Chemical bonds

Intramolecular
Covalent
- Nonmetal + Nonmetal
- Electrons are shared
- DO NOT conduct electricity

0.4 1.8
Non polar Polar Ionic

Ionic
- Metallic + Nonmetallic
- Electronegativity > 1.8
- Conduct electricity in solution
Metallic
- Metal + Metal (or alloy)
- Electrons move freely
- Conductors of heat and electricity
Anion formation
- Reduction
- Nonmetals gain electrons
Cation formation
- Oxidation
- Metals lose electron

Types of bonding and state of matter

Gases
- Nonpolar
Liquids
 - Covalent, EXCEPT Br & Hg
- Polar is miscible with a polar and non-polar is miscible with a
non-polar (the same dissolves the same)
Solids
- Ionic
- All metals are solid EXCEPT Hg
Electronegativity
Attractive force thar makes an atom or molecule attract electrons
towards itself.
Electronegativity increases like this in the periodic table

Extras
- All atoms want to be stable
- The octet rule: have a noble gas configuration
- Lewis structure: electrons are showed as dots (only the valance
shell is shown)
- Lewis structure for ionic bonds: uses brackets and the new
charge is added
Chemical reactions
Chemical reactions: process where one or more substances are
converted into another due to the rearrangement of the atom.
What can happen?
 - Color change
- Solid formation
- Bubble formation
- Heat dispelled or absorbed
Chemical equations

Catalyst: substance that accelerates or slows down the reaction

Mole: base unit of amount of substance in the SI, and its defined by de
Avogadro’s number 6.02214076x10^23 (which maybe atoms, molecules,
ions or electrons)
Avogadro’s number: was chosen so that the mass of one mole of a
chemical compound in grams is numerically equal to the average mass
of one molecule of the compound in Daltons.

Types of chemical reactions

- Combustion: heat (everybody loves O2)
- Synthesis: merge (the meeting)
- Decomposition: one breaks into two (the breakup)
- Single displacement: one of them changes (el cuerno)
- Double displacement: both change (intercambio)
Balancing equations
Guessing
Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry: the study of mass relationships in chemical reactions.
Units involved
- Number of atoms and molecules
- Amu or Daltons
- Moles
o Molecular weight expressed in grams
o Avogadro’s number: 6.022x10^23 units/mol
1 mol has->6.022x10^23 of whatever you are measuring
Molecular weight
- The wight of molecules in amu
Molar mass
- The mass of 1 mole of any substance in grams
Stoichiometric calculations
- Moles to molecules or atoms
- Moles to grams
- Grams to molecules or atoms
Moles A to moles B
- Using molar ratios

moles A ( moles
moles A )
B
=moles B

Grams A to grams B
- Using molar ratios and molar masses

grams A ( grams
1 mol A
A )=moles A (
moles B
moles A ) =moles B (
1 mol B )
grams B
=grams B

Limiting reactant
- Using molar ratios and mass ratio
 - Limiting reactant principle: the maximum amount of product
possible is determined by the amount of reactant present in the
least amount.
- Limiting reactant: the reactant presents in the least amount.
Reaction yield
- Percentage yield: is the mass of product
- Theoretical yield: mass calculated
actual yield
(100 )=%yield
theorethical yield

Units of concentration
Water
- H2O
- Covalent bond
- Is the only molecule on earth that exists in liquid, solid and gas
Concentration: relation between solute and solvent. It can be physical
and chemical.
- Diluted: little solute, a lot of solvent
- Concentrated: a lot of solute
- Saturated: more solute than solvent
Concentration can be expressed in different units:
- % mass: (gr/gr)/100)
mass of solute
( 100 )=% mass
mass of solution
- % volume: (ml/ml)(100)
volume of solute
( 100 )=% volume
volume of solution
- Molarity: (mol/liter)
mole of solute
=molarity ( M )
liter of solution
 - Molality: (mol/kg)
moles of solute
=molality (m)
kg of solution
- Parts per million: (mg/kg) (10^6)

mass of solute( mg)

= parts per million ( ppm)
mass of solution (kg)
Solution properties
- Electrolytes: a solute that when is dissolved in water conducts
electricity
- Nonelectrolyte: a solute that when is dissolved in water
DOESN’T conduct electricity
Colligative properties
Properties that depend on the concentration of solute particles present in
it.
- Depression of freezing point
∆ Tf =mKf
Kf-> constant characteristic of the solvent used in the solution
m-> molality of solute
˄Tf-> freezing point difference between pure solvent and solution

- Elevation of boiling point

∆ T b=mK b
Kb-> constant characteristic of the solvent used in the solution
m-> molality of solute

- Lowering of vapor pressure

o Measures the tendency of a material to escape into
environment via gas.
 o When solute is added to a solvent, the vapor pressure
decreases.

- Osmotic pressure
o Pressure difference is needed to stop the flow of solvent
across a membrane.

Atmosphere
Atmosphere: Layer of gases surrounding the planet retained by earths
gravity.
Protects life on earth:
- Absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation
- Warming the surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect)
- Reducing extreme temperatures

Composition:
- Dry air
o Nitrogen
o Oxygen
o Argon
o Carbon dioxide
o Other gases
o Water vapor

Layers
- Troposphere
o 0 to 12-18 km
o Hot air balloons/airplanes
o 15 to -56,5°C
- Stratosphere
o 11-50 km
o Radiosonde
 o -56,5 to -2,5°C
- Mesosphere
o 40-50 to 80-90 km
o Meteors/meteorological rockets
o -2,5 to -86,5°C
- Thermosphere
o 80-90 to 800 km
o Aurora boreal
o -86,5 to 1200°C
- Exosphere
o 800 to 3000 km
o Satellite/spaceships
o 1200°C
Air pollution
Issues caused by it:
- Criteria gases: pollutant gases that affect human health
o Carbon monoxide
o Sulfur dioxide
o Nitrogen dioxide
o Lead
o Ozone
- Greenhouse effect
- Ozone layer