An Analysis of “Signifyin(g)” and its Application in

African-American English Literature

北京科技大学外国语学院 苏北
指导老师 王志欣
摘要：当代非裔美国文学批评家小亨利·路易斯·盖茨开创性地阐释了黑人文学
批评的独特阐释体系——意指理论。该理论提供了从黑人视角阐释传统文学的方
法论，从而使黑人的思想在文学界得以传播与表达。本文通过分析亨利·路易
斯·盖茨《意指的猴子》中“意指”的缘起与内涵，试图阐述佐拉·尼尔· 赫
斯顿的《他们的眼睛注视着上帝》和伊什梅尔·里德的《芒博琼博》中意指内涵
的体现，并提出语言差异性对当代语言学和文学发展的重要性。
关键词：小亨利·路易斯·盖茨; 意指; 美国黑人文学
Abstract: Contemporary African American literary critic Henry Louis Gates, Jr.,
pioneered the unique interpretative system of black literary criticism - the theory of
Signifyin(g). This theory provides a methodology to explain traditional literature from
the perspective of black people, so that black people’s thoughts can be spread and
expressed in the literary world. By analyzing the origin and connotation of the
meaning in Henry Louis Gates' The Monkey of the Meaning, this paper attempts to
explain the manifestation of the meaning in Zola Neale Hurston’s Their Eyes were
Watching God and Ishmael Reed’s Mumbo Jumbo, and points out the importance of
linguistic diversity to the development of contemporary linguistics and literature.
Key words: Henry Louis Gates Jr.; Signifyin(g); Afro-American Literature

1. Introduction
Due to distinct cultural backgrounds, people have distinct communication
patterns based on their traditions. For centuries, prejudice and fallacies have existed in
Afro-American literary criticism, as many critics examine black literature through
colored spectacles of politics, history and ideology, and thus fail to appreciate the
significance of works themselves. African-American English (AAE), which originates
from contacts between Africans and Whites during slavery and is thus characterized

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by both Creole language and Southern White vernaculars (Baliey, 2022), is an
important variant of the English language. One of the most important rhetorical
strategy in African-American language is “Signifyin(g)”, which has been adopted by
generations of black writers to express their attitudes towards racial discrimination in
tliterary compositions. In The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African-American
Literary Criticism, Henry Louis Gates Jr. illustrates Signifyin(g) and suggests using
this vernacular structure created by black people to conduct literary criticism, rather
than to analyze them with theories borrowed from the white culture.
This essay intends to first analyze the linguistic foundations of Signifyin(g), its
effectiveness in expressing sentiments and attitudes of African Americans, as well as
how this strategy enables them to defy cardinal white discourse in both the real and
virtual world. Additionally, the author will compare and contrast different applications
of the trope Signifyin(g) in two representative African American literature works
Their Eyes were Watching God by Zora Neale Hurston (1891-1960) and Mumbo
Jumbo by Ishmael Reed (1938- ) based on Gates’ literary reviews in The Signifying
Monkey: A Theory of African-American Literary Criticism.

2. Definition of Signifyin(g)
The term “Signifyin(g)” derives from a Yoruba mythological ancestor called
Esu-Elegbara, a figure for the nature and function of interpretation and double-voiced
utterance, and the story of a “signifying monkey” during the slavery era, who sows
discord between the lion and elephant, two animals stronger than him, by cleverly
confusing the right and wrong. With the development of Afro-American society,
Signifyin(g) has shifted from a tricky speaking skill to a collection of several
rhetorical tropes, such as metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche and irony, and it can
exploit the gap between the denotative and figurative meanings of words in a
humorous, boastful, provocative, or even insulting way (Gates, 1988: 45). Despite the
idiomaticity, Signifyin(g) is in essence an artful use of language instead of an
offensive and uncivilized behavior of black people as claimed by some white critics.
There is a close relationship between Signifyin(g) and signifier. In Standard
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English, signification mainly refers to the relationship between the language symbol
used to express the concept or thing and the concept or thing it represents, which can
be represented by “signified” and “signifier”. In Black English, “Signifyin(g)” is
expressed as rhetorical symbol, that is, signifier. In other words, black people change
signifier into Signifyin(g). They replace it with a rhetorical strategy that is unique in
the native language tradition of black people. From this, we can see that the
relationship between Signifyin(g) and rhetorical strategy is inseparable. Rhetoric in
Standard English can be embodied in metaphor, synecdoche, metonymy and irony.
The rhetorical strategy emphasized in Signifyin(g) can be said to contain most of the
rhetorical devices in Standard English.

3. Application of Signifyin(g) in Black Discourse

On a daily communication basis, there is a remarkable phenomenon that many
African Americans tend to apply curse words, which has unfortunately become a
stereotypical image of black characters in movies and literary works. For example, in
one episode of the American comedy TV series Key and Peele, when the waiter asks
the guests whether he is to bring them bottles of water or not after having kept them
waiting for a long time, Key’ s friend asks Key, a mulatto who is already used to the
polite white discourse, to hide his “White Jeff” (Jeff can be regarded as a kind of
demeanor and temperament) and show his “Black Jeff” to the waiter. And he naturally
switches to the black tradition of Signifyin(g) with swearing by saying “How ‘bout I
bottle your ass and kick it down the stairs, man? We’ ve been waiting for half an hour
for one o’ you motherfuckers to show up!”. It is undeniable that no matter he is saying
standard English or black vernacular with curse words, he is always the same person,
and his anger remains the same.
This demonstrates that contrary to white people’ s stereotype that curse words
only manifest the incivility and vulgarity of black people, “playing the Dozens” is
actually intended for Afro-Americans to satirize others. H. Rap Brown (1969), a civil
rights activist and black separatist once said, “We (Black people) exercise our minds
by playing the Dozens, like white folks play Scrabble”, and “(since they are above us)
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through this game we can destroy them by words”. Therefore, when analyzing from
the interpersonal, performative and emotive functions, Signifyin(g) together with one
of its actual realization, swearing, are method for Afro-American people to establish
their own identity, express their discontent of racism and inequality, as well as
amplifying their voice as a vulnerable group.

4. Analysis of Signifyin(g) in Afro-American Literature

Contrary to some Afro-American literati who incline to model themselves to the
white discourse and analyze black works with theories borrowed from the white
culture to get appreciation, Henry Louis Gates Jr. tries to conduct literary criticism
with Signifyin(g) in the book The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African-American
Literary Criticism to amplify black voice in western literature. According to him,
many renowned black writers have been applying Signifyin(g) to emphasize the
theme of black people gaining individuality and independence, as well as the whole
Afro-American community acquiring the right of speech with their works. Among
them, Their Eyes were Watching God by Zora Neale Hurston (1891-1960) and
Mumbo Jumbo by Ishmael Reed (1938- ) are two representative ones.
4.1 Zora Hurston and Their Eyes were Watching God
As a standout among African American literature based on its affirmation and
celebration of the black culture as well as the strong female consciousness, Zora
Neale Hurston’s Signifyin(g) language in Their Eyes were Watching God resolve the
implicit tension between the literal and the figurative, the semantic and the rhetorical,
which are common disputes between people who cling to Afro-American language
habits and those who prefer standard English. By creatively inventing the epochal
“speakerly text”, Hurston’ s language vividly illustrates the contextual meanings and
her intentions. In a crucial scene in the book, the heroin Janie Signifies upon her
husband Joe’ s manhood in the public with a typical African dialect “look lak de
change uh life” (Hurston, 1937: 122-123), which kills Joe’ s desire to live because his
pride and dignity as a man has been shattered. He died soon after this event, which
also shows the effectiveness of illocutionary force in languages, and how by means of
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a locutionary act, people can exerted impacts upon the hearer by language
(perlocutionary act). This Signifyin(g) attempt of Janie expresses her wish to end
Joe’s patriarchal dominance over her, which is also the writer Hurston’s wish to
remove white dominance and racial inequality in the society.
In another scene, Joe forbids Janie to indulge in conversations with other
villagers, whom are regarded as trashy people by him by saying “I god, Ah can’t see
what uh woman uh yo’ sability would want tuh be treasurin’ all dat gum-grease from
folks dat don’t even own de house dey sleep in. ‘Tain’t no earthly use. They’s jus’
some puny humans playin’ round de toes uh Time.” (Hurston, 1937: 85) At first
glance, Joe is just tartly remarking on his neighbors, but from the Signifyin(g)
perspective, his illocutionary act is forcing Janie to retreat inside their family store,
which is against her own will.
With Hurston’s invention of “speakerly text”, her compositions outweigh other
of her contemporaries such as Richard Wright’s Native Son and Ralph Ellison’s
Invisible Man. Wright’s third-person authorial mode language tends to be too stern for
appreciation, while Ellison’s morality of narration is still confined to the imitation of
western canons. In contrast, Their Eyes were Watching God reaches moderation by
defusing the implicit tension between standard English and black dialects with the
free dialect discourse.
4.2 Ishmael Reed and Mumbo Jumbo
Ishmael Reed’s Mumbo Jumbo, on the other hand, includes a different
application of Signifyin(g). His incisive Signifyin(g) starts even from the very title --
“mumbo jumbo” means “of unknown origin” or “gibberish” in English dictionaries.
Based on this cardinal sense, Reed performs the act of proclaiming and fighting back
through the title: he reveals the truth that by regarding the black discourse as “mumbo
jumbo”, white race and Western etymology stigmatizes the existence of black English
as nonsense and nothingness.
Besides, one of Reed’s unique application of Signification is his artful use of
radical parody and pastiche, that is “imitating the widely accepted writing style and
genre in western literature with deliberate linguistic exaggeration for comic effect”
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(Paravisini, 1986). Actually, Reed’s use of Signifyin(g) is like an Afro-American
counterpart of Harold Bloom’s 6 revisionary ratios, misinterpreting and satirizing not
only various literary compositions, but also styles from different ages such as the Jazz
Age and the Harlem Renaissance in African American culture, and even
characteristics in other artistic fields such as illustrations from social-studies book and
the “fade in and fade out frame” in filming, Reed’s language includes his own
linguistic traditions, expresses his understanding of the fundamental foundations upon
which western civilization rests, and promotes the innovation of Signifyin(g) strategy
in literary composition.

5. Implication of Signifyin(g): Preventing Linguistic Racism

Gates, in his book The Signatory Monkey, clearly points out the difference
between “Signifyin(g)” in black English and “signifier” in standard English. It can be
said that Signifyin(g) is an innovation on the basis of signifier in standard English,
reflecting a cognition based on difference, which has certain instructive significance
for the development of contemporary linguistic theory and literature.
Derrida believes that every individual has its own unique meaning, therefore, we
should respect the differences between individuals, can not generalize, can not force
all individuals to be the same. In his book Writing and Difference, Derrida argues that
“the center is not the center.” The stability of the whole is relative, and the change of
any part of the whole may cause the change of the whole structure. Therefore, each
element deserves attention. In other words, Signifyin(g), as an element of language,
cannot be ignored or discriminated against. It plays an important role in the
expression of black people’s thought and literature.
For example, in the study of Their Eyes were Watching God by Zora Neale
Hurston, some scholars analyzed from the theoretical perspectives of ecofeminism
theory and feminist theory. Zhang Yi (2014) believes that the description of natural
environment in Their Eyes were Watching God suggests the inseparable relationship
between Janie and nature. At the same time, Janie dares to challenge the patriarchal
society, which is the awakening of female consciousness. Janie, the main character,
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has no right to speak and express her thoughts at the beginning. Whether in her
relationship with her grandmother, her first husband (Logan Killickes), or her second
husband (Joe Starks), Janie has never been able to express her true thoughts. In the
final argument between Janie and Joe, Janie began to make her own voice and express
her feelings by arguing:“ You have a big belly to stand here and brag about everything,
but you are nothing but your loud voice. Oomph! Say I am old! Pull down your pants
and you’ll know it’s menopause!” Here, Janie points out Joe’s impotence in front of
the others, which combined with the reaction of the other listeners, makes Joe feel
incomprehensible and unacceptable. After understanding the meaning of Janie’s
words, his vanity was bleeding. Janie has robbed him of all the illusion of male
attraction that men hold dear. So Joe beat Janie up, got sick and died. Here, Janie’s
voice changed from absence to presence, from dare not resist to fight bravely,
representing that women began to fight for their rights, began to rebel against feudal
traditions, eliminate inequality, and fight for their mental and physical freedom.
Through careful reflection, it is possible to see that both African-American
people and their English are in essence not a combination of vulgarity and confusion,
but a unique traditional expression. The causes of some biased attitudes towards them
may be explained through the theory of “Implicature and the Cooperative Principle”
proposed by Herbert Paul Grice. According to him, people tend to convey implicature
during communication instead of saying things directly, and based on the cooperative
principle, a common purpose and mutually accepted direction between both sides are
indispensable for a successful information exchange. When African Americans say
something which does not make sense at the superficial level or something coarse,
standard English speakers are supposed to reflect on the implied meaning at a deeper
level, and this is how the calculability characteristic of implicature would be fulfilled.
Nevertheless, many white people may fail to recognize this habit of expression when
it comes to mutual communications. Therefore, the two sides are put into an
unbalanced position, which causes misinterpretation of African American English and
long term status inequality.

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6. Conclusion
According to Jakobson’s “Functions of Language”, language is above all, for
communication. Hence, when analyzing a certain language, it is necessary to consider
its culture significance and functions rather than its users and habits. Moreover, as
language is a part of culture which also correlates with the society, from the
perspective of linguistic researches and cultural inheritance, African American
English has brought extensive influence to the American language and society, which
makes preservation not only a promotion of linguistic diversity, but also an increase in
cultural pride and cohesion in the US. For English learners and white people, this can
also give them a chance to familiarize with cultural differences, to view things as the
black people will, and to reconcile on some national conflicts.
Since colonial times, black tradition has suffered from the lack of sophisticated
scholarly attention. The traditional rhetorical strategy of Signifyin(g), however, can
provide enlightenment for the subtle black culture to find its place in the white
discourse. For the different applications of Signifyin(g) in daily communication and
literary works mentioned in this essay, saying curse words is a habit used by black
people to express their attitudes, and Hurston’s meditating innovation of “the
speakerly text” in Their Eyes were Watching God strikes a balance between oral and
written language as well as black dialect and standard English, while Reed parodies
the so-called canon in western literature to reach independence and individuality in
black discourse. Despite the differences, it is still possible to uncover the identical
ambition of enforcing black discourse in the white society through Signifyin(g) as
well as their successful effects. Therefore, in order to deconstruct the white-central
cultural hegemony and boasting language diversity in America, more attention on the
strategy of Signifyin(g) in African American English and relevant literature is
indispensable in future studies.

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[7]Hu, Z, L (2022). Linguistics: A course book (5th ed.), pp. 9-11, 87-88, 168-178.
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