By Tehmina Bilal

Contact: +92336-9010470

EDEXCEL IGCSE CHEMISTRY

TOPIC:

ORGANIC
CHEMISTRY

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By Tehmina Bilal
Contact: +92336-9010470

Organic Compounds
Representing Organic Compounds
Introduction

 Organic Chemistry is the scientific study of the structure, properties, and

reactions of organic compounds. Organic compounds are those which contain
carbon
 For conventional reasons metal carbonates, carbon dioxide and carbon
monoxide are not included in organic compounds

Definition of a Hydrocarbon

 A compound that contains only hydrogen and carbon atoms

Representing Organic Molecules

 Organic compounds can be represented in a number of ways:

o Empirical Formulae
o Molecular Formulae
o General Formulae
o Structural Formulae
o Condensed Structural Formulae

 The empirical formula shows the simplest possible ratio of the atoms in a

molecule
o For example: Hydrogen peroxide is H2O2 but the empirical formula is HO
 The molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms in a molecule
o For example:

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 The general formula shows a ratio of atoms in a family of compounds in terms

of 'n' where n is a varying whole number
o For example, the general formula of a molecule that belong to the alkane
family is CnH2n+2

 The displayed formula shows the spatial arrangement of all the atoms and

bonds in a molecule
 This is also known as the graphical formula.
o For example:

 In a structural formulae enough information is shown to make the structure

clear, but most of the actual covalent bonds are omitted
 Only important bonds are always shown, such as double and triple bonds
 Identical groups can be bracketed together
 Side groups are also shown using brackets
 Straight chain alkanes are shown as follows:

Exam Tip

For defining a hydrocarbon, you must specify that they are compounds which contain
hydrogen and carbon atoms only, no other element is present.You may not be asked to
name branched chain organic compounds but you will come across them. It is useful to
know that the numbers in the names of these compounds refer to the position of the
side chains with respect to the main chain.

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Organic Terminology
 Three important terms to know in this topic are homologous series, functional
group and isomerism

Homologous Series

 This is a series or family of organic compounds that have similar features and
chemical properties due to them having the same functional group
 All members of a homologous series have:
o The same general formula
o Same functional group
o Similar chemical properties
o Gradation in their physical properties
o The difference in the molecular formula between one member and the
next is CH2

Functional Group

 Functional group: A group of atoms bonded in a specific arrangement that

influences the properties of the homologous series
 Some examples are shown here

Structures and Names of Common Functional Groups

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Isomerism

 Isomers are compounds that have the same molecular formula but

different displayed formulae
o Eg. propene and cyclopropane

Isomers of C3H6  show the same molecular formula but different structures.
Isomers can show similar physical and chemical properties or if they have
different functional groups, the properties can be different.

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By Tehmina Bilal
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Naming Organic Compounds

Naming Organic Compounds
Names of compounds

 The names of organic compounds have two parts: the prefix or stem and the end
part (or suffix)
 The prefix tells you how many carbon atoms are present in the longest
continuous chain in the compound
 The suffix tells you what functional group is on the compound

Examples of Naming Organic Molecules

Further rules for naming compounds

 When there is more than one carbon atom where a functional group can be
located it is important to distinguish exactly which carbon the functional group is
on
 Each carbon is numbered and these numbers are used to describe where the
functional group is
 When 2 functional groups are present di- is used as a prefix to the second part of
the name

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Isomers can be distinguished by following the naming rules

Exam Tip

You may not be asked to name branched chain organic compounds but you will come
across them. It is useful to know that the numbers in the names of these compounds
refer to the position of the side chains with respect to the main chain.

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By Tehmina Bilal
Contact: +92336-9010470

Classifying Organic Reactions

Classifying Organic Reactions
 The reactions of organic compounds can be classified
into substitution, addition and combustion

Substitution

 A substitution reaction takes place when one functional group is replaced by

another
o Example: Methane reacts with bromine under ultraviolet light

CH4    +    Br2       →            CH3Br   +    HBr

    Methane + Bromine   →   Bromomethane + Hydrogen Bromide

Addition

 An addition reaction takes place when two or more molecules combine to form a

larger molecule with no other products
o Example: Bromine will react with ethene and the bromine molecule will
react and add across the double bond of the ethene

C2H4     +       Br2         →         C2H4Br2

Ethene   +   Bromine   →   Dibromoethane

Combustion

 This is the scientific term for burning. In a combustion reaction, an organic

substance reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide (or carbon monoxide if
incomplete combustion) and water.
o Example: Alkenes burn when heated in air of oxygen
o If there is an unlimited supply of air / oxygen, the products are carbon
dioxide and water:

CH4   +   2O2   →   CO2   +   2H2O

C3H8   +   5O2   →   3CO2   +   4H2O

 This is termed complete combustion

o If there is a limited supply of air / oxygen, the products are carbon

monoxide and water: CH4   +    O2   →   CO   +   2H2O

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 This is termed incomplete combustion.

 Crude Oil & Fractional

Distillation
Crude Oil & Fractional Distillation
 Crude oil as a mixture is not a very useful substance but the different
hydrocarbons that make up the mixture, called fractions, are enormously
valuable, with each fraction having many different applications
 Each fraction consists of groups of hydrocarbons of similar chain lengths
 The fractions in petroleum are separated from each other in a process
called fractional distillation
 The molecules in each fraction have similar properties and boiling points,
which depend on the number of carbon atoms in the chain
 The size and length of each hydrocarbon molecule determines in which fraction it
will be separated into
 The size of each molecule is directly related to how many carbon and hydrogen
atoms the molecule contains
 Most fractions contain mainly alkanes, which are compounds of carbon and
hydrogen with only single bonds between them

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Diagram showing the process of fractional distillation to separate crude oil in a

fractionating column

 Fractional distillation is carried out in a fractionating column which is

very hot at the bottom and cool at the top
 Crude oil enters the fractionating column and is heated so vapours rise
 Vapours of hydrocarbons with very high boiling points will immediately condense
into liquid at the higher temperatures lower down and are tapped off at the
bottom of the column
 Vapours of hydrocarbons with low boiling points will rise up the column and
condense at the top to be tapped off
 The different fractions condense at different heights according to their boiling
points and are tapped off as liquids
 The fractions containing smaller hydrocarbons are collected at the top of the
fractionating column as gases
 The fractions containing bigger hydrocarbons are collected at the lower sections
of the fractionating column

Exam Tip

As you move up a fractionating column the temperature decreases, so the compounds

with higher boiling points come off lower down the column.

The Main Fractions

Properties of the main fractions of crude oil

 Viscosity: This refers to the ease of flow of a liquid. High viscosity liquids are
thick and flow less easily. If the number of carbon atoms increases, the attraction
between the hydrocarbon molecules also increases which results in the liquid
becoming more viscous with the increasing length of the hydrocarbon chain. The
liquid flows less easily with increasing molecular mass
 Colour: As carbon chain length increases the colour of the liquid gets darker as
it gets thicker and more viscous
 Melting point/boiling point: As the molecules get larger, the intermolecular
attraction becomes greater. So more heat is needed to separate the molecules.
With increasing molecular size there is an increase in boiling point
 Volatility: Volatility refers to the tendency of a substance to vaporise. With
increasing molecular size hydrocarbon liquids become less volatile. This is
because the attraction between the molecules increases with increasing
molecular size

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By Tehmina Bilal
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Trend in Boiling Point of the Main Fractions

Uses of the different fractions obtained from petroleum (crude oil)

 The petrochemical industry is hugely important for modern society and

development
 The fuels that are used in most modern methods of transport (cars, trains,
airplanes etc.) are all based on oil products
 Polymers, lubricants, solvents, detergents and adhesives are all products that
are obtained from crude oil
 The array of fractions in crude oil and the huge range of compounds we can
produce from them all stem from carbon’s ability to form multiple strong covalent
bonds with itself leading a huge number of organic compounds
 The main fractions and their uses are described in the following table:

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By Tehmina Bilal
Contact: +92336-9010470

Uses of Crude Oil Fractions

Exam Tip

You need to learn the names and uses of the main fractions obtained from crude oil:
refinery gases(also known as liquid petroleum gases), gasoline, kerosene, diesel, fuel
oil and bitumen. Gasoline and petrol are the same thing; gasoline is the term used in the
USA.

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