W3-L4 - Teaching Children with Special needs - Learning theories

Script:
Module 1: Introduction
Learning theories are conceptual frameworks describing how information is absorbed,
processed, and retained during learning. Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as
well as prior experience, all play a part in how understanding, or a world view, is acquired or
changed and knowledge and skills retained. Over the past century, educational psychologists
and researchers have posited many theories to explain how individuals acquire, organize and
deploy skills and knowledge. To help readers organize and apply this extensive body of
literature, various authors have classified these theories in different ways. For this summary,
learning theories are grouped into three basic categories:
• Behaviourist learning theories
• Cognitive-information processing learning theories
• Cognitive-constructivist learning theories
Learning theories related to education & development
Constructivism
Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by reflecting on our
experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us generates
our own “rules” and “mental models,” which we use to make sense of our experiences. Learning,
therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate new
experiences.

There are several guiding principles of constructivism:

1. Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the issues around which
students are actively trying to construct meaning.
2. Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts. And parts must be understood in
the context of wholes. Therefore, the learning process focuses on primary concepts, not isolated
facts.

3. In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to perceive
the world and the assumptions they make to support those models.
4. The purpose of learning is for an individual to construct his or her own meaning, not just
memorize the “right” answers and regurgitate someone else’s meaning. Since education is
inherently interdisciplinary, the only valuable way to measure learning is to make the assessment
part of the learning process, ensuring it provides students with information on the quality of their
learning.

How Constructivism Impacts Learning

Curriculum–Constructivism calls for the elimination of a standardized curriculum. Instead, it
promotes using curricula customized to the students’ prior knowledge. Also, it emphasizes
hands-on problem solving.
Instruction–Under the theory of constructivism, educators focus on making connections
between facts and fostering new understanding in students. Instructors tailor their teaching
strategies to student responses and encourage students to analyse, interpret, and predict
information. Teachers also rely heavily on open-ended questions and promote extensive
dialogue among students.
Assessment–Constructivism calls for the elimination of grades and standardized testing.
Instead, assessment becomes part of the learning process so that students play a larger role in
judging their own progress.

Module 2: Behaviourism
Behaviourism is a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on objectively
observable behaviours and discounts mental activities. Behaviour theorists define learning as
nothing more than the acquisition of new behaviour. Experiments by behaviourists identify
conditioning as a universal learning process. There are two different types of conditioning, each
yielding a different behavioural pattern:
Classical conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus. The most popular
example is Pavlov’s observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even see food. Essentially,
animals and people are biologically “wired” so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific
response.
Behavioural or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced.
Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system:
If a reward or reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes
more probable in the future. For example, leading behaviourist B.F. Skinner used reinforcement
techniques to teach pigeon’s to dance and bowl a ball in a mini-alley.
There have been many criticisms of behaviourism, including the following:
1. Behaviourism does not account for all kinds of learning, since it disregards the activities of the
mind.
2. Behaviourism does not explain some learning–such as the recognition of new language
patterns by young children–for which there is no reinforcement mechanism.
3. Research has shown that animals adapt their reinforced patterns to new information. For
instance, a rat can shift its behaviour to respond to changes in the layout of a maze it had
previously mastered through reinforcements.

How Behaviourism Impacts Learning

This theory is relatively simple to understand because it relies only on observable behaviour and
describes several universal laws of behaviour. Its positive and negative reinforcement
techniques can be very effective–both in animals, and in treatments for human disorders such
as autism and antisocial behaviour. Teachers, who reward or punish student behaviours, often
use behaviourism.

Module 3: Cognitive theory

Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980), is renowned for constructing a highly
influential model of child development and learning. Piaget’s theory is based on the idea that the
developing child builds cognitive structures–in other words, mental “maps,” schemas, or
networked concepts for understanding and responding to physical experiences within his or her
environment. Piaget further attested that a child’s cognitive structure increases in sophistication
with development, moving from a few innate reflexes such as crying and sucking to highly
complex mental activities.

Piaget’s theory identifies four developmental stages and the processes by which children
progress through them. The four stages are:
Sensorimotor stage (birth - 2 years old)–The child, through physical interaction with his or her
environment, builds a set of concepts about reality and how it works. This is the stage where a
child does not know that physical objects remain inexistence even when out of sight (object
permanence).
Preoperational stage (ages 2-7)–The child is not yet able to conceptualize abstractly and
needs concrete physical situations.
Concrete operations (ages 7-11)–As physical experience accumulates, the child starts to
conceptualize, creating logical structures that explain his or her physical experiences. Abstract
problem solving is also possible at this stage. For example, arithmetic equations can be solved
with numbers, not just with objects.
Formal operations (beginning at ages 11-15)–By this point, the child’s cognitive structures are
like those of an adult and include conceptual reasoning.

Piaget outlined several principles for building cognitive structures. During all development
stages, the child experiences his or her environment using whatever mental maps he or she has
constructed so far. If the experience is a repeated one, it fits easily–or is assimilated–into the
child’s cognitive structure so that he or she maintains mental “equilibrium.” If the experience is
different or new, the child loses equilibrium, and alters his or her cognitive structure to
accommodate the new conditions. This way, the child erects more and more adequate cognitive
structures.

How Piaget’s Theory Impacts Learning

Curriculum–Educators must plan a developmentally appropriate curriculum that enhances their
students’ logical and conceptual growth.
Instruction–Teachers must emphasize the critical role that experiences–or interactions with the
surrounding environment–play in student learning. For example, instructors have to take into
account the role that fundamental concepts, such as the permanence of objects, play in
establishing cognitive structures.

Module 4: Learning Styles

This approach to learning emphasizes the fact that individuals perceive and process information
in very different ways. The learning styles theory implies that how much individuals learn has
more to do with whether the educational experience is geared toward their particular style of
learning than whether or not they are “smart.”
In fact, educators should not ask, “Is this student smart?” but rather “How is this student smart?”

The concept of learning styles is rooted in the classification of psychological types. The learning
styles theory is based on research demonstrating that, as the result of heredity, upbringing, and
current environmental demands, different individuals have a tendency to both perceive and
process information differently. The different ways of doing so are generally classified as:
Concrete and abstract perceivers–Concrete perceivers absorb information through direct
experience, by doing, acting, sensing, and feeling. Abstract perceivers, however, take in
information through analysis, observation, and thinking.
Active and reflective processors– Active processors make sense of an experience by
immediately using the new information. Reflective processors make sense of an experience by
reflecting on and thinking about it. Traditional schooling tends to favour abstract perceiving and
reflective processing. Other kinds of learning aren’t rewarded and reflected in curriculum,
instruction, and assessment nearly as much.

Module 5: Impact of learning styles on education

Curriculum–Educators must place emphasis on intuition, feeling, sensing, and imagination, in
addition to the traditional skills of analysis, reason, and sequential problem solving.
Instruction–Teachers should design their instruction methods to connect with all four learning
styles, using various combinations of experience, reflection, conceptualization, and
experimentation. Instructors can introduce a wide variety of experiential elements into the
classroom, such as sound, music, visuals, movement,
experience, and even talking.
Assessment–Teachers should employ a variety of assessment techniques, focusing on the
development of “whole brain” capacity and each of the different learning styles.

Vygotsky and Social Cognition

The social cognition-learning model asserts that culture is the prime determinant of individual
development. Humans are the only species to have created culture, and every human child
develops in the context of a culture. Therefore, a child’s learning development is affected in ways
large and small by the culture–including the culture
of family environment–in which he or she is enmeshed. Culture makes two sorts of contributions
to a child’s intellectual development. First, through culture children acquire much of the content
of their thinking, that is, their knowledge.

Second,the surrounding culture provides a child with the processes or means of their thinking,
what Vygotskians call the tools of intellectual adaptation. In short, according to the social
cognition-learning model, culture teaches children both what to think and how to think.
Cognitive development results from a dialectical process whereby a child learns through
problem-solving experiences shared with someone else, usually a parent or teacher but
sometimes a sibling or peer. Initially, the person interacting with child assumes most of the
responsibility for guiding the problem solving, but gradually this responsibility transfers to the
child. Language is a primary form of interaction through which adults transmit to the child the
rich body of knowledge that exists in the culture.

As learning progresses, the child’s own language comes to serve as her primary tool of
intellectual adaptation. Eventually, children can use internal language to direct their own
behaviour. Internalization refers to the process of learning–and there by internalizing–a rich body
of knowledge and tools of thought that first exist outside the child. This happens primarily through
language.

A difference exists between what child can do on her own and what the child can do with help.
Vygotskians call this difference the zone of proximal development. Since much of what a child
learns comes from the culture around her and much of the child’s problem solving is mediated
through an adult’s help, it is wrong to focus on a child in isolation. Such focus does not reveal
the processes by which children acquire new skills.
Interactions with surrounding culture and social agents, such as parents and more competent
peers, contribute significantly to a child’s intellectual development.

How Vygotsky Impacts Learning:

Curriculum–Since children learn much through interaction, curricula should be designed to
emphasize interaction between learners and learning tasks.

Instruction–With appropriate adult help, children can often perform tasks that they are
incapable of completing on their own. With this in mind, scaffolding–where the adult continually
adjusts the level of his or her help in response to the child’s level of performance–is an effective
form of teaching. Scaffolding not only produces immediate results, but also in stills the skills
necessary for independent problem solving in the future.
Assessment–Assessment methods must take into account the zone of proximal development.
What children can do on their own is their level of actual development and what they can do with
help is their level of potential development. Two children might have the same level of actual
development, but given the appropriate help from an adult, one might be able to solve many
more problems than the other. Assessment methods must target both the level of actual
development and the level of potential development.

Module 6: Models for inclusive education

In inclusive education the general education itself makes the education of children with
disabilities as its integral part. This implies that the teacher should be equipped with skills to
address the educational needs of children with disabilities to a minimum extent. This calls for
strengthening the pre service teacher preparation programme with adequate component of
inclusion of children with disabilities. Inclusive education creates effective classroom where the
educational needs of all children are addressed irrespective of their ability. Total inclusion occurs
when general classroom teachers take most of the responsibilities of the classroom. If a
specialist takes care of the children with disabilities in a general classroom it is not total inclusion.

Model of full inclusion

The strong movement towards inclusive education demands full time inclusion of children in
regular education system. This model calls for providing support to every type and degree of
disability in the regular classroom. Needless to say co-curricular activities also must be adapted
to cater to the needs of all the children admitted in the school. Proper assessment and planning
has to be made for every activity to be enjoyed by a child who may require special adaptation.
The following adaptations in
the classroom functioning facilitate full inclusion.

Cooperative Learning
This is an effective way of including children with disabilities in a regular classroom. Here children
in heterogeneous small groups work together towards a specific goal. Before making the groups,
peers are deliberately trained to help in developing a particular academic skill in children with
disabilities.
Instructional Adaptations and Accommodations
Instruction may be modified for children with disabilities. Modifications usually take the form of
modified assignments or modified instructional strategies. Children with disability feel
comfortable in the group as the modification is made to suit them.
Training General Education Teachers
General education teachers are content experts. But they are not well versed with the special
needs of children with disabilities. Special education teachers usually lack expertise in teaching
an individual subject. Keeping this in mind the general education teachers are given additional
training in the area of specific disabilities and the special instructional needs.
Conditions for Full Inclusion
It is clear now that full inclusion calls for total preparedness on the part of the school authorities.
This model requires the classroom environment to be fully conducive for learning for all the
children. The physical environment should be modified to suit the needs of children. For example
in case of a child having hearing impairment there are certain prerequisites to be kept in mind
while admitting the child to a regular education stream.
Some of the crucial points regarding hearing impairment are given below:
 Early intervention is essential that hearing impairment is identified and intervened before
6 months of age.
 Suitable hearing device has to be used after proper diagnosis and medical intervention,
if necessary
 Listening training has to begin immediately to make up for the delay in auditory input.
 In case the child is not comfortable with lip reading the option of sign language should be
considered and efforts need to be taken for using sign language in the school for teaching
the child.

Models of Partial inclusion

These models came as a viable option to full inclusion. Some educators are in favour of these
models as this is more practical. Unlike in integration, here the system of education and the
teachers adjust or prepare to take care of the needs of the child with disability. The child is in
the classroom throughout as per the ideology of inclusion. The partial inclusion models
suggested by Kauffman and Pullen (2009) are given below:

Collaborative Consultation
In this approach a special educator and a general educator collaborate to identify teaching
strategists for a student with disability. Regular meetings are scheduled between the two. The
relationship between the two professionals is based on the premise of shared responsibility and
equal authority. Special educator will see the child in a resource room or other setting. A change
to the instruction is suggested to the regular classroom teacher, which is practiced in the
classroom along with the regular plan of the teacher. Special educator helps the student to
practice newly acquired skill and re teach difficult skills. This model is suitable for an area where
there is low incidence of students with special needs. If a school has got lesser number of
students with special needs, this is a very useful model. In collaborative consultation a specialist
will provide support to the general education teacher.
Teaming Model
A team is assigned for each grade level. A period per week will be assigned to the team for
planning. Team members meet with the special educators on a regular basis. In the meetings,
the special educator provides information like the possible instructional strategies, modifications,
and ideas for assignment of students depending on the requirement of each team. This model
is suitable when student to teacher ratio is high. But the special educator gets limited
opportunities to work in general education classrooms for the children with disabilities.
Cooperative Teaching
A special educator and a general educator will teach the diverse group of students in the same
classroom. Both educators are responsible for instructional planning and delivery, student
achievements, assessment and discipline. Commonly it looks like one teacher is teaching and
the other teacher assisting. In reality both of them would have worked together before the class,
keeping in mind the requirement of the children who need special attention to learn the particular
concept.
Students receive age appropriate academic support service and possible modified instructions.
There are minimum scheduling problems as general educators and special educators work
together. This fosters continuous and ongoing communication between educators. This model
is appropriate when the student to teacher ratio is small and this takes care of more number of
children with disability included in a class.

Challenges for inclusion

Adequate academic as well as administrative support is the key for the success of inclusion of
children with disabilities in general schools. Simply enrolment of these children will not serve the
purpose of inclusion. Respecting need of each child is a real challenge for the teachers and
administrators. The basic challenges confronted by the stakeholders associated with inclusive
education are:
1. School reforms.
2. Attitude of teachers, parents and community.
3. Curricular adaptations for effective classroom processes.
4. Capacity building of teachers and other functionaries
5. Adapting need based instructional strategies
6. Provision of adequate human resources and material resources
7. Facilitating collaborative learning.
8. Developing partnership with professionals and organizations.