Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Bahan - Kuliah - Variation Diet
Bahan - Kuliah - Variation Diet
Bahan - Kuliah - Variation Diet
1079/PHN2002438
Abstract
Objective: We examine (1) the extent to which seasonal diet assessments correctly
classify individuals with respect to their usual nutrient intake, and (2) whether the
magnitude of true variation in intake between individuals is seasonal. These effects
could lead, respectively, to bias in estimates of relative risk for associations between
usual nutrient exposure and disease, and to an increase in required sample size.
Subjects and setting: One hundred and twenty-seven families in four regions of the
Japan Public Health Center (JPHC) Cohort Study.
Design: On average, 48 weighed daily food records were collected per family over six
seasons of 1994 and 1995.
Results: A random slopes regression model was used to predict the correlation
between seasonal and annual average intakes, and to estimate true between-person
variation in intakes by season. Mean vitamin C intake was greatest in summer and
autumn, and seasonal variation was attributable to the consumption of fruit and Keywords
vegetables. Predicted correlations between seasonal and annual average vitamin C Seasons
intake ranged from 0.62 to 0.87, with greatest correlations in summer and autumn. Vitamin C
Misclassification error
True between-person variation in vitamin C intake was also strongly seasonal, ranging
True variance
from 45 to 78% of total variance, and was again greatest in summer and autumn. Epidemiological methods
These effects were less seasonal among energy and 13 other nutrients. Multilevel analysis
Conclusions: It may be possible substantially to reduce both seasonal misclassification Food records
of individuals with respect to their usual vitamin C intake, and required sample size, by Measurement error
asking subjects to report high-season intake of fruit and vegetables in the JPHC Study. Japan
US studies have reported little variation by season in mean Health Center (JPHC) Study Cohort I in four regions of
total energy or macronutrient intake1 – 4. However, Japan6. The primary objectives were to examine the
seasonal variation in fruit and vegetable consumption effect of seasonal diet assessment on (1) misclassification
has been found in the USA2,4 and Europe5. Several cross- of an individual’s long-term (or usual) intake, and
sectional studies have reported that seasonal differences in (2) the magnitude of true between-person variation in
average intake and seasonal misclassification of individual intake.
intake were greatest for vitamin C and fruit1,4,5.
If seasonal diet assessments misclassify individuals with Materials and methods
respect to their usual intake, then estimates of relative risk
for associations between usual dietary exposure and Study design, measures and subjects
disease could be biased. Moreover, the precision of Subjects were 127 married couples who attended a
relative risk estimates could depend upon the season in public health centre (PHC) in one of four regions of
which diet is assessed, if the magnitude of true variation in Japan (Yokote PHC in Akita, Ninohe PHC in Iwate, Saku
intake between individuals is seasonal. PHC in Nagano, Ishikawa PHC in Okinawa) and who
This paper presents data collected in part to validate were invited to participate in a study to validate the use
the use of a diet questionnaire in the Japan Public of a diet questionnaire in the JPHC Study Cohort I6,
yijk ¼ b0i þ b1i SPRj þ b2i SUM j corrð yijk ; y i†k Þ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffipffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ð1Þ ¼ covð yijk ; y i†k Þ= varð yijk Þ varð y i†k Þ ; ð4Þ
þ b3i AUT j þ b4i LT j þ e jkðiÞ ;
where SPRj, SUMj and AUTj are indicator variables for the where cov( yijk, ȳi†k) is the covariance between an
season of diet assessment, and LTj takes values 0, 1, 2 and 3 observation of nutrient intake in the jth season and the
for the respective seasons of winter through to autumn. mean of seasonal observations for the kth individual in
The term b4iLTj may appear to be confounded with the the ith family, and var( ȳi†k) is the variance in the mean for
effects of the fixed seasonal indicator variables. However, the kth individual in the ith family.
this is not the case, because (as explained below when
specifying the family-level equations) this term represents Results
the random part only of the linear time effect, and does not
require the estimation of a fixed effect. Study subjects and patterns in crude data
The individual-level regression coefficients in Daily food records were complete for 221 persons (87%),
equation (1) depend upon i and can be defined at the with an average of 48 records collected per family.
Seasonal misclassification of diet 387
One male’s three days of food records in summer, for Crude individual mean carotene intake was greatest in
which daily average total energy was only 2427 kJ, were winter among all regions. Among the three regions of
excluded. Seven days of food records were completed on Honshu, crude individual mean vitamin C intake was
854/871 person-season occasions, and on all occasions greatest in autumn and strongly non-linear, and in
three or more days were completed. Okinawa was greater in summer than in winter
Approximately 80% of subjects were aged between 50 (Figs 1 and 2). For both carotene and vitamin C intakes,
and 64 years and more than half was involved in seasonal variation among the regions of Honshu was
agricultural or family-related activity (Table 1). Twenty- similar; therefore adjusted means were reported for the
eight per cent had only high school education or lower. three regions of Honshu combined and Okinawa (Table 2).
Current smoking was reported by 32% of men and 1% of
women. Adjusted individual mean carotene and vitamin C
Of total energy and 14 nutrients, variation between intakes by season, region and food group
winter and summer median intakes exceeded 15% among The pattern of seasonal variation in adjusted mean
men and women of at least one region only for carotene, carotene and vitamin C intakes closely reflected the
vitamin C and retinol. Median retinol intake was greatest in crude data. Mean carotene intake was 29–41% greater in
winter, except for men in Iwate and women in Akita, for winter than in the other seasons, after adjusting for age,
whom it was greatest in summer or spring, respectively. sex, random differences among family winter means, and
Mean retinol intake was not studied in detail, because of random variation in the linear component of random over
the poor precision in its estimate12. Plots of individual time (Table 2). Vegetables were the dominant food source
carotene and vitamin C intakes by region and sex of carotene, and intake due to vegetable sources showed
indicated that seasonal changes were similar for men similar seasonality to carotene intake from all food
and women, and that total variation in intake was also sources.
seasonal (not shown). The intra-class correlation between In Honshu, adjusted mean vitamin C intake was 12 –35%
any two intakes from the same family, estimated using a greater in autumn than in the other seasons, and by
random intercepts model by setting b4i ¼ 0 in equation
(1), was 0.50 for carotene and 0.48 for vitamin C.
Men Women
Characteristic n* % n* %
Appendix A Appendix B
From equation (1), the covariance between any two If a nutrient intake estimated from a diet questionnaire
observations on the kth individual of the ith family for the administered in two seasons, Q1 and Q2, is calibrated,
random linear coefficients model is given by: respectively, against the mean of repeated seasonal food
covð yijk ; yilk Þ ¼ s2I þ LT j LT l s2S þ ðLT j þ LT l ÞsIS ; ðA1Þ records, R1 and R2, then the variance of the predicted
intakes can be estimated by r2Q1R1 s2T 1 and r2Q2R2 s2T 2 ;
where j – l 13. It follows from equation (A1) that the respectively21, where rQ1R1, rQ2R2 are the deattenuated
predicted covariance between a seasonal observation and correlations between the seasonal questionnaires and
the mean of j ¼ 1; . . .; 4 observations on an individual is: food record intakes, and s2T 1 ; s2T 2 are the true variations in
intake estimated using seasonal food records. In a nested
covðyijk ; y i†k Þ ¼ s2I þ ð3LT j s2S Þ=2
case–control study, there will be savings in sample size by
ðA2Þ
þ ½ð3 þ 2LT j ÞsIS =2 þ s2E =4: estimating nutrient intake Q2, relative to Q1, when
r2Q1R1 s2T 1 =r2Q2R2 s2T 2 , 1 or when rQ2R2 . rQ1R1
p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi19,20
Similarly, from equation (3) it can be shown that 2
sT 1 =sT 2 2 . The square root of the variance ratio in
the right-hand side of this expression can be estimated
varð y i†k Þ ¼ s2I þ 9s2S =4 þ 3sIS þ s2E =4; ðA3Þ
from the data reported in the text of the Results section for
and predicted correlations can be computed from vitamin C intake in autumn, relative to winter, as
equation (4) using equations (3), (A2) and (A3). (928/4016)1/2 or 0.48. When winter was compared with
The random quadratic coefficients model was defined the other seasons, the minimum values of the square root
by adding an LT 2j term to equation (1) with coefficient of this variance ratio for fat, thiamin and retinol were 0.88,
b5i ¼ u5i at the family level. This was analogous to the 0.74 and 0.56, respectively.