Science, Technology and Society

Chapter 1

Historical Antecedents in
the Course of Science
and
Technology
Chapter 1
Historical Antecedents in the Course of Science and
Technology

Introduction

The key to future progress for mankind lies in the realization of “science and
technology for society, and in society.”

Science is interested in the laws of nature, while Technology applies scientific

knowledge to make new things, new machinery and it may be used to
“dominate” nature and to improve our life. The two aspects are deeply connected: without
scientific research there is no technological progress and without technology we would not
have new instruments for research. Usually, the technological research improves and creates
new instruments in known scientific fields, while most of the great technological revolutions
are spin off of fundamental research. Just one example: WWW (World Wide Web), the key
which opens every gate of Internet, the prefix most used by web navigators, was invented for
improving communication in fundamental research in a large European Laboratory for
fundamental physics, CERN in Geneva.

Why do we perform research in general, and in particle physics in particular? For

particle physics the standard answers are of the following type:

i) to understand the structure of matter and of what holds it together

ii) to satisfy our curiosity
iii) because we enjoy doing it
iv) for technical spin-offs
v) for more modern teaching, others.

Technological development leads to economic progress, increased wellbeing, to new

medical applications and more. The applications coming from modern physics have changed
communications (TV, cellular phones, Internet) and make it possible to look inside the human
body without opening it (x-rays, nuclear magnetic resonance, ultrasound, Positron Electron
Tomography, new computer applications, etc.). Biotechnology is changing and will change
biology, medicine and our lives even more. But we may have to face also ethical problems.

Science and technology indeed play major roles in the everyday life. They make
difficult and complicated tasks easier and allow people to do more with so little effort and
time. The developments in this field are not just products of people’s imagination or a one-
time thought process; they are also brought about gradual improvements to earlier works
from different time periods. The driving force behind this continuous progress is the desire to
raise the quality of life of the people.
Specific Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Define science and technology in terms of its nature

2. Classify the significance of each branch of science to human enterprise and wellbeing.
3. Apply the scientific method in terms of problem analysis and solving.
4. Develop scientific attitudes and skills among the students.
5. Explain how science and technology affected the society and environment and vice
versa
6. Identify inventions and discoveries that changed the world over the course of history
7. Discuss the scientific and technological developments in the Philippines.

Duration

Chapter 1: Historical Antecedents in the Course of = 3 hours

Science and Technology (2 hours discussion; 1 hour
assessment)

Lesson Proper

According to Carl Sagan, science is a way of thinking much more than it is a body of
knowledge. We are very familiar with the etymology of the term science which defines it as a
body of knowledge. The word science came from Latin term “scientia” that means
knowledge and “scire” which means to know. To look or the baseline definition of science it
will lead us to human knowledge. Science is an understanding and awareness of something.
But beyond this definition, science should also be emphasized as a verb as the latter
etymology suggests it is to know or to act of acquiring this knowledge. Studying science is
not just collections of facts but also involves analysis, problem solving, critical thinking,
testing, observing and predicting. These are different essential processes in “doing” science.
Just like Sagan had describes science as a way of thinking. So as human beings we should not
only acquire knowledge but also involve ourselves in the process of gaining the facts that
came from our observations, experiments and experiences.

If we try to trace the genesis of the discipline of science, we will have to consider the
basic reasons why the field emerged. By nature, human beings are curious and this eagerness
to know or to learn something will lead to discovery and exploration of the world we are
living and its inhabitants. We sometimes ask questions such as why are clouds formed? What
causes tsunamis? Why are skies blue? These are some queries in our mind that we need to
satisfy. Science played its niche in giving answers to these necessities by providing the basis
of constructing tools, gadgets and processes. Activities such as hunting, fishing, farming,
cooking, constructing shelters and clothes making are the processes that satisfy human
necessities and involves science in its development. As man explore on satisfying their
necessities certain problems also evolved such as pollution, overpopulation, climate change,
diseased and natural disasters. Science also offers solutions to these predicaments.
 Science is an organized body of knowledge based on facts, gathered through
observations, experiments, and experiences. Science can also be used to construct and verify
laws, conclusions and theories about nature. As well, science can also serve as a basis of
developing technology for the benefit of man and the environment.

Science is powerful but we also have to remember that it has its limitations too. And
to cite these are some. Science can’t answer questions about value. For example, it is beyond
the determination of science which dress is prettier for you. Or which is valuable an ounce of
gold or an ounce of steel. Our culture sets values to it. Also the values of these metals depend
on how it will be used. Furthermore, science can’t answer questions of morality. For
example, science can explain the mechanism of contraceptives why it can hinder the process
of fertilization but it can’t decide for you whether the use of such is right or wrong. Morality
is dictated by social rules and culture. Supernatural events can’t be explained by science.
Adding the prefix “super” it entails that it is beyond the natural laws of the universe, in which
science is limited to.

Another definition of science that may help us understand its nature is “Science is
present verification without ultimate certainty”. It only means that the facts that are verified
as true now can be replaced if it is overthrown by a competent theory in the future. For
example, the phlogiston theory of George Ernst Stahl, at his period it is believed that a
certain substance called phlogiston is present in a substance during combustion and is
released in the process. But today this theory is already obsolete, since the combustion not a
certain substance called phlogiston. Today combustion theory is still accepted unless it is
challenged by another competent theory.

Science is a tool in order for us to appreciate how omniscient (all-knowing) is our

creator. The role of science is just to understand how well ordered the creations are and
before we realized it, it is already made by a Supreme Being. To quote Albert Einstein, he
said that “the more I study science, the more I believe in God”.

Branches of Science

There are three major branches of science, these are:

1. Social Science – concerned with the society and the relationships among the
individuals within the society. Sociology, philosophy, humanities, political science,
demography, economics, anthropology, history, law archaeology and linguistics are among
the disciplines under social science.

2. Applied Science – is a discipline of science that applies existing scientific knowledge

to develop m pre practical applications, like technology or inventions. Engineering sciences,
medical sciences, industrial technology and architecture are fields of applied science.

3. Natural Science – is a branch of science concerned with the description, prediction,

and understanding of natural phenomena, based on observational and empirical evidence.
Natural science is further subdivided into Biological Sciences and Physical Sciences. The
biological sciences pertain to the study of living things that include biology, botany, zoology,
anatomy, physiology, ornithology, parasitology and many others. While physical sciences
deal with the study of the nonliving things that include physics, chemistry, geology,
meteorology, metallurgy and many others.

Scientific Attitudes and Skills

Here are some attitudes that someone who studies science must possess:

1. The desire to know. 6. Open-mindedness

2. Patience 7. Systematic and orderly

3. Perseverance 8. Critical thinkers

4. Objective 9. Honesty

5. Don’t easily jump into conclusion. 10. Humility

Scientific Skills

1. Science Process Skills

a. Observing e. Communicating

b. Classifying f. Using time and space

relationship, interpreting data,
c. Measuring and using umbers define operationally, controlling
variables, making hypothesis,
d. Predicting experimenting
2. Manipulative Skills
d. Handling specimen correctly and
a. Using and handling science
carefully
apparatus
e. Sketch specimen and science
b. Maintaining science apparatus
apparatus
correctly and safely
c. Cleaning science apparatus
correctly

The Scientific Method

In order for science to be systematic, scientist and other people who study and do
science follow a step-by-step procedure in gathering, investigating and analyzing information
to come up with conclusions and theories. The systematic approach in solving a problem is
called the scientific method. To summarize the procedures to be followed in scientific
investigations here are the six basic steps:
1. Observing and stating the problem. Observation is a process of utilizing four five
senses. There are two types of observations, first is qualitative observation which does not
involve measurements.

Example: Your friend asked you to observe the colour of an apple and you said green. So
colour, taste, texture and odour can be classified as qualitative observations because you
don’t need to measure anything. The second type of observation is quantitative observation
which involves the process of measuring.

Example: You have observed by using a speedometer that your car runs 40kph faster than
your friend’s car. Quantitative observations are aided by measuring tools for you to get a
collection of quantitative data.

In stating the problem make sure that it I clear and specific. Without a clear and specific
statement, you will find it difficult to answer your problem as it may be broad and unclear to
you.

2. Gathering data on related problems. This is an important part of the scientific

process to make sure that what you are doing is objective. Collecting information from
relevant studies may also ensure that what you are doing is not a duplication of a previous
work of others. This gathered information cans serve as basis for tentatively answering your
problem. To do conduct this step you can read research paper, scientific journals, and books
You may also interview experts, as credible sources, about your problem.

3. Forming a hypothesis. After gathering pertinent information, based on the researched

facts you may now formulate a hypothesis which is a tentative solution to your problem. A
hypothesis is said to be an educated guess since it is based on the researched information
done in step two. A hypothesis is said to be tentative and not final because it is still subjected
to a test. To have a good statement of a hypothesis it should also be clear, specific and can be
easily tested.

4. Testing the hypothesis. To find out whether your hypothesis correct or not you will
conduct an experiment. An experimental set up is usually composed of two groups, an
experimental group and a control group. The difference of the two groups is only one factor.
In a control group all factors are held constant. This set up is important for comparison with
the experimental group. The group in which one factor or treatment is varied is the
experimental group. A variable is any factor, trait, or condition that can exist in differing
amounts or types. An experiment usually has three kinds of variables: independent,
dependent, and controlled. The independent variable is the one that is changed by the
scientist. The scientist focuses his or her observations on the dependent variable to see how it
responds to the change made to the independent variable. Controlled variables are quantities
that a scientist wants to remain constant, and he must observe them as carefully as the
dependent.

5. Recording and analyzing data. The results of your experiment should be recorder
carefully. Observations and information, called as data, can be presented in tables and
graphs. In this manner, analysis of the result will be easy to conduct.
6. Formulating a conclusion. A conclusion is the final answer to the problem If the
conclusion supports the hypothesis it is considered as a scientific explanation to the problem
But if it does not the hypothesis is rejected or can be modified.

7. Replicating your work. Experiments should not only be done once but several times.
That is why a good scientific experiment requires being reproducible or can be replicated. In
this manner others can test the reliability of your results.

Famous People and their contributions to Science

A. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1726) – Newton was a polymath who made investigations
into a whole range of subjects including mathematics, optics, physics, and astronomy. In his
Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, he laid the foundations for classical mechanics,
explaining law of gravity and the Laws of motion.

B. Louis Pasteur (1822 – 1895) – Contributed greatly towards the advancement of

medical sciences developing cures for rabies anthrax and other infectious disease. Also
enabled process of pasteurization to make milk safer to drink. Probably saved more lives than
any other person.

C. Galileo (1564 – 1642) – Creating one of the first modern telescope, Galileo
revolutionized our understanding of the works successfully proving the earth revolved
around the sun and not the other way around. His work Two New Sciences laid ground work
for science of Kinetics and strength of materials.

D. Marie Curie (1867 – 1934) – Polish physicist and chemist. Discovered radiation and
helped to apply it in the field of X ray. She won Nobel Prize in both Chemistry and Physics.

E. Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955) – Revolutionized modern physics with his general
theory of relativity. Won Nobel Prize in Physics (1921) for his discovery of the Photoelectric
effect, which formed basis of Quantum Theory.

F. Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882) – Developed theory of evolution against a backdrop

of disbelief and scepticism. Collected evidence over 20 years and published conclusions in
On the Origin of Species (1859).

G. Otto Hahn (1879 – 1968) – German Chemist who discovered nuclear fission (1939).
Pioneering scientist in the field of radio-chemistry. Discovered radio-active elements and
nuclear isomerism (1921). Awarded Novel Prize for Chemistry (1944)

H. Nikola Tesla (1856 – 1943) – Work on electro-magnetism and AC current. Credited

with any patents from electricity to radio transmission.

I. James Clerk Maxwell (1831 – 1879) – Made great strides in understanding electro-
magnetism. His research in electricity and kinetics, laid foundation for quantum physics.
Einstein said of Maxwell, “The work of James Clerk Maxwell changed the world forever”.
J. Aristotle (384BC – 322BC) – Great early Greek scientist who made many researches
in the natural sciences including botany, zoology, physics, astronomy, chemistry, and
meteorology, geometry.

Nature of Technology

Technology is defined as “purposeful intervention by design”, and technological

practice as the activity through which technological outcomes are created and have impact in
the world. Technological outcomes are designed to enhance the capabilities of people and
expand human possibilities. They change the world in ways that have positive and/or
negative impacts on the social and natural world. Technology uses and produces
technological knowledge. Technological communities endorse technological knowledge as
valid when it is shown to support the successful development of technological outcomes.

All technology exists within a historical context, influenced by and influencing

society and culture.

Technological practice is becoming increasingly interdisciplinary, relying more than

ever on collaboration between the technology community and people from other disciplines.

Historical Antecedents

Ancient Times

In the ancient times, people were concerned with transportation and navigation,
communication and record keeping, mass production, security and protection, as well as
health, aesthetics, and architecture.

Transportation was significant during that time because people were trying to go places
and discover new horizons. They travelled to search for food and find better locations for
their settlements. They also travelled to trade their surplus goods in exchange for things that
they lacked. Navigation assisted them in their journeys to unfamiliar and strange areas in the
world. It allowed them to return home after they discovered new places or completed an
important trade with another group of people.

Communication was also essential in their endeavours to discover and occupy new places.
They needed a way to communicate with the natives of the areas they visited so as to
facilitate trade and prevent possible conflicts. Record-keeping was also important since they
needed to remember the places they had been to and document the trades they made with
each other. It was also vital to keep records of their history and culture so they could
establish their identities as they tried to relate with other cultures and civilizations.

The increase in size and number of nations connoted increased demand for food and other
basic necessities. This condition also implied that people must be able to produce food at a
given time and space since resources were getting scarcer as more people struggled to share
the basic necessities. The people thus needed a form of technology that would enable them to
increase food supplies and other survival needs without them travelling more or working
harder.

Weapons and armors were important as well as the discovery of new places or the
establishment of new alliances with other tribes. At that time, there was always a risk of
conflict when people met others with different culture and orientations. Conflicts were
common especially if different groups struggled to control vital resources. Stronger nations
tended to invade weaker ones so they could take much needed resources. As such, the
development of weapons and armors for security and protection was considered a major
achievement.

A primary challenge they faced was the conservation of life. The early people might have
been successful in harnessing the rich resources that the world could provide, but their
survival posed a great problem. Different illness and diseases, both natural and man-made,
hampered the full potential of a human being. Given this predicament, science and tech ology
played a major role in the discovery of cures to, if not the prevention of illnesses.

Moreover, in order to integrate their needs – for better transportation, establishment of

structures for protection from human attacks and natural disasters, and construction of bigger
and stronger infrastructures – people ventured into what is now known as the field of
engineering. The development in this field allowed human to build structures that would
address their specific needs and wants. Some of the structures built during the ancient times
still exist today and continually we people.

The development in engineering also ushered in the introduction of architecture. Others

might see architecture as a mere style, but during the ancient times, elaborate architectural
designs were signs of technological advancement of a particular civilization. In the
generations to come, architecture would be considered a status symbol among nations of how
advanced their technology is. It may also establish the identity of a nation.

The people were not contented on beautifying only their infrastructures and surroundings.
Being able to prolong life with the mass production of food and advancement of medical
technology, as well as raise the quality of life by making complicated and difficult tasks
easier, humans later on developed that people looked more visually presentable and
appealing by adding some features and decorations in their body.

With all these in mind, one can conclude that the developments in science and technology,
aside from affecting the lives of the people, were the results of many prior antecedents. Out
of necessity, people in ancient times were able to discover and invent things that would
impact the lives of the modern people.

The following discussions will tackle the different major technological advancements during
the ancient times, which include some of the achievements of the early civilizations such as
Sumerians, Babylonians, and Egyptians. It will continue to describe the gradual application
of knowledge up to the contemporary time.
Sumerian Civilization

Sumeria is located on
the southernmost tip
of ancient Mesopotamia.
Sumerians are known for
their high degree of
cooperation with one another
and their desire for great
things. They are not
contented with the basic
things that life can offer.
This desire pushed
them to develop many
things connected with
science and technology.

Cuneiform

One of the major contributions of

the Sumerians is the development of
the first writing system known as
cuneiform. It is a system that utilizes
word pictures and triangular symbols
which are carved on clay using
wedge instruments and then left to
dry. Cuneiform allowed the
Sumerians to keep recoesa of things
with great historical value or their
everyday life.
Uruk City

Another important contribution of

the Sumerians is the City of Uruk. It
is a great wonder not only because it
is considered to be the first true city
in the world but also for the way it
was erected. There were no building
stones in the location of this city and
lumber was limited, making the
construction a big challenge. The
Sumerians were able to build the city
using only mud or clay from the
river, which they mixed with reeds,
producing sun-baked bricks – a true
engineering feat. They used the
bricks to make houses that
protected them
from the harsh weather and to build a wall around the city that prevented wild animals and
neighbouring raiders from entering.

The Great Ziggurat of Ur

Another engineering and

architectural feat of the
Sumerians is the Great Ziggurat
of Ur. The ziggurat, also called
the mountain of god, was built in
the same manner that they
constructed the City of Uruk.
Irrigation and Dikes

As population increased, so did the

demand for food. The Sumerians were
challenged to mass produce food items
but elements in the environment seemed
uncooperative. It was difficult to get
water from the rivers, thus they could
not maintain farmlands. Some groups
had scarce water supply, while others
had problems with flooding caused by
the river. As a solution to this dilemma,
the Sumerians created dikes and
irrigation canals to bring water to
farmlands and at the same time control
the flooding of the
rivers. This method was considered as one of the world’s most beneficial engineering works.
Through the dikes and canals, the Sumerians were able to enjoy year-long farming and
harvesting, which increased their food production.

Sailboats

Another challenge to the

Sumerians was transportation. At
that time, the wheel was not yet
invented; the man mode of
transportation was through
waterways such as rivers and seas.
Boats were used to carry large
quantities of products and were able
to cover large distances. However,
they wanted to discover faraway
lands to settle since the population
was getting larger, and boats were
not enough to accommodate more
people and products. They needed a
mode of transportation that did not require much human resource. Some sources attribute
to the Sumerians the invention of sailboats to address their increasing demands. Sailboats
were essential in transportation and trading as well as in fostering culture, information,
and technology.
 Wheel

In the latter part of their

history, the Sumerians were able
to invent the wheel since the
specialized tools needed to
create it were already available.
Thefirst wheels were not made
for transportation but for farm
work and food processes. With
the use of the wheel and axle,
mass production was made
easier. Farmers were able to mill
grains with less effort in less
time.

The Plow

Another farm
technology invented by the
Mesopotamians is the plow. Humans
evolved from being food gatherers to
farm cultivators. However, farmers
needed a technology which would
enable them to dig the ground where
seeds would be planted. The plow was
invented to dig the earth is a faster
pace. As the plow breaks the ground,
the farmer would just drop the seeds
and farm work would already do.
With this tool, farmers could cultivate
larger parcels of land faster. Enabling
them to mass produce food without
taking so much effort and time.

Roads

In order to facilitate faster and easier travel, the Sumerians developed the first roads. With
this work, the flow of traffic became faster and more organized. They made the roads with
the same technology they used in making the sun-baked bricks that they laid down on the
ground. They later poured bitumen, a black sticky substance similar to asphalt, to smoothen
the roads. The invention of roads was very useful especially during the rainy season when
travelling in soft and muddy roads proved to be difficult.
Babylonian Civilization

Babylonian civilization emerged near the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The Babylonians
were great builders, engineers, and architects. One of their major contributions s the hanging
gardens of Babylon, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.

Hanging garden of Babylon

Today people can only marvel at

the beauty of the famous
Hanging Gardens of
Babylon from stories of
historians and paintings that
portray the place. It was said to
be a structure made up of layers
upon layers of gardens that
contained several species of
plants, trees, and vines.
According to legends, the great
Babylonian King
Nebuchadnezzar II built the
gardens for his wife, Queen
Amytis. However, no physical
evidence has been found to prove
the existence of the Hanging
Gardens of Babylon. Its exact
location is also unknown. Since time immemorial, people have been debating about the
existence of the asid mythical place. Many said it was just a product of the creative
imagination of the great King because it lacked documentation or archaeological evidence.
On the other hand, if it really existed, it must have been destroyed by war, erosion, or an
earthquake. True or not, hearing the stories and description of the place would be enough to
inspire awe to anyone. One can imagine the thick greenery decorated by beautiful flowers
coming from different places in the garden and complicated design of the infrastructure. If
the stories were true, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon may be considered as one of the
greatest engineering and architectural achievements of the world that is almost impossible to
replicate.

Egyptian Civilization

Another early civilization famous for its legacy is the Egyptian civilization located in North
Africa. Many stories tell about the engineering feats of the Egyptians especially regarding the
infrastructures established by the pharaohs. Aside from engineering technology, the
Egyptians have contributed other practical things that the world now considers as essential. It
is thus safe to say that the pyramids are not the only contribution of the Egyptian civilization
to the modern world.
Paper or Papyrus

One of the earlier contributions of Egyptian civilization was the paper or papyrus. Although
Egypt was not the first to develop a system of writing, they were able to make writing easier
for the world. Before the Egyptian innovation, clay tables were used. However, safe-keeping
and transporting they were a major problem. Clay tablets were very fragile, heavy, and
delicate to handle. So, bringing them to places was a major challenge. Hence, the Egyptian
invention of the paper or papyrus was a welcome development. Papyrus was a plant that
grew abundantly along the Nile River in Egypt. They were able to process the plant in order
to produce thin sheets on which once could write down things. Since papyrus was lighter and
thinner than clay tablets, it was easy to carry and store. The sheets were also less breakable as
compared to clay tablets. This invention was a major accomplishment in Egyptian record-
keeping and communications. People then were able to send letters or correspondences
anywhere in the world since the pieces of paper were very light that they could be carried and
delivered by birds. Moreover, record-keeping was no longer a problem since documents
would not take huge storage spaces. Therefore, it was easier to keep them away from raiders
who often destroyed records of the nations they invaded.

Ink

When the Egyptians invented the papyrus or the paper, engraving ceased to be used in
writing. As a result, the Egyptians invented ink by combining soot with different chemicals
to produce inks of different colours. The ink must withstand the elements of nature since it
was used to record history, culture, and codified laws. It must also be tamper-proof so that
people could not simply tinker with those written down by authorities.

Hieroglyphics

Like the Sumerians, the Egyptians also developed a system of writing using symbols, known
as hieroglyphics. Although some say that hieroglyphics was adapted from the early writing
system established in Mesopotamia as a result of trade between civilizations, the Egyptians
believed that this writing system was provided to them by their gods. This form of writing
can still be seen today and remains to be as famous as the pyramids where they were found.
Hieroglyphics was the language that tells the modern world of the history and culture of the
ancient Egyptians. Their records were well-preserved since they were carved at the walls of
pyramids and other important Egyptian structures.

Cosmetics

The Egyptians also invented the use of cosmetics. Although cosmetics in the modern times
are used to improve and highlight the facial features of a person, their function in ancient
Egypt was for both health and aesthetic reasons. Egyptians wore Kohl around the eyes to
prevent and even cure eye diseases. Kohl was created by mixing soot or malachite with
mineral galena.

Egyptians also believed that a person wearing make-up was protected from evil and that
beauty was a sign of holiness. At present, the cosmetic industry is a booming multibillion
industry.
Wig

Another cosmetic invention of ancient Egyptians is the wig. At present, wigs are used to
enhance the appearance of people who are balding or those who want to try new hair trends.
Meanwhile, during the ancient Egyptian times, wigs were worn for health and wellness rather
than for aesthetics purposes. The wigs were used to protect that shaved heads of the wealthy
Egyptians from the harmful rays of the sun. Wearing a wig was better than putting on a scarf
or any other head cover since a wig allowed heat to escape. Moreover, it was considered
cleaner than natural hair because it prevented the accumulation of head lice.

Water Clock/Clepsydra

Another important ancient Egyptian contribution is the water clock. This device utilizes
gravity that affects the flow of water (or its height, depending on the method used) remaining
in the device determines how much time has elapsed since it is full. In the process, time is
measured. The water clock was widely used as a timekeeping device during the ancient
times.

Greek Civilization

Greece is an archipelago in the south eastern part of Europe. Known as the birth place of
western philosophy, some of the major achievements of the Greeks include in-depth works
on philosophy and mathematics. More than coliseums and the Olympics, the Greek
civilization has contributed much to the world especially in the fields of science and
technology.

Alarm Clock

One of the most utilized gadgets today that was invented by the ancient Greeks is the alarm
clock. Although the alarm clock during that time did not resemble the present-day alarm
clock, the purpose was just the same- to tell an individual when to stop or when to start. The
ancient Greek’s alarm clocks used large complicated mechanisms to time the alarm. They
made use of water (or sometimes small stones or sand) that dropped into drums which
sounded the alarm. Plato was believed to have utilized an alarm clock to signal the start of his
lecture. His version used four water vessels lined up vertically. The upper vessel supplied the
water which dropped to the vessel below it, which was set to be filled in a given time. After it
was full, water was siphoned off at a faster rate into the third vessel which would cause the
expulsion of contained air, creating a whistling noise. Afterwards, this vessel would empty
towards the bottom vessel for storage and reuse.
Water Mill

Watermills were also

considered as one of the most
important contributions of the Greek
civilization to the world. They were
commonly used in agricultural
processes like milling of grains which
was a necessary form of food
processing during that time. Because
milling was made possible
by the use of watermills, the mass
production of rice, cereals, flours, and
the like became
common.
Watermills were considered better than
mills powered by farm animals
because they required less effort and
time to operate since the farmer dis not
have to raise animals. They only
required access to rivers or flowing
water where a mechanism of a large
wheel with
small “buckets” or water attached to it could be installed.

Roman Civilization

The Roman Empire was perceived to be the strongest political and social entity in the west.
It was considered to be the cradle of politics and governance during that period. Because the
Roman Empire was so large, other civilizations looked up to it as their model in terms of
legislation and codified laws. Aside from their contributions in politics, a lot of discoveries
and inventions still relevant today can be attributed to the Roman Empire.

Newspaper

One of the major contributions of the Romans is the newspaper. The first newspapers,
known as gazettes contained announcements of the Roman Empire to the people. Made
before the invention of paper, these gazettes were engraved in metal or stone tablets and then
publicly displayed. When paper was invented, it became easier for the Romans to “publish”
matters that needed the attention of the Roman citizens. In fact, with the advent of paper,
minutes of proceedings of the Roman senate were done in shorthand. These documents were
edited and published on the same day that they were recorded. This way, the Romans enjoyed
easy access to government information the same way we benefit from present-day
newspaper.
Bounds Books or Codex

With the invention of paper, it became easier for civilizations to write down everything that
happened in their tie. Record-keeping was much easier since paper did not easily break, was
lightweight, and did not occupy much space. As a result, civilizations became fond or
recordkeeping, especially documenting historical events and newly legislated laws. Aside
from Romans writing down information about history and politics, literature also changed
form from clay tablets to parchments of paper. According to sources, Julius Caesar started
the tradition of stacking up papyrus to form pages of a book. Later on, they were able to
provide covers to protect the papyrus. The earlier covers were made of wax but were later on
replaced by animal skin which proved to be stronger and longer-lasting. With the papyrus
pages bound together and covered by animal skin, the ancient Roman Empire was able to
produce the first books or codex.

Roman Architecture

Roman architecture is one of the most visual contributions of the ancient Roman Empire to
the world. Roman architecture was considered a continuation of Greek architecture, hence,
the resemblance. However, Roman architecture was still regarded as pioneering since the
Roman were able to adapt new building and engineering technology on architectural designs
established in the past. In this manner, they were able to preserve great and elaborate
architectural designs because they could produce studier and stringer infrastructures. The
Romans were also able to creatively redesign old architectural patterns to adapt to the new
trends at that time. This development in the field of engineering and architecture was fully
supported and funded by the Roman government so they were able to implement major
projects such as large churches (cathedrals and basilicas), aqueducts, coliseums,
amphitheaters, and even residential houses. The quality of these majestic Roman structures
can be seen by the way they withstood time and the harsh elements of the environment.
Today, people of the world still enjoy these marvels. These structures are proof of ancient
Roman technology.

Roman Numerals

Although other number systems had already been established before the Roman numeral,
these old systems could not keep up with high calculation and trade among nations. Since the
Roman Empire was expanding, it had to deal with many nations to maintain its power. For
this reason, the Roans devised their own number system specifically to address the need for a
stand counting method that would meet their increasing communication and trade concerns.
Although the Roman numeral is no longer widely used today due to its inherent limitations,
quite a number of enthusiasts would still use it over other more popular number systems, like
the Hindu-Arabic system, due to its aesthetic and historical value.
Chinese Civilization

The Chinese civilization is considered to be the oldest civilization in Asia, if not the world.
Also known as the middle kingdom, China is located on the far east of Asia. It was famous
among other ancient civilizations because of its silk trade. Not a great amount was written
about ancient China partly due to its distance from the other civilizations. Despite its less
popular status among the early civilizations, one cannot discredit the significant contributions
of Chinese civilization to the world.

Silk

One of the things that connected Far East China to the world is silk. Although silk is
naturally produced by silk worms, the Chinese were the ones who developed the technology
to harvest the silk and process it to produce paper and clothing. Silk production resulted in
the creation of a product for trade. The silk trade opened China to the outside world, making
way for cultural, economic, and scientific exchanges. It bridged the gap between rhe western
world and the middle kingdom.

Tea Production

Tea is a beverage produced by pouring hot or boiling water over crushed or shredded dried
tea leaves. It was believed that the first tea was drunk by a Chinese emperor. Tea production
was developed when an unknown Chinese inventor created a machine that was able to shred
tea leaves into strips. This machine was done using a wheel-based mechanism with sharp
edges attached to a wooden or ceramic pot. Because of this invention, the Chinese were able
to increase their production of tea and trade with other nations. China thus became known for
its tea exports aside from its silk products. Tea production developed by the ancient Chinese
may have resulted in making tea as one of the most popular beverages in the world today.

Great Wall of China

Once considered the only man-made structure that could be seen from outer space, the Great
Wall of China is said to be the largest and most extensive infrastructure that the nation built.
It was constructed to keep out foreign invaders and control the borders of China. Made with
stone, brick, wood, earth, and other materials, it showcased the extent of Chinese engineering
technology at that time. The structure was so massive and strong that it was said to have
literally divided China from the rest of the world. The wall’s construction put the nation
among the powerful civilizations during the ancient times. It was the pride of their land and
their crowning glory. Today, with some sections already in ruins, the Great Wall still
continues to be a world attraction due to its historical significance and architectural grandeur.

Gunpowder

The gunpowder is one of the most interesting inventions in China. Originally, it was
developed by Chinese alchemists who aimed to achieve immortality. They mixed charcoal,
sulphur, and potassium nitrate, but instead of creating an elixir of life, they accidentally
invented a black powder that could actually generate large amounts of heat and gas in an
instant. Ironically,
instead of prolonging life, gunpowder is widely used to propel bullets from guns and cannons
which cause countless deaths. In fact, gunpowder-propelled weapons are preferred by raiders
who plan to attack at a distance. The same weapons are also used to dissipate any attempts of
invasion. On the other hand, gun powder is also used in fireworks during important
celebrations in China.

Medieval/Middle Ages

The start of the Middle Ages was marred by massive invasions and migrations. Wars were
prevalent during this time. As such, great technology was needed in the fields of weaponry,
navigation, mass food and farm production, and health. The wars have resulted in population
decline, but during the latter part of the period, there was a significant rise in population.
Trade and commerce among nations increased, which resulted in greater demands for
transportation technology. Some of the most innovative minds came from this period.

Printing Press

After the Chinese developed woodblock printing, Johann Gutenberg was able to
invent the printing press, a more reliable way of printing using a cast type He utilized
wooden machines that extracted juices from fruits, attached to them a metal impression of the
letters, and pressed firmly the cast metal into a piece of paper, which then made a exact
impression on paper.

THs general invention soon evolved to be the mechanical printing press which was
eventually used all over the world. The printing press was invented to address the need for
publishing books that would spread information to many people at a faster rate. This
invention also made works accessible to individuals who could not even write (Streissguth,
1997).

Microscope

Another invention in the Middle Ages is the microscope. Growing populations caused
massive migration and urbanization during the period. More and more people transferred to
populate and populated urban areas which resulted in more people transferred to people
getting sick and needing medical attention. To develop the proper medicines for illness,
experts must understand the sickness through an investigation. Thus, they needed a device
that could magnify things invisible to the eye. Guided by the principles used for the invention
of eyeglasses in earlier years, Zacharias Janssen was able to develop the first compound
microscope. With this device, people were able to observe organisms that were normally
unseen by the naked eye. The microscope was key in discovering new means in preventing
and curing various illnesses (Davidson, 2015).

Telescope

Since the middle Ages were also known as the Age of Exploration, the need for nautical
inventions was high. Considering the vast and empty oceans that separated lands, ship
captains needed to see far and wide for them to navigate or to avoid dangers at sea. The
invention of the telescope, an optical instrument that helps in the observation of remote
objects, was a great
help of navigators during this time. Together with the telescope, the invention of the
compass, oars, and rudders made sea travelling easier and safer (Helden, 1989).

War Weapons

Since wars were widespread during the middle Ages, great development in the weaponry
technology also occurred. All sides must develop weaponries not only as offensive tools but
also as defensive instruments. For open-area battles, people developed cross bows and long
bows so that they could attack the enemies at long ranges, keeping themselves safe with the
protection of walls and fortresses. Additionally, in close-range hand-to-hand combat, soldiers
should wear something to protect themselves, a need addresses by the creation of iron body
armors. However, body armors were heavy and limited their movements. The problem was
eventually solved by the invention of the chainmail.

Modern Times

The booming and world population during the nineteenth century onwards demanded that
more goods be produced at a faster rate. People needed efficient means of transportation to
trade more goods and cover a larger distance. Machines that required animals to operate must
thus be upgraded. Faster and easier means to communicate and compute should be developed
to establish connections between and among nations. All these needs resulted in the
development of industries. However, due to massive industrialization, the modern times
again faced more complicated problems. Food processing and medicine posed some of the
bigger challenges since health was of great concern.

Pasteurization

As people were able to develop better means of production to meet the needs of the
population, food preservation and food safety became an issue. The challenge to keep
manufactured food from deteriorating was greater for dairy products, especially milk, since
they usually spoiled faster. These goods needed to be consumed almost immediately after
production or they would cause illness like diphtheria, food poisoning, and typhoid fever.
Since transporting these products would also take tie, it would be impossible to trade them.

Louis Pasteur, a French biologist, microbiologists, and chemist, found a way to solve the
problem. He invented pasteurization, the process of heating dairy products to kill the harmful
bacteria that allow them to spoil faster. Through this process, milk could be stored and
consumed for a longer period. It also prevented ill ness caused by harmful bacteria
(Macalester Colege, 2010). Other contributions of Pasteur to science, technology, and
medicine included his works on molecular asymmetry, fermentation, and vaccination.

Petroleum Refinery

The modern times demanded better means of powering homes and transportation. At first,
people used animal oils for generating light to illuminate their homes. However, the
production of animal oils could not keep up with the demand. Faced with this concern,
Samuel M. Kier was able to invent kerosene by refining petroleum. Kerosene was later on
referred o as the “illuminating oil” because it was used at first to provide lighting to homes.
After some time, it
was applied for heating purposes. The development of kerosene established the petroleum
refinery industry (Skrabec, 2010). At present, petroleum is widely used in powering
automobiles, factories, and power plants, among others.

Telephone

The more people got connected by trade and exploration, the move they needed a way to
easily maintain these connections and communicate with each other in real time.
Governments likewise needed some kind of communication system which would allow them
to administer their states well. Important day-to-day decisions must be discussed and
addressed at the fastest time possible. Thus, the development of the telephone by Alexander
Graham Bell was one of the most important inventions at that time.

Calculator

Although an earlier version of the calculator had already been developed, circumstances in
the modern times required a faster way to compute more complicated equations. Computing
devices must also be easy to carry since they would be utilized on a day-to-day basis. The
creation of modern calculators did not only pave the way for easier arithmetic calculations,
but also resulted in the development of more complex processing machines lie the computer.

Philippine Inventions

Despite being considered a developing country, the Philippines also contribute to the global
advancement of science and technology. It is quite remarkable to note the ingenuity of the
Filipinos despite the lack in resources. The Philippines is known to be one of the most
vulnerable countries I terms of natural disasters. Many of the discoveries and inventions
made by the Filipinos were therefore built from indigenous materials or created to adapt to
the harsh tropical environment.

Salamander Amphibious Tricycle

It has become ordinary for Filipinos to convert transport vehicles into something more
useful. An example is the conversion of American military jeeps used in World War II into
jeepneys. Another Filipino innovation is the addition of a sidecar to a motorcycle,
transforming it into a tricycle to accommodate more passengers.

During the rainy season, flooding is a common occurrence in many areas in the country.
Tricycles find it very difficult to transverse the streets. To remedy the issue, Victor Llave and
his team at H2O Technologies were able to invent the Salamander, an amphibious tricycle
that can cross not only flooded streets but also rivers and lakes. It may also be utilized to
travel from island to island. Since the Philippines is an archipelago, the Salamander is a
useful invention that has a lot of potential.
Salt Lamp

One of the major needs in the Philippines, as a developing nation, is electrification.

Electricity powers various types of machines, including light sources. In many rural areas in
the country, activities would cease when it gets dark. It also becomes more dangerous to
travel. Filipinos have resorted to using candles and kerosene lamps but they carry certain
risks as they are fire hazards. Solar power is also a welcome development but like
rechargeable batteries, solar panels are too expensive for ordinary Filipinos. Fortunately, a
young Filipina inventor named Aisa Mijeno was able to invent a lighting system that utilizes
a material abundant in the Philippines – saltwater. She invented the Sustainable Alternative
Lighting (SALt) lamp, an environment friendly light source that runs on saltwater. The SALt
lamp is safer as it poses no risk of fire and emits no toxic gases Aside from people who live
in coastal areas, it may also benefit those from far-flung barrios because they can make their
own saltwater by mixing two tablespoons of salt and a glass of tap water. Medical Incubator

A common problem in the Philippines is the high mortality rate of new born babies. One
reason for this problem in the 20th century was the lack of available incubators especially in
farflung rural areas due to lack of resources and electricity. Dr. Fe del Mundo, a Filipino
pediatrician and the first Asian woman admitted into Harvard Medical School, devised a
medical incubator made from indigenous and cheap materials which did not run on
electricity. Dr. Del Mundo’s incubator was made by placing a native laundry basket inside a
bigger one. Hot water bottles were inserted between the baskets to provide warmth and a
makeshift hood to allow oxygen circulation. Its main purpose was to maintain conditions
suitable for a new born, usually a pre- term baby. Other breakthroughs in Philippine medicine
attributed to Dr. del Mundo include her works on the immunization and treatment of jaundice
and the BRAT diet for curing diarrhea.

Mosquito Ovicidal/Larvicidal Trap System

Dengue, a mosquito-borne viral illness is endemic in tropical and subtropical areas,

including the Philippines. This virus is usually transmitted by Aedes aegypti mosquito,
rampant during the rainy season. Insecticides were previously used to kill the species.
However, recent studies how that insecticide resistance has evolved in some mosquito
populations. Likewise, using insecticides is harmful not only to humans but also to the
environment. In 2010, the Department of Science and Technology – Industrial Technology
Development Institute (DOST-ITDI) was able to introduce the Mosquito Ovicidal/Larvicidal
Trap System, also known as QL Trap. This trap system is made of natural ingredients that are
lethal to mosquitos but safe for human and the environment.

Ejeepney

A major innovation that changed the transportation industry in the Philippines was the
development of the jeepney. This iconic public utility vehicle was built using the military
jeeps left by the Americans after World War II. The chassis and the body of the military
jeeps were extended to accommodate more load and passengers. Because of its usefulness,
the jeepney dominated Philippine streets and is considered as the primary mode of
transportation of most
Filipinos. However, the diesel-powered jeepney produces large quantities of black smoke,
and is usually a major contributor of noise pollution due to its primitive exhaust system. To
counter these advantages, the electric jeepney (eJeepney) was developed. This modern type
of transportation utilizes electricity instead of the more expensive diesel. It is environment-
friendly since it does not emit any smoke and noise.

The items discussed in this chapter are only some of the great inventions and developments
during the different time periods There are still more innovations and discoveries that were
made I the course of history that changed the world. Can you name other great discoveries”?

References/Additional Resources/Readings

 Charcos, C. M., & Devera, R. D. (2020). Learning Module for GEC 7

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY.
 Restivo, Sal. (2005). Science, Technology, and Society: An Encyclopedia. New
York: Oxford.
 Vinck, Dominique (2010). The Sociology of Scientific Work. The Fundamental
Relationship between Science and Society.
 Bijker, W. E., Hughes, T. P., Pinch, T. and Douglas, D. G.(2012). The Social
Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History
of Technology,MIT Press, Cambridge.
 Giacomelli R. (2004). SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY, What can
be done to make science more appealing and easier to understand.

Note: The resource materials indicated herein will solely be used for educational
purposes. No copyright infringement is intended.