nanometer resolution and accuracy. In Proceedings of the 9th World Congress on Intelligent Control and
Automation, Taipei, Taiwan, 21–25 June 2011; pp. 449–453.
67. Wei, P.P.; Lu, X.; Qiao, D.; Zou, L.; Huang, X.; Tan, J.; Lua, Z. Two-dimensional displacement measurement
based on two parallel gratings. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 2018, 89, 065105. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
68. Wang, X.Z.; Dong, X.H.; Guo, J.; Xie, T. Two-dimensional displacement sensing using a cross diffraction
grating scheme. J. Opt. A Pure Appl. Opt. 2004, 6, 106–111. [CrossRef]
69. Lin, C.B.; Yan, S.H.; Du, Z.G.; Wei, C.; Wang, G. High-efficiency gold-coated cross-grating for heterodyne
grating interferometer with improved signal contrast and optical subdivision. Opt. Commun. 2015, 339,
86–93. [CrossRef]
70. Feng, C.; Zeng, L.J.; Wang, S.W. Heterodyne planar grating encoder with high alignment tolerance, especially
insensitivity to grating tilts. In Proceedings of the SPIE, Chengdu, China, 31 January 2013; Volume 8759,
p. 85793L.
71. Fan, K.C.; Liao, B.H.; Chung, Y.C.; Chung, T.T. Displacement measurement of planar stage by diffraction
planar encoder in nanometer resolution. In Proceedings of the EEE International Instrumentation and
Measurement Technology Conference Proceedings, Graz, Austria, 13–16 May 2012; pp. 894–897.
72. Fan, K.C.; Lee, B.C.; Chung, Y.C. A planar laser diffraction encoder in Littrow configuration for 2D nanometric
positioning. Int. J. Autom. Smart Technol. 2011, 1, 93–99. [CrossRef]
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 30 of 33

73. Wu, C.C.; Chang, C.C.; Kao, C.F.; Peng, G.S. Novel planar laser encoder system for two-dimensional
positioning with ultra high head-to-scale alignment tolerance. In Proceedings of the SPIE, San Diego, CA,
USA, 3 November 2003; Volume 5173, pp. 55–63.
74. Hsieh, H.L.; Chen, J.C.; Lerondel, G.; Lee, J.Y. Two dimensional displacement measurement by
quasicommon-optical-path heterodyne grating interferometer. Opt. Express 2011, 19, 9770–9782. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
75. Lin, J.; Guan, J.; Wen, F.; Tan, J. High-resolution and wide range displacement measurement based on planar
grating. Opt. Commun. 2017, 404, 132–138. [CrossRef]
76. Li, X.; Shi, Y.; Xiao, X.; Zhou, Q.; Wu, G.; Lu, H.; Ni, K. Design and Testing of a Compact Optical Prism Module
for Multi-Degree-of-Freedom Grating Interferometry Application. Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 2495. [CrossRef]
77. Pan, S.W.; Hsieh, H.L.; Wang, W.C. 6-DOF displacement and angle measurements using heterodyne laser
encoder. In Proceedings of the SPIE, San Diego, CA, USA, 20 September 2013; Volume 8819, p. 881909.
78. Hsieh, H.L.; Pan, S.W. Development of a grating-based interferometer for six-degree-of-freedom displacement
and angle measurements. Opt. Express 2015, 23, 2451–2465. [CrossRef]
79. Liu, C.H.; Cheng, C.H. Development of a grating based multi-degree-of-freedom laser linear encoder using
diffracted light. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 2012, 181, 87–93. [CrossRef]
80. Gao, W.; Takeshi, A.; Satoshi, K.; Yuichi, O.; Masashi, Y. Precision Nanofabrication and Evaluation of a Large
Area Sinusoidal Grid Surface for a Surface Encoder. Precis. Eng. 2003, 27, 289–298. [CrossRef]
81. Kimura, A.; Gao, W.; Kiyono, S. Design and Construction of a Surface Encoder with Dual Sine-Grids. Int. J.
Precis. Eng. Manuf. 2007, 8, 20–25.
82. Li, X.; Gao, W.; Shimizu, Y.; Ito, S. A Two-Axis Lloyd’s Mirror Interferometer for Fabrication of Two
Dimensional Diffraction Gratings. Cirp Ann.-Manuf. Technol. 2014, 63, 435–438. [CrossRef]
83. Shimizu, Y.; Aihara, R.; Mano, K.; Chen, C.; Chen, Y.L.; Chen, X.; Gao, W. Design and testing of a compact
non-orthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer for fabrication of large-area two-dimensional scale
gratings. Precis. Eng. 2018, 52, 138–151. [CrossRef]
84. Shimizu, Y.; Mano, K.; Zhang, K.; Matsukuma, H.; Gao, W. Accurate polarization control in a non-orthogonal
two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer for fabrication of two-dimensional scale gratings. Opt. Eng. 2019,
58, 092611. [CrossRef]
85. Shimizu, Y.; Mano, K.; Murakami, H.; Hirota, S.; Matsukuma, H.; Gao, W. Design optimization of a
non-orthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer for fabrication of large-area two-dimensional scale
gratings. Precis. Eng. 2019, 60, 280–290. [CrossRef]
86. Gao, W.; Kimura, A. A Fast Evaluation Method for Pitch Deviation and Out-of-Flatness of a Planar Scale
Grating. Ann. Cirp 2010, 59, 505–508. [CrossRef]
87. Chen, X.; Shimizu, Y.; Xiong, X.; Chen, Y.L.; Gao, W. Self-calibration of Fizeau interferometer and planar
scale gratings in Littrow setup. Opt. Express 2017, 25, 21567. [CrossRef]
88. Xiong, X.; Shimizu, Y.; Chen, X.; Matsukuma, H.; Gao, W. Uncertainty Evaluation for Measurements of Pitch
Deviation and Out-of-Flatness of Planar Scale Gratings by a Fizeau Interferometer in Littrow Configuration.
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 2539. [CrossRef]
89. Schwenke, H.; Knapp, W.; Haitjema, H.; Weckenmann, A.; Schmitt, R.; Delbressine, F. Geometric error
measurement and compensation of machines-An update. Cirp Ann.-Manuf. Technol. 2008, 57, 660–675.
[CrossRef]
90. Meyer, G.; Amer, M. Novel optical approach to atomic force microscopy. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1988, 53, 1045–1047.
[CrossRef]
91. Huang, P.S.; Kiyono., S.; Kamada, O. Angle measurement based on the internal-reflection effect: A new
method. Appl. Opt. 1992, 31, 6047–6055. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
92. Shan, M.; Min, R.; Zhong, Z.; Wang, Y.; Zhang, Y. Differential reflective fiber-optic angular displacement
sensor. Opt. Laser Technol. 2015, 68, 124–128. [CrossRef]
93. Ralf, D.G.; Ingolf, W.; Andreas, J.; Reinhard, P. Use and treaceable calibration of autocollimators for
ultra-precise measurement of slope and topography. In Proceedings of the SPIE, Munich, Germany,
22 October 2001; Volume 4401. [CrossRef]
94. Autocollimator. Available online: http://www.precipedia.jspe.or.jp (accessed on 10 September 2019).
95. Fan, K.C.; Li, R.J.; Xu, P. Design and Verification of Micro/Nano-Probes for Coordinate Measuring Machines.
Nanomanuf. Metrol. 2019, 2, 1–15. [CrossRef]
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 31 of 33

96. Gao, W.; Huang, P.S.; Yamada, T.; Kiyono, S. A compact and sensitive two-dimensional angle probe for
flatness measurement of large silicon wafers. Precis. Eng. 2002, 26, 396–404. [CrossRef]
97. Graves, L.R.; Smith, G.A.; Apai, D.; Kim, D.W. Precision Optics Manufacturing and Control for
Next-Generation Large Telescopes. Nanomanuf. Metrol. 2019, 2, 65–90. [CrossRef]
98. Tanimura, Y.; Kato, T. Reflection Device of Autocollimator for Measuring Three Components of Angular
Alignment. Jpn. J. Precis. Eng. 1987, 53, 896–901. (In Japanese) [CrossRef]
99. Liu, C.H.; Jywe, W.Y.; Tzeng, S.C. Simple three-dimensional laser angle sensor for three-dimensional
small-angle measurement. Appl. Opt. 2004, 43, 2840–2845. [CrossRef]
100. Shimizu, Y.; Maruyama, T.; Ito, S.; Gao, W. A Three-Axis Angle Sensor with a Linear Encoder Scale Reflector.
Appl. Mech. Mater. 2017, 870, 141–146. [CrossRef]
101. Schwenke, H.; Neuschaefer-Rube, U.; Pfeifer, T.; Kunzmann, H. Optical methods for dimensional metrology
in production engineering. Cirp Ann.-Manuf. Technol. 2002, 51, 685–699. [CrossRef]
102. Weichert, C.; Köchert, P.; Köning, R.; Flügge, J.; Andreas, B.; Kuetgens, U.; Yacoot, A. A Heterodyne
Interferometer with Periodic Nonlinearities Smaller than 10 pm. Meas. Sci. Technol. 2012, 23, 094005.
[CrossRef]
103. Yacoot, A.; Cross, N. Measurement of Picometer Non-linearity in an Optical Grating Encoder Using X-ray
Interferometry. Meas. Sci. Technol. 2003, 14, 148–152. [CrossRef]
104. Fan, K.C.; Miao, J.W.; Gong, W.; Zhang, Y.L. High precision measurement system based on coplanar XY-stage.
In Proceedings of the SPIE, Yunnan, China, 15 November 2011; Volume 8321, p. 832119.
105. Bernhardt, R. Temperature Robust Structure of a Coordinate Measuring Machine. In Proceedings of the
Euspen Special Interest Group Meeting, Thermal Issues, Zurich, Switzerland, 2014.
106. Zygo Corp. Heterodyne Laser Interferometers. Available online: http://www.zygo.com (accessed on 27
November 2019).
107. Donker, R.L.; Widdershoven, I.; Brouns, D.; Spaan, H.A.M. Realization of Isara400: A Large Measurement
Volume Ultra-Precision CMM. In Proceedings of the ASPE Annual Meeting, Monterey, CA, USA, 4–9 October
2009; pp. 35–38.
108. Jäger, G.; Manske, E.; Hausotte, T.; Büchner, H.J. The Metrological Basis and Operation of Nanopositioning
and Nanomeasuring Machine NMM-1. Tech. Mess. 2009, 76, 227–234. [CrossRef]
109. Sternkopf, C.; Manske, E. Digital frequency offset-locked He–Ne laser system with high beat frequency
stability, narrow optical linewidth and optical fibre output. Meas. Sci. Technol. 2018, 29, 06413. [CrossRef]
110. Heidenhain. Encoders for Machine Tool Inspection and Acceptance Testing. Available online:
https://www.heidenhain.com/fileadmin/pdb/media/img/208871-29_Measuring_Devices_For_Machine_
Tool_Inspection_and_Acceptance_Testing_01.pdf (accessed on 9 September 2019).
111. Castenmiller, T.; Van de Mast, F.; De Kort, T.; Van de Vin, C.; De Wit, M.; Stegen, R.; Van Cleef, S. Towards
Ultimate Optical Lithography with Nxt: 1950i Dual Stage Immersion Platform. In Proceedings of the SPIE,
San Jose, CA, USA, 12 March 2010; Volume 7640, p. 76401N.
112. Schmidt, R.M.H. Ultra-Precision Engineering in Lithographic Exposure Equipment for the Semiconductor
Industry. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A—Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 2012, 370, 3950–3972. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
113. Gao, W.; Tano, M.; Sato, S.; Kiyono, S. On-machine measurement of a cylindrical surface with sinusoidal
micro-structures by an optical slope sensor. Precis. Eng. 2006, 30, 274–279. [CrossRef]
114. Gao, W. Precision Nanometrology and its Applications to Precision Nanosystems. Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf.
2005, 6, 14–20.
115. Fang, F.Z.; Xu, F. Recent Advances in Micro/Nano-cutting: Effect of Tool Edge and Material Properties.
Nanomanuf. Metrol. 2018, 1, 4–31. [CrossRef]
116. Zhao, S.S.; Hou, C.L.; Bai, J.; Yang, G.; Tian, F. Nanometer-scale displacement sensor based on phase-sensitive
diffraction grating. Appl. Opt. 2011, 50, 1413–1416. [CrossRef]
117. ITRS2013 Executive Summary. Available online: http://www.itrs2.net (accessed on 9 September 2019).
118. JHoose, J.; Loewen, E.; Wiley, R.; Bzasiak, T.; Zheleznyak, S.; Sroda, T. Grand gratings: Bigger is better, thanks
to mosaic technology-today’s larger telescopes’ unprecedented challenge. Photon. Spectra 1995, 29, 118–136.
119. Blasiak, T.; Zheleznyak, S. History and construction of large mosaic diffraction gratings. In Proceedings of
the International Symposium on Optical Science and Technology, San Diego, CA, USA, 11–13 September
2002; pp. 370–377.
120. Evans, C. Design and Construction of a Large Grating Ruling Engine. Precis. Eng. 1981, 3, 193–200. [CrossRef]
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 32 of 33

121. Harrison, G.R. The Production of Diffraction Gratings; I. Development of The Ruling Art. J. Opt. Soc. Am.
1949, 39, 413–426. [CrossRef]
122. Harrison, G.R.; Stroke, G.W. Interferometric Control of Grating Ruling with Continuous Carriage Advance.
J. Opt. Soc. Am. 1955, 45, 112–121. [CrossRef]
123. David, C.; Bruder, J.; Rohbeck, T.; Grünzweig, C.; Kottler, C.; Diaz, A.; Bunk, O.; Pfeiffer, F. Fabrication
of diffraction gratings for hard X-ray phase contrast imaging. Microelectron. Eng. 2007, 84, 1172–1177.
[CrossRef]
124. Brueck, S.R.J. Optical and Interferometric Lithography-Nanotechnology Enablers. Proc. IEEE 2005, 93,
1704–1721. [CrossRef]
125. Konkola, P.T.; Chen, C.G.; Heilmann, R.K.; Joo, C.; Montoya, J.C.; Chang, C.H.; Schattenburg, M.L.
Nanometer-level repeatable metrology using the Nanoruler. J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B Microelectron. Nanometer
Struct. Process. Meas. Phenom. 2003, 21, 3097–3101. [CrossRef]
126. Chua, J.K.; Murkeshan, V.M. Patterning of Two-Dimensional Nanoscale Features Using Grating-Based
Multiple Beams Interference Lithography. Phys. Scr. 2009, 80, 015401. [CrossRef]
127. Ma, D.; Zhao, Y.; Zeng, L. Achieving unlimited recording length in interference lithography via broad-beam
scanning exposure with self-referencing alignment. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 926. [CrossRef]
128. Heilmann, R.K.; Konkola, P.T.; Chen, C.G.; Pati, G.S.; Schattenburg, M.L. Digital heterodyne interference
fringe control system. J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 2001, 19, 2342–2346. [CrossRef]
129. Li, X.; Zhou, Q.; Zhu, X.; Lu, H.; Yang, L.; Ma, D.; Sun, J.; Ni, K.; Wang, X. Holographic fabrication of an
arrayed one-axis scale grating for a two-probe optical linear encoder. Opt. Express 2017, 25, 16028. [CrossRef]
130. Boor, J.; Geyer, N.; Gösele, U.; Schmidt, V. Three-beam interference lithography: Upgrading a Lloyd’s
interferometer for single-exposure hexagonal patterning. Opt. Lett. 2009, 34, 1783–1785. [CrossRef]
131. Vala, M.; Homola, J. Flexible method based on four-beam interference lithography for fabrication of large
areas of perfectly periodic plasmonic arrays. Opt. Express 2014, 22, 18778–19789. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
132. Shimizu, Y.; Aihara, R.; Zongwei, R.; Chen, Y.L.; Ito, S.; Gao, W. Influences of misalignment errors of optical
components in an orthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer. Opt. Express 2016, 24, 17521–27535.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
133. Byun, I.; Kim, J. Cost-effective laser interferometer lithography using a 405 nm AlInGaN semiconductor laser.
J. Micromech. Microeng. 2010, 20, 055024. [CrossRef]
134. Chen, X.; Ren, Z.; Shimizu, Y.; Chen, Y.L.; Gao, W. Optimal polarization modulation for orthogonal two-axis
Lloyd’s mirror interference lithography. Opt. Express 2017, 25, 22238. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
135. Hung, Y.J.; Chang, H.J.; Chang, P.C.; Lin, J.J.; Kao, T.C. Employing refractive beam shaping in a Lloyd’s
interference lithography system for uniform periodic nanostructure formation. J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 2017,
35, 030601. [CrossRef]
136. Chen, X.; Shimizu, Y.; Chen, C.; Chen, Y.L.; Gao, W. Generalized method for probing ideal initial polarization
states in multibeam Lloyd’s mirror interference lithography of 2D scale gratings. J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 2018,
36, 021601. [CrossRef]
137. Gonda, S.; Doi, T.; Kurosawa, T.; Tanimura, Y.; Hisata, N.; Yamagishi, T.; Fujimoto, H.; Yukawa, H. Real-time,
interferometrically measuring atomic force microscope for direct calibration of standards. Rev. Sci. Instrum.
1999, 70, 3362–3368. [CrossRef]
138. Misumi, I.; Gonda, S.; Kurosawa, T.; Takamasu, K. Uncertainty in pitch measurements of one-dimensional
grating standards using a nanometrological atomic force microscope. Meas. Sci. Technol. 2003, 14, 463–471.
[CrossRef]
139. Dai, G.; Pohlenz, F.; Xu, M.; Koenders, L.; Danzebrink, H.U.; Wilkening, G. Accurate and Traceable
Measurement of Nano- and Micro-structures. Meas. Sci. Technol. 2006, 17, 545–552. [CrossRef]
140. Eves, B.J. Design of a Large Measurement-Volume Metrological Atomic Force Microscope (AFM). Meas. Sci.
Technol. 2009, 20, 084003. [CrossRef]
141. Buhr, E.; Michaelis, W.; Diener, A.; Mirandé, W. Multi-wavelength VIS/UV, Optical Diffractometer for
High-accuracy Calibration of Nano-Scale Pitch Standards. Meas. Sci. Technol. 2007, 18, 667–674. [CrossRef]
142. Shimizu, Y.; Uehara, K.; Matsukuma, H.; Gao, W. Evaluation of the grating period based on laser diffraction
by using a mode-locked femtosecond laser beam. J. Adv. Mech. Des. Syst. Manuf. 2018, 12, 18–00173.
[CrossRef]
Sensors 2019, 19, 5289 33 of 33

143. Sawabe, M.; Maeda, F.; Yamaryo, Y.; Simomura, Y.; Saruki, Y.; Kubo, T.; Sakai, H.; Aoyagi, S. A New Vacuum
Interferometric Comparator for Calibrating the Fine Linear Encoders and Scales. Precis. Eng. 2004, 28,
320–328. [CrossRef]
144. Takahashi, A.; Miwa, N. An Experimental Verification of the Compensation of Length Change of Line Scales
Caused by Ambient Air Pressure. Meas. Sci. Technol. 2010, 21, 045305. [CrossRef]
145. Yu, H.Y.; Liu, H.Z.; Li, X.; Ye, G.; Shi, Y.; Yin, L.; Jiang, W.; Chen, B.; Liu, X. Calibration of non-contact
incremental linear encoders using a macro–micro dual-drive high-precision comparator. Meas. Sci. Technol.
2015, 26, 095103. [CrossRef]
146. Shimizu, Y.; Kudo, Y.; Chen, Y.L.; Ito, S.; Gao, W. An optical lever by using a mode-locked laser for angle
measurement. Precis. Eng. 2017, 47, 72–80. [CrossRef]
147. Jang, Y.S.; Kim, S.W. Distance Measurements Using Mode-Locked Lasers: A Review. Nanomanuf. Metrol.
2018, 1, 131–147. [CrossRef]
148. Chen, Y.L.; Shimizu, Y.; Tamada, J.; Kudo, Y.; Madokoro, S.; Nakamura, K.; Gao, W. Optical frequency domain
angle measurement in a femtosecond laser autocollimator. Opt. Express 2017, 25, 16725. [CrossRef]
149. Chen, Y.L.; Shimizu, Y.; Kudo, Y.; Ito, S.; Gao, W. Mode-locked laser autocollimator with an expanded
measurement range. Opt. Express 2016, 24, 15554–15569. [CrossRef]

© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).