English : Grammar

Adjective and adverbs :

21. Comparisons of adjectives :

Adjective Comparative Superlative

One-syllable adjective + -er than the + adjective + -est

nice, hot, cold à nicer, hotter, colder than … à the nicest, the hottest, the
coldest …

Adjectives ending –y + -ier than the + adjective + -est

ugly, pretty à uglier, prettier than … à the ugliest, the prettiest …

Two / more syllable more / less + adjective + than the + most / least + adjective
adjective à More beautiful, more à the most beautiful, the
beautiful, intelligent intelligent than … most intelligent …

22. Comparative structures :

• (not) as + adjective + as :
- to say that two things have the same quality.
e.g. : The guinea pigs are as expensive as the rabbits.
- to describe a difference in quality. + not nearly = big difference / +
almost as, not quite as = small difference.
e.g. : The guinea pigs are not as expensive as the rabbits.
• the same (as) :
- two things are equal.
e.g. : Your book is the same as mine.
• similar to :
- something is nearly the same.
e.g. : Your book is similar to mine, but yours is a bit smaller.
• different from / to (less common) :
- to describe a difference.
e.g. : Tigers are different from leopards.

Making comparisons stronger / weaker :

• Stronger : + much, a lot and far. e.g. : He’s a lot taller than me.
• Weaker : + a bit, slightly and a little. e.g. : He’s a bit taller than me.

Making superlatives stronger / weaker :

• Stronger : + by far. e.g. : He’s by far the biggest in the class.

• Weaker : + one of and among. e.g. : He’s one of the biggest in the class.
Present tenses :

26. Be, have, have got :

• Have + have got* : - relationships

- possessions
- features
- illness
- appointments

• Have (not “have got”) : - hygiene and appearance

- food and drinks
- experiences
- special events
- activity
- communication

* “have got” cannot be used with past and future tenses

27. Present simple :

Example with “live” : - positive : He lives in London.

- negative : I don’t live in London.
- questions : Do you live in London ?

We use present simple :

• for facts. e.g. : Water boils at 100°C.

• for permanent situations. e.g. : I don’t live in the city.
• to describe opinions and idea. e.g. : I think New York is exciting.
• to describe likes and dislikes. e.g. : I prefer the city.
• for regular actions, habits and routines. e.g. : I wake up at 7:00.
à adverbs of frequency (always, often) or other time expressions (every
day, once a year)
• describing films, plays, books. e.g. : The story takes place in the US.

28. Present continuous :

be + - ing verb : - positive : I’m having lunch.

- negative : She isn’t having lunch.
- questions : Are you watching TV ?

We use present continuous :

• actions happening while speaking. e.g. : Hurry up ! The taxi’s waiting.

• actions happening around the time of speaking. e.g. : He’s studying
animal behavior.
 • temporary situations. e.g. : I’m living at my aunt’s house while the builders
are repairing the roof of our house.
à With these uses of the present continuous, we often use time expressions
like now, at the moment, today …
à Present continuous + always = criticize another person’s actions.
• changes and trends. e.g. : Prices are going up again.
• describing pictures. e.g. : He’s holding a bottle in this photo.

29. Present simple or continuous ? :

Present simple Present continuous

Permanent situations; things we Temporary situations, for a

do not expect to change. limited period of time.

Regular actions, habits and Actions happening at / around

routines.
Permanent situations; things we
do not expect to change.
To describe event in a book, play
or film.
the time of speaking.
Something that’s changing.
To describe a photo / picture.

Past tenses :

30. Past simple :

For most verbs : verb + - ed (e.g. : he stayed)

Irregular verbs : learn them by heart (e.g. : he eats à he ate)

We use past simple :

• for a single completed action in the past. e.g. : He died in 1898.

• repeated actions in the past. e.g. : She phoned her family every day.
• a series of actions in the past. e.g. : We arrived in Rome and took a taxi.
• situations that finished in the past. e.g. : He lived from 1912 to 1998.

à We often use adverbs of time to say when a past action happened such
as ago, for, last week/month/year.

31. Past continuous :

be (past simple) + - ing verb : - positive : I was having lunch.

- negative : She wasn’t having lunch.
- questions : Were you watching TV ?
We use past continuous :

• to describe an action happening at or around a time in the past. e.g. : I

wasn’t feeling well that day.
• for temporary past situations. e.g. : We were living in Beijing.
• for two actions / situations happening at the same time. e.g. : While he
was playing his match, I was waiting in the car.
• to describe a background situation in the past. e.g. : He was doing his
homework when I came back home.
• to “set a scene” for a story or account of something that happened.
e.g. : She was living in Istanbul that summer.

à Past continuous + always = criticize another person’s actions.

à We use the past continuous and the past simple together to show that one
action (past simple) interrupts another action (past continuous).
à Past continuous of verbs like plan, hope or intend shows that the action
didn’t happen. e.g. : We were planning to come to your party, but Kyle was ill.

32. Past simple or continuous ? :

Past simple Past continuous

Single or repeated completed action in Describing an unfinished action at or

the past. around a time in the past.

We arrived at the hotel at 3:00. When she arrived, he was eating.

He went on many expeditions to Africa He was searching for an info in the book.

When and while :

We can use while or when before an unfinished action or the interrupted

past. e.g. : He came when I was doing my math test.
We can use when before the unfinished (continuous) or the completed
(simple) action. e.g. : He was trying to kill a fly when she flew away.

33. Used to and would :

used to + infinitive. : - positive : I used to take the bus every day.

- negative : She didn’t use to take the bus.
- questions : Did you use to take the bus ?

We use used to + infinitive :

• to talk about regular past actions that do not happen now. e.g. : I used
to visit my grandma every day.
• for past situations that are no longer true. e.g. : He used to be a soldier.
à We often use adverbs of frequency like always, once a week, every week.
e.g. : I always used to swim.

would + infinitive. : - positive : I would play basketball every day.

- negative : She wouldn’t play football every day.
- questions : Would you play football every day.

We use would + infinitive :

• to talk about regular past actions that do not happen now. e.g. : He
would play video games every week.
à When we start with used to, we usually continue with would.

34. Past perfect simple :

had + past participle. : - positive : I had already seen this movie.

- negative : She hadn’t seen it before.
- questions : Had you seen the film ?

We use past perfect simple :

• to show which action happened first. e.g. : Before I found a job, I had
done many small jobs.
• to show a series of events in the past. e.g. : Time had stopped here…
Where was she ? Where had she gone ? The grass had grown thick.
• to give a reason for an action or situation. e.g. : She became the
commander, because she had already flown as a space pilot.

à We often use adverbs of time and linking words with past perfect, such as
earlier, before, by the time.
à We often use the past perfect + ever with superlatives adjectives. e.g. : This
is the worst burger I had ever eaten !
à We also use past perfect after it was the first, second, etc. e.g. : It was the
first time I had seen this movie.

Present perfect :

36. Present perfect for past experiences and present results :

have + past participle. : - positive : I have (‘ve) already been there before.
- negative : She hasn’t seen it before.
- questions : Have you finished ?

We use present perfect :

• to talk about actions and experiences that have happened in our lives
up to now. e.g. : Have you driven an automatic car before ?
à We can use expressions like often, once, twice to say, “how often”.
 à We often use ever for questions (“in your life”), never in negative
sentences (“not in your life”) and before to say whether it’s the first
time we’ve done something.
• to talk about past actions that has a result in the present. e.g. : My car’s
broken down. (it broke down earlier, and it isn’t working now.)
à We use just for actions that happened a very short time ago,
already (“before the expected time”) and recently to talk about
actions that happened in the last few days / months. We don’t use
already in negative sentences.
à We use yet in questions to ask about something we expect to
happen around now, but which hasn’t happened at the time of
speaking. We also use still in positive sentences to say that an earlier
situation has not changed. We don’t use yet in positive sentences.

37. Present perfect for situations up to the present :

We use present perfect :

• to talk about actions in a time period that is still continuing. e.g. : I’ve
seen this movie 10 times so far this year.
à We use time expressions like today, this morning, this week, etc. or so
far to mean “up to now”.
• to talk about repeated actions (that may happen again). e.g. : I’ve
been there many times. (I might go there again one day)
• for situations up to the present + for / since or how long. e.g. : She’s
worked here since January 2009.
à We use for with a period of time and since with a particular time,
day, date or with a past event. How long is usually used in questions,
with a state verb.
• with superlative adjectives. e.g. : This was the worst film I’ve ever seen.
• with the first, the second, etc. e.g. : It’s the first time I’ve taken the plane.

* There’s a difference between been and gone :

My parents have gone to New York on holiday. (= They are there now)
My parents have been to New York. (= They have visited it in the past, and
have returned home.)

38. Present perfect or past simple ? :

Present perfect Past simple

Single or repeated actions in the Single or repeated actions that

past, when we don’t know the happened at a definite time in
date of the action or it isn’t the past.
important.
 Situations that started in the past
and are still continuing.
One or more completed actions
in a time period that is still
continuing.
Situations that started and
finished in the past.
Completed actions in a time
period that is finished.

Giving news :

We often use present perfect to introduce new information. e.g. : I’ve decided
to get a new car.
After we have introduced new information, we usually give more details with
past simple. e.g. : I’ve decided to get a new car, I bought it on Wednesday.

Future forms :

41. Going to, present continuous and will :

be + going to. : - positive : I’m going to Manchester next year.

- negative : She isn’t going to be late.
- questions : Are you going to cinema next week ?

Future plans and arrangements :

Going to Present continuous

We intend to do something, but we We have already made arrangements to

haven’t made all the arrangements yet: do something:

We’re going to meet his grandma next He’s meeting us in front of the cinema at 6
week. o’clock.

We plan to do something in the To explain why he can’t do something in

immediate future: the future:

I’m going to make a sandwich. “Can you come to the party on Sunday?”
“No, I’m afraid I can’t. I’m working.”

à We usually use time expressions with these tenses.

will (not) + infinitive verb. : - positive : I will be late.

- negative : She won’t (will not) be late.
- questions : Will you meet him ?

We use going to or will to talk about things we expect to happen.

 Going to Will

For predictions based on something we For predictions based on our own

can see now, or that everybody knows: personal opinion or knowledge:

We’re going to get soaked ! It will probably rain.

(because it’s raining right now.) (I know it’s raining a lot here.)

à We can make our predictions less or more certain by using the adverbs
probably, certainly or definitely.

We also use will :

• to talk about events that are certain to happen. e.g. : There will be a full
moon tomorrow.
• when we decide to do something at the same time as speaking. e.g. :
“The manager isn’t here ? That’s ok, I’ll call him later.”
• to make offers, promises and warning. e.g. : “ I will work harder next year, I
promise.” (promise) / ” I’ll take you to school.” (offer) / “Don’t do this ! You’ll
hurt yourself.” (warning)

* We can use shall instead of will, but it is more formal.

44. Present simple with future meaning :

We use present simple with future meaning :

• with a time or date to talk about future events on a timetable. e.g. : The
Dallas flight arrivers at 7 o’clock.
• to talk about definite arrangements and things we can’t change (can
also use will). e.g. : New Year’s Day falls / will fall on a Thursday this year.
à We don’t use present simple for personal arrangements, but present
continuous or going to.
• to talk about future events after when, as soon as, before, after, once
and until. e.g. : I will phone you as soon as I come back home.
à We can also use present perfect with these expressions. e.g. : I’ll tell
you what I think after I’ve seen it.
à We can’t use will after these expressions.

Modal verbs :

46. Ability and possibility : can, could, be able to :

We use can / can’t (present ability and possibility) :

 • or “be able to” to say that it is possible to do something or that
someone / something has the ability to do something. e.g. : You can use
your phone during math classes.
à be able to is used when something is surprising or requires some
efforts.
• with verbs of the senses and some verbs of thinking.

Future ability and possibility :

Be able to for situations that are
certain
Can for future personal
arrangements
Could for situations that are
possible but unlikely.
Could or would be able to for
conditional situations.
I won’t be able to eat with you tomorrow.
The dentist can see you on Friday.
We could give up our dreams.
If you had money, you could pay directly /
you would be able to pay directly.

Past ability and possibility :

To talk about past ability or possibility, we use could / couldn’t or was / were
able to. e.g. : Before I got the job, I couldn’t afford a car.
à If we are making a positive statement about a single event in the past, or
asking a question about it, we use was / were able to, NOT could.
à If something was particularly difficult, we can use manage to. e.g. : I didn’t
manage to finish the homework.

General truths :

We use can for something that is generally possible and could to talk about
general truths in the past. e.g. : It can be very cold in New York in January.

49. Rules : must, mustn’t, have (got) to :

have to + infinitive verb.

We use have to :

• to say that something is necessary or is a rule. e.g. : We have to wear

masks during lessons.
à We can ask question with must but it’s more common to use have
(got) to.
• if there is NO rule to say something is necessary. e.g. : You don’t have to
do the exercises 1 and 2.
must + infinitive verb.

We use must :

• for a rule given by the speaker to another person, or to himself. e.g. :

You must wear your coat. (a parent to his child)
• for instructions (often in writing and with a passive verb). e.g. : The answer
must be written in ink. (exam instructions)

Negative rules :

We use can’t or not allowed to to say that there is a rule NOT to do

something. e.g. : You can’t / are not allowed to use your phone in the museum.

We can also use must not, but usually only for explaining rules and in
instructions. e.g. : Remember kids, you mustn’t ride your bike on the grass.

To talk about negative rules in the past or the future, we use be allowed to.
e.g. : When I was a child, I wasn’t allowed to play outside until 7 o’clock.

51. Advice and criticism : should, ought to, must, had better :

Advice and warnings :

We use should / shouldn’t and ought to / ought not to if we think something is

a good or bad idea in general, and to give advice in a particular situation.
e.g. : People shouldn’t smoke indoors. / You look terrible, you ought to see a doctor.

We use must / mustn’t to give strong advice and warnings. It is stronger than
should and ought to. e.g. : You must try this cake !

We use had better (not) to give advice and warnings in a particular situation.
It usually means : “If you don’t do this, then something bad will happen”. e.g. :
You’d better check the train times first.

Criticism and regrets about the past :

We can use should / shouldn’t + have + past participle to criticize someone’s

past actions. e.g. : You should have done more revisions !

We also use should / shouldn’t + have + past participle to express regret for a
past action. e.g. : I shouldn’t have shouted at you. I’m sorry.