The Cinematic Portrayal of Viking Religi

The University of Birmingham: Department of History and Cultures
The Cinematic Portrayal of Viking Religion:

The Depiction of Paganism and Christianity in
Television and Film
A dissertation submitted by 1218832as part of the requirements for

the degree of B.A. with Honours in Ancient and Medieval History with
a Year Abroad
March 2016
Word Count: 11897

Word Count (excluding footnotes): 10637
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my supervisor and tutor, Dr Chris Callow, for all the help
and support over the last four years of my degree and this dissertation. Sorry for
all the times I vented and nearly cried in office hours, and for all the emails. I
probably just needed cake.
I would also like to thank Paul Garwood for the inspirational year learning
about ‘Ritual and Religion’ in all its various forms worldwide and throughout
the course of history. Somewhat worryingly the seminar on sacrifice perhaps
provided me with enough material and ideas for an entire dissertation topic!
Additional thanks to Christopher Thompson (Uppsala Universitet) for getting

me started on this topic and for expanding my ‘Viking Metal playlist’ on
Spotify to no end.
Contents
Abbreviations………………………………………………………………...i
Introduction……………………………………………………………….....ii
Religion in Film……………………………………………………….....iii
Medievalism and Literature Review………………………………….....iv
Hypothesis………………………………………………………………..vii
Definitions………………………………………………………………..viii.
Objectives………………………………………………………………...ix
‘Wrath of the Northmen’: Paganism in Film………………………………....1

Coherency of Religion…………………………………………………....2
Public Ritual: Sacrifice within Viking Films…………………………....4
Foretelling: ‘Rune-Magic’……………………………………………......8
Sacred Places and Rites of Passage………………………………………10
Born Again: Christianity in Film……………………………………………..14

Process of Conversion: The White Viking…………………………….....15
Syncretism in Film………………………………………………………..20
Christianity in Vikings……………………………………………………23
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………..28
Bibliography…………………………………………………………………...33
Abbreviations
CCCS: Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (University of Birmingham)
OE: Old English
ON: Old Norse
SOR: In the Shadow of the Raven
TWV: The White Viking
WRF: When the Raven Flies
i|Pag e
The Cinematic Portrayal of Viking Religion: Introduction
Introduction
This dissertation will argue that through critical analysis of media dating from the last sixty
years it is possible to determine how ‘Viking’ ritual and religion has been portrayed to a
viewing public. ‘Media’ encompasses film and television franchises from America and
Europe thereby avoiding a purely Euro-centric view.1 The selected media encompasses
Vikings (2013-present); The 13th Warrior (1999), (based on Michael Critchton’s Beowulf
influenced book Eaters of the Dead), The White Viking (1991) (hereafter TWV), In the
Shadow of the Raven (1988) (SOR), When the Raven Flies (1984) (WRF) and The Vikings
(1958).2 These productions have been selected for two reasons; all are accessible Viking
films and they cover at least six decades.
The definition of religion for this paper incorporates paganism and Christianity, which
was gradually accepted in the Viking World from the 10 th century. This paper hypothesises
that the depiction of both religions will be pejorative for disparate reasons which shall be
discussed later. This shall be achieved by a comparison of the depiction of various rituals
within the opposing religions, established on the theories of audience reception and
participatory culture. These portrayals will be analysed to see how they correlate with
contemporary and secondary evidence and will ascertain how far they influence the fictional
re-enactments. Plus analysis as to the extent of the influence on the 21st century films by
those from the preceding century. The theory of historiophoty, coined by Hayden White in
1
For the sake of brevity whenever 'film' is referred to in this dissertation it includes feature-length films as well
as TV series.
2
Where appropriate, references to other media will be made.
ii | P a g e
the late 1980s, will aid in the study of the director’s aims and plot.3
This dissertation highlights an unexplored area within the study of Viking religion in film,
as presently; there are no academic papers which solely discuss this portrayal. Moreover, the
majority of the research undertaken concerning religion in film has been written by
theological or biblical scholars; thus a historical Medievalist analysis has not yet been
acknowledged.4 It is for these reasons that this dissertation is specifically evaluating religion
and ritual within film and will now be placed into relevance of the discipline of Religion and
Film.
Religion in Film
Religion and Film, as an academic discipline has been researched since the 1970s however
only gaining popularity in the 1990s and has become interdisciplinary, invoking
methodologies from psychology (such as Psychoanalytical Film Theory devised by
psychologists Jacques Lacan and Christian Metz), philosophy, anthropology, literary analysis
and cultural studies. The interest in the discipline continued in the early 21 st century due to
the portrayal of religion in blockbusters such as Passion of the Christ (2004).5
Vikings, written by Michael Hirst, bases its storyline around an ON mythical character, the
lead protagonist, Ragnar Loðbrok. This is noteworthy as Plate, who coined ‘critical religious
film theory’, argues that films aid in the portrayal of myths past their aural narrative stage and
helps them become lifelike to see how they exist through the discipline of historiophoty. 6
Furthermore utilising mythology allows flexibility regarding dates, characters and events. It
3
Historiophoty defined by White: The representation and portrayal of history in visual images and filmic
dis ourse i ludi g the audie e s resulti g thoughts a out it. For ore see: H. White, Historiography and
Historiophoty , The American Historical Review, vol. 93, no. 5, (Dec. 1998) pp.1193-1199.
4
G. Ly h, Cultural Theory a d Cultural Studies i J. Lyde ed. , The Routledge Companion to Religion and
Film (Abingdon, 2009) pp. 275-292, p. 275.
5
J. Lyde , I trodu tio i J. Lyde ed. , The Routledge Companion to Religion and Film (Abingdon, 2009) pp
1-11, p. 1.
6
S. Brent Plate, Religion and Film: Cinema and the Re-creation of the World (London, 2008) p.20.
iii | P a g e
is precisely this reason this paper focuses on film,
Vikings, for example, is not set in one time period, instead depicting the main events of
Viking history as familiar to a western audience. This is an example of audience reception
and involves the watcher’s response based on stereotypical imagery and depiction of famous
events is a comforting aspect. The audience are generally aware of the basic plot and thus
when it unexpectedly alters it unsettles and intrigues due to the desire to know ‘what happens
next’. Although the viewer cannot physically have any control over a particular episode their
reception of a series could affect the plot for the future. This is viewed as an example of
participatory culture.
Other useful theories for studying the role of religion in film are Cultural Theory and
Cultural Studies as they prevent the film being viewed as an example of text (as opposed to
historiophoty). This is achieved through the ‘circuit of culture’, devised by Richard Johnson
in the 1980s at the CCCS (University of Birmingham). The study argued that a more
rigorous approach to cultural analysis was needed to understand how cultural systems
operated and was centred on the structures and processes of cultural production.7 This would
help in understanding how certain cultural aspects are viewed compared to wider social
structures as it suggested what was appealing and marketable to audiences.
Medievalism and Literature Review
Medievalism as a study is older than Religion and Film and thus provides more research
analysis for the overarching depiction of the medieval period in film. Although this
dissertation is specifically focused on the Vikings all the sources are set during the medieval
period. The study and portrayal of their respective imagined societies can help reveal the
7
Lynch, Cultural Theory and Cultural Studies , p.281.
iv | P a g e
director’s aims.
Vikings on Film: Essays on Depictions of the Nordic Middle Ages edited by Kevin
Harty (a renowned researcher on Medievalism in film), focused on the Vikings and is
therefore a useful source to analyse previous representations, although not covering the
Viking religion. The study is multi-authored and disciplined however the focus is on the
depiction of Medievalism with only one of the collaborators being an academic historian; the
majority are English researchers. Ultimately there is likelihood to increase the focus on
symbolism within the films rather than historical accuracy. Therefore the study as a whole
must be read from a Cultural Theorist stance with the authors seeking to prove their own
purposes; including Harty, an English professor interested in Arthurianism- a passion he
shares with his contributors.
Harty refers to the broader ‘world of the Vikings’- not all films analysed are set solely in
the Nordic region and involve travel; it is less useful for analysing the portrayal of
Scandinavian communities. Furthermore the films selected, presumably due to their wide
ranging dates and subject matter, differ in genre and purpose. A brief discussion of the
literature which analyses films in this dissertation now follows.
The Vikings (1958) is ‘the’ defining Viking blockbuster aimed to demonstrate the hyper-
masculinity and physical prowess of the Vikings whilst showcasing the formidable long ship;
however the overarching theme is a love story. In the chapter concerning The Vikings the
author, Kelly has focused on Screen Theory and the director’s input rather than the storyline,
which could be considered useful for this purpose, it reveals little about the religion of the
Vikings.
The co-authored analysis of Gunnlaugsson’s SOR principally studies the film’s portrayal
of the Celtic tragedy Tristan and Iseult, on which it is based. This is followed by analysis of
the contrasting religious symbolism of the raven (signifying paganism) and the lead female’s
v|P age
veil (Christianity). The latter analysis could be useful because it seeks to understand the
relationship between the two religions; however it is not a historical analysis.
Agreeing with the medieval historian John Aberth, who reviewed Harty’s study, it is an
informative Medievalism work but unhelpful as a reference detailing the Viking period on
film due to reasons discussed later. Attempting to make it more accessible, Harty has
provided a basic historiography and the register of the articles generally avoids using subject-
specific terminology. Additionally, Harty does not make it clear why these specific films
were selected; it could be presumed the purpose was to emphasise the worldwide popularity
of the Vikings due to their differing backgrounds. He does not provide a reason for choosing
the Viking diaspora; presumably because Vikings ‘sell’ and have a longevity factor.8 The
aims of each director are not explicit, inferring viewing is recommended which is easier for
blockbusters such as The Vikings or Asterix (2005), but difficult for niche films like
Pathfinder (2007).
Vikings on Film reflects the inadequacy of modern scholarship which has omitted the
portrayal of Viking religion thus emphasising the need for further research on the topic.
However it is valuable in terms of historiophoty and cultural studies because Harty’s study is
the first collection of essays to study the cinematic reimaging of the Vikings. 9 Henceforth it
should be viewed as a foundation to any serious historical study concerning the depiction of
Vikings on film.
Alexandra Service’s PhD thesis, Popular Vikings: Constructions of Viking Identity in
Twentieth Century Britain (1998) studies the portrayal of the Vikings in popular culture but
differs from this dissertation’s primary research concern and sources. Service ignores any
aspects of the Vikings’ religion, pre- or post-Christianisation, instead her study focuses on the
8
‘. Sa so , The Case of the Hor ed Hel ets i ‘. Sa so ed. , Social Approaches to Viking Studies
(Glasgow, 1991) pp. xi-xiii p. xi.
9
K. Harty, Prefa e i K. Harty ed. , Vikings on Film (Jefferson, 2011) pp.1-3 p.1.
vi | P a g e
Vikings’ physical imagery and their depiction of ‘raider’ than ‘trader’. Her sources are mostly
romantic ‘historical’ novels featuring a male Viking protagonist and a helpless ‘civilised’
woman.
Popular Vikings concludes with a revisit as to why Vikings are popular and states it is
because they have to be ‘the best’ to live up to the 20 th Century audience’s expectations.10
Essentially their easily identifiable and stereotypical aggressive nature is a lure for romance
novels. Service’s study contains problems for a 21st Century researcher. Firstly, her thesis is
from 1998, a period when the Vikings became ‘fashionable’ in the public domain, excluding
the years after World War Two when the Arian image was utilised by the Nazi Party,
arguably they have always caught the public’s imagination.11 She attributes this to the
discoveries at York, however due to her affiliations with said university she is perhaps
overemphasising its importance to suit her purpose. Secondly, recent research concerning the
depiction of the Vikings in media and popular culture has been published, particularly in
musicology.12
Hypothesis
This dissertation hypothesises that to fit in with audience reception and their expectations
the portrayal of paganism will be negative. Furthermore, when considering the directors’
aims the paper theorises that the portrayal of Christianity will also be pejorative. This is
attributed to the two central sources, Gunnlaugsson's Viking trilogy (WRF, SOR and TWV)
10
A. Service, Popular Vikings: Constructions of Viking Identity in Twentieth Century Britain (York, 1998) p. 245.
11
D. Wilson, Vikings and God in European Art (Aarhus, 1997) p.78.
12
For ore see: S. Trafford a d A. Plusko ski, A ti hrist Superstars: The Viki gs i Hard ‘o k a d Hea y
Metal i D.W. Marshall ed. , Mass Market Medieval (Jefferson, 2007) pp. 57-7 a d C. Tho pso , E ra i g
the Extreme: Norwegian Black Metal a d the Use of History , Fortid: Historiestudentenes tidsskrift, 1 (Oslo,
2013) pp. 118-128.
vii | P a g e
and Hirst's Vikings written from the protagonist's view point. Therefore the audience feels
greater affiliation towards them, resulting in the equally negative portrayal of Christianity.
This is a clever cinematic tactic and element of participatory theory: the writers and directors
encourage the audience to subconsciously support the stereotypically villainous group.
Definitions
It is essential to define key terminology used within this dissertation. The main topics
under consideration are ritual and religion. Usually studied as one topic, they are essentially
separate entities that are complimentary. Religion is defined by Morris as being
‘characterized by a number of dimensions…ritual practices…a body of doctrines,
beliefs…and an ethos that gives scope for emotional or mystical experience.’ 13 ‘Ritual’ is
defined anthropologically as being a performative act and ‘emphasizing efficacy’ in order to
‘maintain cosmic order’.14 Both elements are about connecting or having some experience
with the sacred. Neil Price, a prominent researcher into Viking magic, claims a direct link to
the sacred was heavily practised in the Viking Period; people belonged to cults whilst seers
could predict after contact with the gods.
Paganism meanwhile, for the purpose of this dissertation is defined as being a polytheistic
religion that was in use in Scandinavia from c. 8th to c. late 10th centuries, a ‘non-doctrinal
community religion’.15 The information available to scholars for this period is very limited
and has suffered from a Christian influence, which shall be discussed later. Inversely
13
B. Morris, Religion and Anthropology: A Critical Introduction (Cambridge, 2006), p. 2.
14
‘. S he h er, ‘itual a d Perfor a e i T. I gold ed. Companion Encyclopaedia of Anthropology (London,
1994) pp. 613-648, p.613.
15
A. Hultgård, The ‘eligio of the Viki gs i S. Bri k a d N. Pri e eds. The Viking World (Abingdon, 2008) pp.
212-218, p. 212.
viii | P a g e
‘conversion’ refers to the actual change in religious belief of an individual and how Christian
practices and beliefs infiltrated themselves in the region over a number of years whereas
‘Christianisation’ is the official acceptance of Christianity as the “state religion”. 16
Objectives
This dissertation will critically assess the negative portrayal of paganism and Christianity
within selected films and television since the middle of the 20th century. Additionally this
paper will analyse how foretelling is depicted, a stereotypical feature in films portraying a
polytheistic culture, where the seer is hallucinating to communicate with gods.17 This
representation could be influenced by earlier films, thus be recognisable to the audience. Also
there will be a discussion on the use of temples and connections to nature such as caves and
water.
The first chapter, Wrath of the Northmen discusses the portrayal of paganism in: The
Vikings (1958), SOR (1988), Erik the Viking (1989), TWV (1991), The 13th Warrior (1999),
Gåten Ragnarök (2013) and Vikings (2013- ). These films have been selected due to their
portrayals of pagan ‘rites of passage’ and how they utilise the contemporary sources on which
they are based and where appropriate, comparisons between the film and source will be
made.
The second chapter, Born Again? discusses the conversion to Christianity, the period of
syncretism and (how this is depicted)its depiction in Vikings (2013-), SOR, WRF and TWV.
These films were selected as they contain attitudes to both paganism and Christianity and
therefore the differences and similarities in their portrayal are more evident. Born Again? is
16
A. Winroth, The Conversion of Scandinavia: Vikings, Merchants and Missionaries in the Remaking of the
Northern Europe (New Haven, 2014) p. 103-4.
17
Mind-altering drugs have been found in a handful of graves to support this theory- for more see: N. Price,
Sor ery a d Cir u polar Traditio s i Old Norse Belief , i S. Bri k a d N. Pri e eds. The Viking World
(Abingdon, 2008) pp. 244-249, p. 245.
ix | P a g e
split into two sections. The former analyses the portrayal of the conversion and specifically
the depiction and attitudes towards Christianity in TWV whilst the latter focuses on the
syncretism. This is emphasised by a case study on Athelstan from Vikings (2013) and his role
as a plot device, followed by an account of the attitudes towards Christianity in Vikings and
the depiction and evidence for syncretism in WRF and SOR. The chapter will consider the
directors’ aims and various examples of conversion evidence including contemporary
missionary evidence and the influence of earlier films in their content. Concluding the
chapter will provide reasoning why Christianity is depicted less than paganism, suggesting
this is due to the directors’ aims and audience reception.
x|Page
The Cinemati Portrayal of Viki g ‘eligio : Wrath of the Northmen’
‘Wrath of the Northmen’: Paganism in Film
The Vikings are synonymous with the medieval period; their hyper-masculinity now
competes for attention alongside their polytheistic religion because of the depiction of the
gods and the religion in different forms of media including film, literature, music and
romantic artwork. In both media and the general popular consensus, their polytheistic belief
system is viewed as mysterious due to the lack of reliable contemporary evidence concerning
the religion. This allows directors and writers a degree of ‘artistic licence’ when producing
media for a Western, mostly Christian audience.
Norse mythology is arguably as popular with filmmakers as that of other polytheistic
cultures such as Greece. The interest can be attributed to the ‘otherness’ or barbarity of the
Vikings, whereas Greek gods depicted in films are more conventional. Moreover the Norse
gods had human characteristics, making them as understandable and accessible to a modern
audience as to a Viking.1 This could also be explained by the enigmatic characters of the
Norse pantheon including Oðin, Thor and Loki playing prominent roles in media such as
Marvel’s comic books and the resulting films. Additionally the medieval sagas from Iceland
and the Orkneyinga Saga are exciting and alluring due to the contents of violence, sex and
romance, providing thrilling storylines for films concerning the Vikings and their religion.
This chapter will analyse thematically how paganism is depicted in film to easier clarify
between different rituals. The acts to be analysed are examples of public ritual such as
sacrifices (including funerals) and prophesising. These will be compared to the contemporary
accounts such as Adam of Bremen’s account for the Midvinterblot at Uppsala and Ibn
Fadlan’s account of a Rus burial. This will be followed by a discussion of additional ritual
11
E. Ashman-‘o e, Viki g Gods , The Real Vikings (The History Channel, 19.02.2016) 1.42
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r5NrOxBQYNo (accessed 10/03/2016).
1|P age
aspects including the depictions of rune magic and an analysis of sacred places used during
rites of passage.
Coherency of Religion
A comparison of the depiction of rites of passage in paganism and Christianity, and the
portrayal of the religions as an entirety will suggest how each ritual is coherent and pervasive.
This comparison will emphasise their similarities and differences as numerous films
including SOR, TWV, WRF, 13th Warrior and Vikings depict the contact between paganism
and a doctrinal transnational religion (i.e. Christianity or Islam for the 13th Warrior).
These contrasts are perhaps best portrayed in Vikings (2013-) where during rituals and
rites of passage (marriage or childbirth for example) the similarities and differences between
Christianity and paganism are apparent to the audience by means of a follow-on-shot which
depicts the religions partaking of the same act simultaneously. This is particularly successful
in a marriage scene between couples from each religion in episode 2.7 ‘Blood Eagle’. The
matrimonies between Ragnar’s ship builder Floki and Helga and the union between the
kingdoms of Northumbria (King Aella’s daughter Judith) and Wessex (King Egbert’s son,
Aethelwulf) in England are compared via following shots. This cutting technique emphasises
prominent rituals occurring in each ceremony such as the transferral of the father’s protection
over the bride to the groom, the vows and the overall tone of each ceremony. The marriage of
Floki and Helga is a more joyous occasion where the vows do not include ‘to obey’ and
consist of ‘do you swear by the gods that you want to marry this man?’ 2 This shows
religion’s importance in the ceremony but suggests the pagan gods require less sombre
structuralism. The resemblances that occur emphasise the similarities between the two
2
Vikings, Series Two Episode Seven: Blood Eagle (History, 10 April 2014) 21.45- 24.15.
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societies, especially with the happiness of the pagan ritual, audiences enjoyment of this
ceremony increases, thus deepening the affections for the stereotypical ‘anti-heroes’. The
coordination within each religion is emphasised during ritualistic scenes. Evidence for
paganism in Vikings 1.8 set during the Midvinterblot at Uppsala, where Scandinavian
communities unite for the festival, including King Horik. This implies a fixed date or region-
wide communication was in place for the event.3
3
G. Henriksson, The paga Great Mid i ter Sa rifi e a d the royal ou ds at Old Uppsala i M. Blo erg,
P.E. Blomberg and G. Henriksson (eds.),
Calendars, symbols and orientations : legacies of astronomy in culture : proceedings of the 9th annual meeting
of the European Society for Astronomy in Culture (SEAC): the Old Observatory, Stockholm, 27-30 August 2001
(Uppsala, 2003) pp.15-25 p. 17.
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Public Ritual: Sacrifice within Viking Films
Different justifications for sacrifice are depicted in film which includes: appropriation,
thanksgiving, devotion, placation, expiation and to legitimise authority. How these are
portrayed shall be analysed and compared to archaeological and historical evidence.
Encompassing associated problems for a modern audience viewing human sacrifices,
including funerary killing, and how this issue is managed in the media. An analysis of the
portrayal of rituals in Vikings at the renowned sacrifice (Midvinterblot) at Uppsala will be
discussed. Hirst dedicates an entire episode to the event thus emphasising how important he
believes it to be.
In the modern Christian Western world, human sacrifice is a ‘taboo’ topic and its
portrayal in films is associated with ‘barbaric’ civilisations (Apocalypto 2006, The Final
Sacrifice 1990, Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom 1984) or insular communities held
together by a cultic belief (Eye of the Devil 1967, The Wicker Man 1973).4 However the
Vikings and Scandinavia cannot be considered insular: they had vast trading networks and an
organised society.
It is uncomfortable for a modern audience to witness the murder of another human, even
for religious purposes. This could explain the deviation from the medieval sources written by
Adam of Bremen, Snorri Sturluson and Ibn Fadlan whose accounts are vivid, the latter
detailing the sacrifice of a slave at a funeral.
Human sacrifice is depicted in both Vikings and 13th Warrior. In Vikings it prominently
features in two episodes from the first series (1.6) and (1.8) respectively. In 1.6 the sacrifice
of a slave-girl at a funeral for the Earl Haraldsson is based upon Ibn Fadlan’s account of a
Rus funeral, however it omits the ‘Angel of Death’ and the rape of the volunteering slave. In
4
J. Pahl, Sa rifi e i J. Lyde ed , The Routledge Companion to Religion and Film (Abingdon, 2009) pp. 465-
482, p. 465.
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1.8, nine males are sacrificed at the Midvinterblot in an explicit scene based on Adam’s
Gesta hamburginius ecclesiae pontificae. The audience feel a mild affinity with the victim, a
minor character from Ragnar’s community, who volunteers in lieu of Athelstan. The 13th
Warrior bases its funerary sacrifice exclusively on Ibn Fadlan’s account, however when
compared to the source, violence in the scene is diminished by removing the ‘Angel of
Death’ and rape.5
Sacrifice could be defined as ‘any death on screen that represents a surrogate whose
killing can serve to compress the fears/desires of filmmakers/viewers, and displace emotions
onto an actor in a particular scene with whom viewers identify’. 6 Slave sacrifice is omitted
from the funerary scenes in The Vikings; probably combinations of what audiences are
accustomed to viewing and the director’s personal preference.7 The Vikings was released in
1958 when controversial scenes were not depicted, as upsetting the audience could impact on
a films popularity and profit for the studios.8 Vikings was made approximately fifteen years
after 13th Warrior and it could be argued that the audience were accustomed to scenes of a
graphic, darker nature, largely in part to George R.R. Martin’s medieval-influenced Game of
Thrones.
The age appropriate ratings could also be accountable for the level of graphic detail
depicted (as opposed to the contemporary primary sources which have no age rating). Vikings
and 13th Warrior are fifteen whilst Game of Thrones is eighteen. TWV and SOR are
unknown.9 Considering this and their depictions of sacrifice it is likely to be an amalgamation
of the two. Viewers of Game of Thrones would expect explicit scenes due to the higher age
rating. Arguably, the scenes portrayed in Vikings 1.6 are not as bloody or graphic as the
5
13th Warrior (Michael Crichton, 1999) 6.26-7.00.
6
Pahl, Sa rifi e , p. 465.
7
The Vikings (Richard Fleischer, 1958) 1.48.00.
8
British Fil I stitute, The Hays Code , Screen Online, http://www.screenonline.org.uk/film/id/592022/
(accessed 17/03/16).
9
All age ratings are as represented on: www.imdb.com (accessed 16/02/15).
5|P age
Blood Eagle depicted in 2.7 of the same show.
The funerary sacrifices of both slave-girl and the sacrifice in Vikings are portrayed as
being voluntary and accepted readily. Voluntary sacrifice is not depicted in the contemporary
primary sources, meaning disagreement exists between the contemporary depictions and a
modern director portraying historiophoty. Historiophoty by its definition is more suited to
depict certain phenomena including landscape, wars and emotion because of the accessibility
to the audience. It is impossible to accurately depict a historical written event in its entirety
without loss of content.10
The willingness of the victims and the roles of the non-pagan observers make the scenes
more tolerable to the observer as their revulsion mirrors that of the audience.11 Sacrifice is an
integral element in the pejorative portrayal of paganism especially in Vikings and 13th
Warrior as it is an unpleasant scene for the viewer to watch and confirms the ‘bloodthirst’
associated with the Vikings. This is combatted in the films by portraying non-pagan
observers who reflect the audience’s reception and by the minor role of the victims.
The Midwinter Sacrifice is included in Vikings 1.8. The episode begins by inferring the
many purposes of sacrifice to the gods through dialogue between Ragnar, Lagertha and their
subjects. The characters involved are offering thanks for a good crop, victory in battle and
protection, with the journey considered a pilgrimage to a sacred site.12 Furthermore, before
the trip to Uppsala it is made evident that the ruling family of the village, headed by Earl
Ragnar (Fimmel) are travelling on behalf of the village. Portraying this in the film is the
giving of offerings from the population to the authority. 13 The offering is staged as calm and
orderly with the community happy to give their tribute to the gods with a specific request.
10
H. White, Historiography a d Historiophoty , p. 1193.
11
H. Bro , Plasti Paga s: Viki g Hu a Sa rifi e i Fil a d Tele isio i K. Fugelso ed. Studies in
Medievalism XXIII (Cambridge, 2014) pp. 107-122, p.112.
12
Vikings, Series One Episode Eight: Sacrifice (History, April 21 2013) 2.08- 4.36.
13
Vikings, Series One Episode Eight: Sacrifice (History, April 21 2013) 4.10.
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The community sees the Midvinterblot as an important ritual and this suggests the pilgrimage
to Uppsala was sacred.
A ritual involving the splashing of blood by a priest on arriving at Uppsala in Vikings 1.8
foreshadows the horror at the episode’s conclusion. The priest reciting an extensive list of
deities during this act, beginning with Oðin, Thor and Frey, emphasises to a knowledgeable
viewer the importance of fertility at the Midvinterblot. Fertility’s importance is inferred to a
general audience through Lagertha and Ragnar’s pain at their recent miscarriage and an
equalled determination to make an appropriate sacrifice, to the phallic symbols on statues of
Thor and Frey, who are both fertility deities. There is also recognition to Oðin’s sacrifice of
an eye to gain knowledge, represented by the praising of his spear.14 ‘Hail to the Aesir, the
Vanir… Hail to Oðin, Thor and Frey… Hail to Oðin’s Spear, Thor’s Hammer…15
The episode is distinctive in series one as the plot is focused around religion and ritual
instead of war. 1.8 also centres around Athelstan’s character development and acclimatisation
to ON society, claiming to be pagan which is a half-truth when he realises he is the intended
sacrifice. The episode depicts the Vikings with ‘ingrained into media’ stereotypical
debauchery including excessive drinking and casual sex. The use of hallucinogenics in the
episode suggests this is a means to connect the takers with the gods and reiterates the role of
drugs in the funerary sacrifices described by Ibn Fadlan.
In conclusion, the portrayal of sacrifice in The 13th Warrior and Vikings be it funerary or
ritual, is generally an act which is intended to shock the audience, just as it did for its non-
Pagan witnesses. This is combatted by the softening and altering of the portrayal of historical
sources and could be viewed as an example of neo-medievalism.
14
The account of Odi s sa rifi e i Há á al, in R.I.Page (ed.), Chronicles of the Vikings (London, 2000), p.194.
15
Vikings, Series One Episode Eight: Sacrifice (History, April 21 2013) 8.40.
7|P age
Foretelling: Rune Magic
In films ‘rune magic’ is usually depicted as an otherworldly event with elderly, often
disfigured women (and occasionally men) cast as seers delivering their prophecies in an
indecipherable manner. Brown argues that the horribly disfigured ‘agent of sacrifice’ is
utilised to transfer our feelings of revulsion towards sacrifice onto those who undertake the
act.16
This tactic is employed in Vikings where the seer is blind and could be regarded as
horrifying due to his physical hindrances which make him identify as ‘other’. His initial
appearance in the debut episode ‘Rites of Passage’ initiates the discomfort the audience are
supposed to feel towards the ‘agent of sacrifice’ in 1.6. The attitudes of specific characters,
such as Rollo, to the seer imply that he is not liked, possibly due to his laconic, evasive
answers. His view of himself as ‘other’ reflects the societal role of a shaman, betwixt two
worlds and liminal.17
What is unique to Vikings is the inclusion of the act of licking the palm of the seer. The
actors stated this is intended to make the scene dramatic and uncomfortable, an act also
witnessed between the Ephors and the Oracle in 300 the 2007 film set in ancient Sparta.18
This is reaffirmed by the lack of evidence for the licking of a seer in either primary sources or
modern anthropological research, such as Mary Douglas’ Purity and Danger. Also, unlike the
other seers in 13th Warrior and The Vikings he does not exclusively use runes in his
prophecies, also using natural elements such as ‘stones and bones’.19 This suggests Vikings
16
Bro , Plasti Paga s’, p.119.
17
N. Pri e, Sha a is i T. I soll ed. , Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Ritual and Religion (Oxford,
2011) pp. 983-1004 p.985.
18
R. Joh so , The eauty a d the eheadi g: Toro to star retur s i e seaso of Viki gs, Post City Toronto
(February 25 2014) http://www.postcity.com/Eat-Shop-Do/Do/February-2014/The-beauty-and-the-beheading-
Toronto-star-returns-in-new-season-of-Vikings/ (accessed 22/11/2015).
19
Vikings, Series Three Promotional Video/ Trailer (History, 2014) opening scenes,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VIVI13uPMRg, (accessed 16/03/16).
8|P age
demonstrates a different branch of prophecy than the other films portray possibly on the
advice of historical advisors.
An earlier representation of a female soothsayer in The Vikings, who is knowledgeable of
rune-magic, has knowledge of rune-magic and who receives the utmost respect for this,
contrasts with the later depiction in Vikings. This is displayed by the seer’s prophecies
watched by the community in silence.20 The using of a female seer displays the awareness of
the director of the The Vikings with the general trope of renowned female soothsayers dating
from the Roman period. Seers could be either sex, but it is clear that in ON society female
seers were dominant as evidenced by the terms used for sorcerers.21 The seer is not fully
trusted by the male characters in The Vikings and is labelled as ‘crazy’, yet does not
experience the same level of excommunication that befalls the seer in Vikings.22
Until Vikings, a soothsayer’s predominant use of runes was common-place in films this is
because it has become ingrained in the public perception of pagan societies in history. The
spiritual and unworldly aspect of the seers could have added to the popularity of the
swashbuckling 1958 version.
20
The Vikings (Richard Fleischer, 1958), 22.17.
21
For ore o this see: N. Pri e, Sor ery a d Cir u polar Traditio s pp. 244- 9 , C. ‘aud ere Popular
‘eligio i the Viki g Age pp. 235-244 and A. Hultgård The ‘eligio of the Viki gs in S. Brink and N. Price
(eds. ), The Viking World (Abingdon, 2008) pp. 212-219.
22
The Vikings (Richard Fleischer, 1958) 1.03.55.
9|P age
Sacred Places and Rites of Passage
Sacred places are often depicted in films as destinations for transformative rites of
passage; funerals, transition from childhood to adulthood and praying are example. The
‘viking’ rites of passage in film include attending the Midvinterblot, the Thing and the
receiving of the first arm ring (not referenced in contemporary sources but archaeological
artefacts are present).
Viking funerary ritual in films fixates on the cremation of the deceased, either on a funeral
pyre or the Hollywood trope of a boat ‘burial’, a blended idea based on the discoveries of the
Øseberg and Roskilde Ships. The funerals that occur in both 13th Warrior and Vikings (1.6)
are noticeably different from the others as they are relayed to outsiders, both of the
community and of the religion by a high ranking official. This enables us to understand what
the director deems important in the ritual. The change in Viking funerary practice noted in the
13th Warrior (7 minutes) suggests a move to inhumation, however this is not specifically
stated, and conversely the concluding funeral infers cremation. The use of Ibn Fadlan’s
account of a Rus ship burial (as previously discussed) is an example of historiophoty closely
following the historiography, possibly enhancing the film’s partially successful historical
accuracy. Where the depiction fails is in the ship cremation: this type of cremation would be
unlikely because ships were expensive, requiring a vast amount of manpower and time.
The connection that exists between fire and death is represented in the 13th Warrior, SOR
and TWV. The cremation scenes are always shot at dusk or night, leading to negative
connotations of the dark. This is a notion explored by Neil Price who suggests that funerals
and feast were held in the evening and at night, which is certainly logical considering the
10 | P a g e
amount of feasting that occurred prior to the actual funeral.23 The contrast between fire and
water is also noteworthy as fire has negative connotations of evil and hell, as reiterated in
TWV when Olav Tryggvason states that ‘no one should burn in hell’.24
Water represents ‘rebirth’, a notion prevalent in The Vikings. Initially, Eric is sentenced to
be drowned, however by the seer beseeching Oðin to save his life, the tide is turned and he is
saved, thus providing his ‘rebirth’. 25 This is essentially a Christian concept connected to
baptism and the removal of the Original Sin so water could be viewed as a metaphor for a
bridge between the two religions as depicted in Vikings (2.10). This is a significant episode
for Ragnar’s character development and his relationship with Christianity as he is taught the
Lord’s Prayer by Athelstan in front of a waterfall which connects the two religions. The
image of Athelstan praying with Ragnar reflects an open mind towards the unknown religion.
However as witnessed in a later episode (3.4), water represents danger in ice form. It could be
argued that this is because of the frozen state of the water; it is not in a continuously moving
state, reflecting timelessness and complimenting the connection to the sacred. This is not
explicitly stated as an employed tactic used by the filmmaker however it could be
subconsciously recognised through Psychoanalysis Film Theory.
The connection to the sacred at natural points in the landscape is evidenced by the
multiple uses of caves as backdrops in important scenes. In SOR a cave is used as a heathen
burial site, connecting the place to religion, achieved through the use of a totem-like icon of a
god and the presence of ravens, symbolising Oðin. 26 In other films, Gåten Ragnarök, the 13th
Warrior and Erik the Viking the association of a cave as a home to something ‘other’ is
emphasised by the dwelling of several beasts. In The Vikings (1958), a cave is utilised as a
23
N. Pri e, Passi g i to Poetry: Viking-Age Mortuary Dra a a d the Origi s of Norse Mythology , Medieval
Archaeology 54 (2010) pp.122-156, p 139.
24
The White Viking (Hrafn Gunnlaugsson, 1991) 1.00.
25
The Vikings (Richard Fleischer, 1958) 29 20 -30.14.
26
In the Shadow of the Raven (Hrafn Gunnlaugsson, 1988) 41.19.
11 | P a g e
hideout, in some societies caves are seen as entrances to a different realm and quite alien to
some modern audiences too.27
This chapter has determined that the portrayal of paganism in media is generally negative,
assisted by exposing the modern audience to large amounts of disturbing and unfamiliar
scenarios. This has been achieved by studying how sacrifice is depicted and its significance
during fertility rituals as witnessed in the 13th Warrior and Vikings, including the problem
for a Western contemporary audience viewing such scenes. Furthermore the coherency of
both religions depicted by rites of passage and rituals, and the importance of prophesising has
been assessed. The purpose and audience should be considered as this too reveals the
director’s aims and how paganism is depicted. Due to the age ratings of the films, as
mentioned previously, it can be assumed that the majority of the audience were expected to
be young adults and particularly those with an interest in historical film, the depiction of
Medievalism or the Vikings.
This is further expanded upon when considering the marketed genres of the films. The
Vikings (1958) is advertised as an ‘action and adventure’, SOR a ‘drama’, TWV ‘adventure-
drama’ and Vikings as ‘action, drama and history’. The marketing of the films as action and
adventure could increase their sales and attract a larger audience. Surprisingly romance does
not feature in the marketing genre which would generically appeal to female viewers. None
of the films are explicitly sold as having ‘religious’ connotations, implying religion is less
appealing and marketable. Furthermore a religious film for example The Passion of the Christ
(2004) is explicitly about religion and/or takes religion as its main focal point. 28
27
J. L. He derso , A ie t Myths a d Moder Ma i C.G. Ju g ed. , Man and His Symbols (London, 1978)
pp. 95-157 p. 152.
28
C. Marsh, Audie e ‘e eptio i J. Lyde ed. , The Routledge Companion to Religion and Film (Abingdon,
2009) pp. 255-275, p. 256.
12 | P a g e
Considering the genres of each film then it is expected that the purpose is to generally
entertain the intended audience. The portrayal of paganism in the film-set shall now be
compared to that of Christianity to see if the general negative portrayal of religion continues
despite the change in beliefs.
13 | P a g e
The Cinematic Portrayal of Viking Religion: Born Again?
Born Again: Christianity in Film
The Vikings are renowned for having a polytheistic belief system but what is less
memorable is their conversion to Christianity. It is presumed Christianity was forced upon the
population, a notion still promoted by several Scandinavian Black Metal bands, most
notoriously Burzum who burnt Norwegian stave churches in ‘revenge attacks’ against
Christians “desecrating Viking graves and burial mounds” in the late 8 th Century.1 These
sources must be considered carefully to determine the process of conversion as they are
undoubtedly bias, intended to promote political and religious ideology and to maintain a
hypermasculine persona associated with the Vikings.
The process of conversion in the Nordic region is documented especially on Iceland
through sources such as Íslendingabók and Kristni saga. Additional accounts of conversions
survive in missionary evidence and the Icelandic sagas but these should be interpreted
carefully as they are not contemporary, have their own purpose and could have been affected
by Christianisation. 2. The conversion also signalled a change in the political world: to

3
guarantee political cohesion or to avoid conflict with powerful neighbours.
1
M. Moynihan and D. Søderlind, Lords of Chaos: The Bloody Rise of the Satanic Metal Underground, (Port
Townsend, 1998), p. 88.
2
S. Bri k, Christia isatio a d the E erge e of the Early Chur h i S a di a ia i S. Bri k a d N. Pri e eds. ,
The Viking World (Abingdon, 2008) pp. 621-629, p. 622.
3
The National Museum of Denmark, The Transition to Christianity, http://en.natmus.dk/historical-
knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-viking-age/religion-magic-death-and-rituals/the-
transition-to-christianity/ (accessed 31/01/16).
14 | P a g e
Process of Conversion
Hrafn Gunnlaugson is not a universally famous director but is renowned amongst Viking
film enthusiasts for directing ‘the most authentic Viking films ever’ .4 Hailing from the
Breiðafjörður area in Western Iceland, Gunnlaugson stated it was his upbringing and
watching earlier highly romanticised and exaggerated Viking ‘opera’ films that inspired the
need for authenticity in his portrayal of the Viking era.5 The Viking Trilogy films were
generally well received and have now become ‘cult classics’ within the genre, comparable to
American Westerns due to their ‘pioneering’ theme.
Gunnlaugsson claims he grew up listening to the sagas as Iceland had no electricity
during his childhood and a dependence on these is evident when considering TWV plot.
Allowing for a small amount of artistic licence to weave a believable romantic thread (and a
few name changes), it generally follows the traditional myth concerning the Christian
conversion of Iceland as explained by Ari Þorgilsson’s Íslendingabók which briefly recounts
the tale of the Alþing accepting ‘one law and one faith of Christianity’. 6
The change of religion was considered acceptable with exceptions including the ‘eating of
horsemeat, the continuation of infanticide by exposure, and secret sacrificing to the Old
Gods’.7 This is a pragmatic approach to conversion; by keeping pagan elements which are
abhorrent in Christianity would allow for an easier transition. This suggests the conversion
was for political unity as the pagan practices became less popular. Iceland viewed
Christianity as adaptable and evolutionary to suit the island’s requirements.
4
As advertised on the DVD sleeve.
5
P. Fontaine, The Raven Auteur Director on Film, Politics and Testicles, Reykjavik Grapevine, (July 8 2005), as
accessed at: http://grapevine.is/mag/articles/2005/07/08/the-raven-auteur-director-on-film-politics-and-
testicles/, (accessed 31/01/16).
6
The White Viking (Hrafn Gunnlaugsson, 1991) 1.54.00.
Ari Þorgilsso , Íslendingabók’ in R.I. Page, Chronicles of the Vikings (London, 2014), p. 226-7.
7
15 | P a g e
There are differences between the written accounts and the film portrayal. Gunnlaugson’s
depiction does not contain the agreed allowances and only makes reference to the ‘bleeding
in secret’.8 The omission of the horse meat and infanticide practise is not a serious oversight
of Gunnlaugsson’s; the issues do not arise anywhere in the film and thus be taken out of
context. There are also not opposing camps of Christian and pagan as stated by Ari. It is
partly a request by the Law-speaker’s son (Askur dubbed ‘The White Viking’ after his forced
conversion in Norway) for the safety of his wife (Embla) held hostage by the Christian; Olav
Tryggvason, that Iceland converts.9 This possibly was amended to suit the romantic storyline
and to add drama. In any event, it could be presumed that Icelanders, as the original intended
audience for the film, would be familiar with the traditional conversion narrative and
appreciate the alteration as artistic licence.
The supposed opposing factions of pagan and Christian that meet at the
Allþing in TWV reveals elements about how the process of conversion worked in Iceland as
they represent the pro and against views towards conversion. This can be generally accounted
for throughout the rest of the Viking world during the 9th -11th Centuries. Firstly, for there to
be a Christian faction, including both Icelanders and foreigners it suggests that previous
attempts at conversion were made and Christianisation occurred over time as elements of
Christianity slowly infiltrated and became accepted in the Viking world. Gunnlaugsson hints
at this throughout TWV. The audience is made aware whilst the film is centred in Norway and
Iceland, numerous missionary attempts at conversion have been attempted and occasionally
successfully under the command of Olav Tryggvason, and even of the Icelanders’ reception
towards them as stated by a converted settler: ‘I don’t know what my husband did when
8
9
Names taken from the ON origin myth, Askr and Embla. For more information see: M. Clunies-Ross, A History
of Old Norse Poetry and Poetics (Cambridge, 2005), p. a d H. O Do oghue, Old English Poetry and Old
Norse Myth: A History (Oxford, 2014), p. 196.
16 | P a g e
Tungbrand crossed his temple’.10 The familiarity with the missionaries suggests they stayed
for a significant amount of time in order to become better acquainted with the Icelanders,
conversely the settlers had already been baptised in Norway.
Furthermore, a few characters in the film do not demonstrate their new faith
wholeheartedly and questionably brings their full conversion into doubt. Initially their
behaviour towards Askur is hostile with one character stating ‘Priests kill people in Christ’s
name’, suggesting violence has occurred on previous mission attempts. 11 The issue of their
conversion and their attitudes towards Askur as just simply ‘another missionary’ reiterates the
frequency of the conversion attempts by Olav in Norway, suggesting the importance of a
united region under a single religion. There is evidence of violence during missionary visits
to Scandinavia, with the first martyr, Nithard killed whilst visiting Birka in the late 800s. 12
Conversely the Icelandic conversion story describes murder by the Christians and desecration
of cult sites, reinforcing the suggestion that the process was not entirely peaceful.13
The term in TWV that Icelanders use for missionaries (by Icelanders), ‘whitey’ is
derogative and pertains to their new pure nature after baptism, acceptance of the ‘White
Christ’ and their clean white silk gowns gifted to them, as attested to by Notker, a witness to
a Viking baptism in the Frankish Court in the mid-800s.14 This emphasises their familiarity
with the missionaries and the frequency of their visits, reinforced by a basic understanding of
Christian theology.
This is demonstrated further when Icelanders discuss the resurrection of Jesus, suggesting
it was either learned through repeated missionary visits (and a willingness to listen) or
10
11
The White Viking (Hrafn Gunnlaugsson, 1991) 38.51-41.10.
12
S. Brink, Christianisation and the Emergence of the Early Church , p. 624.
13
Ibid, p. 625.
14
The National Museum of Denmark, Christianity Comes to Denmark, http://en.natmus.dk/historical-
knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-viking-age/religion-magic-death-and-
rituals/christianity-comes-to-denmark/ (accessed 03/02/16).
17 | P a g e
through the transmission of ideas that came as a result of travelling and trading with lands
that were Christian or being converted such as England, Ireland and Frankia. The depiction of
this in TWV implies that Christianity and its beliefs were becoming widespread.
It is attested in the traditional written accounts and TWV that it was Olav who converted
Iceland, however, this is not strictly true and furthermore the film implies that it was perhaps
forced conversion: ‘Olav Tryggvason has forced earls and petty kings to be baptised. Only
one earl remains before Norway is Christianised.’15 It is believed that during his reign the
population of Iceland converted, however a Christian population already existed both pre and
post the Settlement Period.16 Irish hermits seeking a solitary existence are known to have met
the first Norwegian settlers on the island and many settlers actually came from previously
Christianised regions such as Orkney, Shetland, England and Ireland.17 Therefore it can be
presumed that Christianity and paganism were both practiced in Iceland pre 1000 (the year
traditionally given as the conversion date).
The depiction of Christianity in TWV is unusual and could reflect Gunnlaugsson’s
viewpoint. As we have seen in chapter one, paganism was often depicted as wild and barbaric
with sacrifice forming a major part in rituals. By contrast, TWV depicts Christianity in a very
peculiar manner not seen in other Viking films. This is achieved by the use of an animated
portable crucifix acting as an intermediary between King Olav and God. This in itself is not
particularly remarkable, but what is, is the message delivered by ‘God’ through the crucifix.
The ‘White God’ in TWV is malevolent, greedy and demanding, wishing that He ‘had’ all the
lands settled by the Vikings, not just Norway. This is emphasised by His unforgiving attitude
to Olav and proving His existence by making the crucifix bleed a-la stigmata. This is
15
The White Viking (Hrafn Gunnlaugsson, 1991) opening scene.
16
T. Carlyle, Early Kings of Norway, (chapter 7) (2008) as found at:
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/1932/1932-h/1932-h.htm#link2HCH0006, (accessed 12/03/16).
17
S. Brink, Christianisation and the Emergence of the Early Church , p. 625.
18 | P a g e
reminiscent of the bloodletting associated with pagan animal sacrifices, whilst the tears God
demands for Olav’s forgiveness are exemplary of personal sacrifice.
Furthermore, He reminds Olav of his mortality, contrasting with the commonly held belief
that Christians will have immortality in Heaven.
Olav appears overtly devout and fearful of God’s power insisting that His will be done by
ordering the conversion of Iceland through whatever means necessary. This makes Olav
appear as a frightening and powerful leader, committed in his ‘crusade’ against the pagans. 18
Conversely, Olav is envied by the priest who baptised him as an ‘outlawed Viking in
England’. This priest is unable to communicate and hear God in the same manner that Olav
does, resulting in his flagellation. However the priest’s conversion to Christianity is
questioned, when with his dying breath in Iceland he gives himself to Oðin. It is known that
he was German so perhaps he had not willingly given up his native religion or was
dissatisfied with Christianity. Gunnlaugsson is relating conversion and Christianisation as
being complicated and unsure process.
On the apparent ‘sighting’ of Christ by the nuns in a convent in Olav’s castle (Askur is
posing as Christ to rescue Embla) the abbess is visibly frightened, stating they are ‘not ready
for him’.19 This is an implicit reference to the Christianisation of Iceland which has yet to be
achieved and emphasises the malevolent nature of early Christianity and indicates how they
may have viewed spiritual entities.
18
19
19 | P a g e
Syncretism in Film
As previously discussed, the overall process of conversion throughout Scandinavia was
slow-moving and did not necessitate involving the strict adoption of the Christian faith and
complete abandonment of pagan rituals. Therefore for a period of time there was syncretism.
Numerous films and television series have portrayed this element successfully and shall be
discussed forthwith: TWV depicts the process of the Christianisation of Iceland which
features both pagan and Christian communities; meanwhile SOR is set firmly after the
recorded date of Christianisation but the history of paganism on the island is acknowledged.
In WRF the bloody interaction between pagans and Christians is demonstrated and in Vikings,
the pagan protagonists regularly interact with their Christian neighbours.
All of the productions include issues of conflict between the two religions which
frequently afflict an individual within their respective societies. This is especially prevalent in
Vikings where Athelstan, an Anglo Saxon monk taken into slavery by Ragnar on their initial
raid to Lindisfarne, is deployed as a plot device. He depicts the theological differences
between the two religions whilst highlighting the syncretism, which becomes more apparent
when he becomes an integral part of the community. He battles, figuratively and literally,
between Christianity and paganism throughout series two and three, prior to his murder. It is
evident to the audience the pain that Athelstan experiences, internally and externally when he
doubts his faith and becomes attracted to paganism. Paganism and Athelstan’s absence of
having an official religious role within the community would offer a level of freedom as he is
not regimented by the strict religious timetable or rules, expected to be upheld by a Christian
monk. Certainly, he is intrigued by the polytheism and different aspects within society the
deities represent, even those recognisable. This would potentially lessen the difference
between the two religions and the adoption of paganism more understandable. It seems to
suggest there was a huge gulf between Christianity and paganism especially when
20 | P a g e
considering an early medieval society, who chronologically would not be too distant from the
Northern Germanic religions.
The similarities between the two religions are inclusive of gods, Baldr has similar positive
attributes as Christ: both sacrificing themselves for the good of their people, depicted
especially in Vikings and by Athelstan when relaying his thoughts on the ON gods to King
Egbert, ‘Their gods are very old... and sometimes I could not help noticing some similarities
with our own God... and His Son.’20 Although the central element of Christianity is the
belief in one god, it could be argued that early Christian occult dogma recognised the
existence of more deities, with God however being the Origin and the Creator. “Then God
said, ‘Let us make humankind in our image, according to our likeness...’.”21 The problem
concerning this argument is whether or not an early Christian (largely illiterate) society
would have interpreted this passage literally, taking ‘us’ and ‘our’ to indicate several gods.
This seems possible as these societies were previously polytheistic. The similarities could
have been emphasised during readings to encourage conversion. Furthermore it is likely the
Word would have been taken literally; as true believers would be more devout to atone for
their previous sins (such as the case of Olav Tryggvason in TWV).
We are aware that Athelstan receives a series of strong visions throughout series two and
three from both sets of gods. He accepts they are both real but that Christianity will
ultimately triumph and thus devotes his life to God again, even more fervently than before. 22
This is further emphasised by him stating to Ragnar: ‘In the gentle fall of rain from Heaven I
hear my God. But in the thunder I still hear Thor. That is my agony.’ 23 It makes sense that
Athelstan would be susceptible to accepting and acknowledging paganism, when he was
20
Vikings, Series Two Episode Six: Unforgiven (History, April 3 2014) 21.42-21.50.
21
The Bible: King James Online, Gen 1:26. http://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/Genesis-Chapter-1/#26
(accessed 18/02/16).
22
He also never questions Ragnar on his faith and accepts that he too is curious. His visions include a bleeding
bible and stigmata.
23
Vikings, Series Two Episode Nine: The Choice (History, April 24 2014) 26.43-26.58.
21 | P a g e
surrounded by pagans and otherwise assimilated into their society. He questions the wrathful
nature of God in allowing the Vikings to plunder the monasteries and doubts the validity of
the Christian church. Essentially emphasising a (secular and religious power struggle over
which god(s) are stronger, this is highlighted further by the sacrifice at Uppsala. Although
Athelstan is initially repulsed by the sacrifices and festival it would be reminiscent of the Old
Testaments vengeful and wrathful God. A similar sacrifice of Thord’s son in WRF is asked to
appease the gods reflecting the sacrifice demanded of Abraham of his son Isaac in order to
prove his loyalty to God.
This is where the similarities between the two religions are subtly utilised in Vikings to
portray Christianity as a ‘relation’ of paganism, especially during the period of syncretism. In
Vikings the transition between Christianity and paganism is symbolically and metaphorically
portrayed through a number of acts, an example being the crucifixion of Athelstan by the
Bishop of Wessex for being an apostate.24 This scene is powerful as before the crucifixion he
is beaten up and therefore, when he is on the cross, he could be a metaphor for Oðin as he
effectively has one eye. This foreshadows the eventual ascendancy of Christianity whilst
symbolically representing the mental torment that Athelstan is suffering. It is doubtful that
this imagery is a coincidence, especially considering the show has historical scholarly
advisors. Additionally, Athelstan fears for his life and safety on arrival in Kattegat (the small
settlement where Vikings is set) he denies his Christianity to others and when questioned by
the völur in ‘Sacrifice’ (1.8) he denies his belief three times (similar to Peter in the Bible) as
he attempts to convince others he has renounced Christianity.
Athelstan’s ultimate renouncement of his Christian faith is enhanced by throwing away of
the torc ring given to him by Ragnar. This leads to his murder (essentially martyrdom) at the
hands of the jealous and devoutly pagan Floki. This in a sense, however, is a victory for both
24
Vikings, Series Two Episode Four: Eye For an Eye (History, March 20 2014).
22 | P a g e
religions. Floki believes he has fulfilled a task demanded of him by Oðin by murdering the
Christian, whilst Athelstan, who is aware of what is to come, has achieved martyrdom and
will thus enter Heaven.
Christianity in Vikings
The use of one character to display two religions effectively, allows the audience to see
how other characters react to Christianity in Britain (mainly Wessex) and Frankia (Paris). As
detailed previously, Vikings has an interesting and complex relationship with Christianity that
one can assume will expand throughout series four whilst exploring the Viking’s now equally
convoluted relationship with the Franks. 25 The show generally gives a negative depiction of
Christianity, dependent on the social situation, whether or not there is a truce existing
between the Vikings and the English/Franks and Ragnar’s interest in the religion
notwithstanding.
Stereotypically, from the outset the Vikings’ attitude towards Christianity is negative. The
archetypal image of Viking attacks in Britain involving raids and looting wealthy monasteries
is depicted early in series one. In comparison to the Scandinavian settlements depicted that
England has considerable wealth, attributed to the extensive trading accessible to Christians
and via the patronage of Rome.26
Additionally there is an element of greed and lust for power amongst the Christian elite,
reiterated when Egbert admits to Ragnar that he is ‘corrupt’ in episode 3.4, an aspect they
bond over as Ragnar is craving more power. The lust for power is especially prevalent within
high-ranking officials who use their exalted positions to exact harm, including the Bishop of
Wessex attempting to crucify Athelstan. This is significant as it is Christian vs Christian and
25
Series four commences 18/02/16.
26
Vikings, Series One Episode Two: Wrath of the Northmen (History, March 10 2013).
23 | P a g e
seems unlikely that this would have been the favoured punishment for an apostate.
Crucifixion was outlawed by Emperor Constantine in the 4th Century and was not a regular
punishment, implying this was done for dramatic effect and symbolism. 27 Other examples of
torture include the maiming of Judith by King Egbert for bearing a child outside of wedlock
(Athelstan is the father) in 3.6.28 Inflicting hurt could even be extended to involve
psychological abuse, for example Gisli (the daughter of King Charles) is adamant she will not
marry Rollo, but her father forces her, to maintain the truce with Ragnar. Another example of
psychological harm is evident when Aethelwulf self-flagellates, reiterating the demanding
and wrathful God of the Old Testament and the extreme devotion to the religion.
Further ‘un-Christian’ behaviour is depicted by extramarital intercourse between
Athelstan and Judith, Count Odo and a married member of the Frankish court and Egbert
with his daughter-in-law Judith. There are a number of reasons this occurs, including gaining
a higher position at court and as a means of blackmail. Behaviour such as this is profound as
one would generally expect these acts from the Vikings. It is possible that this was done out
of artistic licence. Michael Hirst is famed for his raunchy unexpurgated historical dramas
including The Tudors (2007-2010) about Henry VIII and Camelot (2011) concerning King
Arthur respectively. These set a trend which Vikings follows, many scenes depicting
bloodshed and sex. In Vikings however, there is greater focus on bloodshed, with sex used as
a political tool by largely Christian characters. This contrasts against the stereotype of the
‘Viking rapist’ (although they are not entirely guilt-free) and is certainly not a positive
depiction of Christianity.
Christianity is also ridiculed by the Vikings when the baptisms of Rollo and Ragnar occur
(the former is a prerequisite to secure an agreement with King Aelle whilst the latter is an
27
Allison Gee, Crucifixion from Ancient Rome to Modern Syria, BBC News (8 May 2014)
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-27245852 (accessed 12/01/2016).
28
Vikings: Judith is Tortured, Series Three Episode Six (History, 26 March 2015)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F6hFGFf-yPc (accessed 15/03/16).
24 | P a g e
element in the ‘dying’ Ragnar’s plot to take the city). 29 Rollo sees the baptism as ‘a bath’, not
taking it seriously, and soon reverts back to paganism. Ragnar is criticised for his decision by
his close family, including Rollo. It is apparent that Floki, who is the antithesis to Athelstan
in his devout belief in the gods, despises every aspect of Christianity and severely disproves
of Ragnar’s baptism.
The single positive depiction of Christianity in Vikings is displayed in the form of mutual
respect between Ragnar and Athelstan. Ragnar seems genuinely interested in Athelstan’s
Christianity and urges him to teach him the Lord’s Prayer in episode 2.10. He is visibly
distressed by Athelstan’s murder and frequently ‘talks’ to him, strongly evident when he is
burying the monk:
I always believed that death is a fate far better than life, for you will be reunited with lost
loved ones. But we will never meet again my friend. I have a feeling that your God might
object to me visiting you in Heaven. What am I to do now? I hate you for leaving me. I ache
from your loss. There is nothing that can console me now. I am changed, so are you.30
Further reiterating Ragnar’s respect for his friend and his religion and it is likely that
Ragnar’s grief will be a continued driving force during series four. Conclusively Vikings
depicts pejorative attitudes against Christianity, further supporting my hypothesis.
The syncretism is not just evident in Vikings, the practice and adoption of both religions is
evident in a variety of additional films. The internal strife affecting Athelstan is witnessed in
SOR if the portrayal of a recurring raven is to be understood as a symbolic representation of
Oðin. This is particularly significant as Christianity is the official religion in Iceland at this
point and there seems to be no examples of pagan ceremonies, presumably because it is set
after 1000 AD. The conflict is emphasised when the clearly unsettled protagonist, Trausti,
29
Viki gs, Series O e Episode Se e : A Ki g s ‘a so History, April a d Series Three Episode : The
Dead (History, April 23 2015).
30
Vikings, Series Three Episode Six: Born Again (History, March 26 2015), 39.35-41.20.
25 | P a g e
enters his father’s pagan cave burial, torches it and attempts to connect to Oðin by allowing
himself to bleed.31 Christianity and paganism are used here together for the character’s
personal agenda and his need at a specific time, further suggesting the fluidity of religions.
Wearing a crucifix resembling a Thor’s hammer pendant, which is witnessed in TWV, by
a previously converted Christian, is another example of fluidity. 32 The continued use of pagan
symbols by those converted is also seen by Askur’s affection for a Freyja pendant, suggesting
that communities converted to Christianity and then abandoned it over a period of time,
similar to Rollo in Vikings. This can be confirmed by archaeology, soapstone moulds were
found at Trendgården, Jylland which could make crucifix and Mjolnir pendants, suggesting
both were in use at the same time.33
This chapter concludes that the portrayal of Christianity in films is ultimately negative.
Forced conversion is only evident in TWV which is driven by Olav’s desire to please God. In
the film the Christianisation of Iceland succeeds due to the love between Askur and his
father, who incidentally also takes a pragmatic approach and adapts Christianity to suit the
island’s population. Further attempts at conversion are seen in Vikings; however these are not
taken seriously by their respective characters. Additionally these attempts were not actually
performed by the Christian protagonist, Athelstan but either by King Egbert or King Charles
in order to reach a political agreement. Athelstan suffered an internal conflict over his
religion which provided a significant plot device for the series.
Conversely the depiction of Christian society is just as negative and features corrupt
rulers and extramarital affairs. There is no ‘forced’ conversion, it is merely requested that
some from the Viking community are baptised so that a treaty can be signed. Excluding
Athelstan however, it could be argued that the majority of the Christian characters have no
31
In the Shadow of the Raven (Hrafn Gunnlaugsson, 1988) 1.35.00.
32
33
R. Fletcher, The Conversion of Europe: From Paganism to Christianity 371-1386 AD (Illinois, 1997), p. 373.
26 | P a g e
real positive attributes that one would expect a Christian to have. None of them are
completely pure (including Athelstan) and this could reflect Hirst’s idea of the Early
Medieval manner of the religion, especially if, as argued earlier, the Bible is read literally and
the depiction of the wrathful Old Testament God. Furthermore, only the upper class and elite
in Christian societies are depicted so therefore a notion concerning the entire populace cannot
be given.
27 | P a g e
The Cinematic Portrayal of Viking Religion: Conclusion
Conclusion
Evidence and reasoning within this dissertation has proven the hypothesis that the
portrayal of both paganism and Christianity in the media of The Vikings, WRF, SOR, TWV,
13th Warrior and Vikings has a negative theme. The referenced films however differ in their
pejorative depictions due to influences on either the sagas, written (although
uncontemporary) evidence from missionaries or clichés in earlier film.
The Vikings is classically the first blockbuster Viking film, even though the depiction of
the stereotypical behaviour; rape and violence, was restricted in the 1950s, resulting in the
controlled audience reception typical of this era. The Vikings’ based around the sagas of
Ragnar Loðbrok and his sons, and a screen-play from the 1951 novel by Edison Marshal,
makes it centrally a story about revenge, jealousy, class-struggle, lust and romance. It’s
depiction of paganism and a classic ‘authentic’ Viking funeral of boat cremation has become
the blueprint for future film depictions, however what it lacks in accuracy is compensated
with drama and future clichés. The Vikings depiction of the ‘crazy’ and occasionally
hysterical female seer whose reliance on rune-magic to interpret the gods’ wishes is also an
extremely well-trodden trope within Medievalism or religious films, portraying an ancient
society. Primarily however, it does display the respect given to the seer within Viking
society. Meanwhile its representation of Christianity as the stereotypically ‘pure’ religion
with devout followers is also well referenced in later film. Essentially, neither religion is
depicted as the ‘hero’ and ‘villain’ with the focus on the relationship between the protagonists
Einar and Erik.
13th Warrior is unique in the respect that it does not involve any Christian characters or
beliefs instead referring to paganism and the religion of Islam. There is a less important
religious theme in 13th Warrior as it an adaption of the OE poem Beowulf. Its portrayal
however of Ibn Fadlan’s account of a Rus burial in the Volga is notorious for its attempt at
28 | P a g e
historical accuracy in interpreting the 10th Century source. Minor omissions are present in the
historiophoty and this is perhaps due to the age rating for the film and the late 20 th Century
ethics for the lack of extreme bloody violence. An explanation could be for the suggestion of
narcotics by the slave and the implied sacrifice- although the act itself is not shown.
Gunnlaugsson’s Viking trilogy consisting of WRF, SOR and TWV are now rendered cult
classics, recreating what the DVD sleeve claims to be the ‘most authentic Viking films ever’.
The hyperbolic marketing of the films could be a clever selling tactic to entice foreign
tourists or even include as a satirical statement. In TWV attempts are made to portray the
conversion as forced under coercion. It is likely that all the films in the Viking trilogy are set
during the process or just after Christianisation. This is not made clear however and could
allow for artistic alterations to the written accounts.
Additionally by setting the trilogy around the period of Christianisation, it raises the
dramatic status of the period and suggests it was the most interesting era in Iceland’s early
history. More importantly, Gunnlaugsson is not attempting to retell history; the Viking trilogy
is purely his ‘fantasies as an Icelander’, this is because he believes that ‘history is always an
agreement between historians’.1 Possibly, indicating that the depictions of Christianity and
the characters within his films are deliberately ambiguous. As previously stated, he grew up
listening to the sagas, so one can presume that the plots are at least loosely based on a
collection of these and his recollections. His ‘fantasies’ indicate that he is proud of his
heritage as an Icelander and of the story-telling legacy that is prevalent. A suggestion that he
is merely following the island’s tradition of creating stories- that might not necessarily be
accurate, a fact he vaguely alludes to by refusing to comment on the historical accuracy.
It is clear that with Vikings one must consider the director’s purpose for the films and
their own personal stance. Hirst is evidently attempting to make a dramatic, exciting and
1
As discussed in email correspondence with the director (07/02/2016).
29 | P a g e
compelling series which is loosely based on the life of Ragnar Loðbrok and ON mythology. 2
Vikings is not therefore set within one specific period but instead depicts the main attacks and
events that are universally better known. His depiction of paganism is ultimately as expected,
using ideas from The Vikings and 13th Warrior for negative scenarios of rituals such as
sacrifice and not as much on modern scholarship due to the lack of precise knowledge about
the religion. Although the significant use of historical advisors is evident throughout due to
the subtle mythological elements.
The adverse representation of paganism is unusual as the characters themselves are often
depicted fairly positively. Ragnar, who is so often determined to obtain more power and land
at all cost, becomes immediately personal and more intimate around his loved ones.
Ultimately, reaching its climax with the death of Athelstan, that is especially significant
because of their contrasting religions. In Vikings, the Christians are characterized as the
‘villains’ with the exception of Athelstan and are arguably endowed with greater pejorative
qualities than the Vikings. Presumably this could be a concession to mainly Christian
audiences’ thoughts concerning the usual positive depictions of Christianity. This can also be
attributed to Audience Reception and Psychoanalysis Film Theory where the audience
develops a subconscious affiliation for the protagonists, in this case Vikings, we long for
them to be victorious- even though history tells us that this is not the outcome. The negative
portrayal of Christianity allows the audience to feel justified in their support.
Vikings depicts both paganism and Christianity with greater negativity than the other
films and this could be attributed to the nature of drama in the media in the 2010s as opposed
to the 1980s and 90s. Plus the increasing use of graphic imagery in later film that the intended
viewer would be acclimatised to, predominantly because of blockbusters such as Game of
Thrones. Furthermore, the Medieval Trope and the relationship between paganism and a
2
For more information on the uses of the legend of Ragnar see: E. Ashman Rowe, Vikings in the West: The
Legend of Ragnar Loðbrok and his sons (Vienna, 2012).
30 | P a g e
monotheistic religion are also seen in Game of Thrones and it’s conceivable that the battle-
hardened, seafaring Ironborn with their own language and religion are modelled on the
Vikings.3 Vikings has increasingly been compared to BBC’s The Last Kingdom (2015) based
on Bernard Cornwell’s The Saxon Stories for the subject matter, however it was not analysed
in this study due to constraints but including this would significantly expand the 21 st Century
source material.
Is the negative portrayal of religion in the films then attributed to the directors and writers
dislike of religion? There are arguments that religion as a subject matter is less marketable
(excluding Mel Gibson’s epic Passion of the Christ) and certainly Christianity as a subject
matter is less profitable due to the presumptuous ‘boring’ aspect of the religion. Viking films
generally depict paganism because of the hypermasculine stereotype and the opportunity for
greater artistic license with the script and portrayal. This would aid in marketing and perhaps
why the films are not marketed as ‘religious’. The setting of the films could also have an
effect on the depiction of the religions with Iceland being a separate entity compared to
Scandinavia, Britain and Frankia; this could explain the unique pragmatism that is adopted
alongside Christianisation. The Viking trilogy, aside from being the only films set in Iceland,
are the only ones produced in the Nordic region and not in English; this could have an effect
on the depiction due to the Icelandic heritage and connection to ON.
In conclusion, the depiction of Viking religion in the films studied is negative for a
number of reasons which have been detailed above. This study has filled a research gap
concerning the depiction of paganism and Christianity in film and television; concluding that
more detailed analysis is needed on the subject with a wider set of films. The of inclusion of
3
O. Hughes, The Iro or and the Viking Warrior: An Interview with Ian Stephenson , History Behind Game of
Thrones, (September 30 2014), http://history-behind-game-of-thrones.com/gameofthrones/viking-ian-
stephenson (accessed 18/03/16).
31 | P a g e
films not analysed here, due to length and time constraints, incorporating films from the
Continent and Scandinavia in order to see if this dissertation’s hypothesis is further proven.
32 | P a g e
The Cinematic Portrayal of Viking Religion: Bibliography
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Primary Sources-Written
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p. 226-7.
Adam of Bremen, Gesta Hammaburgenis Ecclesiae Pontificum, as cited in: R. I. Page,
Chronicles of the Vikings (London, 2000), p. 220-21.
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Erik the Viking (Terry Jones, 1989).
The White Viking, (Hrafn Gunnlaugsson, 1991).
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Aberth, J., ‘Kevin J. Harty (ed), The Vikings on Film: Essays on Depictions of the Nordic
Middle Ages (Review)’, Film and History: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 43.1 (2013).
Ashman Rowe, E., Vikings in the West: The Legend of Ragnar Loðbrok and his sons (Vienna,
2012).
Brink, S., ‘Christianisation and the Emergence of the Early Church in Scandinavia’ in S.
Brink and N. Price (eds.), The Viking World (Abingdon, 2008), pp. 621-629.
Brown, H., ‘Plastic Pagans: Viking Human Sacrifice in Film and Television’ in K. Fugelso
(ed.), Studies in Medievalism XXIII (Cambridge, 2014), pp. 107-122.
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Review of Film and Video, 22.3 (2005).
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Douglas, M., Purity and Danger: An analysis of concepts of pollution and taboo (London,
1966).
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(Illinois, 1997).
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Henderson, J.L., ‘Ancient Myths and Modern Man’ in C.G. Jung (ed.), Man and His Symbols
(London, 1978), pp. 95-157.
Henriksson, G., ‘The pagan Great Midwinter Sacrifice and the ‘royal’ mounds at Old
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Hultgård, A., ‘The Religion of the Vikings’ in S. Brink and N. Price (eds.), The Viking World
(Abingdon, 2008), pp. 212-219.
34 | P a g e
Lyden, J., ‘Introduction’ in J. Lyden (ed.), The Routledge Companion to Religion and Film
(Abingdon, 2009), pp. 1-11.
Lynch, G., ‘Cultural Theory and Cultural Studies’ in J. Lyden (ed.), The Routledge
Companion to Religion and Film (Abingdon, 2009), pp. 275-292.
McDonald, R., ‘Kevin J. Harty (ed), The Vikings on Film: Essays on Depictions of the
Nordic Middle Ages (Review)’, Parergon, 30.1 (2013).
Morris, B., Religion and Anthropology: A Critical Introduction (Cambridge, 2006).
Moynihan M. and Søderlind D., Lords of Chaos: The Bloody Rise of the Satanic Metal
Underground (Port Townsend, 1998).
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(eds.), The Viking World (Abingdon, 2008), pp. 244-249.
Price, N., ‘Passing into Poetry: Viking-Age Mortuary Drama and the Origins of Norse
Mythology’, Medieval Archaeology, 54 (2010), pp.122-156.
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Religion (Oxford, 2011) pp. 983-1004.
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35 | P a g e
Service, A., Popular Vikings: Constructions of Viking Identity in Twentieth Century Britain
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Thompson, C., ‘Embracing the Extreme: Norwegian Black Metal and the Use of History’,
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Heavy Metal’, Mass Market Medieval (2007).
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The University of Birmingham: Department of History and Cultures

The Cinematic Portrayal of Viking Religion:

A dissertation submitted by 1218832as part of the requirements for

Word Count: 11897

Additional thanks to Christopher Thompson (Uppsala Universitet) for getting

‘Wrath of the Northmen’: Paganism in Film………………………………....1

Born Again: Christianity in Film……………………………………………..14

CCCS: Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (University of Birmingham)

OE: Old English

ON: Old Norse

SOR: In the Shadow of the Raven

TWV: The White Viking

WRF: When the Raven Flies

films and they cover at least six decades.

methodologies from psychology (such as Psychoanalytical Film Theory devised by

the portrayal of religion in blockbusters such as Passion of the Christ (2004).5

is precisely this reason this paper focuses on film,

Viking history as familiar to a western audience. This is an example of audience reception

structures as it suggested what was appealing and marketable to audiences.

Medievalism and Literature Review

Harty (a renowned researcher on Medievalism in film), focused on the Vikings and is

purposes; including Harty, an English professor interested in Arthurianism- a passion he

shares with his contributors.

literature which analyses films in this dissertation now follows.

relationship between the two religions; however it is not a historical analysis.

Alexandra Service’s PhD thesis, Popular Vikings: Constructions of Viking Identity in

encourage the audience to subconsciously support the stereotypically villainous group.

separate entities that are complimentary. Religion is defined by Morris as being

‘characterized by a number of dimensions…ritual practices…a body of doctrines,

defined anthropologically as being a performative act and ‘emphasizing efficacy’ in order to

could predict after contact with the gods.

‘Christianisation’ is the official acceptance of Christianity as the “state religion”. 16

directors’ aims and various examples of conversion evidence including contemporary

this is due to the directors’ aims and audience reception.

‘Wrath of the Northmen’: Paganism in Film

media for a Western, mostly Christian audience.

Norse mythology is arguably as popular with filmmakers as that of other polytheistic

wide communication was in place for the event.3

Public Ritual: Sacrifice within Viking Films

portrayed shall be analysed and compared to archaeological and historical evidence.

Encompassing associated problems for a modern audience viewing human sacrifices,

portrayal of rituals in Vikings at the renowned sacrifice (Midvinterblot) at Uppsala will be

detailing the sacrifice of a slave at a funeral.

Death’ and rape.5

unknown.9 Considering this and their depictions of sacrifice it is likely to be an amalgamation

Blood Eagle depicted in 2.7 of the same show.

modern director portraying historiophoty. Historiophoty by its definition is more suited to

without loss of content.10

to Uppsala was sacred.

viewer the importance of fertility at the Midvinterblot. Fertility’s importance is inferred to a

equalled determination to make an appropriate sacrifice, to the phallic symbols on statues of

to ON society, claiming to be pagan which is a half-truth when he realises he is the intended

drugs in the funerary sacrifices described by Ibn Fadlan.

sources and could be viewed as an example of neo-medievalism.

Foretelling: Rune Magic

worlds and liminal.17

advice of historical advisors.

An earlier representation of a female soothsayer in The Vikings, who is knowledgeable of

swashbuckling 1958 version.

Sacred Places and Rites of Passage

artefacts are present).

explicitly stated as an employed tactic used by the filmmaker however it could be