1

ATOMS SOLID SPHERE MODEL (JOHN DALTON 1803)

• It consists of a positively charged core (the atomic nucleus) which contains
protons and neutrons, and which maintains a number of electrons to balance
the positive charge in the nucleus.
Brief History
• Democritus (460-370 BC)
- “atomos”
- aka “discontinuous matter”
• Plato and Aristotle
- “there can be no ultimately indivisible particles”
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles, called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same size, mass, and
chemical properties. The atoms of one element are different from the atoms of
all other elements.
*According to Dalton’s atomic theory, atoms of the same element are identical,
but atoms of one element are different from atoms of other elements.
Compound formed from atoms of elements X and Y. In this case, the ratio of the
atoms of element X to the atoms of element Y is 2:1
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. In any
compound, the ratio of the numbers of atoms of any two of the elements
present is either an integer or a simple fraction.
4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination, or
rearrangement of atoms; it does not result in their creation or destruction.
- Dalton drew upon the ancient Greek idea of atoms (the word atom
comes from the Greek atomos meaning indivisible).
- His theory stated that atoms are indivisible, those of a given element
are identical, and compounds are combinations of different types of
atoms
- Recognized atoms of a particular element differ from t=other
elements
- Atoms aren’t indivisible- they’re composed from subatomic particles
PLUM PUDDING MODEL (J.J. THOMSON 1904)
- Thomson discovered electrons (which he called “corpuscles”) in
atoms in 1897, for which he won a Nobel Prize. He subsequently
produced the “plum Pudding” model of the atom. It shows the atom as
composed of electrons scattered throughout a spherical cloud of
positive charge.
- Recognize electrons as component of atoms.
- No nucleus; didn't explain later experimental observations
NUCLEAR MODEL (ERNEST RUTHERFORD 1911)
- Rutherford fired positively charged alpha particles at a thin sheet of
gold foil. Most passed through with a little deflection, but some
deflected at large angles.
- This was only possible if the atom was mostly empty space, with a
positive charge concentrated in the center: the nucleus.
- Realize positive charge was localized in the nucleus of an atom.
- Did not explain why electrons remain in orbit around the nucleus.
PLANETARY MODEL (NIEHLS BOHR 1913)
- Bohr modified rutherford's model of the atom by stating that electrons
move around the nucleus in orbits of fixed sizes and energies.
Electron energy in this model was quantized; electrons could not
occupy values of energy between the fixed energy levels
- Proposed stable electron orbits explain the emission spectra of some
elements
- Moving electrons should emit energy and collapse into the nucleus,
model did not work well for heavier atoms.
QUANTUM MODEL (ERWIN SCHRODINGER 1926)
- Schrödinger stated that electrons do not move in set paths around the
nucleus, but in waves. It is impossible to know the exact location of
the electrons; instead, you have clouds of probability called orbitals,
in which we are more likely to find an electron.
- Shows electrons didn't move around the nucleus in orbits but in
clouds where their position is uncertain
- Still widely accepted as most accurate model of the atom.

Modern Atomic Theory Atomic Structure

1. Atoms may be disintegrated. In nuclear reactions, atoms are being 1. Thomson Model
transferred into atoms of single elements in a process known as nuclear • Atoms is a spherical mass containing electrons and that
transmutation. this spherical mass is positive but is made neutral by the
2. Not all atoms of any given element are alike. electrons embedded in it.
3. Not all atoms of a given element pose identical properties except in mass. 2. Rutherford Model
4. Atoms of different elements have different properties. • It is based on additional experimental
evidence of “alpha scattering experiments”.
Structure of Atoms 3. Bohr Model of an Atom
• In this model, protons are in
• ELECTRONS the nucleus and the electrons
• Discovered by Joseph John Thomson are in the orbital motion
• Was the first component of the atom to be identified around the nucleus.
• A mass of 9.109 x 10-31 kg 4. Rutherford-Bohr Model
• A charge of -1.602 x 10-19 coulombs • In this model, the atoms are in
• PROTONS elliptical orbits of increasing
• One of the components of a nucleus number.
• Discovered by Eugene Goldstein 5. Heisenburg Uncertainty Principle
• This principle states that simultaneous determination of the exact
• A mass of 1.673 x 10-27 kg
position and exact momentum of electron is impossible.
• Charge of +1.602 x 10-19 coulombs
6. Wave Mechanical Atom
• NEUTRONS
• In this model, the nucleus is a single cluster of particles at the center
• Another component of a nucleus of the atom while the electrons are everywhere.
• Discovered by James Chadwick in 1932
• A mass of 1.675 x 10-27 kg
• Has no charge
PARTICLE MASS COULOMB CHARGE UNIT
ELECTRON 9.10938 x 10-28 -1.6022 x 10-19 -1
PROTON 1.67262 x 10-24 +1.6022 x 10-19 +1
NEUTRON 1.67493 x 10-24 0 0

A HISTORY OF THE ATOM: THEORIES AND MODELS

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7. Schroedinger “Quantum Model” Not the characteristics of the Give the characteristics of the
• This theory makes the assertion that electromagnetic radiation like substance itself substance its unique identity.
X-rays, gamma rays, radio waves and light rays are made up of small Depends on the amount, also Those which do not depend on the
bits of energy. called extensive properties. amount, also called intensive
• Pauli’s Exclusion Principle properties.
• Quantum Numbers: Examples are height, weight, Examples are boiling point, freezing
- Principal Quantum Number (n) temperature, size, shape, volume, point, melting point, viscosity,
- Azithmuthal Quantum Number (l) etc. refractive index, etc.
- Magnetic Quantum Number (m) MATTER
- Spin Quantum Number (s) MASS WEIGHT
8. Orbital Theory Constant at any place and time Varies, depends on the amount of
• This theory states that the number of orbital types in a given shell is gravity
equal to the shell number. a measure of the quantity of matterin Refers to the downward pull of the
• Orbitals have a three-dimensional region in space where the an object objects towards the center of the
probability of finding the electron is greatest. Hund’s Rule of earth; the force that gravity exerts on
Maximum Multiplicity an object.
9. Electronic Configuration When travelled to the moon, the When travelled to the moon, the
Theory
mass of an object will still be the weight of an object will only be 1/6 of
• According to this theory: same its weight on earth
1. The 1st main energy level
Can never be zero Can also be zero
2. The 2nd main energy level
3. The 3rd main energy level
I. Pure Substance
4. The 4th main energy level
a. Elements b. Compounds

a. Elements
Atomic Number (Z)
1 Metals
• number of protons in the nucleus of
2 Non-metals
an atom of an element
3 Metalloids
• also the number of electrons in an atom
b. Compounds
• This quantity is fundamental to the identity of each element because it is
1 Ionic compound
related to the electrical make-up of atom, therefore:
2 Covalent
Atomic # = # of protons = # of electrons
compound
3 Metallic compound
Mass Number
4. inorganic and
• total number of protons and neutrons on the nucleus of nucleons, therefore:
organic
mass # = # of protons + # of neutrons
5. acids, bases, salts,
oxides
NUCLEAR NOTATION
A
Acids
-Mass number
– taste sour
N
-react with some metals to give off
-neutrons
hydrogen gas
Z
-Conduct electricity in solution
-atomic number
Base
Isotopes
-taste bitter
• atoms of the same element with the same atomic number, but different mass
-feel slippery
numbers.
-dissolve fats and oils
• In other words, they have the same number of protons and electrons but
*ph 7 neutral *ph >7 is basic *ph <7 is acidic
different number of neutrons.
• Many elements exist as two or more stable isotopes, although one isotopes is
C. Mixtures
usually present in greater abundance than another isotopes.
-homogenous = particles distributed uniformly
Isotones
-heterogenous = non-uniformly
• Atoms of different elements having the same number of neutrons.
c. Solutions- particle size <10-7cm (not visible light) water
Isobars
d. Colloids- between 10-7 cm and 10-5 cm (visible light) milk
• Atoms of different elements having the same atomic mass.
e. Suspension >10-5cm (visible light) flour and water
IONS
f. Emulsions
• It is a charged species, an atom or a molecule, that has lost or gained one or
tyndall effect is the scattering of light by partciles in a colloid or suspension
more electrons.
➢ Cation
Differences between Compounds and Mixture
➢ Anion
Molecules COMPOUNDS MIXTURES
• It is the smallest indivisible portion of a pure chemical substance that has its Always have a definite composition Components may be present in any
unique set of chemical properties, that is, its potential to undergo a certain set of by weight. proportions.
chemical reactions with other Preparation shows evidence of It is prepared with no evidence of
substances. chemical action taking place. any chemical reaction taking place.
Components can be separated by Components do not lose identity.
ELECTRODES 1. Anode 2. Cathode chemicalmeans
Constituents can be separated by Components may be separated by
chemical means mechanical means.
Composed of two or more Composed of two or more
substances that are chemically substances that are not chemically
PROPERTIES OF MATTER combined. combined.
Extrinsic Property Intrinsic Property
Are the physical properties of Are the properties of matter which PRINCIPLES
matter which may vary from time are constant. 1. Law of Definite Proportions
to time. - a chemical compound always contains exactly the same proportion of
elements by mass.
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2. Law of Multiple Proportions • property that helps us distinguish a nonpolar covalent bond from a polar
- when two elements combine to form more than one compound, the weights of covalent bond
one element that combine with a fixed weight of the other are in a ratio of small •the more negative the more it attracts
whole numbers
3. Law of Combining Weights D. Multiple Bonds
- Elements combine in the ratio of their combining weights or chemical •Atoms can form multiple covalent bonds
equivalents; or in some simple multiple or sub-multiple of that ratio. • Single •Double • Triple
- Also called the Law of Reciprocal Proportions or Law of Equivalents
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- •Single Bond
Chemical Bonds -connections •two atoms are held together
• are forces of attraction that exist between a positive ion and a negative ion or by one electron pair
between molecules.
Octet Rule •Double Bond
• an atom other than hydrogen tends to form bonds until it is surrounded by •two atoms share two pairs
eight electrons. of electrons
• applicable to elements located on the s block and p block of your periodic •Triple Bond
table, except for hydrogen helium and lithium •two atoms share three
Almost always work with carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, sodium pairs of electrons
C2h2=acetylene
According to Gilbert Lewis and Albrecht Koisel
• atoms combine to achieve a more stable electron configuration.
• Maximum stability results when an atom is isoelectronic with a noble gas.
-ISOELECTRONIC =same number of valence electron, aka equal charge or E. Coordinate Covalent Bond
equal electric • A bond formed wherein one furnishes
-lewis dot symbol =greatest influence of Gilbert lewis in electron transferring both the bonding pair of electrons.
• aka dative or dipolar bond
TRANSITION METALS (Lactinides and Actinides) = incomplete inner shells • when one elements shares two of its own electron with another element

Three Types of Interatomic Bonds

•Ionic bond
• Covalent bond
• Metallic bond

A. Ionic Bond
• Or electrovalent bond
•the electrostatic force that holds ions together in an ionic compound
•formed by the transfer of electrons from an atom of low ionization energy
(alkali and alkaline earth metal) to a more electronegative element
(halogen and oxygen)

Example:
Na + Cl (chlorine> chloride ide meaning
having a charge)
F. Metallic Bond
VI LEORA- valence increase> looses • consists of group of cations held in a fixed position in the metal and the
electrons> oxidation> valence electrons which are free to move about among the different
VD GEROA electron clouds.
•collective sharing of a seas of valence electron between several positively
Sodium Flouride (NaF), Electron configuration charged metal ions
Na + F > Na+ + F
Na = 1s22s22p63s1 2 – 8 – 1 1s22s22p6 1s22s22p6 Intermolecular Bonds
F = 1s22s22p5 2 – 7 • attractive forces between the negative end of a molecule and a
positive end of a molecule
B. Covalent Bond (sharing) •Intermolecular forces – attractive forces between molecules
• bond in which two electrons are shared between atoms • Van der Waals • Hydrogen Bond • Dipole Bond • Resonance
•Covalent compounds –formed when electrons are shared equally
between two atoms with the same or • Van der Waals – Very weak forces of attraction between non-polar molecules
almost the same electronegativity •dependent on the distance between atoms or
-3 lone pairs for chlorine molecules
• Only two electrons participate in the
formation of Cl2 .
• Non-bonding pairs are called lone pairs. •Hydrogen Bond – is an attractive force that
• Lone pairs – pairs of valence electrons that are not involve in exists between the hydrogen of one
covalent bond formation molecule and the more electronegative portion
of another molecule (such as O, F, and N)
C. Polar Covalent Bond • attracted to highly electronegative elements
• dipole-dipole interaction
• This is formed from sharing of
electrons between two atoms with •Dipole Bond – is an attractive force between polar molecules
different
electronegativity.
• e- shared
unequally

Intermolecular Bonds
ELECTRONEGATIVITY • Resonance – The use of two or more Lewis Structures to represent a
• the ability of an atom to attract toward itself the electrons in a chemical bond. particular molecule.
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• Resonance Structure – is one of the two or more Lewis Structures for a single
molecule that cannot be represented accurately by only one Lewis Structure.
-two examples of molecules which have same chemical interaction
but electrons are distributed around differently
Binary Ionic Compounds (Type I)
• In naming these compounds the following rules apply:
1. The cation is always named first and the anion second.
2. A monatomic (meaning “one-atom”) cation takes its name from the name of
the element. For example, Na is called sodium in the names of compounds
containing this ion.
3. A monatomic anion is named by taking the root of the element name and
adding -ide. Thus the Cl ion is called chloride.

Intermolecular Forces of Attraction COMPOUND IONS PRESENT NAME

1. Van der Waals Nacl Na+ Cl- Sodium Chloride
a. London/Dispersion Forces – weakest of all Vander waals KI K+ I- Potassium Iodide
-aka induced dipole-induced dipole(non polar) CaS Ca2+ S2- Calcium Sulfide
b. Keesom Forces – interaction between dipoles in a polar molecule LiN3 Li+ N3- Lithium Nitride
- dipole-dipole int. CsBr CS+ Br- Cesium Bromide
c. Debye Forces – permanent dipoles and other atoms/ molecules = induced MgO Mg2+ O2- Magnesium Oxide
dipoles
-aka dipole-induced dipole CATION NAME ANION NAME
H+ Hydrogen H- Hydride
2. Hydrogen Bonds Li+ Lithium F- Flouride
3. Ion-Induced Dipole – formed between ions and polar molecules Na+ Sodium Cl- Chloride
Examples: K+ Potassium Br- Bromide
NaCl + H2O Cs+ Cesium I- Iodide
Be2+ Beryllium O2- Oxide
3 Types of Van der Waals Forces
Mg2+ Magnesium S2- Sulfide
Ca2+ Calcium N3- Nitride
1) dipole-dipole
• Two polar molecules align so that OPPOSITE CHARGES are Ba2+ Barium P3- Phosphide
matched (electrostatic attraction) Al+ Aluminum
2) dipole-induced dipole
• A dipole can induce (cause) a temporary dipole to form in a Binary Ionic Compounds (Type II)
nonpolar molecule ION SYSTEMATIC N. • There are many metals that form more
• The molecules then line up to match opposite charges Fe3+ Iron III than one type of positive ion and thus form
3) dispersion more than one type of ionic compound with
Fe2+ Iron II
• A temporary dipole forms in a nonpolar molecule which leads to a a given anion.
Cu2+ Copper II
temporary dipole to form in ANOTHER non-polar molecule • For example, the compound FeCl2
Cu+ Copper I contains Fe2+ ions, and the compound
• Dispersion is the ONLY intermolecular attraction that occurs Co3+ Cobalt III
between non-polar molecules FeCl3 contains Fe3+ ions.
Co2+ Cobalt II • In a case such as this, the charge on the
•short distance Sn4+ Tin IV metal ion must be specified.
Sn2+ Tin II • The systematic names for these two iron
Chemical Formulas
Pb4+ Lead IV compounds are iron(II) chloride and iron(III)
Important formulas
1. Structural Formula -bonds Pb2+ Lead II chloride, respectively, where the Roman
2. Molecular Formula -# of atoms Hg2+2 Mercury I numeral indicates the charge of the cation.
3. Empirical Formula-ratio Hg2+ Mercury II • Another system for naming these ionic
Ag+ Silver compounds that is seen in the older
▪ Molecular formula -The molecular formula of an organic compound Zn2+ Zinc literature was used for metals that form only
simply shows the number of each type of atom present. He tells you Cd2+ Cadmium two ions.
nothing about the bonding within the compound. • The ion with the higher charge has a name
▪ Empirical formula - The empirical formula of an organic compound gives ending in -ic, and the one with the lower charge has a name ending in
the simplest possible whole number ratio of the different types of atom - ous.
within the compound. •In this system, for example, Fe3+ is called the ferric ion, and Fe2+ is
▪ Condensed formula -The condensed formula is also text-based here called the ferrous ion. The names for FeCl3 and FeCl2 are then ferric
each carbon atom is listed separately with atoms attached to it following an chloride and ferrous chloride, respectively.
exception is cyclic parts of molecules example benzene where the carbons ELEMENT STEM CHARGE ROM N. COMM N.
are grouped. IRON Ferr 2+ Iron (II) Ferrous
▪ Displayed formula - A displayed formula shows all of the atoms and all of 3+ Iron (III) Ferric
the bonds present in an organic compound the bonds are represented as COPPER Cupr 1+ Copper (i) Cuprous
lines. 2+ Copper (II) Cupric
▪ Structural formula - Similar to displayed formula not all bonds are shown TIN Stann 2+ Tin (II) Stannous
although all atoms are still indicated using subscript numbers. Carbon- 4+ Tin I(V) Stannic
hydrogen bonds are often simplified. LEAD Plumb 2+ Lead (II) Pplumbous
▪ Skeletal formula - In a skeletal formula most hydrogen atoms are omitted 4+ Lead (IV) Plumbic
and lines and or vertices represent carbons. Functional groups and atoms GOLD Aur 1+ Gold (I) Aurous
other than carbon or hydrogen are still shown. Easiest to draw and 3+ Gold (III) Auric
commonly used.
-------------------------------------------------- Binary Ionic Compounds
Nomenclature and Formula Writing • This case most commonly occurs for compounds containing transition
-------------------------------------------------- metals, which often form more than one cation.
• Binary Ionic Compounds
o Type I • Elements that form only one cation do not need to be identified by a
o Type II Roman numeral.
• Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Ions • Common metals that do not require Roman numerals are the Group 1A
• Binary Covalent Compounds (Type III)
• Acids elements, which form only +1 ions; the Group 2A elements, which form
only +2 ions; and aluminum, which forms only Al3+ .
Binary Ionic Compounds • In virtually all its compounds silver is found as the Ag+1 ion. Therefore,
• contain a positive ion (cation) always written first in the formula and a negative although silver is a transition metal (and can potentially form ions other
ion (anion) than Ag), silver compounds are usually named without a Roman numeral.
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Thus AgCl is typically called silver chloride rather than silver(I) chloride, • For example, H2SO4 contains the sulfate anion (SO4 -2 ) and is called
although the latter name is technically correct. sulfuric acid; H3PO4 contains the phosphate anion (PO4 -3 ) and is called
• Also, a Roman numeral is not used for zinc compounds, since zinc forms phosphoric acid; and HC2H3O2 contains the acetate ion (C2H3O2 ) and is
only the Zn+2 ion. called acetic acid. Acids
• If the anion has an -ite ending, the -ite is replaced by -ous. For example,
Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Ions H2SO3 , which contains sulfite (SO3 -2 ), is named sulfurous acid; and
• We have not yet considered ionic compounds that contain polyatomic ions. HNO2 , which contains nitrite (NO-2 ), is named nitrous acid.
For example, the compound ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3 , contains the
polyatomic ions NH4 + and NO3 – ACIDS ANION NAME
• Polyatomic ions are assigned special names that must be memorized to HClO4 Perchlorate Perchloric acid
name the compounds containing them. HClO3 Chlorate Chloric acid
• Several series of anions contain an atom of a given element and different HClO2 Chlorite Chlorous acid
numbers of oxygen atoms. These anions are called oxyanions. HClO Hypochlorite Hypochlorous acid
• When there are two members in such a series, the name of the one with
the smaller number of oxygen atoms ends in -ite and the name of the one NAMES OF ACIDS THAT DO NOT CONTAIN OXYGEN
with the larger number ends in –ate. ACID: NAME:
• For example, sulfite (SO3 2- ) and sulfate (SO4 2- ).
HF Hydrofluoric acid
• When more than two oxyanions make up a series, hypo- (less than) and
HCl Hydrochloric acid
per- (more than) are used as prefixes to name the members of the series
with the fewest and the most oxygen atoms, respectively HBr Hydrobromic acid
ION NAME ION NAME HI Hydroiodic acid
Hg22+ Mercury I NCS- / SCN- Thiocyanate HCN Hydrocyanic acid
NH4 Ammonium CO3 2- Carbonate H2S Hydrosulfuric acid
NO2- Nitrite HCO3 - Hydrogen
carbonte NAMES OF SOME OXYGEN -CONTAINING ACIDS
NO3 NItrate ACID: NAME:
SO3 Sulfite HNO3 Nitric acid
SO4 Sulfate ClO- / OCl- Hypochlorite HNO2 Nitrous acid
HSO4 Hydrogen ClO2 - Chlorite H2SO4 Sulfuric acid
Sulfate H2SO3 Sulfurous acid
ClO3 - Chlorate H3PO4 Phosphoric acid
ClO4 - Perchlorate HC2H3O2 Acetic acid
OH Hydroxide C2H3O2 Acetate ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CCN Cyanide MnO4 - Permanganate Gas Laws
PO43 Phosphate Cr2O7 2 - Dichromate 1. Boyle’s Law (V&P)
• Volume is inversely proportional to pressure
HPO42 Hydrogen CrO4 2- Chromate
2. Charles Law (T&V) constant is pressure
Phosphate
• a constant pressure volume is directly proportional to the absolute
H2PO4 Dihydrogen O2 2- Peroxide
temperature.
phosphate
3. Gay-Lussac’s Law of Combining Volumes (P&T) constant volume &
C2O4 2- Oxalate
mass
S2O3 2- thiosulfate • the ratios of the volume of reacting gases are presented as a small
whole number
Binary Covalent Compounds (Type III) 4. Ideal Gas Law / general gas law equation
• are formed between two nonmetals. • Although these compounds do not 5. Combined Gas Law (Boyles & Charles law)
contain ions, they are named very similarly to binary ionic compounds. •the volume is inversely proportional to the pressure and it is directly
1. The first element in the formula is named first, using the full element name. proportional to the absolute temperature.
2. The second element is named as if it were an anion. 6. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
3. Prefixes are used to denote the numbers of atoms present. • the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gas is equal to the
4. The prefix mono- is never used for naming the first element. For example, pressure of all component gased
COis called carbon monoxide, not monocarbon monoxide. 7. Avogadro’s Law
• Some compounds are always referred to by their common names. Three • equal volumes of different gases at the same temperature and
examples are water, ammonia, and hydrogen peroxide. The systematic names pressure contain equal states of number of molecules
for H2O, NH3 , and H2O2 are never used. 8. Graham’s Law of Diffusion
• the ratio of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square
root of their molecular masses

Thermodynamics
•heat-definite amount of mechanical work
•heat work energy temperature
1. Law of Conservation of Energy
•energy can be transferred and converted, energy will remain
constant
•conserve energy
•energy can neither be created nor destroyed in any process
Acids 2. Law of Entropy / Law of disorderliness
• a molecule in which one or more H+ ions are attached to an anion. •randomess
• The rules for naming acids depend on whether the anion contains oxygen. • example: solid materials which particles don’t move, vs gas particles
• If the name of the anion ends in -ide, the acid is named with the prefix that randomly move
hydro- and the suffix -ic. •spontaneous natural processes, entropy increases but not decreases
• For example, when gaseous HCl is dissolved in water, it forms 3. Solid crystalline substance has zero entropy
hydrochloric acid. Similarly, HCN and H2S dissolved in water are called •the entropy of a pure crystalline substance in absolute zero is zero
hydrocyanic and hydro sulfuric acids, respectively. •temp 0 = all processes stops at zero
• When the anion contains oxygen, the acidic name is formed from the root 4. Zeroth Law
name of the anion with a suffix of -ic or -ous, depending on the name of the •if each 2 systems in equilibrium with the 3rd system therefore the first
anion. two systems are said to be in equilibrium with one o=another.
• If the anion name ends in -ate, the suffix -ic is added to the root name. •temp scale (thermometer)
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Organic Chemistry • states that electrons fill lower-energy atomic orbitals before filling higher-
- Branch of chemistry that deals with carbon-containing compounds energy ones
✔ except carbonates, bicarbonates, cyanides and oxides • PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
ORGANIC CMPDS INORGANIC CMPDS • maximum of 2 electrons can occupy the same orbital only if they have
• Flammable • Non-flammable opposite spins
• Low melting point • High melting point • HUND’S RULE
• Low boiling point • High boiling point • for degenerate orbitals, electrons fill the orbitals singly before they pair up
• HEISENBERG’S UNCCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
• Soluble in non-polar solvents • Insoluble in non-polar solvents
• No 2 electrons can have the same set of 4 quantum numbers
• Insoluble in water • Soluble in water
Quantum Numbers
• Covalent Bonding • Ionic Bonding
SYMBOL VALUES FUNCTION
• Many atoms • Few atoms
1. PRINCIPAL QN N 123 Determine the
size of the
Urea (CH₄N₂O) particle
• AKA Carbamide
2. AZIMUTHAL or L 0-(n-1) Subshell or
• “Wöhler synthesis” – heated inorganic
ANGULAR sublevel
compound ammonium cyanate produced
determines the
urea
0- s: Sharp shape
• Theory of Vitalism – organic molecules are not produced from inorganic
1- p: Principal
cmpds rather on living organism/ part of a living organism
2- d: Diffuse
• Urea is metabolized by CHON
3- f: Fundamental
• Ornithine - is metabolized to produce urea
3. MAGNETIC M or m1 -1 to +1 Orbitals,
History determines
• In 1828, Friedrich Wohler, a German chemist, disproved the “Vitalism” theory which orientation
states that all organic compounds come from living things. He was able to isolate urea 4. SPIN S or m2 -1/2 ro +1/2 Directions of
from an inorganic compound, ammonium cyanate. spin or
orientation
Uniqueness of Carbon Electron Configuration
• Carbon is able to form 4 covalent bonds (4 • symbolic notation of the manner in which the electrons of its atoms are distributed
valence electrons) with other carbon or other over different atomic orbitals • summary of where the electrons are around a nucleus.
elements. • RULES
• 1. Lowest-energy orbitals fill first: • 1s 🡪 2s 🡪 2p 🡪 3s 🡪 3p 🡪 4s 🡪 3d •
Carbon atoms have the ability to bond to each (Aufbau “build-up” principle) : regulates electron configuration
other to form long chains or rings. 2. Electrons act as if they were spinning around an axis. Electron spin can
Ability to Catenate have only two orientations, up ↑ and down ↓. Only two electrons can
• Carbon atoms link together to form chains of occupy an orbital, and they must be of opposite spin (Pauli exclusion
varying length, branched chains and rings of principle) to have unique wave equations.
different sizes 3. If two or more empty orbitals of equal energy are available, electrons
occupy each with spins parallel until all orbitals have one electron (Hund’s
Elements: rule)
- Fundamental building blocks of all
substances Chemical Bonding
• Atoms: Smallest particle of an element • joining of two atoms in a stable arrangement
• Neutron: Neutral subatomic particle • may occur between atoms of the same or different elements.
• Proton: Positively charged subatomic particle (+1 charge) • favorable process because it always leads to lowered energy and increased stability
• Electron: Negatively charged subatomic particle (-1 charge) • Atoms form bonds because the resulting compound is more stable than the separate
• Nucleus: Center of an atom; contains protons and neutrons atoms
• Ionic bonds in salts form by electron transfers
An atom consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons that are equal in number to the • Organic compounds have covalent bonds from sharing electrons
protons of the nucleus − • Octet rule – atoms react in a way that achieve valence shell of eight
valence electrons. (stable)
• The atomic number (Z) DUET RULE: H He → only need to satisfy 2 electrons to become stable
-number of protons in nucleus
• The mass number (A) • IONIC BOND
-number of protons plus neutrons • bond between anion and cation
• atom may lose or gain enough electrons to acquire a completely filled
Isotopes valence shell
• atoms of the same element with different − Anions (-) bearing a negative charge, gain electrons;
numbers of neutrons and thus different mass number (A). − Cations (+) bearing a positive charge, lose electrons
a. CALCIUM
- P; 20 N; 20 E; 20 FORMATION OF IONS
b. IRON • Octet Rule – The tendency among atoms of group 1A(alkali-metals)-
- P;26 N; 28 E; 26 7A(halogen) elements to react in ways that achieve an outer shell of eight
c. BARIUM valence electrons.
- P;56 N; • Anion – an atom or group of atoms bearing a negative charge.
• Cation – an atom or group of atoms bearing a positive charge.
• 8A (Noble Gases): ____ (achieved the already needed electron to be
stable); do not share or transfer since they’re complete/stable
Atomic Structure Orbitals
• ORBITALS or WAVE FUNCTION or Covalent Bonding
ELECTRON CLOUD • Lone-pair electrons or non-bonding electrons
• region of space where there is a certain • Pair of valence electrons that are not used for bonding
probability of finding an electron
• Can hold 2 electrons LEWIS STRUCTURE
• Also known as WAVE FUNCTION • Electron dot structure
• Energy levels also called as e- shells • Valence shell electrons of an atom are represented as dot
are in fixed distances _ _ _ _ a nucleus KEKULE STRUCTURE
of an atom, electrons may be found in • Line bond structure
each orbitals 2e- (fixed) • Each shared electron is represented by line between the atom symbols
• For different kinds of orbitals, electrons are based on those ________ H+
atom LEWIS STRUCTURE
• s: spherical • H has one bond
• p: dumbell shaped • C has four bonds
• d: elongated dumbbell w/ donut (hollow) or 4-leaf clover • N has three bonds and one unshared pair of electrons
• f: complex (no definite shape) • O has two bonds and two unshared pair of electrons
•F, Cl, Br, and I have one bond and three unshared pairs of electrons.
Distribution of Orbitals within Shells
• Each shell contains subshells known as atomic orbitals. Multiple Bond
• Electrons are said to occupy orbitals in an atom. • When 2 atoms share more than 1 pair of electron
SUBSHELL # OF ORBITALS OF MAX # OF e- • DOUBLE BOND
=ENERGY • TRIPLE BOND
S 1 2 *C2H4
*C2H2
P 3 2 (s + 6 (p) = 8
D 5 18
Identifying Formal Charges Formal Charge
F 7 32 • Associated with any atom that does not exhibit the appropriate number of valence
Distribution of Orbitals within Shells electrons.
SHELL ORBITALS MAXIMUM RELATIVE • 1 st: Determine the number of valence electrons
CONTAINED IN NUMBER OF ENERGIES OF • 2 nd: Determine whether the atom exhibits appropriate number of electrons
EACH SHELL ELECTRONS ELECTRONS IN • FC = [# valence e-] – [non-bonded e- + number of bonds]
SHELL CAN EACH SHELL
HOLD Electronegativity and Bond Polarity
4 One 4s three 4p 2+6+10+14=32 • ELECTRONEGATIVITY • Measure of the ability of an atom to attract electrons
five 4d seven 4f •Increase from left to right
3 One 3s three 3p 2+6+10=18
five 3d orbitals
2 One 2s three 2p 2+6=8
orbitals
1 One 1s 2

Electron Principles
• AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
 2

•Decreases from top to bottom MOLECULE RELATIVE BOILING POINT

Based on the relative positions MOLECULAR (•C)
in the periodic table, which MASS
element in each pair has the MOLECULES W/ CH3CH2CH2OH 60 97.2
larger electronegativity? NON POLAR
a. Lithium or Carbon GRPS
b. Carbon or Oxygen CH3CH2CH2NH2 59 48.6
c. Nitrogen or Oxygen CH3CH2CL 64.5 12.5
CH2CH2COOH 60 141
Induction and Polar Covalent MOLECULES CH3CH2CH2CH3 58 -0.5
Bonds W/O NON-
• Difference in electronegativity < POLAR FUNCT.
0.5 GRPS
• Non-polar covalent bond
CH3CH2CH=CH2 56 -6.2
• Equally shared electrons between the
CH3CH2C≡CH 54 8.1
2 atoms.
SOLVENT POLARITY CHART
• Difference in electronegativity 0.5-
1.7 RELATIVE CMPD GROUP REPRESENTATIVE
• polar covalent bond POLARITY FORMULA SOLVENT CMPDS
• not equally shared electrons between R-H Al kanes Petrolem ethers, ligroin
atoms and hexanes
• INDUCTION Ar-H Aromatics Toluene, benzene
• withdrawal of electrons towards a R-O-R Ethers Diethyl ether
highly electronegative atom which R-X Alkyl Halides Tetrachloromethane
causes the formation of partial charges chloroform
• van der waals interaction R-COOR Esters Ethyl acetate
dipole dipole interaction by virtue of induction R-CO-R Aldehydes Acetones, methyl ethyl
• Difference in electronegativity >1.7 ketone
• ionic bond • electrons are not shared • NaOH R-NH2 Amines Pyridine, triethylamine
DRAWING CHEMICAL STRUCTURES R-OH Alcohols Methanol, ethanol,
• Shorthand ways of writing structures siopropanol, butanol
Condensed structures: C-H and C-C and single bonds arent shon but understood R-COHN Amides Diethylformamide
-if C has 3H bonded to it, write CH3 R-COOH Carboxylic Ethanoic acid
-if C has 2H bonded to it, write CH2; and so on. Sometimes bonds between carbons acids
arent shown in condensed structure-here the CH3, CH2 and CH units are simply POLAR H-OH Water Water
drawn next to one another but some bonds are added for clarity. The compounds Length of Carbon Chains
called 2-methylbutane, for example is written as follows: • Molecules with higher molecular masses have higher m.p., b.p. and density
• Higher molecular masses
•Large molecular sizes
• Stronger London dispersion forces among molecules
• Molecules with branched chains
• b.p. and density lower than its straight-chain isomer
• Straight-chain isomers have greater surface area in contact with each other
• Greater attractive force among the
molecules
• As a rule, larger molecules have
higher boiling (and melting) points.

Solubility
• If the solvent is polar, like water, then a smaller hydrocarbon component and/or more
charged, hydrogen bonding, and other polar groups will tend to increase the solubility.
Physical Property • The number of Carbons. More carbons means more of a non-polar/hydrophobic
• A property that does not affect the chemical identity of a compound character, and thus lower solubility in water.
• Can be observed and measured without changing a compound’s composition of • Anything with a charged group (eg. ammonium, carboxylate, phosphate) is almost
matter certainly water soluble, unless it has large nonpolar group, in which case it will most
• Any substance that has mass and can occupy space likely be soluble in the form of micelles, like a soap or detergent.
• Any functional group that can donate a hydrogen bond to water (eg. alcohols,
Intermolecular Forces amines) will significantly contribute to water solubility.
• The physical properties of molecules are in part dependent on the type's of • Any functional group that can only accept a hydrogen bond from water (eg. ketones,
intermolecular forces (IMF) present. aldehydes, ethers) will have a somewhat smaller but still significant effect on water
• Boiling points (BP) are also dependent on the mass of the molecule. solubility.
• Solubility, the ability to dissolve into a solvent is dependent on IMFs. • Other groups that contribute to polarity (eg. alkyl halides, thiols sulfides) will make a
• The strength of the interaction between molecules is also dependent on the overall small contribution to water solubility.
shape of the molecule.
There are 3 types of IMFs, by decreasing strength they are: Boiling Point and Melting Point
1) Hydrogen bonding • Melting and boiling are processes in which noncovalent interactions between
2) Dipole-dipole identical molecules in a pure sample are disrupted. The stronger the noncovalent
3) Van der Waals or London Dispersion interactions, the more energy that is required, in the form of heat, to break them apart.

Hydrogen Bonding Chemical Properties

• is a complex interaction that includes • A chemical reaction occurs when one substance is converted into another
dipole-dipole, as well as orbital interactions substance(s).
and the transfer of electron density • A chemical reaction is accompanied by breaking of some bonds and by making of
between molecules. some others.
• These are the strongest of the IMFs and
range from 5 – 25 kJ/mol Reaction Mechanism
• Occur primarily between OH, NH and FH. • Define as the detailed knowledge of the steps involved in a process in which the
The more EN the atom the stronger the interaction. (The atom H is attached to usually reactant molecules change into products.
has a lone pair of e- ) • Chemical reactions involve breaking of one or more of the existing chemical bonds in
reactant molecule(s) and formation of new bonds leading to products.
Dipole-Dipole • The breaking of a covalent bond is known as bond fission.
• Forces arise from the • During bond breaking or bond fission, the two shared electrons can be distributed
attraction of oppositely equally or unequally between the two bonded atoms.
charged atoms (other than H)
in molecules. These molecules Homolytic Fission
may have a permanent dipole • The fission of a covalent bond with equal
moment. Generally in organic sharing of bonding electrons.
molecules they results from • Free radicals are neutral but reactive
the presence of C-X bonds species having an unpaired electron and
where X is more these can also initiate a chemical reaction.
electronegative that C.
• These are generally weaker Heterolytic Fission
than H-bonding, ranging from about 5-10 kJ/mol. • The fission of a covalent bond involving unequal sharing of bonding electrons.
• This type of bond fission results in the formation of ions. The ion which has a positive
Van der Waals charge on the carbon atom, is
• Van der Waals or (London) dispersion forces arise from the movement of electrons known as the carbonium ion
within a molecule. This natural motion can produce an uneven distribution of the or a carbocation. On the other
electrons (polarization of the distribution) resulting in a temporary dipole moment in the hand, an ion with a negative
molecule. This will induce the movement of electrons in adjacent molecules producing charge on the carbon atom is
a dipole moment in them. known as the carbanion.
• These “induced” dipole moments are very brief as they disappear when the electrons • The charged species
move to new locations within the molecule, so they forces are very brief and weak, obtained by the heterolytic
only 2-5 kJ/mol. fission initiate chemical
reactions and they are
Structural Effects on IMFs classified as electrophiles and nucleophiles.
• The strength of the IMFs depend on the amount of contact between the molecules,
especially for dispersion forces. Hence the shape of the molecule can affect the • Electrophiles: An electrophile is an electron deficient species and it may be
surface area of contact, long thin molecules have more surface in contact than positively charged or neutral.
spherical molecules. • Examples are H+ , AlCl3 , Br2 , Cl2 , Ag+ , CH3 +, BF3 etc.
• Nucleophiles : A nucleophile is negatively charged or electron rich neutral species.
Factors Affecting the Physical Properties of Organic Compounds • Examples of nucleophiles are OH– , –NO2+ , H2O, :NH3 etc.
• Structure of Functional Group
• Molecules having a polar functional group have a higher b.p. than others with a non-
polar functional group of similar molecular masses.
 3

Types of Reactions in Organic Compounds Racemic Mixture: mixture with equal amounts or dextro & levo isomers, optically
1.Substitution inactive= cannot rotate plane polarized light
• A substitution reaction involves the • Diastereomers are not mirror images of each other and non-superimposable.
displacement of one atom or group
in a molecule by another atom or Epimers
group. Aliphatic compounds • Isomers differing as a result
undergo nucleophilic substitution of variations in configuration
reactions. of the —OH and —H on
• For example, a haloalkane can be carbon atoms 2, 3, and 4 of
converted to a wide variety of glucose are known as epimers
compounds by replacing halogen − only differ at one
atom (X) with different nucleophiles − example of diastereomers
as shown below. − Mannose is the C2 epimers of
• Another type of substitution glucose
reaction which takes place in an − Galactose is the C4 epimers of
aromatic hydrocarbons. In this case, an glucose
electrophilic reagent attacks the aromatic Geometric Isomers
ring because the latter is electron rich. The • Commonly exhibited by alkenes, the presence of two different substituents on both
leaving group, in this case, is always one of carbon atoms at either end of the double bond
the hydrogen atom of the ring. • Two different nonsuperimposable isomers due to the restricted
2.Elimination rotation of the bond.
• An elimination reaction is characterized by • Must have a double bond; carbon bonded to another carbon
the removal of a small molecule from should be attached to two different ____
adjacent carbon atoms and the formation of • Cis (latin) / Zusammen (german): [Z] same side or location
a double bond. • Trans (latin) / Entgegen (german): [E] opposite
3.Addition
• Unsaturated hydrocarbons such as alkenes and alkynes are extremely reactive
towards a wide variety of reagents. The carbon-carbon double bond (–C=C–) of an Optical Isomers
alkene contains two types of bonds. In alkynes, three carbon-carbon bonds. • Differ by the placement of different
4.Molecular Rearrangements substituents around one or more atoms in a molecule.
• proceeds with a fundamental change in the hydrocarbon skeleton of the molecule. • Different arrangements of these substituents can be
During this reaction, an atom or group migrates from one position to another. impossible to superimpose.
ISOMERS
Isomers
• These are compounds with the same molecular
formula and same molecular weight but different
structural formula, this differ in physical and S-Ibuprofen: COX Inhibitor
chemical properties S-Thalidomide: Teratogenic
R-Thalidomide: Sedative effects & for
STRUCTURAL DEFINITION EXAMPLE morning sickness
ISOMER ***Current use of Thalidomide:
Chain Isomers • Same molecular formula, but treatment of Leprosy
/skeletal different arrangements of the
carbon ‘skeleton’. Bioisosteres
• The positions of the carbon • groups that are spatially and electronically equivalent and, thus, interchangeable
atoms can be rearranged to give without significantly altering the molecules’ physicochemical properties.
‘branched’ carbon chains coming − there is swapping of groups with same charges and hydrogen bonding
off the main chain. therefore cannot alter a molecule
• The name of the molecule PURPOSE EXAMPLES
changes to reflect this, but the ✔Enhance desired biological or ✔Fluorine vs Hydrogen
molecular formula is still the physical properties
same. ✔Increased potency ✔Hydroxyl vs Amino Acids
Positional • Same molecule formula; same ✔Decreased side-effects ✔Hydroxyl vs Thiol Groups
Isomers functional group, but its position
✔Increase duration of action ✔Methyl, Methoxyl, Hydroxyl, Amino
in the molecule changes.
• Specifically for the double groups vs Hydrogen
bonds ✔Fluoro, Chloro, & Bromo, thiol, vs
• The name of the molecule Methyl & other small alkyl groups
changes to reflect the new Hydrocarbons
position of the functional group • Chemical compounds composed only of
hydrogen and carbon atom.
Functional • Same molecular formula but the •Alcohol→Ether
Isomers atoms are rearranged to give a •Carboxylic Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
different functional group. Acid → Esters • hydrocarbon compounds joined together in
• The name of the molecule Ketones → straight chains, branched chains or non-aromatic
changes to reflect the new Aldehydes rings
functional group. ALKANES ALKENES ALKYNES CYCLIC
paraffins sp3 olefins sp2 acetylenes sp prefix – cyclo
Constitutional •Same atoms but linked together hybrid suffix – hybrid suffix – hybrid suffix –
isomers differently ane ene yne

Stereoisomerism
Positioning the different functional groups in their sites of action
− Same chemical formula but different orientation of atoms that belongs to a
molecule in a 3 dimensional
− POLARIMETER:
Three main groups:
1. Optical Isomer Aromatic Hydrocarbons
• ENANTIOMER – D and L forms • carbocylic compounds containing conjugated double bonds
• DIASTEREOMER ex. Epimers Benzene – simplest aromatic hydrocarbon
2. Geometric Isomers August Kekule (1865) • Benzene ring Kathleen Lonsdale (1929) • Used X-ray
• Cis and Trans as a flat molecule, having alternating crystallography to show carbon-carbon
3. Conformational Isomers – common to sugars single and double bonds between bonds in a benzene ring are the same
• Boat and Chair carbon atoms length
•Optical isomers
• contain at least one asymmetric, or chiral,
carbon atom
− exhibit similar bonds but different
spatial arrangement
Benzene Derivatives
• Chiral - carbons that have four non- • Replacing one of the
identical substituents around it (chiral center hydrogens with a
or stereogenic center) different functional
•Each asymmetric carbon atom can exist in group
one of two non-superimposable isomeric
forms. Hydrocarbon
***if there is a double bond present = Derivatives
not chiral • One or more
***any chiral carbon can exhibit hydrogen atoms in the
isomerism molecules is replaced
by certain group of
Stereoisomers: Enantiomers and atoms
Diastereomers
• Enantiomers are mirror images of
each other and nonsumperimposable,
Hydroxy Derivatives alcohols, phenols
› S, R – Absolute Config
R (Rectus): Clockwise Ethers
S (Sinister): Anti/Counterclockwise Carbonyl Compounds aldehydes, ketones
› D, L – Optical Activity: there is a rotation of the plane polarized light Carboxylic Acids monocarboxylic acids, dicarboxylic
Dextrorotatory (right) [t]: compounds that rotate the PL to re right acids
Levorotatory (left): compounds that rotate the PL to left Amides
 4

Esters Methyl methanoate Formate

Nitrogen Containing Compounds – amines, nitriles/cyanides
Alkyl Halides
Alcohols Methyl ethanoate Acetate
• With hydroxyl (-OH) functional group
• R-OH
• Prefix – hydroxy Ethyl methanoate Ethyl
• Suffix – ol Formate
According to number According to the
of alkyl groups number of hydroxyl Amines
attached to the groups • Organic compound derived from ammonia
hydroxyl-bearing • RNH2
carbon • Prefix – amino
Primary R-CH2OH Monohydric CH3OH • Suffix – amine
Secondary R Dihydric CH2OH Classification Structures
I I Primary Amine
R-CHOH CH2OH Methylamine
Tertiary R Trihydric CH2OH (CH3NH2)
I I Aniline (C5H5NH2)
R-C-OH CH2OH
I I Secondary Amine
R CH2OH Dimethylamine
(ch3)2NH
EXAMPLES OTHER NAME STRUCTURES Diphenylamine
(c6h5)2NH
METHANOL WOOD ALCOHOL
Tertiary Amine

ETHANOL GRAIN ALCOHOL

Nitriles
• Organic compound derived from ammonia
PHENOL CARBOLIC ACID • Cyanides, RCN
• Prefix – cyano
• Suffix – nitrile
Phenols Examples Structures
• With hydroxyl (-OH) functional group attached to Ethanenitrile/
a carbon atom that is a part of an aromatic ring, Acetonitrile
Ar-OH
Propanenitrile
Ethers
• Alkoxy-substituted alkanes • R-O-R • Formed by
the bimolecular dehydration of alcohols with
sulfuric acid. Alkyl Halides
• Derivatives of alkanes in which one hydrogen in an alkane is replaced by a halogen
• RX, X = Cl, Br, I, F
Classification Structures
Primary

Secondary
Aldehydes
• Contains at least 1 hydrogen atom attached to the carbonyl carbon
• RC=OH Tertiary
• Formed by oxidation of primary alcohols
• Prefix – oxo
• Suffix – al
Examples Other name Structures
Methanal Formaldehyde

Ethanal Acetaldehyde
Propanal Propionaldehyde
Ketones
• Contains two carbon groups bonded to the carbonyl carbon
• RC=OR
• Formed by oxidation of secondary alcohols
• Prefix – oxo • Suffix – one
Examples Other name Structures

Propanone Acetone

2-butanone Ethyl methyl ketone

3-propanone diethylketone

Carboxylic Acids
• Produced by oxidation of aldehydes
• Contains the carboxyl functional group
• RC=OOH
• Suffix – oic acid
FORMULA COMMON NAME IUPAC NAME
HCOOH Formic acid Methanoic acid
CH3COOH Acetic acid Ethanoic acid
CH3CH2COOH Propionic acid Propanoic acid
CH3(CH2)2COOH Butyric acid Butanoic acid
CH3(CH2)3COOH Valeric acid Pentanoic acid
CH3(CH2)4COOH Caproic acid hexanoic acid
CH3(CH2)5COOH Enanthic acid Heptanoic acid
CH3(CH2)6COOH Caprylic acid Octanoic acid
CH3(CH2)7COOH Pelargonic acid Nonanoic acid
CH3(CH2)8COOH Capric acid Decanoic acid
HOOC-COOH Oxalic acid Ethanedioic acid
HOOC-CH2-COOH Malonic acid Propanedioic acid
HOOC-(CH2)2-COOH Succinic acid Butanedioic acid
HOOC-(CH2)3-COOH Glutaric acid Pentanedioic acid
HOOC-(CH2)4-COOH Adipic acid Hexanedioic acid
HOOC-(CH2)5-COOH Pimelic acid Heptanedioic acid
Amides
• Formed by the reactions of organic acids
with ammonia or with amides
• RC=ONH2
• Suffix – amide

Esters
• Formed by the reactions of acids and
alcohols with acid catalysts
• Alkyl alkanoate, RC=OOR
•Suffix – oate
Examples Other Structures
Name
 1

HISTORY OF THE PERIODIC TABLE – Antacid – decreases acidity of urine helping in relief of boiling urine feeling
• Antoine Lavoisier – published 33 chemical elements (gas, minerals), father of called CYSTITS (inflammation of the bladder)
modern chemistry, named oxygen as oxygen. – Alkalinizing agent in Benedict’s solution (reducing sugars which detects the
• Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner – law of triads where he observed there are group of amount of aldehydes RCHO and alpha-OH ketones)
3 elements where they share physical and chemical properties. He also satated that – ACETATADO DE SOSA
the arithmetic mean of the masses of the 1st and 3rd element is equal to the atomic ▪ SODIUM BICARBONATE (NaHCO3) “Baking Soda” SAL DE VICHY, SODA
mass of the second element, They are already grouped into similar properties SALAERATUS
• Leopold Gmelin – 1843 identified 10 triads, 3 groups by 4 and one group by 5 – Uses: Systemic/absorbable antacid, Carbonating agent (due to
• Jean-Baptiste Dumas - described the relationship of various metals effervescence which means to release carbon dioxide)
• August Kekule- German chemist that observed in 1858 that carbon has a tendency – Adverse effect: Rebound hyperacidity, Systemic alkalosis, Edema formation
to bond with other elements in a ratio of 1:4 ▪ SODIUM DIHYDROGEN PHOSPHATE (NaH2PO4) “Fleet Enema”
• John Newlands – the law of octaves, states that every 8th element will elicit the same – Rectal administration
properties to the first elements established 56 elements based on similar physical – Uses: Cathartic/laxative, treatment of cystitis (Zea mays), urinary acidifier
properties – Used as an aide in absorbing methenamine
• Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev & Julius Lothar Meyer- periodic table or periodic law, ▪ METHENAMINE
classified according to increasing atomic weight, followed also the previous grouping – Prodrug
contributed by other chemists. – Used as a antiseptic
• Henry Mosely – who made the modern periodic tble arranged according to atomic – MANDELIC SALT FORM
number. – Active in vivo
•groups also called as family- most important method in classifying the elements – Acidify by NaH2PO4 sodium dihydrogen phosphate
•same groups possesses the same number of valence or electrons – Release HCHO formaldehyde
•horizontal rows or period ▪ SODIUM BISULFITE (NaHSO3)
•1a and 2a are the s block this elememts occupy the s orbitals, 3a to 8a p block – Antioxidant (Reducing agent)
•s block and pblock is you family A or your representative elements – Strongest antioxidant
•d block and f block aka family B aka transitional elements – Also referred as leucogen
Group Number Group Name ▪ SODIUM CARBONATE (Na2CO3) Anhydrous “Soda Ash” SODA/ CALCINATED
I-A Alkali metals SODA
I-B Coinage metals – Na2CO3 * H2O
II-A Alkalaine earth metals – Na2CO3 * 2H2O : Trona
II-B Volatile metals/ zinc family – Na2CO3 * 7H2O
III-A Boron family – Na2CO3 * 10H2O: Soda Crystals, Washing Soda, Sal Soda
III-B Scandium family – Also used in the form of clothe washing, removes metal cations,
IV-A Carbon family manufacturing of papers and glass
IV-B Titanium subgroup – Used in Acid based titrations
V-A Nirogen family – SOLVAY PROCESS process of making
V-B Vanadium family ▪ SODIUM CHLORIDE (NaCl) “Table Salt” “Solar Salt” “Rock Salt”
VI-A Oxygen family/chalcogens – Electrolyte replenisher (NSS, Ringer’s) O.9% concentration
VI-B Chromium subgroup – Adjust tonicity
VII-A Halogens/salt formers – Preservative, condiment
VII-B Manganese sybgroup – Antidote for silver poisoning, bcs it will form precipitation thus excreting it
VIII-A Inert gases/noble gases easily from the body
VIII Iron triad (Fe,Co, Ni) ▪ SODIUM CITRATE (Na3C6H5O3)
Palladium family/ light platinum metals (Ru, Rh, Pd) – Alkalinizer, buffer
Periodic Table Properties – Diuretic
1. Ionization Potential -energy that element possess to give off electrectron to – Expectorant
remain positive – Shortens coagulation of blood
•moving from left to right increases SAME WITH ELECTRON AFFINITY AND – Component of benedicts reagent as sequestering agent
NEGATIVITY – Denige’s test: specific test for citrate
•top to bottom decreases SAME WITH ELECTRON AFFINITY AND o Pyridine and acetic anhydride positive test is carmine red but
NEGATIVITY if tartrate it is emerald green
2. Electron Affinity ▪ SODIUM FLUORIDE (NaF)
3. Electronegativity ability of an atom to attract electron to itself – Anti-cariogenic
4. Atomic Radius half the distance between two nucleus or atom, decreases from – 2% (4 application)
left ro right decreases from top to bottom – May fluorine yung water nila condition called FLUOROSIS which means
THE GROUP I-A: THE ALKALI METALS mottled enamel
– react with water to form metal hydroxides ▪ SODIUM HYDROXIDE (NaOH) “Caustic Soda” “Sosa” “Lye”
– alkali metals react with oxygen to form metal oxides – Saponifying agent (hard soap)
– react with halogens to form salts ▪ SODIUM HYPOPHOSPHITE
– the reactivity of the group 1 metals increases down the group as the outer – Reducing agent
electron gets further from the nucleus and becomes easier to remove ▪ SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE (NaOCl) “Dakin’s Solution”
– Valence [+1] – Bleaching agent
– Most reactive element; do not occur free in nature – Disinfectant
– Salts are soluble – Oxidizing agent
– Shiny soft and highly reactive metals – 4.5-5% household bleach
– Hypothetical alkali metals hydrogen and ammonium – Dil Dakin’s solution (2.5%) called as Labaraques solution
❑ HYDROGEN aka INFLAMMABLE AIR ▪ DILUTED SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE (NaOCl) “Modified Dakin’s Solution”
– Element with no therapeutic use – Antiseptic
– Lightest element – Irrigation solution
– Essential constituent of all acids – Used in 0.5% concentration
– Powerful reducing agent – S/E : dissolves clots and sutures
– 10th most abundant element in the earth’s crust, and is the most abundant ▪ SODIUM IODIDE (NaI)
element in the universe made of 88% of atoms
– Expectorant
– Discovered by Henry cavendish and is produced via
– Solubilizer of iodine
– MESSERSCHMIDT PROCESS- produces hydrogen with 99% of purity
based on the decomposition of iron metals and subsequent reaction od iron
▪ SODIUM LACTATE
oxides wich wil form carbon monoxide in hydrogen mixture referred to as – Converted to HCO3
blue water gas. – Antacid
– HABER PROCESS- production of ammonia comb of hydrogen and nitrogen – Alkalinizer – such as acetate, bicarbonate, citrate and lactate
– ISOTOPES – Antidote in arrythmias caused by class 1 anti-arrhythmic agents
• Protium: most abundant ▪ SODIUM NITRITE (NaNO2)
Neutron moderator: coolant – Antidote for CN- poisoning
• Deuterium: heavy water as coolant for nuclear reactors, manufacture – Vasodilator
batteries, VERY MINUTE amounts, 0.15% of the universe – CN-: acts on cytochrome oxidase with high affinity to methemoglobin
One proton+one neutron= 2 – Na2S2O3: converts CN- methemoglobin to SCN-
• Tritium: radioactive isotope, by product of cosmic rays or nuclear – AKA SAlitre -common used preservative on frozen goods
explosions, has a half life of 12.3 years does not accumulate in the – Toxicity: inhibition of cytochrome oxidase therefore decreasing the level of
atmosphere oxygen in the body
One proton+two neutrons = 3 – It is also a reagent used as a precursor for many dyes
H+: monovalent cation, hydronium ion production of – Has been made obsolete due to brain tumor causing effect and is forming
H-: hydrides anion NITROSAMINE
Uses: production of margarine, balloon – It is now replaced by HYDROXO COBALAMINE AS cyanide poisoning
❑ LITHIUM “Earth Stone” antidote
– Flame test: Carmine Red ▪ SODIUM NITRATE (NaNO3) “Chile Salt Peter”/peru salt pepper
– Lightest metal – Preservative
– Uses: Heat exchanger in air condition, Antidepressant, Diuretic – Made via guggenheim process and is extracted in minerals/ores
– LiBr: Antidepressant – LUNGE TEST detects nitrates uses the agent diphenylamine + H2SO4
– Li2CO3: DOC for Bipolar Disorder (Lithase) (positive test : blue color)
– From the Greek word LITHOS which means earth stone ▪ SODIUM SULFATE (NaSO4) “Glauber’s Salt” / SAL MILABIRIS
– Only alkali metal that melts above water – Cathartic
– Concentration of 20 parts per million ▪ SODIUM TARTRATE (Na2C4H4O6)
– 31st most abundant element – 1 standard of Karl Fischer Titration
– Found in ORS – Uses iodine, sulur dioxide and alcohols as solvents
❑ SODIUM “From Natural” ▪ SODIUM THIOCYANATE (NaSCN)
– Flame test: Golden Yellow
– Hypotensive agent
– Predominant cation in extracellular fluid
– Produce osmotic effect in the body ▪ SODIUM THIOSULFATE (Na2S2O3) “Photographer’s Hypo”/ photographer fixer
– Pharmacology: Fluid retention, respiratory edema formation – Antidote for CN- poisoning
– NATRIUM which means nature – Discovered by Sir John Herschel
– 6th most abundant element in the earths crust – Standard volumetric solution for iodometry
– PISO potassium in sodium out, potassium most abundant intracellular ❑ KALIUM/ K+/ POTASSIUM
element while sodium is the most abundant extracellular element – Flame Test: violet
▪ SODIUM ACETATE (NaCH3COO) – 7th most abundant element in the earths crust
– Uses: Diuretic – Should be storeed in paraffin because it is reactive just like sodium
– Urinary and systemic alkalinizer, – most predominant intracellullar cation
 2

– Pharmacology: d- penicillamine is the antidote and the L-penicillamine is toxic

• Diuretic penicillamine is actually a derivative of penicillin which has no antibiotic effects
• muscle contraction ▪ COPPER SULFATE (cuSO4) “blue stone”, “blue vitriol”
– Hypokalemia – use in preparation of Benedict’s, Fehling’s, Barfoed’s (for reducing sugar)
• can cause muscular paralysis lead to death all possess the postie result of brick red precipitate
▪ POTASSIUM ACETATE KCH3COO¯ – fehlings test is used to differentiate water soluble carbohydrates and
▪ POTASSIUM BROMIDE KBr ketones functional groups among carbohydrates to detect monosaccharides
– antidepressant – fehlings A- is specific type of fehlings solution which primarily contains
▪ POTASSIUM CARBONATE K2CO3 cupric sulfate
it is also known as potash salt of tartar salt of Wormwood and pearl ash – fehlings b-contains rochelle salts and sodium hydroxide
▪ – baroeds test is a test to identify monosaccharides reduction of cupric
POTASSIUM BITARTRATE (KHc4H4O6) acetate to cuprous oxide, contains around 0.33% molar solution of neutral
– “cream of tartar”, “creamor” Use: laxative copper acetate dissolved in 1% sodium acetate solution
– it this a by product of wine making – Cu +2− Cu2O (+) brick red precipitate
▪ POTASSIUM CHLORATE (KclO3) – local emetic combine with iron for hematinic property
– component of toothpaste, gargles mouth washes due to its oxidizing – Antidote for phosphorus poisoning
cleaning, deodorant action. – algicide and fungicide in swimming pool
– Very powerful oxidizer used in fire works Phosphorus Poisoning
▪ POTASSIUM CHLORIDE (Kcl) -luminous vomiting
– Hyperkalemia garlic odor, red phosphorous is non toxic while yellow or white phosphorous is toxic
– When injected high doses can cause cardiac arrest and rapid death ▪ Cuso4 + Ca(oH)2
– It is also used as a replacement for sodium chloride and it is also used as a – “Bordeaux Mixture”
fertilizer. ▪ COPPER ACETO ARSENATE
– Potassium chloride is also available in electrolyte replenisher’s but can never – “paris green” D insecticide
be given via intramuscular push.
▪ CUPROUS CITRATE
▪ POTASSIUM CITRATE – Astringent
– Expectorant ❑ SILVER
– Diaphoretic – “Argentum” Ag
▪ POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE (KOh) – “shining” or “bright”
– “caustic potash”, “lye potash” – only metal with oligodynamic action
– Saponifying agent – protein precipitant
▪ POTASSIUM IODIDE – 2nd most malleable metal
– Expectorant – 2nd best conductor of electricity
– Solubilizer in Iodine solution Toxicity: Argyria− darkening of skin
▪ POTASSIUM NITRATE (KNO3) Antidote: Nacl Ag + Nacl → Agcl
– “salitre”, “salt peter” ▪ SILVER NITRATE (AgNO3) D
– salt prunelle; preservative – “Lapiz Infernularis”
– it is also a powerful oxidizer that is used in gun powder – “Lunar Caustic”
▪ POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE (KMnO4) – “Indelible Ink”
– “mineral chameleon” – “Caustic pencil”
– Oxidizing agent – Pharmacology:
– volumetric solution in permanganometry o treatment of warts
– potassium permanganate color is pink when diluted in water o antiseptic for eye of baby with gonorrheal mother
– it is also used as wet dressing in eczema, athletes foot o usually administered in 1% concentration for the management of
▪ POTASSIUM SODIUM TARTATE (KNaC4H4O6) opthalmia neonatorum it is also incorporated in 0.5% concentration as
– “rochelle’s salt”, “siegnette salt” wet dressing in wounds
– sequestring agent, cathartic ▪ AMMONICAL SILVER NITRATE
– it is also a component of FEHLING chena reagent – “HOwe’s Solution”
– it is also used in silver mirror – Dental protective and desensitizing agent
▪ POTASSIUM THIOCYANATE (KSCN) – Tollen’s Reagent (+) silver mirror use to identify a carbohydrate if it is a
– hypotensive agent ketone or aldehyde if it is an aldehyde containing compound it will produce the
silver mirror appearance
▪ SULFURATED POTASH “LIVER OF SULFUR”
– mixture of K polysulfides and K2S2O3 ▪ SILVER IODIDE
– use in preparation of white lotion – Germicide
– Silver Proteinates
– treatment of parasitic infection o Mild Ag Protein − “Argyrol” − 19−25% antiseptic
– Treatment of acne & psoriasis o Strong Ag protein − “Protargol” − 7.5−8.5% germicide for ears & throat
▪ WHITE LOTION o Colloidal Ag protein − “Collargol” −18−22% general germicide
– with ZnSO4 and ZnS ❑ GOLD
❑ AMMONIUM – “Shining dawn”
– hypothetical alkali metal – King of all metals
– Pharmacology: – Most malleable & ductile
• Diuretics
– Best conductor of electricity
• Buffer – Gold Preparations used in treatment of arthritis: the theraphy is called
• Expectorant aurotheraphy or chrysotheraphy
• Anti−cariogenic o Aurothioglucose solganal, administered via IV
– Haber’s Process− method of preparation o Gold Sodium Thiomaleate brand names MYOCRISIN, admin via IV
o AuranOfin Ridaura, admin orally
– Household NH3, NH3 H2O, dil. NH3 sol’n (10%) Acetic acid− 6%
▪ ▪ AQuA rEGIA
AMMONIUM CARBONATE (NH4)2CO3 “Sal volatile”/ “Salt of Hartshorn”
– Preparation of aromatic NH3 spirit – Composed of 3 HCl : 1 HNO3
– Respiratory stimulant – dissolves gold, another example THAT CAN MELT GOLD is selenic acid
– Baker’s ammonia (HO)2 Se O2
Aromatic NH3- “Spirit of Hartshorn THE GROUP II-B: ALKALINE EARTH METALS
▪ AMMONIUM CHLORIDE (NH4Cl) “Muriate of Hartshorn” – React with water to form metal hydroxides except for Be
– urinary acidifier – React with oxygen to form metal hydroxides
▪ AMMONIATED MERCURY – Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra
– “White Precipitate” ❑ BERYLLIUM
– Topical anti−infective – Extremely toxic metal
▪ – Use in fluorescent lighting industry
AMMONIUM IODIDE (NH4I)
– Can cause lung carcinoma, chronic granuloma
▪ AMMONIUM ACETATE (NH4CH3COO) – LEAST METALLIC
– Spirit of Mindererus ❑ MAGNESIUM
❑ CESIUM – Lightest of all structurally important metals
– Catalyst in polymerization of resin forming materials – Has the ability to ADSORB dyes such as
❑ RUBIDIUM o Titanium yellow- red lake
– used in the manufacture of vacuum tubes and cathode ray tubes (cRTs), and is o P-nitrobenzene azo
used in some atomic clocks. o Resorcinol-blue lake
❑ FRANCIUM o Diphenylcarbazide reagent – violet red color
– Due to its instability and rarity, there are no commercial applications for o Quinalizarin reagent-magnesium and beryllium to differentiate them
francium o Oxine (8-hydroxyquinoline) – yellow precipitate
THE GROUP I-B: COINAGE METALS – SOURCES:
– Employed for ornamental and coinage purposes o Silicates −talc, asbestos
– Free metal state o Carbonates −magnesite, dolomite
– Readily act as central unit of complexes / chelates o Sulfates− Keiserite
❑ COPPER – 2nd most abundant intracellular cation
– Only reddish color metal – Metal present in chlorophyll
– 3RD malleable which means it can be shaped – Grignard’s Reagent (RMgX) important in the process of making of AMOXIFINE
– 3RD best conductor of electricity – Pharmacology:
– Use in H2O purification o Laxative
– Alloys− solution of 2 or more metals o Depressant
o Brass − Cu + Zn o Natural Ca++ channel blocker
o Bronze − Cu + Sn – Ca Gluconate
– Cuprous one charge brown color, cupric 2 charge blue color o Antidote for Magnesium poisoning
– Occurs in respiratory pigment: which are responsible for carrying large ▪ MAGNESIUM SULFATE (MgSO4)
amounts of oxygen throughout the body – “Epsom salt”
○ hemocyanin this is where copper is mostly found, oxygenated – USES:
hemocyanin is blue color while deoxygenated hemocyanin is colorless ▪ Laxative
○ cytochrome oxidase aside from copper it also contains iron ▪ Antiphlogistic
– Pharmacology: ▪ Eclampsia
o protein precipitant (astringent, antiseptic) ▪ Anti−convulsant
o enhance absorption / utilization of iron ▪ Antidote for Ba2+ , Barbiturate poisoning
Wilson’s Disease ▪ MAGNESIUM CARBONATE (MgcO3)
-Copper poisoning Antidote: Penicillamine (sold under cuprimine and depen) – “Magnesia”
 3

– USES: o Stunted growth

o Antacid o Parakeratosis - Thickened inflamed skin , retention of nuclei in the
o Carbonating agent stratum corneum also seen the plaques of psoriasis
o Laxative ▪ Antidote: NaHCO3
▪ MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE [Mg(oH)2] ▪ ZINC CHLORIDE (Zncl2)
– “Milk of Magnesia”/ “Magnesia Magma” – Burnet’s disinfecting fluid, Butter of Zinc
– USES: – Escharrotic
o Antacid – Antiseptic in mouthwashes
o Laxative – Dentin desensitizer
▪ MAGNESIUM OXIDE (Mgo) – Use as corrosive
– “Calcined Magnesia” ▪ ZINC OXIDE (ZnO)
– Component of universal antidote Magnesium trisilicate – “Zinc White”
– Advantage: Protectant – Component of calamine lotion with 0.5% concentration
– Use: Protective coating specifically for ulceration – Flowers of Zinc
▪ HYDRATED MAGNESIUM SILICATE – Lassar’s paste
– “Talc” / “Soap Stone” / “French Chalk” o Component of Calamine lotion
– softest mineral known o Antiseptic, protective, astringent
– filtering aid ▪ ZINC SULFATE (ZnSO4)
– clarifying agent – “White Vitriol”
– dusting powder to gloves – Emetic (internal)
▪ MAGNESIUM CITRATE – Astringent
– “Lemonada Purgante” – Pharmaceutical necessity for white lotion
– Cathartic ▪ ZINC SULFIDE (ZnS)
– Common A/E in magnesium compounds is DIARRHEA – “White Sulfide”
❑ CALCIUM – Component white lotion
– 2nd most abundant extracellular ▪ HYDRATED ZINC SILICATE
– Flame test: brick red – “Natural Calamine”
– SOURCES: – ZnSiO4● 1H20
o Dolomite, fluoride, gypsum, phosphate rock, apatite – protectant
– Major component of bones & teeth – CALADRYL
– Muscles contraction o ZnO+Fe2O3 , anti-pyrolytic (anti itch)
– Blood coagulation ▪ ZINC EUGENOL CEMENT
– Neurotransmission – Dental protectant
Vitamin D ▪ LITHOPONE
“Sunshine vitamin”
Absorption of calcium, Vitamin d1 calciferol, d2 ergocalciferol, d3 cholecalciferol
– A mixture containing 30% ZnS and 70% BaS.
DEFICIENCY: ❑ CADMIUM
Osteomalacia – Manufacture of stink bomb
Rickets – Astringent
▪ – Cadmium induces the synthesis of metallothionein, a protein with a high binding
CALCIUM BROMIDE (CaBr2) affinity for cadmium.
Same indication as potassium sodium bromide o Metallothionein acts to protect certain organs such as testes.
▪ CALCIUM CARBONATE (CaCo3) – Itai−itai poisoning ANTlDoTE: BAL / british anti-lewisite sold in the name
– precipitated chalk dimercaprol medically used for heavy metal poisoning
– prepared chalk ▪ CADMIUM CHLORIDE (CdCl2)
– Ingredients for dentrifice & toothpaste – Emetic
▪ CALCIUM CHLORIDE (CaCl2) – Treatment of Tinea infection
– muriate of lime ▪ CADMIUM SULFIDE (CdS)
▪ CALCIUM HYDROXIDE [Ca(oH)2] – “Yellow Sulfide”
– “Slaked Lime”/ “Milk of Lime” bcs of the process called SLAKING
– Component of Capsebon
▪ CALCIUM GLUCONATE
o Anti−seborrheic
– Antidote in Magnesium poisoning
– Ca++ supplement ▪ CADSIUM SULFATE (CdSO4)
▪ CALCIUM LACTATE
– Ophthalmic antiseptic
– Ca++ supplement ❑ MERCURY
▪ – “Quick Silver”, Liquid Silver, Liquid Metal, Noble Metal, “Messenger of Gods”
CALCIUM OXIDE (CaO) – SOURCE: Cinnabar/Aethrop’s mineral(HgS)
– “Quick Lime” – Mercurous ion Hg +1 and mercuric ion Hg +2 – toxic
– Calx – Use: Manufacture of Thermometer
– preparations of various insecticides – AMALGAM
▪ CALCIUM BIPHOSPHATE (CaHPo4) o alloys of mercury
– Ca ++ supplement o Pharmacology:
▪ CALCIUM PHOSPHATE [Ca3(Po4)] ▪ Diuretic, antiseptic, anti syphilitic, cathartic, parasiticidal
– “Bone ash” & fungicidal, dental permanent cement
– Antacid – Poisoning: Minamata disease
▪ CALCIUM HYPOCHLORITE (CaOCl) – Antidote: EDTA and also sodium formaldehyde sulfoxinate
– Chlorinated lime ▪ MERCUROUS CHLORIDE (Hg2Cl2)
– Chloride of lime – Calomel
– Bleaching agent – Cathartic
– Disinfectant – Local antiseptic
▪ CALCIUM SULFATE (CaSO4) ▪ MERCURIC CHLORIDE HgCl2
– ½ H2O – Corrosive sublimate
– “plaster of paris” – Disinfectant
Gypsum ▪ MERCUROUS IODIDE (Hg2I2)
CaSO4 ● 2H2O – Anti−syphilis
Terra alba ▪ MERCURIC IODIDE (HgI2)
o USE: PLASTER OF PARIS preparations of dental impressions and – Stimulant for indolent ulcers -defect in the cornea due to unhealed tissue in the
surgical cast surface of the eye
❑ STRONTIUM ▪ POTASSIUM MERUCRIC IODIDE (K2HgI4)
– Flame Test: Crimson Red
– Use in production of red pyrotechnics
– Mayer’s reagent
– S/E DARKENS THE TEETH
– Test for alkaloids
▪ ▪ AMMONIATED MERCURY
STRONTIUM CHLORIDE (SrCl2)
– Temperature desensitizing agent
– “White Precipitate”
– Active ingredients in Sensodyne
– Topical anti−infective
❑ BARIUM ▪ MERCURIC OXIDE (HgO)
– “Heavy” – “Yellow Precipitate”
– Flame Test: yellow green – Ophthalmic antibacterial
– Use in green Pyrotechnics THE GROUP III-A: BORON FAMILY (ICOSAGENS)
– Toxicity: BARITOSIS – -all of them are metals except for metal
– Antidote: MgSO4 – -aluminum is the 3rd most abundant in the earths crust
▪ BARIUM SULFATE (BaSO4) – group 3 elements react with oxygen to form metal oxides
– Radiopaque medium for GIT imaging – 1 gram is the average lethal dose fot the toxic element thallium
▪ BARIUM HYDROXIDE [Ba(OH)2] – Gallium is solid at room temperature but it liquid at a larger range of temperatures
– CO2 absorber than any other element
❑ RADIUM – All have positive 3 valence electron
Discovered by Marie Curie ❑ BORON
Cancer chemotherapy D Diagnostic purposes D Becquerel (SI unit) – Non−metal
– Component of glass
THE GROUP II-B: VOLATILE METALS OR ZINC FAMILY
– Flame Test: green bordered flame
Zinc, Cadmium, Mercury – sourcEs: Tincal − Na3Bo3 H3BO3
❑ ZINC – Turmeric paper (Borates)
– Rinman’s Green Test, rinmanns green, cobalt green o Acidic- reddish brown color
– Container for batteries & dry cell o Basic- greenish black color
– Coating for galvanized iron – Hardness of Crystalline Boron
– Metal in insulin ○ Valuable substitute for diamond in glass cutting and gem polishing
– Constituent of carbonic anhydrase enzyme ▪ BORIC ACID (H3BO3)
– Pharmacology: – “Boric acid”, “boracic acid”, “sal sedativum”
o −astringent, antiseptic, protectant, antiperspirant – Toxic by ingestion
o DITHIZONE TEST is a test for the purity of pancreatic islets used – Absorbed in broken skin
for transplantation for diabetic mellitus patients, binds with zinc ion – Buffer in ophthalmic preparation
then stain the ions red – Tonicity adjusting agent
– Deficiency: – Antiseptic
o Anemia and hypogonadism in male – Eyewash: 2.45% − 2.5%
 4

– Boroglycerin glyceride − suppository base – Activated Charcoal

– Glycerinated gelatin- for vaginal suppository o Component of universal antidote
– E value of boric acid is actually 0.52 o Adsorbent
▪ SODIUM BORATE (Na2B4O7) o Used in Diarrhea and in poisoning
– Borax ▪ CARBON DIOXIDE(CO₂)
– Sodium tetraborate – Carbonic acid gas
– Dobell’s Solution – Respiratory stimulant (CO poisoning)
o Eye wash – Treatment of persistent hiccups
– Component of cold cream and in the preparation of sodium borate preparation. – Used in the manufacturing of soda, carbonated water
❑ ALUMINUM – *Dry ice
– Most abundant metal o Refrigerants
– 3rd abundant element in earth’s crust o Solid CO₂
– Thenard’s blue test o Acne, corns, calluses, moles, warts and eczema
o Abrasive in industries ▪ CARBON MONOXIDE
o Positive result of BLUE ASH – Cherry red color of blood
SOURCES: – 210X affinity to hemoglobin
o Cryolite −(Na3AlF6, sodium hexafluoroaluminate) – Automobile exhal.st
o Chief Source: Bauxite ore – ANTIDOTE:
– Pharmaceutical Uses of Aluminum: o oxygen (100%)
o Deodorant o artificial air 80% HELIUM AND 20% oxygen
o Protectant, Antiseptic, Antiperspirant o hyperbaric O₂
Aluminum Foil o O₂-CO₂ mixture
Treatment of Burns ❑ SILICON
Adverse Effects: ▪ Constipation – 2nd most abundant element
Toxicity: Shavers disease – GLASS
▪ ALUMINUM CHLORIDE (AlCl3) o Formed by fusion of silicon with base agents used to modify glass.
– astringent, antiseptic, component of deodorant (Na2CO3 with pure silica)
▪ ALUMINUM HYDROXIDE Al(OH)3 o Generic material made of vitreous material that gradually softens
– Amphojel o TYPES OF GLASS
– Cremalin gel ▪ TYPE 1 borosilicate, boron acid, silicate and aluminum oxide
– Adverse Events: that has low coefficient in thermal expansion
o Constipation ▪ TYPE 2 treated soda lime glass, used for products before PH7
o PO4 deficiency ▪ TYPE 3soda lime for insentive to alkali
▪ ALUMINUM PHOSPHATE (AlPO4) ▪ TYPE 4general soda lime glass, Not for parenteral
– “Phosphagel” applications
– Antacid o Modified by
– Astringent ▪ B-↓COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION
▪ Pb- ↓ refractive index
▪ ALUMINUM CARBONATE Al2(CO3)3 ▪ K-amber color, light resistance
– Treatment of phosphatic calculi ▪ MnO2-mask color of Fe2O3
▪ ALUM ▪ SILICON DIOXIDE(SiO2)
– Al K(SO4)2 ● 12H2O – Silica Abundant in nature
– Deodorant – Poisoning: Silicosis (hemoptysis) occupational lung disease by inhaling silica
▪ ALUMINUM OXIDE (Al2O3) dust scarring of the upper modular lesions of the lungs a type of
– Alumina pneumoconiosis
– Treatment of silicosis – ANTIDOTE: Alumina (Al₂O3)
▪ ALUMINUM ACETATE AI(CH3COO− )3 ▪ PURIFIED SILICACEOUS EARTH
– Burrow’s soIution, Domeboro’s soIution – "KIESELGUHR silica"
– Astringent – SiO2
– DihydroxyaIuminum amino acetate – Adsorbent
○ Gastric antacid – Filtering aid
○ Magma and tabIet – Clarifying agent
▪ ALUMINUM SILICATE ▪ ATTAPULGITE (Polymagma®, Quintess®)
KAoLlN – Magnesium Aluminum Phyllosilicate
– ”native hydrated aIuminum siIicate”, “china cIay” – (Mg,Al) Si₂O10(OH)-4(H₂O)
– adsorbent & demuIcent in diarrhea – Anti-diarrheal agent
– weathering of feldspar ▪ NATURAL CALAMINE
– demulscent is also referred to as mucoprotective agents
– Zn silicate
BENToNlTE
– “native hydrated coIIoidaI AI siIicates
▪ SIMETHICONE
– mineraI soap, soap cIay – Anti-flatulent
– suspending agent – mixture of polydimethylsiloxane and silica gel
puMlcE ❑ TIN
– ”Na, K, AI siIicates” aka Piedra pomez – Sn+2
– voIcanic origin – Sn+3
– dentaI abrasive, dentrifice – Alloys of Tin
– other pumice examples : o Babbit 80% ,Tin 20% Antimony Pewter Metal (75% tin and 25% lead)
o pumice flour./ superfine pumice o Gun Metal 10% Tin + 90% Copper of cansolder Metal 50% Tin + 50% Lead
o fine pumice o Rose Metal 2 25% Tin + 25% Lead + 50% Bismuth Plumber's solder (33%
o coarse pumice lead and 67% tin) Solder Metal 50% tin and 50% lead
– other aluminum silicate examples: – Uses:
o fedspar is potassium aluminum silicate o Manufacture of cans
o fullrs earth or floretin or floredin o Household utensils
o magaldrate al mg hydroxide sulfate ▪ TIN FLUORIDE (SnF₂)
▪ GALLIUM eka-aluminum – Anti-cariogenic
Substitute for Hg in manufacture of arc Iamps. – 8%-1 application
Treatment of cancer reIated hypercaIcemia. ▪ TIN OXIDE (SnO₂)
▪ THALLIUM – Germicidal aganist
– “ThaIos” – Staphylococcus aureus
– Green twig – Gun Metal
– 2nd most toxic metaI o 10% tin and 90% copper
THE GROUP III-B: SCANDIUM SUBGROUP ❑ LEAD
– Pb+2 Pb+4
❑ Scandium eka boron, in aircraft – USES: Astringent and Protein precipitant
❑ Yttrium silver metal stable in air, used in phosphorous in TB tubes, microwave and lasers – WRIST DROP - radial nerve palsy FOOT DROP-gait abnormality PICA-eating
❑ Lanthanum , discovered by Carl G. Mosander and is used inalkali resistant glasses disorder
➢ Lanthanides (atomic # 57−71) – PLUMBISM - Lead Encepalopathy, Characterized by memory loss, irritability,
❑ Actinium ➢ Actinides(atomic # 89−103) projectile vomiting
– ANTIDOTE: EDTA-nephrotoxic and Calcium Sodium Versenate SUCCIMER-
THE GROUP IV: THE CRYSTALLOGENS children
– Silicon is the secod most abundant element in the earths crust at 25.7% ▪ LEAD ACETATE Pb(CH3COO-)2 "Sugar of Lead"/ "Salt of Saturn"
– Tin is the element with the largest number of stable isotopes – Astringent
– All of the group 4 elements have 4 valence electrons – Pharmaceutical necessity for preparation of Lead Subacetate solution
– Exposure to leas can cause lead poisoning
▪
– Flevorium is one of the man made elements discovered in 1999 LEAD SUBACETATE Pb₂O(CH3COO)2 "Goulard's Extract"
– The number of allotropes of carbon including diamond graphite and – Solution of lead acetate and lead oxide
buckminster fullerine – Astringent, antiseptic
– The group 4 elements form hydrides with hydrogen EH4 tetrahalides with ▪ LEAD OXIDE (PbO) "Litharge"
halogens EX4 and a variety of oxides with oxygen – Preparation for Lead Subacetate
– Carbon makes up 18.5% of the body it also forms organic compounds the study – Pewter Metal- 80% tin and 20% lead
which is known as organic chemistry – GALENA lead sulfide (black sulfide
❑ CARBON THE GROUP IV-B: TITANIUM FAMILY
– Non-metal ❑ TITANIUM "Titan"
– Basic building unit of organic compounds – Powerful reducing agent
– Fundamental constituent of all animals and Vegetable tissues – ORES: rutile, brookite, anatase, ilmenite, sphene/titanite
– Can form bonds with itself in a process called catenation ▪ TiITANIUM DIOXIDE TiO₂
– Occurs free in nature C+0=CO₂ » C + H = CH4
– Solar ray protectant
– 2 Allotropes of Carbon
– Lotions & sunblocking creams
o Crystalline
– Opacifying agent
Diamond, graphite (soft and is in an extended form of crystal nature for
– MOA: reflects UV rayS Protective - PABA
carbon atoms can easily slide one another)
o Amorphous
❑ ZIRCONIUM
Coal, anthracite
– Used as deodorant & antiperspirant
bituminous-soft coal
– Causes pulmonary granuloma formation
anthracite- hard coal
– Can lead to cancer
Group V-A (Nitrogen Family)
Nitrogen trioxide N2O3 ~ formed upon mixing equal
➔ BISMUTH is the only metallic element present in group V parts of Nitric oxide & nitrogen dioxide
➔ NITROGEN & PHOSPHORUS ~ considered as non-metallic ➢ Gas (brown color or pale blue liquid)
➢ Dinitrogen trioxide
elements
➢ oxidizing agent
➔ ARSENIC & ANTIMONY ~ classified as metalloid Nitrogen Dioxide NO₂
➢ Brown gas
➢ Air pollutant
NITROGEN
➢ “Azote” without life
➢ “Mephitic Air” PHOSPHORUS
➢ 3 bonds form ➢ Upon exposure to sunlight, it will change to
➢ Occurs free in atmosphere form RED PHOSPHORUS
➢ Component of plant and animal tissues ➢ “St. Elmo’s Fire”
➢ Use by plants-nitrogen fixation ➢ Light carrier (match)
➢ Black cylinder ➢ Widely distributed in nature, essential element
➢ Largest element or constituent of the Earth’s for life
atmosphere ➢ APATITE ~ principal ore of P
➢ PHLOGISTICATED AIR ~ burned air/ air ➢ USES: steel alloys, phosphor bronze, inorganic
exhausted of the Oxygen by burning a cleaning agent and water softener
combustible ➢ White waxy solid which is colorless and
➢ Used for manufacture of Ammonia in the translucent
HABER PROCESS ➢ Burns spontaneous in air to form
➢ FILLER GAS in electric lamps and in high PHOSPHORUS PENTOXIDE
temperature thermometers ➢ Must be stored under water
➢ Inert atmosphere in metallurgy oxidation in
certain industrial processes VARIETY:
➢ White/Yellow
Nitrogen Gas ● Poisonous
➢ Replace air in container for parenteral solution ➢ Red
➢ Triple bond-responsible for inertness ● Non-poisonous
● Use in preparation of matches
Liquid Nitrogen
➢ Refrigerant
➢ Cryogenics ~ study of production of very low
temperature
ALLOTROPIC MODIFICATION
Nitrous Oxide (N₂O) ALLOTROPE ~ one or more forms of a chemical
➢ AKA Dinitrogen Monoxide element that occur in a same physical state
➢ High minimum alveolar concentration Low
potency of H2O 1. White Phosphorous
➢ “Laughing Gas” ➢ This P4 tetrahedron is also present in liquid and
➢ General anesthetic (inhalational) gaseous phosphorus up to the temperature of
➢ Not used alone - causes diffusion HYPOXIA 800°C when it starts decomposing to P2
(condition in the body/ having low oxygen levels molecules
in tissue level.) ➢ Least stable, most reactive, most volatile, least
➢ Blue cylinder dense, MOST TOXIC AMONG THE
➢ ENFLURANE ~ for asthmatic ALLOTROPES
➢ SEVOFLURANE ~ for pregnancy
 2. Scarlet Phosphorus
➢ Made by heating PBr3 With Hg at 240°C
3. Violet Phosphorus
➢ Heating P with small quantity of Na at 200°C
➢ Produced by day long annealing of the red
phosphorus
4. Metallic or Black Phosphorus
➢ Heating with Pb at 530°C HCO3
➢ AKA b-metallic phosphorus
➢ Least reactive
➢ Thermodynamically stable
➢ Resemble structure with Graphite
Component of Physiologic Buffer
PHOSPHATE BUFFER ~ adv: contains dihydrogen
and monohydrogen phosphate ions.
Disadv: insoluble with Hg, Zn, Al and supports
microbial growth
SORENSEN, BORATE, FELDMAN’S BUFFER
SYSTEM -> (7-8.2 pH) acidic solution of boric acid
ATKINS AND PANTIN BUFFER SYSTEM
~ (7.6-11 pH)
~ alkaline solution of NaCO3, NaCl, and
H3BO3
GIFFORD BUFFER SYSTEM
~ (6-7.8 pH)
~ H3BO3, KCL, SODIUM BORATE
➢ HCO3, H2CO3
○ Plasma and kidneys
➢ HPO4-2, H2PO4
○ Cells and kidney
➢ Hgb and CHON
○ RBC
○ Most effective single system for
buffering H2CO3 during metabolic
process
ARSENIC
➢ As+³
➢ As+5
➢ Toxic, protoplasmic poison
➢ Lewisite metal
➢ Anti-syphilis discovered by Paul Erlich
➢ Component of Salvarsan, Arsphenamine,
Compound 606
➢ Antileukemia
➢ Preparation of various insecticide -> Copper
Acetoarsenite
➢ Use to treat TRYPANOSOMIASIS (sleeping
sickness)
○ Tryponososoma brucei (causative agent)
○ Transmitted by tsetse fly
➢ MAGIC BULLET ~ selective toxicity -> it can
only kill the microorganism/ causative agent but
not the host
➢ TOXICITY: Aldrich mee’s line
➢ ANTIDOTE: Dimercaprol (BAL)
➢ Detect Arsenic by green coloration of the copper
arsenite
Gutzeit Test
➢ When arsenic is present, a light brown spot is
generated in the filter paper moistened with
silver nitrate solution.
➢ MARSH TEST ~ modified version of Gutzeit
test
➢ FLETMAN’S TEST
Arsenic
SOURCE:
➢ Arsenopyrite (Iron Arsenic Sulfide (FeAsS)
➢ Cu Aceto Arsenate
● “Paris Green”
➢ K Arsenite
● “Fowler’s Solution”
● 1% K Arsenite, once prescribed as a
remedy
● Prepared by boiling Potassium
Carbonate w/ Arsenic Trioxide
➢ Donovan’s solution
● Red solution containing Asl 3 or HgI2
● Liam Donnelly’s solution
● Once recommended to treat rheumatism,
arthritis, malaria, trypanosome infection,
TB and diabetes
➢ Cause pale nail bonds on fingernails
➢ Bind with sulfhydryl group
● Cysteine-rich in sulfhydryl
● Curly hair-↑ cysteine
ANTIDOTE: PHARMACEUTICAL USES:
➢ BAL ● Expectorant, emetic, anthelmintic

Arsenic Trioxide
➢ “White Arsenic” Antimony Potassium Tartrate
➢ Tonic, Anti-leukemic ➢ “Tartar Emetic”
➢ Ingredients in Paris green, Fowler’s and ➢ Component of Brown mixture
Donovan’s Solution. ➢ Emetic
➢ 1° standard for CeSO4 ➢ Expectorant (the fluid extract of licorice root +
tartar emetic + camphorated tincture + spirit of
ANTIMONY ethyl nitrite + glycerol + water)
➢ Treatment of Schistosomiasis -> parasitic
AKA STYBNIUM (Sb)
infection particularly caused by the liver fluke
➔ Detected by the orange color ppt that is formed
➢ Sodium stibogluconate
when you add hydrogen sulfide
➢ Meglumine antimoniate
➔ In the presence of Rhodamine B w/ HCL it will
form a violet ppt\
Babbitt Metal
➔ This was used before as a cosmetic for
➢ Alloy of antimony
blackening the eyebrow
➢ 80% Tin and 20% Antimony
ALLOTROPES OF SB
➢ Produced by Isaac Babbitt
1. CRYSTALLINE ANTIMONY ~ AKA B
➢ Antifriction metal
antimony and Rhombohedral Sb
➔ Ordinary form
➔ Silver white solid w/ a high metallic BISMUTH
luster and has crystalline structure ➢ “Beautiful meadow”
➔ Poor conductor of heat and electricity ➢ Use in silvering of mirror
➔ Brittle ➢ Protoplasmic poison -> substances that if a
➔ Antimony black living cell is exposed in significant amount cell
Highly divided powdered form it will be adversely affected damaged/ killed
of the metal which is used to SOURCES:
coat brass and lead ions. ➔ Bismuthinite
2. ALPHA SB ➔ Bismuth glands
➔ AKA Yellow Sb ➔ Tetradymite
➔ Formed when Sb hydride (SbH3) is ➔ Bismite/ Bismuth ochre
treated with air at 90 deg celsius CHARACTERISTICS OF BISMUTH:
➔ A grayish white silvery solid with a faint reddish
3. EXPLOSIVE SB finish
➔ Formed on the cathode as a powder ➔ Lowest electrical conductivity and exhibits a
which explodes whether rubbed/scratch hall effect and expands solidification
when a current of electricity is pass ➔ Detected by orange color ppt that is formed
through solution of antimony trichloride when a hydrogen sulfide is passed
SOURCES:
● Senarmontite (Antimony Trioxide) ➢ Pharmaceutical Uses
● Valentinite (Antimony Oxide) ● Astringent,
● Cervantite (Antimony Tetroxide) ● Antiseptic,
● Internal protective
PRINCIPLE SOURCE:
● Antimony glance (Stibnite) Adverse Effects:
● “Orange red sulfide” ➢ Blue black lining of gums
➢ Black stools
 NIOBIUM
ANTIDOTE: BAL
➢ It is a soft, grey, ductile transition metal, which
is often found in the pyrochlore mineral, the
Bismuth Subcarbonate
main commercial source for niobium, and
➢ Antacid, antiseptic, astringent
columbite.
➢ 60 grams render alimentary canal opaque to x -
ray

Bismuth Subgallate
➢ Active ingredient Devrom®, an
over-the-counter FDA- approved medicine
commonly used to treat malodor by deodorizing
flatulence and stool.

Bismuth Subnitrate
● “White bismuth”
● Incompatible with tragacanth (Remedy: add
NaHPO4)
● Used in the treatment of ulcer and inflammation
of the GIT

Milk of Bismuth
➢ “Bismuth Cream”
➢ Bi(OH)3 + Bismuth Subcarbonate
➢ For H. pylori
➢ Internal protective for gastric ulcer

Group V-B (Tantalum Family)

TANTALUM
➢ Unaffected by blood fluid
➢ Use in sheet form for surgical repair of bones,
nerves, tissues
➢ Corrosion resistant
➢ Also used for implants
➢ Surgical repair for large abdominal hernias
➢ Found in tantalite; also occurs in low levels in a
wide range of other minerals

VANADIUM
➢ It is a hard, silvery gray, ductile, and malleable
transition metal.
➢ Green tongue (if you have acute exposure in the
dust and fumes of vanadium)
➢ SOURCE: CARNOTITE. PATRONITE,
VANADINITE
 GROUP 6A: THE CALCOGENS - Hemoglobin is the oxygen-carrying molecule
in our blood.
3. Histotoxic - tissue or cell oxidation.
4. Stagnant - blood circulation is retarded.

USES OF OXYGEN
● It is primarily used in the treatment of HYPOXIA (lack
of oxygen).
● The administration is via tubes and masks.
● It is also used as a diluent for anesthetic agents.

SULFUR
- In the bible, it is known as “BRIMSTONE” or
They have six (6) valence electrons. “BURNING STONE”.
- In Arabic, it is called “SUFRA” which means yellow.
OXYGEN - In Sanskrit, it is known as “SHULBARI” meaning the
- Also known as “dephlogisticated air” by Joseph enemy of copper.
Priestley.
- Called “Empyreal air” by Carl Wilhelm Scheele. SOURCES OF SULFUR
- Most abundant element in the earth’s crust. - FeS - Iron pyrite
- Non-metallic element. - PbS - Galena
- Second (2nd) most electronegative next to fluorine. - HgS - Cinnabar
- Essential of all elements because we need it to - ZnS - Zinc blend
breathe. - CaSO4 + 2H2O - Gypsum
- Responsible for the oxidative changes in paints,
fats, and fixed oils. MOST IMPORTANT SULPHATE ORES:
- Its container is placed in a Green cylinder. - Gypsum [Calcium sulfate (CaSO4)]
- Heavy spar [Barium sulfate (BaSO4)]
3 ALLOTROPES OF OXYGEN
● NASCENT OXYGEN (O) HOW IS SULFUR SYNTHESIZED?
- Very reactive and very unstable monoatomic ● The process is called FRASCH PROCESS. It is a
oxygen. method used by miners to look for deep-lying sulfurs.
● ATMOSPHERE OR GASEOUS OXYGEN (O2) ● This process utilizes CASCARONE as a furnace in
- this is the allotrope that we breathe in. sulfur production.
- Necessary and essential to life.
● OZONE (O3) ALLOTROPES OF SULFUR
- a bluish irritant gas. ● RHOMBIC
- Very reactive and is damaging to the lung - ex: Rock sulfur, Roll sulfur, Flowers of sulfur.
tissue. - Sulfur found in nature is rhombic.
- Trioxygen. - Also known as the OCTAHEDRAL OR
- Produced in the upper atmosphere when ALPHA SULFUR.
oxygen combines with atomic oxygen that is - A yellow crystalline solid that crystallizes
made by splitting the oxygen by the UV from a solution in a carbon disulfide.
radiation. ● MONOCLINIC
- Needle-like crystal.
OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS - Came from the heated rhombic sulfur (96
1. Anoxic - inadequate Oxygen tension in the air. degrees Celsius).
2. Anemic - decrease hemoglobin.
 - Also known as the PRISMATIC OR BETA ● Keratolytic [Strontium sulfide (SrS)]
SULFUR. ● Antiseborrheic [Cadmium sulfide (CdS)]
- Obtained by allowing molten sulfur to solidify.
● MOBILE 3. SULFURIC ACID (H2SO4)
- Straw-colored liquid. - OIL OF VITRIOL
- Melts at 113 degrees Celsius. - SULFONATING AGENT
● VISCOUS - DEHYDRATING AGENT
- Thick and sticky-like molasses.
- Formed by continuously heating the mobile 4. SODIUM THIOSULFATE (Na2S2O3)
sulfur. - Used in PHOTOGRAPHY.
● PLASTIC OR AMORPHOUS - Used to treat RINGWORMS.
- Rubbery, plastic mass. - ANTIDOTE FOR CYANIDE AND IODINE
- Formed if the viscous sulfur is cooled rapidly POISONING.
in cold water.
- Also known as the GAMMA SULFUR. 5. HYDROGEN SULFIDE (H2S)
- AMORPHOUS SULFUR is an insoluble - AITCH-TU-ES GAS
white amorphous solid that remains when - Reducing agent
the flowers of sulfur are extracted with - Precipitating agent of metal ions
carbon disulfide. - Produces a ROTTEN EGG ODOR
● SULFUR VAPOR - Often results from the bacterial breakdown of
- Forms when sulfur is heated above 1000 organic matter in the absence of oxygen.
degrees Celsius. - Highly toxic.
- Flammable gas.
FORMS OF SULFUR - Make sure the ventilation in a room is
1. PRECIPITATED SULFUR sufficient to avoid suffocation.
- Milk of sulfur
- a fine form of sulfur and a common 6. SULFUR OINTMENT
component of creams and ointments. - Precipitated sulfur
2. SUBLIMED SULFUR - Liquid petrolatum
- Flower of sulfur or azufre - White ointment
- A coarse form of sulfur and used as a - Scabicide
cathartic. - Parasiticide
- It is a component of VLEMINCKX’S
SOLUTION.
- A solution that is prepared by SELENIUM
boiling the sublimed sulfur. - Ir came from the Greek word “SELENE” which
- It also includes lime and calcium means MOON.
oxide. - Discovered by JOHN JACOB BERZELIUS.
- It is considered as the ELEMENT OF THE MOON.
USES OF SULFUR: - Trace element
● Preparation of scabicidal and keratolytic ointments - Antioxidant
and lotions. - Synergistic with VITAMIN E.
● Stimulant cathartic. - Too toxic when taken internally.
● Stimulant in alopecia - Used in the manufacture of PHOTOCOPYING
● Fumigant [Sulfur dioxide (SO2)] - a gaseous MACHINE.
pesticide to control pests in agricultural fields and - CATALYST in NITROGEN DETERMINATION.
buildings.
● Depilatory (Sulfides) - used to remove unwanted
hairs.
FORMS OF SULFUR SOURCE OF CHROMIUM
1. SELENIUM SULFIDE (SeS2) - CHROME IRON ORE
- The active constituent of SELSUN BLUE (an
antiseborrheic). ALLOYS OF CHROMIUM:
- HEAD & SHOULDERS - They are used in STEELS.
- Pyrithione zinc (PTZ)
- Selenium sulfide 1. FERROCHROME
- Is an alloy containing 40% to 80% of
chromium.
POLONIUM - Chromium with iron.
- It is a radioactive isotope that is a result of the decay 2. NICHROME
of actinide elements. - Is an alloy containing 10% to 25% of
chromium and 50% to 70% of nickel.
- Nickel with chromium.
3. STELLITE
GROUP 6B: THE CHROMIUM SUBGROUP
- Is the alloy of CHROMIUM, COBALT, AND
TUNGSTEN.
● CHROMIUM - Is used for SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS.
● MOLYBDENUM
● TUNGSTEN FORMS OF CHROMIUM
● URANIUM 1. POTASSIUM DICHROMATE (K2Cr2O7)
- Powerful oxidizing agent.
CHROMIUM - It is also used in LEATHER TANNING.
- Trace element.
- Glucose tolerance factor
- Increases insulin activity MOLYBDENUM
- Found in brown sugar and butter. - ESSENTIAL TRACE ELEMENT.
- Its salts are destructive to tissues - Cofactor of enzymes that are FLAVIN DEPENDENT.
- DEFICIENCY: it mimics DIABETES MELLITUS - It is the metal present in XANTHINE OXIDASE.
(HYPERGLYCEMIA). - It is used in NITROGEN FIXATION involved in
- TOXICITY: it mimics LUNG CANCER BACTERIAL FIXING OF ATMOSPHERIC
- PERCHROMIC ACID TEST- test for the detection of NITROGEN.
chromium. It is also known as the VANISHING BLUE - It can also be found as MOLYBDENITE,
TEST. WULFENITE, AND MOLYBDITE.
● It uses hydrogen peroxide and ether. - It is an important component in STEEL ALLOYS AND
● Positive result: a blue ethereal layer of NICKEL-MOLYBDENUM STEELS.
chromium. - NICKEL-MOLYBDENUM STEELS - used in the
- CHROMIUM does not occur in ELEMENTAL FORM barrel of guns and propeller shafts.
but it is found in chrome ochre or chrome iron core. - It is also used as a support for filaments in ELECTRIC
- CHROMITE AND CROCOISITE - the principal ores of LAMPS.
chromium. - MoO + FeSO4 = (Mol-Iron)

DIFFERENT CHARGES OF CHROMIUM:

- Cr +2 = Green URANIUM
- Cr +3 = Blue - Radioactive element.
- (Chromate) CrO -2 = Yellow - Named after the planet URANUS.
- (Dichromate) Cr2O7 -2 = Orange - Occurs naturally in several minerals such as
URANINITE (Uranium oxide).
● It is formerly known as PITCHBLENDE.
 ● Radioactive
● It is a rich mineral and an ore.
● The natural mineral of uranium.
- Discovered by HENRI BECQUEREL.

USES OF URANIUM
● Used as a fuel for NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS.
● Used as a colorant in POTTERY.
● Used in the manufacture of GLASS.
● Used in the manufacture of ATOMIC BOMBS.

TUNGSTEN
- The chemical symbol came from the original name of
the element, WOLFRAM.
- The element name came from the Swedish words
TUNG & STEN meaning “HEAVY STONE”.
- It resembles the chemical properties of
MOLYBDENUM.

USES OF TUNGSTEN:
● It is used in making SPECIAL STEEL ALLOYS.
● It is used for the filaments of ELECTRIC LAMPS.
● It is used as an ANTICATHODE IN X-RAY TUBES.
 1

PSMA: INORGANIC MEDICINALS

THE GROUP 7: HALOGENS – IS THE ONLY METAL IN THESE GROUP
– The halogens all form diatomic molecules except for astatine
– 12th most abundant element
– All of the group seven elements have seven valence electrons – Trace elements found in arginase, glutamine synthetase
– Hydrofluoric acid leaches calcium from bones and can cause very painful burns it
– Permanganate / MNO2 can mask the blue green color of the glass
also dissolves glass – +2 manganous = most stable and forms a pale pink soln.
– The halogens react with oxygen to form halogen oxides and react with metals to – +3~manganic
form metal halides – +4~manganite = brown or black soln found in manganese dioxide
– The halogens are used as oxidizing agents while halides ions are used as reducing – +6 manganate= color green
agents – +7 permanganate = found in the purple permanganate ion
– The reactivity of the halogens decreases down the group as it becomes harder to ◼ POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE KMnO4 "Mineral Chameleon"
add an electron – Oxidizing Agents
– One gram is the estimated amount of astatine in the earth’s crust at any one time – Volumetric solution in Permanganometry
– Fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, astatine, ununseptium – HAUSMANNITE= complex oxide of manganese contains di or trivalent manganese
– Sea salt producers according to Berzelius – BRAUNITE= silicate mineral containing both the di and trivalent manganese
– A qualitative way to test halides is to use Belstein test developed by Friedrich ◼ MANGANESE SULFIDE
Conrad Beilstein. – Salmon-colored sulfur
– Trace element
❑ FLUORINE – Cofactor in protein synthesis
– Also known as super halogen according to Linus Pauling – Phosphorylation, fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis
– FLOURINE, OXYGEN, CHLORINE, NITROGEN, BROMINE, IODINE, SULFURE, – POISONING: similar to parkinsonism
CARBON, HYDROGEN, PHOSPHOROUS ( to  electronegativity)
– Most electronegative and most reactive element ❑ TECHNITIUM
– Powerful oxidizing agent – 1st element produce artificially
– Pale yellow gas – Used in preparation of radiopharmaceuticals
– Natural Sources: Fluorospar, Apatite, cryolite – Came from the Greek word Technetos which means artificial
– ETCHING TEST- forms etches or markings on the glass becomes permanent, uses – Formerly known as eka-manganese
watch glass and water bath – Sanskrit eka means first and dvi means second
– Poisoning: Fluorosis (mottled animal and abnormal bone growth) – Dvi manganese is rhenium
◼ SODIUM FLUORIDE (NaF) – One of the most important radiopharmaceuticals such as technetium 99M
– 2% in 4 application metastable isotope with half life of 6 hours and its gamma rays and low energy
◼ TIN FLUORIDE (SnF2) electron
– 8% freshlt preparation THE GROUP VIII-A: NOBLE INERT GASES
– Sodium monofluoro phosphate
◼ CHLORODIFLUOROMETHANE “HCFC”
– Freon, refrigerant, propellant
– Replaced the highly ozone depleting CFC 11 & 12
❑ CHLORINE
– Greenish yellow gas
– Dephlogisticated muriatic acid
– Very corrosive, universal disinfectant and 6th abundant element in the earths crust
– Both liquid and solid form are powerfl bleaching and oxidizing agent.
– Hypochlorite- used as a bleaching agent
– Hydrochloric acid- aka muriatic acid (35-37% w/w)= Used in the treatment of
ACHLORHYDRIA- absence of hydrochloric acid in the gastric secretions.
– Cl- most predominant anion outside (responsible for maintenance of osmotic
pressure and anion-cation balance)
– H2O disinfectant
❑ BROMINE
– Reddish brown fuming liquid with suffocating odor
– Pharmaceutical uses: sedative, antidepressant
– Only liquid metal element that is liquid in room temperature
– Has a strong chlorine like odor but is less reactive than fluorine and chlorine but
more reactive than iodine
– USED AS: pesticides, dye stuffs, water purification compounds and also as flame –
–Have a FULL OUTER SHELL OF ELECTRONS.
retardants in plastic
–HELIUM, NEON, ARGON, KRYPTON, XENON, RADON
– BROMINISM
–Helium is the second most abundant element in the universe
o Characterized by skin eruption
–Radoon is radioactive and can enter homes through basement after
o Psychosis
radioactive decay of rocks below the earth
o Weakness
– The noble gases are all monoatomic and rarely form compounds
o Headache
o Antidote used is NaCl / NH4Cl ❑ HELIUM
◼ POTASSIUM BROMIDE (KB) – 2nd lightest gas.
– Used as bromide ions as production of silver bromide for photographic films – 2nd MOST ABUNDANT ELEMENT IN THE UNIVERSE.
◼ KOPPESCHAAR’S SOLUTION – Inhalation of pure helium produces a Donald Duck-like sound.
– 0.1N Bromine solution – Carrier diluent for medicine.
– Sedative – Important gas.
– Used in assay of compounds such as aniline, phenol, and resorcinol in – It is placed in a BROWN CYLINDER.
replacement of iodine – It is a component of ARTIFICIAL AIR (placed in a BROWN-GREEN
– 3 BROMIDE ELIXIRS: sodium bromide, potassium bromide and ammonium CYLINDER).
bromide – It is used in MRI. It is used to cool the MRI scanner’s superconducting magnets.
– It is also used in filling the blimps and balloons.
❑ IODINE
– It is used in pressuring liquid fuel rockets.
– Grayish black solid, Violet colored vapor
– + starch= blue ❑ NEON
– CCl4 or CHCl3= violet - 2nd lightest noble gas after helium.
– Synthesis of thyroid hormones - Often used in SIGNS.
– Elemental iodine is toxic, most metallic halogen - Produces an unmistakable BRIGHT REDDISH-ORANGE LIGHT.
– Came from the Greek word IODES which means violet - Liquid neon is used as a CRYOGENIC REFRIGERANT.
– Also used as an antibacterial/ antimicrobial in the strength of 1:5000 or 0.02%
conc. Which elicits greater antimicrobial effects than chlorine and bromine ❑ ARGON
– USES: expectorant, antiseptic, antimicrobial, - MOST ABUNDANT NOBLE GAS.
– ANTIDOTE: starch, Na2S2O3 - It is used as a substitute for nitrogen gas.
◼ IODINE SOLUTION - Provides inert atmosphere for pharmaceuticals.
– 2% iodine in water - First noble gas to be discovered.
◼ STRONG IODINE SOLUTIONS - 3rd most common gas in the earth’s atmosphere.
– Lugols solution, 5% iodine in water with potassium iodide - It is also used in MEDICAL LASERS, particularly in OPHTHALMOLOGY.
◼ IODINE TINCTURE
– Disinfectant, combination 2% iodine soln. and 15% alcohol with potassium ❑ KRYTON
iodide - Investigated for its use as an INHALATIONAL ANESTHETIC.
– 2% iodine in 50% alcohol with Nal - It was discovered in BRITAIN by SIR WILLIAM RAMSAY.
◼ SATURATED SOLUTION OF POTASSIUM IODIDE - It is used as a FILLING GAS for ENERGY-SAVING FLUORESCENT LIGHTS.
– Antidote for digoxin if immune fab is not available - It is also used as an INERT FILLING GAS for INCANDESCENT BULBS.
– Treatment of hyperthyroidism, Administered prior to thyroidectomy
– Negative feedback XENON
◼ POTASSIUM IODIDE - LEAST ABUNDANT NOBLE GAS.
– increase solubility of 12 lodine Tincture - It is used in instruments for RADIATION DETECTION LIKE X-RAY
◼ POVIDONE-IODINE (Betadine®) COUNTERS AND BUBBLE CHAMBERS.
– Polyvinylpyrolidone (PVP), it is and example of Iodophor which means you have
the complexes of iodine with non-ionic surfactants RADON
◼ BOULTON”S SOLUTION - It is a SYNTHETIC NOBLE GAS.
– Phenolated iodine solution which comprises of glyrcerin, compounds of iodine, - It is discovered by SIR WILLIAM RAMSAY AND ROBERT GRAY.
liquefied phenol and water - Ramsay and Gray first isolated the gas and named it NITON.
– It is used as a topical anti-infective - It was discovered in 1908.
◼ MANDEL’S SOLUTION - In 1923, it was called RADON.
– Carbolized iodine solution - Radium is one of its sources.
– Comprises of iodine, potassium iodide and glycerin - It is used in the treatment of CERVICAL CANCER.
– It is also used as an antiseptic - It is an inert gas that is given off by radium salts as a decomposition
❑ ASTATINE product.
– Synthetic
– The only radioactive element and It is the least reactive GROUP 8B: TRANSITION METALS
– Metallic halogen
– Formerly known as eka-iodine - It is composed of THREE TRIADS:
– Like iodine it is also known to accumulate in the thyroid gland ● 1ST: Iron (Fe), Cobalt (Co), Nickel (Ni)
THE GROUP VII-B: MANGANESE SUBGROUP ● 2ND: Rhodium (Rh), Ruthenium (Ru), Palladium (Pd)
● 3RD: Osmium (Os), Platinum (Pt), Iridum (Ir)
❑ MANGANESE
 2

PSMA: INORGANIC MEDICINALS

IRON – It is used to test PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS.
- Fe +2 = green ❑ BLUE POINT DYES
- Fe +3 = brown ◼ FERROUS FERRICYANIDE Fe3(Fe(CN)6)2
- Essential trace elements for BLOOD and ENZYMES. – Turnbull's Blue
- Proteins: HEMOGLOBIN ◼ FERRIC FEROCYANIDE Fe4(Fe(CN)6)3
- Transferrin – Prussian Blue
- Ferritin ◼ FERRIC OXIDE
- Cytochrome oxidase enzyme – Used in the preparation of calamine lotion
- Lowers respiratory pigment, metabolism ◼ MISCH METAL
- Its absorption is enhanced by VITAMIN C and COPPER particularly in the – 30 % Iron and 70% Cerium
DUODENUM.
- MOST IMPORTANT METAL. ❑ COBALT
- 1ST MAGNETIC METAL DISCOVERED. – Metal present in Vitamin12
- Also known as “Falling star” or “Shooting star”. – Essential for development of erythrocytes
- It can be used in the form of HYDRATED FERRIC OXIDE. – Use in manufacture of beer
- IRON TOXICITY: it can cause GIT DISTRESS and CARDIAC COLLAPSE. – Permanent magnet making
- DEFEROXAMINE - the antidote for iron toxicity. – FORMS: Anhydrous-blue, Hydrated-pink, Pure - pinkish white
– Occurs in cobaltite, smaltite and erythrite
FORMS OF IRON: – Present in Vogel’s solution comprises of cobaltous solution with combination of
1. CAST IRON (PIG IRON) ammonium thiocyanate
- From BLAST FURNACE containing 92%-94% IRON. – Widely used in electroplating
2. CEMENTITE (WHITE CAST IRON) – 60Co- radioactive compound that is used in the treatment of cancer
- Solid solution of hard, brittle iron carbide. – In the identification test just add several drops off ammonium thiocyanate or
3. GRAY CAST IRON (GRAPHITE SCALES) butanol positive result will be bright blue color.
- It is formed when the liquid iron is run into sand molds and ◼ COBALTOUS CHLORIDE
allowed to cool. – "Lovers Ink” "Sympathetic Ink"
4. WROUGHT IRON – Use as indicator for silica gel beads
- It is formed by the removal of impurities of the cast iron. – Blue color- anhydrous pink color -hydrous
- It has 99.9% IRON. ❑ COBALT META ALUMINATE
5. IRON PYRITE (FOOL’S GOLD) – Thenard’s Blue
- It is a native iron sulfide. ❑ NICKEL
6. CHALYBEATE WATER – Old nicks copper, Raney nickel
- It is iron in solution with the characteristic ferruginous taste. – Found in fossil fuel combustion
7. MISCH METAL – One of the elements used in stainless steel
- It is composed of 70% CERIUM and 30% IRON. – Metal present in fancy jewelry
o Contact dermatitis
SOURCES OF IRON: – Catalyst
1. FOOL’S GOLD (FeS) – Poison
2. MAGNETITE (Fe3O4) o Can cause decrease in blood pressure which can lead to nephritis
3. LIMONITE [FeO(OH)]
4. CIDERITE (FeCO3) ❑ NICKELOUS ION
5. HEMATITE (Fe2O3) – green/bluish green in solution
6. IRON STONE ❑ NICKEL + PECTINATE
– Treatment of diarrhea
● Ferrous - green – Tomectin
● Ferric - brown ❑ NICKEL+ SULFATE
● Elemental iron - silvery-white metal – Parasiticide Tonic
● Reduced iron - no luster, grayish
❑ NICKEL + CARBONATE
USES OF IRON: – Tonic
● As a metal, it is a component of STEEL ALLOYS. ❑ PALLADIUM
● IRON AND ITS STEEL ALLOYS are important in structures. – Effective catalyst
● Most important metal from STANDARD POINT OF ENGINEERING. – What’s derived from a newly discovered asteroid Pallas which derives from the
● This is essential for life because it is an important component of Greek goddess which means wisdom
HEMOGLOBIN found in the blood. – Is used in alloys in jewelry trade
● Pharmaceutical use: HEMATINIC (improve the quality of the blood). – It is also used as a catalyst in the the hydrogenation and dehydrogenation
processes
OTHER FORMS OF IRON ❑ OSMIUM
1. FERROUS SULFATE (FeSO4) – Heaviest & densest metal known
- Also known as GREEN VITRIOL. – Alloy of 90% platinum and 10% osmium is used in surgical implants in heart valves
- Most economical. – Osmic acid + osmium tetroxide
- Most satisfactory ferrous salt as a hematinic. o Staining of microscopic specimen used in electron microscopy
- Its other term is COPPERAS. – Osmium tetroxide
- Adverse effect: BLACK STOOL and CONSTIPATION o Used in the staining of fatty tissues and fingerprint detection
2. FERROUS FUMARATE (C4H2FeO4)
- Greater stability
❑ PLATINUM
3. FERROUS GLUCONATE (C12H24FeO14)
– Came from the Spanish word Platina which means little silver
- Less gastric irritation.
– Insoluble in mineral acids but is attacked aqua regia
- Also known as FERGON – Catalyst
4. FERROUS CARBONATE (FeCO3)
– Use in making crucibles & wires
- CHALYBEATE PILLS – Cisplatin
- BLAUD PILLS o Cis-diaminedichloroplatinum
- It has a FERRUGINOUS TASTE. o Antineoplastic
– Treatment of prostate cancer
APPROXIMATE ELEMENTAL IRON CONTENT OF VARIOUS ORAL IRON
PREPARATION

DRUG ELEMENTAL IRON

Ferric pyrophosphate 120 mg/g

Ferrous gluconate 120 mg/g

Ferrous sulfate 200 mg/g

Ferrous sulfate, dried 300 mg/g

Ferrous fumarate 330 mg/g

Ferrous carbonate, anhydrous 480 mg/g

Carbonyl iron 1000 mg/g

5. IRON + AMMONIUM ACETATE (NH4CH3COO)

- It forms the BASHAM’S MIXTURE which serves as an
ASTRINGENT and a STYPTIC.
● Styptic - are capable of stopping the bleeding when
applied to a wound.
● Basham is an AROMATIC SOLUTION OF IRON AND
AMMONIUM ACETATE.

6. FERROUS AMMONIUM SULFATE EXAMPLES OF ANION

- Ammonium Iron (II) Sulfate GROUP 1 Carbonate, sulfite, Arsenate,
- Also known as MOHR’S SALT. Arsenite, phosphate, oxalate,
- This salt is preferred over other salts of ferrous sulfate Fluorine
because it is less prone to oxidation by air to form the ferric GROUP 2 Chromate, sulfate
form. GROUP 3 Sulfite, ferrocyanide,
● MONSEL SOLUTION ferriccyanide
- It is the Ferric subsulfate solution. GROUP 4 Thiosulfate, Cl-, CNS-, I-, Br-
7. FERRIC CHLORIDE (FeCl3) GROUP 5 ClO3-, BO2-,NO2-, NO3-2
– Astringent
– Styptic
– Reagent for the DETECTION OF TANNINS.
 3

PSMA: INORGANIC MEDICINALS

Treatment of pernicious anemia
Sodium Rose Bengal (1-131)
Determination of liver function

Official Types of Water

1. Water USP
2. Purified Water USP
3. Water for Injection USP
4. Sterile Water for Injection USP
5. Bacteriostatic Water for Injection USP

1. Mineral Water
Natural spring or well water which contain in solution sufficient quantity of mineral or
gaseous matter that would render them unfit for domestic use.
s
2. Alkaline Water
Contains sodium + magnesium sulfates together with bicarbonates.

3. Carbonated Water sparkling H₂0, Cubsoda, soda water setzer H 20 or fizzy water
▷ Charged with carbon dioxide under pressure.
▷ Effervescence surface upon contact with

4. Chalybeate Water
▷lons in water or in suspension charged by a ferroginous taste.

5. Lithia Water
Occurs in the form of carbonates or chlorides

6. Saline Water
▷"purgative water's" Magnesium + sodium sulfate with sodium chloride

7. Sulphur Water
It is a condition where the running water contains a high amount of hydrogen sulfide gas
that escapes into the air when the plumbing line is opened, giving a distinct "rotten egg"
smell.

8. Siliceous Water
▷ Contains soluble alkali of silicates.

Forms of Radioactive Decay

1. Alpha Decay
Emission of alpha particle
Travels short distances
Stopped by a thin sheet of paper
2. Beta Decay
Emission of negative electron, or negatron
Type of radiation characteristics of these isotopes with high neutron proton ratio
3. Positron Emission
Emission of positive electron or positron
Low neutron-proton ration
4. K-Capture or Electron Capture
An alternative mode of decay to positron emission.
5. Gamma Emission
Electromagnetic radiation
Used for diagnostic purposes

Methods of Measurement
1. Ionization Chamber
2. Geiger-Muller Counter
3. Scintillation Counter
4. Autoradiographic

Sodium Chromate (Cr 51 Injection)

Diagnostic determination of RBC mass, volume & survival time and for scanning of the
spleen.

Gold (Au 198 Injection)

Diagnostic preparation of scintillation scanning of the liver, therapeutic preparation of
disorders secondary to neoplastic diseases.

Sodium lodide (1 125 Solution)

Diagnostic aid in the study of the functioning of the thyroid gland and in the scanning
thyroid gland to determine size, position and possible tumor localization, treatment o
hyperthyroidism.

Chlormerodrin (Hg 197 Injection)

Scintillation scanning of the kidneys or brain

Sodium Phosphate (P 32 Solution)

Treatment of polycythemia vera, localization of intraocular tumors

Technetium (Tc 99m Injection)

Brain scanning to determine the presence and locations of neoplastic lesions.

Cyanocobalamin (Co 57 & Co 60)

 1

DRUGS OF ANTIQUITY ENDOCRINE THERAPY AND STEROID

Relies on PLANT AND SOME MINERAL SOURCES. SHEN NUNG 1904  Henry Dale –Oxytocin
● Pen Tsao Oxytocin is used as an oxytocic (stimulates uterine
contraction) agent. It is secreted posterior pituitary gland,
○ Emperor - very potent, almost toxic. together with vasopressin (Antidiuretic hormone).
○ Minister - Average potency.  The anterior pituitary gland secretes Adrenocorticotropic
Hormone, Luteinizing Hormone, Prolactin, Follicle-
○ Servant - least potent. stimulating Hormone, Thyroid Hormone, Growth Hormone.
● Ch’ang Shang (Antimalarial)  Their difference is that the hormones secreted by the
anterior pituitary gland need stimulating hormones to
● Ma huang (Ephedra sinica) secrete or to stimulate release. On the other hand, oxytocin
○ This is where ephedrine is derived. and vasopressin directly target the glands, tissues, or cells
AMERICAN INDIANS to stimulate activity.
 Prolactin functions like oxytocin and vasopressin even
● Chaulmoogra fruit. though it is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. Prolactin
○ Used to treat skin problems. stimulates production of breast milk. It directly targets the
BRAZIL mammary glands.
● Ipecacuanha root 1914 Edward Kendall–Thyroxine
- Thyroxine - Activated T4 cell. T3 is activated in the bone marrow
○ It is used as an emetic agent (induces vomiting) and management and liver (peripheral compartment) to become T4. Liothyronine is
of poison nowadays. an alternative to T4 which is less potent and toxic..
○ Where Ipecac is derived from. T3 and T4 are synthesized in THYROID GLAND.
1921 Frederick Banting and Charles Best –Insulin
○ Treatment for amoebiasis and dysentery back then. - AMINO ACID SEQUENCE OF INSULIN
○ Emetine (extracted for direct treatment of amoebiasis) -Insulin is derived from animal sources but it can cause an
anaphylactic or hypoallergenic reaction among other individuals
○
Route of administration for treating amoebiasis: IV or parenteral so they decided to produce insulin by genetic engineering.
because oral preparation does not undergo absorption in the -The first genetically engineered was produced by ELI LILLY -
systemic circulation and it will not target the causative agent. HUMULIN.
SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS -Developers used Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae
● Coca leaves (yeast) to produce genetically-engineered human insulin.
○ Erythroxylum coca - botanical source.
-Insulin was also available in inhalation in 2006.
-ORAL HYPOGLYCEMICS: ■ Symlin - aka Pramlintide.
○ Indians called it “Divine plants of the Incas” because they thought 1930 Russell Marker – converted Diosgenin to Progesterone
it was a magic plant but today, we know that the cause of that -Progesterone - acid labile.
effect was the substance present in the leaves - COCAINE -Diosgenin is an example of saponin glycoside.
(stimulant) which can cause loss of appetite. -Botanical source: Dioscorea alata (purple yam/ube)
GREEK APOTHECARY 1950 Carl Djerassi – Noerthindrone (First orally active contraceptive
● opium, squill, hyoscyamus, viper toxin, Cu, Zn ores, Fe sulfate, Cadmium
1956
steroid)
John Rock – Progesterone + Noerthindrone
oxide
MIDDLE AGES 1980 Mifepristone –abortion pill
• rely on CHEMICAL AGENTS. 1994 Mifepristone + Misoprostol – morning-after pill
• Basic studies of chemistry and physics shifted from Greco-Roman to Arabian - (PLAN B - emergency contraceptive)
Alchemy ■ It is taken after intercourse.
• Paracelsus glorified Sb as cure-all in the belief that chemical could cure ■ Levonorgestrel is the active constituent.
diseases ANESTHETICS AND ANALGESICS
19TH CENTURY: AGE OF INNOVATION AND CHEMISTRY • Horace Wells: Dentist who administered Nitrous oxide during tooth extraction
From finding new medicaments from vast world of plants to finding the Active Ingredient  Nitrous oxide - general anesthetic. AKA- LAUGHING GAS.
that accounted for their pharmacologic properties • Crawford Long: Used ether as an anesthetic agent
- Relies on identifying the main constituent responsible for the pharmacological activity. • William Morton: Gave the first successful public demonstration of surgical
They started isolating the main constituents. anesthesia (1846)
1805 Friedrich Sertürner extracted morphine from poppy • Chloroform: Used as anesthetic agent at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital
- ○ Serturner took 12 years before his discovery became successful.  The first patient who used anesthesia was a pharmacy student.
HYPNOTICS AND ANTICONVULSANTS
1810 Samuel Hahnemann on his unproven principle “similia simili buscurantur”
• Laudanum: Induces sleep
doctrine that any drug capable of producing detrimental symptoms in
healthy individuals will relieve similar symptoms occurring as an  Also known as Opium Tincture.
expression of disease.  Camphorated opium tincture - Paregoric
• Bromides, chloral hydrate, paraldehyde, urethane and sulfenal
 Omiumpathy
 “similia similibus curantur”- like cures like  Chloral hydrate - also known as knockout drops
 Samuel Hahnemann also proposed that therapeutic doses should be because it causes the Micky Finn effect.
• 1864–Adolph Von Beyer: synthesized 5,5-diethylbarbituric acid
minute in diluted quantities to make the patients highly sensitive to a
drug. He was a physician but he became so repulsive to the idea of  It is the parent compound of barbiturates.
• Bayer Pharm’l Company: Introduced Phenobarbital (Luminal) –first barbiturate
conventional medicine.
• Hydantoins: Developed due to modification of the barbituric acid molecule
1816 Pierre-Pelletier –isolated emetine from Ipecacuanha
Phenob
1820 Purification of caffeine, quinine and colchicine
PHENOBARBITAL- contains one phenyl
1826 Mass production of Quinine Sulfate
ring and an alkyl group in position 5.
Quinine - from CINCHONA BARK.
1845 Adolph Kolbe – acetic acid synthesis
1878 British pharmacologist John – concept of biological receptor s paving the
way for pharmacodynamics
1886 First alkaloid synthesis – coniine Phenytoin- (diphenylhydantoin) because
Alkaloids are typically solid in nature. it contains two phenyl rings.
- Also known as Poison hemlock.
- Source: Conium maculatum
- Socrates was poisoned using coniine
1897 Paul Ehrlich – sidechain theory
LOCAL ANESTHETICS
- The substituents or sidechain of a drug are the reason behind their ability
• 1860–Albert Niemann: isolated cocaine
to cause germicidal activity against disease-causing organisms.
 The first products of Coca-cola contain cocaine.
(Structure-Activity Relationship)
• Carl Koller: First to use cocaine for topical anesthesia in ophthalmological
- 1897: The first acetyl derivative of salicylic acid was discovered by Felix
surgery
Hoffman (Acetylsalicylic acid)
• Richard Willstater: determined the structure of cocaine and atropine
Felix Hoffman is an employee of Bayer.
• Benzocaine, procaine, tetracaine and lidocaine: structural analogs of
1898 First mass production of synthetic drug – Aspirin
cocaine
- Aspirin (courtesy of Bayer)
20TH CENTURY: PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY
Rise of synthetic chemotherapeutic agents
1929 Alexander Fleming – Penicillin discovery
- The source of penicillin (Penicillium notatum) was discovered by
Alexander Fleming. COCAINE PROCAINE
- Howard Florey and Ernest Chain synthesized Penicillin from its
source.
1932 Gerhard Domagk –Prontosil/ Sulfamidochrysoidine
1940 Bacteriostatic action of Sulfonamide-like drugs
PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGIC AGENTS AND ERA OF BRAIN RESEARCH
Discovery of Chlorpromazine BENZOCAINE LIDOCAINE
Single most important breakthrough in DRUGS AFFECTING RENAL AND CARDIOVASCULAR FUNCTION
psychiatric treatment 1775 William Withering discovered Digitalis purpurea was beneficial to those
suffering from abnormal fluid buildup
Discovery of Iproniazid 1841 E. Humolle and T. Quevenne isolated digitoxin (Digitalis lanata)
Antidepressant 1973 Akira Endo – discovered the first anti-cholesterol drug (Derived from
- - first antidepressant discovered Penicillium citrinum.)
1978 Merck – discovered Lovastatin
Imipramine Mevacor - brand name. First FDA approved brand of Lovastatin.
First dibenzazepine / First Tricyclic Atorvastatin (Lipitor) - more popular and best-selling
Antidepressant 1929 Sydney Smith isolated digoxin
-Digitalis purpurea
-The most widely used cardiac glycoside.
Fluoxetine -It is the preferred cardiac glycoside over digitoxin because it has a shorter
First commercially successful SSRI half-life, lower bioavailability, and lower plasma protein binding
-earned 1 billion dollars. (Pharmacokinetic profile). Cardiac glycosides have a narrow therapeutic index,
SSRIs - Selective Serotonin Reuptake inhibitor. slight fluctuation in dose can already cause toxicity.
● BYPRODUCT OF SERENDIPITY: ANTICANCER AGENTS
○ Chlordiazepoxide: it is the prototype of benzodiazepines, diazepam, and meprobamate – Sulfur Mustard and Nitrogen Mustard: used for leukemia therapy
(sedative treatments).
 2

– 6-mercaptopurine: first effective leukemia, discovered by George Hitchings and ● It also identifies
Gertrude Elion SAR, Metabolism,
– 1893: Cisplatin gold standard, Inorganic drug, Carboplatin - 2nd gen; analog of and MOA.
cisplatin with fewer adverse effects and lesser toxicity. II Up to Several Some short- 45 ● We ask volunteers
– 1963: Paclitaxel discovered by Moeroe Wall and Masukh Wani several months term safety of patients with the
 Taxus brevifolia - Pacific Yew Tree hundred to 2 but mainly disease that your
 Taxus baccata - European Yew Tree years effectiveness drug is being
 The constituent taxol that is isolated from the sources is less investigated for.
potent which is why the modification of structure is needed. ● Some adverse
Organic Pharmaceutical Chemistry: A scientific discipline at the intersection of chemistry effects and risks
and pharmacy involved with designing, synthesizing and developing pharmaceutical drugs. associated should be
It also includes the study of existing drugs, their biological properties, and their Quantitative established.
Structure-Activity Relationships (QSAR). ● The dosage form
Medicinal Chemistry: Involves the identification, synthesis and development of new should also be
chemical entities suitable for therapeutic use. established during
Pharmaceutical Chemistry: Focused on quality aspects of medicines and aims to assure this phase because
fitness for the purpose of medicinal products. Phase III is already
Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationships (QSAR): is a strategy of the essential considered an
importance for chemistry and pharmacy, based on the idea that when we change a extended clinical trial.
structure of a molecule then also the activity or property of the substance will be modified. III Several 1-4 Safety, 5-10 ● We gather
DRUG DEVELOPMENT PROCESS hundred years effectiveness, additional information
1. Discovery Phase: includes synthesis, isolation, fermentation, screening, SAR to dosage on the effectiveness
studies several of the drug, evaluate
i. Choosing a disease thousand its benefit-risk
a. The primary target of the discovery phase. relationship, and
b. They can focus on the disease that would cause financial return. further evaluation in
c. To further the discovery of the receptors that you can target for your terms of its adverse
drug. effects, dosage, etc.
ii. Choosing a drug target New Drug Application
a. Understand the disease itself and its physiology to choose your drug – Submission of New Drug Application (NDA)
target. – NDA is submitted for review and approval after the completion of the clinical
2. Choosing a drug target trials and requirements have been met.
• Depend on finding the drug first – Give permission to market drug product
• Discovery of the chemical messenger – ANDA: Abbreviated NDA (Generic drug)
3. Identifying a bioassay o A bioequivalent study is required in submitting a generic drug
• In vivo – including a clinical condition and treated with the test drug application.
• In vitro – drug activity is tested on isolated tissues or cells, These are means to – It takes 6 months to 2 years to approve NDA.
assess if the drug could be able to act on drug target and can release – sNDA - Supplemental New Drug Application
therapeutic activity. Other examples include ex-vivo and in-silico. Postmarketing Surveillance [Phase 4]
4. Finding a lead compound – post-marketing studies and manufacturing scale-up activities take place
– Compound showing a desired pharmacological property which can be used to – Modification on drug formulation as obtained from manufacturing scale-up and
initiate a medicinal chemistry project. validation process may be done
5. Ways of Discovering a Lead Compound METABOLISM / BIOTRANSFORMATION
○ Screening of natural products - from plants and plant products, bacterias, and animal • plays a central role in the elimination of drugs and other foreign compounds
sources. (xenobiotics) from the body
○ Medical Folklore • an essential tool for pharmacists in their role of selecting and monitoring are
○ Screening synthetic banks appropriate drug therapy for their patients’ drug
○ Combinatorial synthesis • Occur at some point between absorption into the circulation and its renal
○ Computer-aided design elimination
○ Serendipity and prepared mind - Valproic acid has anticonvulsant properties but it was • IND is applied before clinical trials. NDA is applied after Phase III. ANDA is
only used as a solvent back then. Serendipity is the most common way to discover a lead applied after the patent expires
compound. • To prepare the drug ready for excretion.
○ Use of NMR – • It is very important for us since it enables us to select and monitor the
○ Existing Drugs - the drugs formulated now are only derivatives or analogs of drugs appropriate drug regimens for patients
existing today • Initially, the parent drug is intended to be inactivated during metabolism.
Isolate and purify the lead compound. • In the case of prodrugs, the parent drug is being converted into a more active
6. Determine the structure state. The parent drug can also become non-toxic by the process of
• NMR, IR, spectroscopy, X-ray crystallography, LC-MS DETOXIFICATION OR DETOXICATION.
7. Identify the structure-activity relationship – in vitro • Unfortunately, there are times when problems arise, like liver problems and
8. Identify the pharmacophore overdose, the parent drug eventually becomes toxic or may be converted into a
9. Improve target interaction and pharmacokinetic properties more toxic state.
10. Study drug metabolism and test for toxicity
11. Design a manufacturing process • Liver
– main site of metabolism and detoxification of
Pharmacology: science of the properties of the drugs and its effects in the body endo/exogenous compounds
Pharmacodynamics: study of the interaction of drugs with cells – Rich in almost all of drug-metabolizing enzymes
Pharmacokinetics: handling of a drug within the body, it includes the ADME processes • PO drugs
Toxicity Testing: in vitro and in vivo testing, determination of LD 50 – pass thru the liver before being further distributed in
Pharmaceutics: general area of study concerned with the formulation, manufacturing, body compartments
stability and effectiveness of a pharmaceutical dosage form • First-Pass Effect
Preclinical Studies – Metabolism before reaching systemic circulation
– a sponsor evaluates the drug's toxic and pharmacologic effects through in vitro and in – Limit the BA of orally administered drugs
vivo laboratory animal testing. • Extrahepatic Metabolism
– Genotoxicity screening is performed, as well as inveremstigations on drug absorption – Intestine, kidney, lungs, adrenal glands, placenta, brain, skin; Substrate specific
and metabolism, the toxicity of the drug's metabolites, and the speed with which the o There are specific drugs that they can act upon, unlike the liver,
drug and its metabolites are excreted from the body. almost all the drugs pass the liver for metabolism.
– FDA will generally ask, at a minimum, that sponsors:
o develop a pharmacological profile of the drug;
o determine the acute toxicity of the drug in at least two species of
animals
o conduct short-term toxicity studies ranging from 2 weeks to 3
months, depending on the proposed duration of use of the
substance in the proposed clinical studies.
– Back then, oral toxicity testing was the only one being conducted, but nowadays, FDA
requires Genotoxicity studies, carcinogenicity, and teratogenicity screening.
– Non-clinical data from past in-vitro preclinical studies of the compound are also
required to be submitted by the developer.
– If the compound has already clinical data from the US or other countries with the
same population as the US or an almost significant population as with the US is
required.
PHASE I REACTIONS
– The data acquired from the new preclinical studies the developer conducted is also
Goals:
submitted to the FDA.
– Produce a more water-soluble compound
– Pre-clinical research and development initial synthesis and characterization average
– Produce a molecule that can undergo subsequent phase II reactions
of 6 ½ years
– Clinical research and development such as this one two and three has the average Functionalization • polar functional groups are introduced into
of seven years phase the molecule or unmasked by: Oxidation,
– NDA review has the average of 1 ½ year Reduction and Hydrolysis
– Post-marketing surveillance such as adverse reaction reporting surveys or sampling • by direct introduction of the functional
testing and lastly inspections group
File IND Application Example: aromatic and aliphatic hydroxylation
– Filed before drug may be given to human (clinical trials) • by modifying or "unmasking" existing
– special consideration is given on Orphan drugs (treatment IND) functionalities
• orphan drug is used to treat orphan disease, or disease that affects fewer than Examples:
200,000 people in the US a. reduction of ketones and aldehydes to alcohols
• Ex: Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia, Gaucher’s disease, Cystic Fibrosis, AIDS-related b. oxidation of alcohols to acids
diseases c. hydrolysis of ester and amides to yield COOH,
– Submitted to FDA  Review by FDA for 30 days NH2 and OH groups; reduction of azo and nitro
– compounds to give NH2 moieties; oxidative N-,
Clinical Trials O- And S- dealkylation to give NH2. OH, and
Phase # of Length Purpose % SC- DEF. SH groups).
Patients CMPLT
I 20-100 Several Mainly safety 67 ● Characteristics of
Months volunteers: 1.Oxidation • Most are mediated by microsomes.
HEALTHY
● No established
effectiveness.
 3

• Although oxidation would seem to imply

the addition of oxygen, that is not always
the case.
• may refer to the change in oxidation state
of the substrate
• Two types of oxidation reactions:
– Oxygen is incorporated into the drug
molecule –
(e.g. hydroxylation) – The presence of substituents could influence the process of hydroxylation
– Oxidation causes the loss of part of the – Electron withdrawing groups can you slow down the process of hydroxylation while
drug molecule electron donating groups can accelerate the process of hydroxylation
(e.g. oxidative deamination, dealkylation) COMPOUNDS WITH TWO AROMATIC RINGS
Microsomes • form in vitro after cell homogenization and • If there are two or more phenyl rings, hydroxylation proceeds in the electron rich ring
fractionation of ER • There are certain compounds which are
– Rough microsomes are primarily resistant to aromatic hydroxylation despite of
associated with protein synthesis the aromatic rings due to presence of multi
– Smooth microsomes contain a class of electronegative chlorine atoms attached to
oxidative enzymes called MFOs rings [Eg. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
 MFO Requirements 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD)]
✔Reducing Agents (Electron donor) • Drugs that space in the body for longer
periods of time that escapes metabolism processes is called lipophilic properties,
1. NADPH (Nicotinamide Adenine
TCDD are known as pollutants or toxic thus increasing the chances of health hazard
Dinucleotide Phosphate)
• If there is another phenyl ring that doesn’t have any electron withdrawing group
2. Molecular Oxygen
attach then this is where hydroxylation process will happen
– One oxygen molecule appears in the
• Diazepam is an anti-anxiety drug well chlorpromazine is an anti-psychotic drug
product
Oxidation of Olefins
– Other oxygen in the form of water
• metabolic oxidation of olefinic carbon—carbon double bonds leads to the
Flavoprotein • One mole of this enzyme contains one
corresponding epoxide (or oxirane).
mole each of flavin mononucleotide (FMN)
• Is also known as the olefinic epoxidation
and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
• OLEFINS are also known as alkenes therefore having double bonds
• NADPH – cytochrome P450 reductase
• The epoxide is cleaved by epoxide hydrases to form trans-diols
• Electron transporter
• There are inhibitors such as cyclohexene oxide and trichloropropene
Cytochrome • Name based on light abs at 450nm when • EPOXIDES
P450 complexed with CO – more stable than the arene oxides formed from aromatic compounds
• Hemoprotein containing an iron atom – it is in the shape of triangle or a known cyclic ether
which can alternate between ferrous
– susceptible to enzymatic hydration by epoxide hydrase to form trans-l,2-
(Fe+2) and ferric (Fe+3) states
dihydrodiols (also called 1,2-diols or 1,2-dihydroxy compound)
• Serves as terminal oxidase
• Toxicity of olefinic compounds may result from their metabolic conversion to
• Electron Acceptor
chemically reactive epoxide
• No substrate specificity – Aflatoxin –DES or the diethylstilbestrol
– Stilbene –Vinylchloride
• Green Pigments
– abnormal heme derivative
– N-alkylatedprotoporphyrins- are activated metabolically via CYP enzyme ( very
reactive intermediate where it covalently binds to the heme position of the
CYP)
o Allylisopropyl acetamide
o Secobarbital
o Fluoroxene
Olefinic Epoxidation
• Carbamazepine (Tegretol)
– epoxide is reasonably stable and can be measured quantitatively in the
plasma of patients receiving the parent drug
Protriptyline (Vivactil) Cyproheptadine (Periactin)
CYP Isoform Substrates
3A4 Responsible for APAP, Erythromycin, Lidocaine,
metabolism of over 50% of Lovastatin, Miconazole, Quinidine,
prescription drugs Verapamil
metabolized by the liver Oxidation at Benzylic Carbon Atoms
2D6 Clozapine, codeine, Desipramine, • Carbon atoms attached
Dextromethorphan, Fluoxetine, to aromatic rings
Haloperidol, Oxycodone, Paroxetine, (benzylic position) are
Propafenone susceptible to oxidation,
2C8 Taxol, Retinoic Acid Derivatives forming the alcohol (or
2C9 Celecoxib, Diclofenac, Ibuprofen, carbinol) metabolite.
Losartan, Phenytoin, Tolbutamide • 10 alcohol metabolites are often oxidized further to aldehydes and carboxylic
Aromatic Hydroxylation acids (CH2OH → CHO → COOH), and secondary alcohols are converted to
• refers to the mixed-function oxidation of aromatic compounds (arenes) to their ketone.
corresponding phenolic metabolites (arenols)
• proceed initially through an epoxide intermediate called an "arene oxide” which
rearranges rapidly and spontaneously to the arenol
• NIH Shift leading to the formation of arenols also known as deuteride shift forming the Tolbutamide (Orinase), a hypoglycemic drug
arenols
• NIH which means national institute of health
• May also acted upon by epoxide hydrases leading to the formation of trans-
dihydrodiols- product glutathione: helps provide a defense mechanism against ROS Tolmetin (Tolectin) an anti inflammatory agent
(reactive arene oxide) which can be cancerous to humans. Oxidation at Allylic Carbon Atoms
• Or be acted upon by sulfhydryl group in GSH to yield Allylic hydroxylation generally does not lead to the generation of reactive intermediates.
GSH adduct Alylls carbons that are attached to carbon carbon double bonds
• It is important to prevent the formation of ROS by ALLYL structural formula : H2C=CH-CH2 Quinidine
arene oxides, benzene will produce a reactive AKA THC which is an active metabolite in An anti-arrhythmic drug
metabolite called HYDROQUINONE that causes marijuana
cancer called plastic anemia
• Major route of metabolism for phenyl- containing
drugs

OXIDATION AT CARBON ALPHA TO CARBONYL IMINE

• Common to benzodiazepines:
Oxidized to 3- hydroxy
• metabolites
• Hydroxylation occurs at the para position (conatituents • Diazepam (Valium): 3-
that are located at number 1 and 4 carbon) hydroxy diazepam (also
• Microsomal aromatic hydroxylation reactions appear called N-methyloxazepam)
to proceed most readily in activated (electron-rich) • Flurazepam (Dalmane)
rings, EDG means electron donating group • Nimetazepam are
• Drugs containing electron withdrawing groups (EWG)Cl, - NR3, COOH, SO2NHR) it Anticonvulsants
is the deactivating when it comes to hydroxylation
• Examples of drugs that undergo Aromatic Hydroxylation in humans

OXIDATION AT ALIPHATIC CARBON ATOMS

• Metabolic oxidation at the terminal carbon is referred to as ω oxidation
• Oxidation of penultimate carbon atom (i.e., next-to-the-last carbon): ω—I
oxidation
• Happens in branched or straight aliphatic carbon chains
• Other examples are amobarbital and chlorpropamide
•
majority of the hydroxylation groups happens in the para position
it would still undergo other processes like in phase two such as glucoronide or sulfate
conjugate because these compounds under a aromantic hydroxylation are still not polar
and become more hydrophilic and becomes more easily excreted in and out of the body
such as Propranolol phenobarbital, p hydroxyl ohenytoin and warfarin drugs
– Clonidine (Catapres): The deactivating groups (Cl, -NH = C)
– Probenecid (Benemid): electron-withdrawing groups: sulfamido group
 4

OXIDATION INVOLVING CARBON-HETERO SYSTEMS

• Hydroxylation of the alpha-carbon atom attached directly to the heteroatom (N, – P=S � P=O
O, S). – Parathion � Paraoxon
• Hydroxylation or oxidation of the heteroatom
(N, S only, e.g. N-hydroxylation. N-oxide formation. sulfoxide. and sulfone formation)
1. OXIDATION INVOVLVING CARBON-NITROGEN SYSTEM
• Three basic classes of nitrogen-containing compounds
• Aliphatic (primary, secondary, & tertiary) and alicyclic (secondary & tertiary)
amines • SULFOXIDATION
• Aromatic and heterocyclic nitrogen compounds – S-oxidation reactions
• Amides – (s- to sulfoxides to
• Susceptible to either a-carbon hydroxylation or N- oxidation sulfone)
• Drugs containing nitrogen: natural products [morphine, cocaine, nicotine] – Sulfone has two double
• Other drugs: phenothiazines, antihistamines, tricyclic antidepressants, beta- bonded oxygen atoms
adrenergic agents, phenylethylamines, benzodiazepines – Sulfoxides has one
• N-demethylation and oxygen deamination double bond oxygen
– In primary aliphatic amines, such as phentermine, chlorphentermine &
amantadine, N-oxidation appears to be a major biotransformation pathway
because a-carbon hydroxylation cannot occur. OXIDATION OD ALCOHOLS AND ALDEHYDES
– Removal of methyl groups Primary alcohol------------�Aldehyde
– deamination means the removal of amino group
– oxidative deamination means removal of an amino group and replaced by an Carbinolamine
oxygen.

2.REDUCTION
• N-hydroxylation of secondary amines – addition of hydrogen or gain of electrons
– Generates the corresponding N-hydroxylamine metabolites – play an important role in the metabolism of many compounds containing
carbonyl, nitro, and azo group
– Hydroxyl and amino groups are susceptible to conjugation

Miscellaneous Reductions
• Reduction of N-oxides to tertiary amine
• Reduction of sulfur-containing functional groups, such as the disulfide and
sulfoxide
• Oxidation is the most common metabolic pathway
– Carbonyl reduction
• N-hydroxylation • Alcohol
– 1 amine→ [hydroxylamine] →nitroso →nitro • Ketones are resistant to oxidation are reduced to secondary alcohol
– 2 amine→ [hydroxylamine] → nitrone
– Primary aromatic amines are oxidized to hydroxylamines then further
oxidized to nitroso (Chlorphentermine, Aniline)

• p and N-
hydroxylation • Aldehydes are reduced to form primary alcohol
Phentermine

 • Acetohexamide: not recommended in diabetic patients with renal failure,

because of the possible accumulation of its active metabolite hydroxyhexamide
– AMIDES • Not given the diabetic patients due to side effect off hypoglycemia
– N- alkyl substituents are also dealkylated
through N-dealkylation
– Hydroxylation also happens to the alpha
carbon of the amide or phosphamide.

2. OXIDATION INVOLVING • (R) (+) enantiomer of the oral anticoagulant warfarin undergoes extensive
CARBON-OXYGEN SYSTEM reduction of its side chain keto group to generate the (R, S) (+) alcohol as the
• Three basic classes of major plasma metabolite.
nitrogen-containing
compounds
1. Aliphatic (primary, secondary,
& tertiary) and alicyclic (secondary & tertiary) amines
2. Aromatic and heterocyclic nitrogen compounds
3. Amides
• Susceptible to either a-carbon hydroxylation or N- oxidation
• Drugs containing nitrogen: natural products [morphine, cocaine, nicotine] Nitro, And Azo Reduction
• Other drugs: phenothiazines, antihistamines, tricyclic antidepressants, beta- • Amino derivative;
adrenergic agents, phenylethylamines, benzodiazepines Leads to primary
amine metabolites
• OXIDATIVE O-DEALKYLATION
– involves the oxidation of the alpha carbon
– A common metabolism process for codeine to form morphine

 Reduction of Nitro Compounds

• Metronidazole
• Clonazepam, Nirazepam

–
OXIDATION INVOLVING CARBON-SULFUR SYSTEMS
– involves the alpha
carbon hydroxylation • Dantrolene

• S-dealkylation
• Desulfuration
– From carbon to sufur double  Azo Reduction
bond TO carbon oxygen – Proceed via a hydrazo intermediate (-NH-NH-) that is cleaved reductively to
double bond yield the corresponding aromatic amines:
– Thiono C=S � Carbonyl
– Thiopenthal� Pentobarbital

• Prontosil
 5

Hydroxyl compounds
N-oxides  Phenols: morphine, acetaminophen, p-hydroxyphenytoin
• Tertiary amine

Sulfoxides
• Sulfides

Disulfide
• SH+-SH
 Alcohols: Tricholoroethanol, chloramphenicol, propranolol
3. HYDROLYSIS
– reaction of water with substrate resulting in breaking scissile carbon-
heteroatom bonds)
– frequently enzyme - mediated although serum pH may cause reaction.
– major biotransformation pathway for drugs containing an ester functionality.

 Enols: 4-hydroxycoumarin
Ester hydrolysis
– mediated by non-specific esterases found in the liver, kidney, and intestine and
pseudocholinesterases present in plasma

 N-Hydroxyamines: N-Hydroxydapsone

Amide hydrolysis  N-Hydroxyamides: N-Hydroxy-2-acetylaminofluorene

– mediated by liver microsomal amidases. Esterases and deacylases
PHASE II METABOLISM
– endogenous compounds that undergo conjugation reactions
1. Bilirubin
2. Steroids
3. Catecholamines
4. Histamine
– mediated by more specific transferase enzymes.
Conjugated Products
• relatively water soluble and readily excretable; biologically inactive and
nontoxic
REACTIONS UNDER PHASE II
GLUCORONIDATION
– most common conjugative pathway in drug metabolism for several reasons:
o readily available supply of D-glucuronic acid
o numerous functional groups that can combine enzymatically with glucuronic
acid
o glucuronyl moiety, when attached to xenobiotic substrates, greatly increases Carboxyl-Containing Compounds
the water solubility of the conjugated product  Aryl acids: benzoic acid, salicylic acid
– In neonates and children, glucuronidating processes are often not developed
fully  accumulation of drug  toxicity
– Two steps in the formation of B –glucuronides
– Another example is chloramphenicol what is metabolize via glucoronidation
process in a case which babies who have not yet developed enzymes and
gluroronic acid moiety leading to accumulation of the metabolite leading to gray
baby syndrome
– 3 REASONS FAMOUS PROCESS  Arylalkyl acids: naproxen, fenoprofen
o The abundance of glucuronic acid
o Increases water solubility Sulfur Glucoronides
o Presence of numerous functional groups that can easily attach to Sulfhydryl groups: methimazole, propylthiouracil, diethyithiocarbamic acid
glucoronyl moiety
1. Involves synthesis of an activated coenzyme
- uridine-5'-diphospho-a-D- glucuronic acid (UDPGA)
2. Subsequent transfer of the glucuronyl group from UDPGA to an appropriate
substrate
- catalyzed by microsomal enzymes called UDP-glucuronyltransferases
- Found primarily in the liver but also occur in kidneys, intestine, skin, Carbon Glucoronides
lungs, and brain.

SULFATION
– Leads to water-soluble and inactive metabolite
– Endogenous compounds that undergo sulfate conjugation: steroids, heparin,
Types of Compounds forming Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur and Carbon Glucuronide chondroitin, catecholamines, and thyroxine
– Two Steps in formation of Sulfonate Conjugate
1. Oxygen Glucuronides 1. Involves activation of inorganic sulfate to the coenzyme
Glucoronic Acid Conjugation ―3'-phosphoadenosine- 5’-phosphosulfate (PAPS).
 6

2. Subsequent transfer of the sulfate group from PAPS to the accepting substrate is • catalyzed by a family of cytoplasmic enzymes known as glutathione S-
catalyzed by various soluble sulfotransferases present in the liver and other tissues transferases (liver and kidney)
(e.g. kidneys, intestine). – GSH glutathione– tripeptide (y-glutamyl- cysteinylglycine)
Drugs susceptible to sulfate formation – Many industrial chemicals, such as benzyl chloride, allyl chloride (CH2=CHCH2CI).
• Alcohols (e.g. aliphatic C1 to C5 alcohols, diethylene glycol) and methyl iodide are known to be toxic and carcinogenic
• Aromatic Amines (e.g. aniline,2-naphthylamine) – The reactivity of these three halides toward GSH conjugation in mammalian systems
• O-sulfate conjugates of some N-hydroxy compounds give rise to toxic is demonstrated by the formation of the corresponding mercapturic acid derivatives.
metabolites (hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic) – Arene oxides and aliphatic epoxides (or oxiranes) represent a very important class of
• Sulfate conjugation of N hydroxy metab  0-sulafte esters (ultimate substrates that are conjugated and detoxified by GSH.
carcinogenic agent like in the case of phenacetin) 5.ACETYLATION
– Terminate pharmacological activity and detoxification
– few reports indicate that acetylated metabolites may be as active (N-procainamide) or
more toxic (N-acetylisoniazid) than parent compounds
– The acetyl group used in N- acetylation of xenobiotics is supplied by acetyl-CoA.
– Transfer of the acetyl group from this cofactor to the accepting amino substrate is
carried out by soluble N-acetyltransferases present in hepatic reticuloendothelial
cells.
– constitutes an important metabolic route for drugs containing primary amino groups
• primary aromatic amines (ArNH2)
• Sulfonamides (H2NC6H4SO2NHR)
• Hydrazines (—NHNH2)
• Hydrazides (—CONHNH2)
Drugs containing phenolic moieties • Primary aliphatic amines
o For many phenols, sulfoconjugation may represent only a minor pathway. – The amide derivatives formed from acetylation of these amino functionalities are
- Competes with Glucuronidation of phenols generally inactive and nontoxic.
- Eg. Acetaminophen – Aromatic compounds with a primary amino group such as:
• Aniline
• p-aminobenzoic acid
• p-aminosalicylic acid
• procainamide (Pronestyl)
• dapsone (Avlosulfon)
– especially susceptible to N-acetylation.
ACETYLATION POLYMORPHISM
RAPID ACETYLATORS SLOW ACETYLATORS
– Eskimos and Asians - Egyptians and some Western
– more likely to show an European groups
o In adults: inadequate therapeutic - more likely to develop adverse
- Major metabolite: O-glucuronide conjugate response to standard drug reactions
- O-sulfate conjugate formed in small amounts doses - Plasma half-life
o In infants and young children (ages 3 to 9 years) - plasma half-life - (slow acetylators) is about 140 to
- 0-sulfate conjugate is the main urinary product • (rapid acetylators) = - 200 minutes
ranges from 45 to 80 - Greater Adverse effects:
minutes - peripheral neuritis and drug-
- more likely to develop induced systemic lupus
isoniazid-associated erythematosus syndrome) -to
hepatitis patients taking: hydralazine and
procainamide

3.CONJUGATION WITH GLYCINE, GLUTAMINE AND OTHER AMINO ACIDS

– glycine and glutamine are used by mammalian systems to conjugate carboxylic
acids, particularly aromatic acids and arylalkyl acids
• Glycine - mammals
• Glutamine - human
– not converted to activated co-enzymes. Instead, the carboxylic acid substrate is
activated with adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and co-enzyme A (CoA) to form an
acyl- CoA complex
– Acylation of glycine or glutamine by N-acyltransferase
• (mitochondria of liver and kidney cells)
6.METHYLATION
– play an important role in the biosynthesis of many endogenous compounds
ex. epinephrine and melatonin
– in the inactivation of numerous physiologically active biogenic amines
ex. norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, and histamine
– coenzyme involved: S-adenosylmethionine (SAM)
– catalyzed by various cytoplasmic and microsomal
• Methyltransferases
• Specific catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT)
• phenol-O-methyltransferase
• nonspecific N-methyltransferases
• S-methyltransferases
Factors affecting Metabolism
 Age differences
 Deficiency in enzymes
- Leading to gray-baby syndrome
- Neonatal hyperbilirubinemia
 Hereditary or genetic factor genetic polymorphism
 Sex difference (Adult male rats metabolize faster)
 Enzyme induction
- phenobarbital induces glucuronyltransferases, cabbage, cauliflower and
4.GSH CONJUGATION
charcoal broiled foods
– important pathway for detoxifying chemically reactive electrophilic compounds
 Enzyme inhibition
– GSH protects vital cellular constituents against chemically reactive species by virtue
- (chloramphenicol, isoniazid, disulfiram and GRAPEFRUIT)
of its nucleophilic sulfhydryl (SH) group.
 Species and strain differences
– SH group reacts with electron-deficient compounds to form S-substituted GSH
- Metabolism of amphetamine occurs by two main pathways:
adducts
 7

• Human, rabbit,and guinea pig = oxidative deamination appears to be • Prepared by sulfuric-acid – catalyzed
the predominant hydration of propylene
• Rat=aromatic hydroxylation • Disinfectant, 50-95% bactericidal
- Enzyme differences • Colorless, flammable gas, liquefies at
• Cats lack glucuronyltransferase enzymes therefore through Ethylene Oxide 12°C
sulfoconjugation • For temperature sensitive medical
• Pigs lack sulfoconjugation (no sulfotransferase) equipment and heat-sensitive
Disease affecting Metabolism pharmaceuticals
 Thyroid dysfunction • Diffuses readily through porous
• Hypothyroidism: increasing t1/2 of Digoxin, Methimazole and B-blockers materials, destroys all forms of
 Biliary cirrhosis, alcoholic hepatitis, hemochromatosis, drug-induced hepatitis microorganisms
• Significantly impair hepatic drug-metabolizing enzymes (microsomal oxidases) • Forms explosive mixtures in air at 3-80%
• Chlordiazepoxide/Diazepam by volume
- w/ increased t1/2 = may cause coma when given in normal doses • Involves non-selective alkylation of
 Viral inf, CA, inflammation functional groups in nucleic acids and
• Impair drug metabolism by inactivating P450s and enhancing their degradation proteins by nucleophilic opening of oxide
DEFINITIONS AND STANDARDS FOR REMOVING MICROORGANISMS ring
Antisepsis: Application to living tissue for preventing infection. • Extremely toxic and potentially
Disinfection: Chemical or physical treatment that destroys most vegetative microbes or carcinogenic
viruses, but nut spores, in or on inanimate surfaces. Intended for nonliving things ALDEHYDES
Decontamination: Destruction or marked reduction in the number of activity of Formaldehyde • Germicidal action – direct, nonspecific
microorganisms. Solution alkylation of nucleophilic functional groups
Sanitation: Reduction of microbial load on an inanimate surface to a level considered (amino, hydroxyl, and sulfhydryl) in proteins
acceptable for public health purposes. and nucleic acids to form carbinol derivatives
Pasteurization: Kills nonsporulating microorganisms by hot water or steam at 65-100°C. • Readily oxidizes = formic acid and
Sterilization: Kill or remove all types of microorganisms, including spores, and usually paraformaldehyde
including viruses with an acceptably low probability of survival. • Oral ingestion = severe GI distress
History • Carcinogen
1867 Joseph Lister introduced antiseptic principles • Formalin
1881-1900 Paul Ehrlich: magic bullet, selective toxicity, Compound 606 – 37% w/v formaldehyde, w/ methanol added to
(Salvarsan) theory of selective toxicity retard polymerization
1920 Most successful anti-infective agents: Mercury, Arsenic, – Miscible with water and alcohol, with pungent
Antimony aroma
Atoxyl (Sodium Arsanilate & Arsphenamine): sleeping – Contact dermatitis is common
sickness tx – Stored above 15°C to prevent cloudiness
Gentian violet, methylene blue, quinine congeners
1950s Sulfonamides, sulfones, phenolic compounds, synthetic
antimalarial compounds
Glutaraldehyde • Diluted solution for heat-sensitive equipment
ANTI-INFECTIVE AGENTS (Cidex, a 5- • Nonbuffered – acidic (due to acidic proton on
Classifications carbon the cyclic hemiacetal form, stable but lack
• Chemical types of the compound • Biological properties dialdehyde) sporicidal action)
• Therapeutic indication Commercial • Stable in alkaline solution
Characteristics of an Ideal Anti-Infective Agent Glutaraldehyde • 2% Glutaraldehyde buffered at 7.5-8.0
 Low-enough toxicity that it can be used directly on skin or wounds • Retain more than 80% original activity after 30
 Exert a rapid and sustained lethal action days
 Low surface tension so that it will spread into the wound • Non stabilized alkaline solution – lose 44%
 Retain activity in the presence of body fluids (pus) after 15 days
 Non-irritating to tissues • • >8.5pH – rapidly polymerizes
 Non-allergenic
 Lack systemic toxicity
 Not interfere with healing
ALCOHOLS AND RELATED COMPOUNDS
 Antibacterial potencies of the primary alcohols (against test cultures of
Staphylococcus aureus) increase with molecular weight until the 8-carbon atom
octanol is reached PHENOLS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES
 General, one oxygen atom is capable of solubilizing seven or eight carbon Phenol coefficient
atoms in water  Defined as the ratio of a dilution of a given test disinfectant to the dilution of
 As the primary alcohol chain length increases, van der waals interactions phenol that is required to kill a strain of Salmonella typhi under carefully
increase, and the ability to penetrate microbial membranes increases. controlled time and temperature conditions.
 As water solubility decreases, the apparent antimicrobial potency diminishes  Several phenols are actually more bactericidal than phenol itself.
with molecular weight.  Substitution with alkyl, aryl, and halogen (especially in the para
 Branching of the alcohol chain decreases antibacterial potency; weaker van der position) groups increases bactericidal activity.
Waals forces brought about by branching do not penetrate bacterial cell  Straight-chain alkyl groups enhance bactericidal activity more than
membranes as efficiently branched groups.
 Isomeric alcohols’ potencies decrease in the order primary > secondary >  Alkylated phenols and resorcinol are less toxic than the parent
tertiary compounds while retaining bactericidal properties. Phenols denature
 Isopropyl alcohol is a secondary alcohol it is also a propyl at, and has a good bacterial proteins at low concs, whereas lysis of
anti-infective agent Phenol, USP • Standard to which the activity of most
ETHANOL “Carbolic Acid” germicidal substances is compared
– AKA: Ethyl alcohol, Rectified spirit, Wine spirit, Grain alcohol, Spiritus vini • Colorless to pale-pink crystalline with
rectificatus medicinal odor
– Clear, colorless, volatile liquid; Burning taste, pleasant odor • Soluble 1 part: 15 parts water, very
– Flammable, miscible with water in all proportions; Soluble in most organic soluble in alcohol, soluble in methanol
solvents and salol (phenyl salicylate)
– Prepared by sulfuric-acid-catalyzed hydration of ethylene • Germicidal – general protoplasmic
– External: Antiseptic, preservative, mild counterirritant, solvent poison caustic to skin, exerts local
– Internal: mild sedative, weak vasodilator, carminative anesthetic effects, must be diluted to
– Spirits, tinctures, fluidextracts avoid tissue destruction
– Alcohol is metabolized in the human body by a series of oxidations: • Surgical antiseptic (1867)
Acetaldehyde causes nausea, vomiting, and vasodilatory flushing. This fact has • Antipruritic in Phenolated Calamine
been used in aversion therapy with the drug disulfiram, which blocks aldehyde Lotion (0.1-1%)
dehydrogenase, allowing acetaldehyde to accumulate. • 4% phenol in glycerin – cauterize small
wounds
Liquefied Phenol • Phenol containing 10% water
• Not miscible with lipophilic
ointment bases
p –Chlorophenol • + camphor = liquid petrolatum – used
as external antiseptic and anti-irritant;
Phenol coefficient – about 4
Commercial • Approximately 95% ethanol by volume
Ethanol • Forms an azeotrope with water that
distills at 78.2°C p-chloro-m- • Nonirritating antiseptic with broad-
Denatured Unfit for use in intoxicating beverages xylenol spectrum antibacterial and antifungal
Alcohol (PC-MX; Metasep) activities
Completely With wood alcohol and benzene and is unsuitable for • 2% in shampoo; Used topically for
Denatured internal/external use ringworm infections – tinea pedis, tinea
Alcohol cruris
Specially • Ethanol treated with one or more
Denatured substances that is permitted for a
Alcohol specialized purpose Hexachlorophene • White to light-tan crystalline powder
• Iodine in alcohol for tincture of iodine (Gamophen, • Water insoluble, soluble in alcohol &
• Methanol in mouthwashes, Methanol in Surgicon, other organic solvents
alcohol for preparing plant extracts pHisoHex) • Easily absorbed onto the skin & enters
sebaceous glands – prolonged topical
Dehydrated • NLT 99% w/w ethanol; Prepared by
antiseptic effect even in low concs
Alcohol azeotropic distillation of an ethanol-
• 2-3% in soaps, detergent creams,
“Absolute benzene mixture
lotion, shampoo
Alcohol” • Chemical reagent or solvent, for local
• Effective against G (+), G (-) are
relief of pain in carcinomas & neuralgias;
resistant
Cannot be ingested
• Banned OTC – due to reports of
Isopropyl • Colorless, volatile liquid, slightly bitter
neurotoxicity in bathed infants and burn
Alcohol taste
patients cleansed with the agent
“2-propanol” • Suitable substitute for ethanol but must
Cresol • Mixture of 3 isomeric methylphenols
not be ingested
• Yellow to brownish yellow liquid,
unpleasant creosote odor
 8

• Obtained from coal tar/petroleum by • Germicidal action of HOCl with

alkaline extraction into aqueous emulsifying, wetting, and keratolytic
medium, acidification, and fractional action of anionic detergent
distillation • Rapid-cidal action against G (+), G (-)
• Inexpensive antiseptic, disinfectant bacteria, molds, yeasts, viruses,
• Phenol coefficient – 2.5 spores
• Sparingly soluble in water, soluble in • Tx of localized infections, to remove
alcohols and organic solvents necrotic tissues from massive
Thymol • Extracted from oil of Thymus vulgaris infections or radiation necrosis, to
“Isopropyl m- • Slightly soluble in water, extremely counteract odorous discharges,
cresol” soluble in alcohols and organic solvents irritant, to disinfect cysts and fistulas
• Mild fungicidal properties, used in • 0.1%, 0.5% in water
alcohol solution and dusting powders • 0.1%, 0.2% used in urology,
for ringworm infections ophthalmology

CATIONIC SURFACTANTS
Eugenol • Obtained from clove oil
 All cationic surfactants are quaternary ammonium compounds.
4-allyl-2- • Pale-yellow liquid, strong clove aroma,
 Ionized in water and exhibit surface-active properties
methoxyphenol pungent taste
 form micelles by concentrating the interface of immiscible solvents due to (a)
• Slightly soluble in water, miscible in
cationic head group – with high affinity for water and (b) long hydrocarbon tail –
alcohol and organic solvents
with high affinity for lipids and nonpolar solvents
• With local anesthetic and antiseptic
 Involves dissolution of surfactant into the microbial cell membrane,
activities
destabilization, and subsequent lysis
• In mouthwash; Pheno coefficient – 14.4
 Bactericidal action to G (+), G (-) bacteria pathogenic fungi, protozoa
Resorcinol • Crystallizes as white needles or as an  Advantages – Highly water soluble, nontoxic, stable in solution, non-staining,
m- amorphous powder, soluble in water noncorrosive, keratolytic action in stratum corneum – good tissue penetration
dihydroxybenzene and alcohol  Disadvantages – inactivated by soap and anionic detergents, effectiveness is
(Resorcin) • Light sensitive, oxidizes readily reduced by tissue debris, blood, serum, pus; bactericidal action is slower than
• Weak antiseptic (phenol coefficient 0.4) iodine
• 1-3% in solutions, 10-20% in treatment
Benzalkonium • White gel, soluble in water, alcohol
for ringworm, eczema, psoriasis,
Chloride (Zephiran) and organic solvents
seborrheic dermatitis
• Detergent, emulsifier, wetting agent
• Keratolytic, causes stratum corneum to
• 1:750 50 1:20,000 – antiseptic for skin
slough, opening the barrier to
& mucus membrane
penetration for antifungals
• 1:20,000 to 1:40,000 – irrigation
Hexylresorcinol • White crystalline substance with faint • 1:750 – 1:50,000 – storage of surgical
phenolic odor instruments,
• Produces numbness to tongue • + 0.5% NaNO3 as preservative
• Freely soluble in alcohol, slightly soluble
in water
Methylbenzethonium • Mixture of methylated derivatives
• Antiseptic, bactericidal and fungicidal
Chloride (Diaparene) • Tx of diaper rash in infants caused by
• Phenol coefficient – 98 C. albicans
• General antiseptic, activity identical to
OXIDIZING AGENTS
benzethoium chloride
 Effective against anaerobic bacteria [because they can’t tolerate oxygen] and
can be used in cleansing contaminated wounds Benzethonium • 1:750 – skin antiseptic
 React in the tissues to generate oxygen and oxygen radicals
Chloride • 1:5,000 – irrigation
 The bubbles that form during the liberation of oxygen help to dislodge debris Cetylpyridinium • White powder, very soluble in water
 Effectiveness is somewhat limited by their generally poor penetrability into Chloride and alcohol
infected tissues and organic matter • Member of an aromatic pyridine ring
 Inorganic compounds – hydrogen peroxide, metal peroxides, sodium perborate • Most active alkylpyridinium compound
 KMnO4 – denature proteins through direct oxidation reaction • 1:100 – 1:1,000 – skin antiseptic
Carbamide • Stable complex of urea and hydrogen peroxide • 1:1,000 – minor laceration antiseptic
Peroxide • Commercial prep – 12.6% carbamide peroxide • 1:2,000 – 1:10,000 – mucus
Topical in anhydrous glycerin membrane irrigation
Solution • Antiseptic, disinfectant • 1:20,000 – throat lozenges,
(Gly-Oxide) • Tx of oral ulcerations, dental care mouthwash
• When mixed with water, hydrogen peroxide is Chlorhexidine • Most effective of antibacterial
liberated Gluconate (Hibiclens) biguanides
• With broad – spectrum antibacterial
Hydrous • White granular powder; Pure powder form –
activity, not active against acid – fast
Benzoyl explosive
bacteria, spores, viruses
Peroxide • Formulated with 30% water – safer handling
• Topical preoperative skin disinfectant,
(Oxy-5, • 5% and 10% – keratolytic, keratogenic, acne
wound irrigation, mouthwash, general
Oxy-10, treated
sanitization
Vanoxide) • Induces proliferation of epithelial cells, leading
• Not absorbed through skin, mucus
to sloughing and repair
membranes, no systemic toxicity
HALOGEN – CONTAINING COMPOUNDS
Elemental Iodine Oldest germicide still in use today DYES
1830 – in USP-II as a tincture and liniment Used extensively as anti-infectives before sulfonamides and antibiotics.
(NaI is solubilizing agent of iodine with water
Gentian Violet • Green powder/flakes with metallic sheen
becoz water is sol in water 1:3000mL = very
hexamethyl–p– • Solubility – water (1:35), alcohol (1:10),
slightly soluble)
rosaniline insoluble in nonpolar organic solvents
Iodine Tincture 2% Iodine in 50% alcohol with NaI chloride, crystal • Vaginal suppositories for yeast infections
Strong Iodine Solution 5% Iodine in water with KI; AKA Lugol’s solution violet, methyl • 1%-3% solution – treatment ringworm, yeast
Iodine Solution 2% Iodine in water with NaI violet, infections
Povidone – Iodine • Betadine, Isodine, polymer methylrosaniline • Treatment for strongyloidiasis, oxyuriasis
polyvinylpyrrolidone [PVP] – iodine chloride
• Charge-transfer complex of iodine with Basic Fuschin • Mixture of chlorides of rosaniline and p–
nonionic surfactant PVP rosaniline
• Water soluble, releases iodine very • Green crystalline powder, metallic
slowly appearance
• Nontoxic, nonvolatile, non-staining, • Soluble in water, insoluble in ether
non-irritating • Component of carbol–fuchsin (Castellani’s
• 10% bioavailable iodine paint)
• Presurgical disinfectant, treatment Methylene • Dark green crystalline powder, metallic
local bacterial and fungal infections Blue (Urised) appearance
Hypochlorous Acid • Active germicidal species – • Solubility – water (1:25), alcohol (1:65)
chlorination of amide nitrogen atoms • Weak antiseptic – treatment for cystitis,
and oxidation of sulfhydryl groups in urethritis
proteins • Bacteriostatic; Colors urine and stoll blue
• Formed when chlorine is dissolved in green
water
• Inorganic hypochlorite salts – NaOCl, MERCURY COMPOUNDS (MERCURIALS)
Ca (OCl)2  Interaction of mercuric ion with tissues – reduced by low water solubility,
• Antiseptic effect optimal at around pH irritating, can cause hypersensitivity – not recommended
7  Antibacterial – reaction with sulfhydryl (– SH) groups in enzymes and proteins
Halazone P- • White, crystalline, photosensitive, faint to form covalent R0S-Hg-R
dichlorofulsamoylbenzoic chlorine odor  Activity is reversible by treat with thiol-cont. compounds (cysteine, dimercaprol)
acid • Slight soluble in water at pH 7, soluble Elemental Topical treatment of localized infections, syphilis
in alkaline Mercury
• Sodium salt – drinking water
Mercuric chloride, Antiseptics
disinfectant
Mercurous
Chloroazodin N, N- • Bright, yellow crystalline solid, faint
chloride
dichlorodicarbonamidine chlorine odor
Ammoniated Tx of impetigo, psoriasis, ringworm infection
(Azochloramid) • Insoluble in water and organic
mercury
solvents, light or heat unstable
Mercuric oxide Tx of inflammation from eye infections
• Diluted solution – wound disinfectant
Oxychlorosene Sodium • Complex of sodium salt of
Nitromersol • Yellow poder, insoluble in water and
(Chlorpactin) dodecylbenzenesulfonic acid and (Metaphen) sparingly soluble in alcohol and most
hypochlorous acid organic solvents
• Slowly releases hypochloroud acid in • Nonirritating to mucus membranes,
solution non-staining
• Amorphous white powder, faint • Used to be a popular antiseptic for skin
chlorine odor and ocular infections – largely replaced
by superior agents
Thimerosal • Cream – colored, water – soluble
powder
 9

• Non-staining, nonirritating to tissues [ester hydrolysis]. Skin itself have enzymes

• Weakly bacteriostatic antiseptic esterases to initiate hydrolysis of triacetin to
topically applied ointments and aqueous acetic acid. However, it is a self-limiting
solution process for triacetin because esterases are
inhibited at below pH 4. Therefore, once
PRESERVATIVES acetic acid is released, enzymes that convert
 To maintain sterility in parenteral and ophthalmic preparations triacetin will be removed.
 To prevent microbial contaminations in various dosage forms and cosmetic Salicylic Acid • Antiseptic, keratolytic, weak antifungal agent
preparations Resorcinol • m-hydroxyphenol; antiseptic, keratolytoc
 Ideal preservative–effective at low concentrations against all possible Benzoic Acid • Antifungal but weak penetration to outer skin
microorganisms, nontoxic, compatible with other constituents of the preparation, layer
be stable for shelf – life • Mixtures – benzoic acid + salicylic acid or
benzoic acid + resorcinol in Whitfield’s
p–HYDROXYBENZOIC ACID DERIVATIVES ointment, USP
 Parabens have distinct antifungal properties Haloprogin • Ethereal phenol derivative
 Typically, low toxicity due to rapid hydrolysis in vivo – quickly conjugated and (Halotex) • 1% cream for treatment of superficial tinea
excreted infections,
 Useful preservative for liquid dosage forms • Lesion typically worsens before it improves,
 Preservative activity increases with MW, methyl ester – most effective against inflammation and painful irritation are common
molds, propyl ester – most effective against yeasts (lipid soluble propyl ester – • Have high cure rates in treating
preferred for drugs in oil/lipophilic bases dermatophytosis though it’s photosensitive
Methylparaben Methyl p-hydroxybenzoate and expensive
Propylparaben Propyl p-hydroxybenzoate Clioquinol • Powder for treatment of atopic dermatitis,
Butylparaben n-Butyl p-hydroxybenzoate (Vioform) eczema, psoriasis, impetigo, athlete’s foot,
Ethylparaben Ethyl p-hydroxybenzoate jock itch, tinea cruris
Chlorobutanol • Camphorlike aroma; Stable in oils, • 3% ung for T. vaginalis vaginitis
organic solvents Ciclopirox • Broad-spectrum topical antifungal
• Bacteriostatic agent in pharmaceuticals Olamine • Agent of choice in treatment of cutaneous
for injection, ophthalmic use, intranasal (Loprox) candidiasis, tinea corporis, tinea cruris, tinea
administration pedis, tinea versicolor
• Unstable when heated in aq. solution at • Can be a substitute for Iodoform
pH >7 – undergoes elimination; pH 5 – Flucytosine • Orally active with very narrow spectrum
stable at 25°C (Ancobon) activity for treatmet of serious systemic
Benzyl Alcohol • Unesterified form in oil of jasmin and in infections by Candida and Cyrptococcus spp
(Phenylcarbinol, esters of acetic, cinnamic, benzoic • Nucleoside antifungal agent; Co-administered
Phenylmethanol) acids, storax resin, peru/tolu balsam with Amphotericin B to bypass fungal cell
• 1% – 4% preservative in injectables, membranes in lower doses
with local anesthetic action • Enters the fungal cell via active transport by
Phenylethyl • AKA 2-phenylethanol, orange oil, rose deamination by cytosine deaminase until it
Alcohol oil becomes 5-fluorouracyl which is the active
• Occurs naturally in rose oil, pineneedle metabolite the it both enters the RNA & DNA
oil pathways
• Used primarily in perfumery • For RNA: 5-fluorouracyl is phosphorylated to
Benzoic Acid • Occur naturally in gum benzoin, 5-FUTP (5-Fluorouracyl triphosphate which
peru/tolu balsams interferes with RNA synthesis among fungi to
• White crystalline solid – slowly sublimes cause faulty RNA synthesis to them= cell
at room temperature, steam distillable death
• Slightly water soluble, more soluble in • For DNA: 5-fluorouracyl is converted to 5-
alcohol, polar organic solvents FdUMP then binds to 5,10-Methylene-THF to
• External – antiseptic in lotions, ointment interrupt 1 carbon pull substrate that feeds the
and mouthwash thymidaline synthesis thereby blocking DNA
• More effective in food, pharmaceutical synthesis.
products at low pH (due to pKa – 4.2)
Sodium Benzoate Preservative in acidic liquid preparations in which
benzoic acid is released
Sodium Effective antifungal, preservative, most effective at
Propionate low pH
Sorbic Acid • Antifungal preservative
• Sparingly soluble in water and has pKa
of 4.8
• Used to preserve syrups, elixirs,
ointments and lotions cont. components
like sugars that support mold growth
Potassium Used in same way as sorbic acid when greater
Sorbate water solubility is required
Phenylmercuric • Mixture of phenylmercuric nitrate and
Nitrate phenylmercuric OH  POLYENES – contains conjugated –ene system of double bonds
• 1:10,000 – 1:50,000 – to preserve  No activity against bacteria, rickettsia, or viruses but highly potent, broad
injectable drugs against bacterial spectrum antifungals
contamination  Have 3-dimensional shape barrel-like nonpolar structure capped by a polar group
• Bacteriostatic efficacy is reduced by or the sugar that penetrates the fungal cell membrane
serum  They act as false membrane components by binding with ergosterol [membrane
Phenylmercuric Soluble in alcohol but only slightly soluble in water component of fungi] to cause membrane disruption which will eventually cause
Acetate loss of cellular constituents as well as potassium ions leading to death of fungi
Natamycin • isolated from Streptomyces
(Pimaricin, natalensis
GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO FUNGI Natacyn) • 26-membered–ring polyenes cause
1839  Schönlein and Gruby: studied Trichophyton schoenleinii both potassium ion leakage and cell
Langenback: reported C. albicans lysis at the same concentration
• 5% ophthalmic suspension intended
Locations of the Common Types of Tinea (Ringworm) for treatment of fungal conjunctivitis,
Tinea manuum: Hand Tinea cruris: Groin blepharitis, and keratitis.
Tinea sycosis: Beard Tinea capitis: Scalp Nystatin • 1951 – isolated from Streptomyces
Tinea unguium: Nails (Mycostatin) noursei
• Not absorbed systematically when orally
TOPICAL AGENTS FOR DERMATOPHYTOSES administered
 Dermatophytoses AKA Tinea / Ringworm Infections: topical infections • Too toxic for parenteral administration
 Skin is a formidable barrier to drug penetration that’s why there are times • Tx of GI monolial infections by Candida
that we use adjuvants which are keratolytic agents like salicylic acid, alpha- species
hydroxyl compounds to open the barrier of the skin for the penetration of • Cream, ung, powder for cutaneous and
the activity of antifungal agents. mucocutaneous candidiasis
 Sebum – acidic, fatty, natural antifungal agent in/on skin • Vaginal tablets for vaginal candidiasis
 Higher MW fatty acids – lower volatility • Oral tablets and troches for GI and oral
 Salts are also fungicidal, nonvolatile forms for topical application candidiasis
Propionic • Nonirritating, non-toxic; Fungicidal • + Tetracycline for monilial overgrowth
Acid nonvolatile and odorless salt forms – prevention
sodium, potassium, calcium, ammonium Amphotericin • Purified from fermentation beer of a soil
Zinc • Anhydrous monohydrate form B culture of Streptomyces nodosus (in
Propionate • Fungicide in adhesive tape Venezuela)
Sodium • Prepared from caprylic acid – in coconut/palm • Interact with ergosterol in fungi to
Caprylate oils produce an aggregate that forms a
• Treatment for C. albican, Trichophyton transmembrane channel
superficial dermatophytoses • Parenteral – for treatment of severe,
Zinc • Topical fungicide potentially life- threatening:
Caprylate • Salt form is highly unstable to moisture coccidioidonycosis, histoplasmosis,
Undecylenic • 10 – undecylenic acid sporotrichosis, cryptococcosis,
Acid • 10% in sol’n, ung, powders, emulsions – mucormycosis, aspergillosis
topical administration • Common – fever, headache, anorexia,
• Severe irritant to mucus membranes; GI distress, malaise, muscle and joint
Treatment for athlete’s foot pain, nephrotoxicity, pain at site of
Triacetin • Glyceryl triacetate (Enzactin, Fungacetin) injection and thrombophlebitis
• Acetic acid released by ester hydrolysis • • 3% in cream, lotion, ung, 100mg/mL
• Activity is dependent upon release of acetic oral susp.
acid after hydrolysis mediated by esterases
 10

• CYP450 inhibitor – increases plasma levels

of Terfenadine and Astemizole
• Causes drug interactions with medications
that reduce stomach acid
• Bioavailability increases at doubles when
given w/ food
Fluconazole • Oral and IV admininistration as the free
(Diflucan) base
• Agent of choice non meninggal
coccidioidomycosis
• Presence of two weakly basic triazole ring –
sufficient aqueous solubility to balance
lipophilicity of the 2,4- difluorophilicity
Griseofulvin • 1939 – from Penicillium griseofulvum • Oral admin. not affected by alteration in GI
(Grisactin, • 1959 – introduced to human med for systemic acidity or food
Gris-PEG, tx of tinea infections • 27-34 half-life, penetrates body cavities and
Grifulvin) • After systemic absorption, griseofulvin is CSF, agent of choice for treatment of
carried by the systemic circulation and cryptococcal meningitis and cyptococcosis
capillary beds to the skin, nails, and hair prophylaxis in AIDS patient
follicles, where it concentrates in keratin • <10% protein bound, little to no hepatic
precursor cells, which are gradually exfoliated metabolism and is excreted unchanged
and replaced by healthy tissue. Voriconazole • More potent than fluconazole to newer &
• A/E = rash, urticarial, GI upset, headached, rarer fungal pathogens
dizziness, insomnia Posaconazole • In clinical trials; High oral bioavailability
• Rapidly arrests cell division in metaphase; Syn2869 • Novel-broad spectrum with piperazine-
causes rapid, reversible dissolution of the phenyl- triazolone side chain; Better activity
mitotic spindle apparatus, probably by binding than itraconazole
with the tubulin dimer that is required for
microtubule assembly.
Naftitine • (Naftin) 1% in cream, gel for topical treatment
Hydrochloride of ringworm, athlete’s foot and jock itch
Terbinafine • 1% in cream, gel for topical treatment of tinea SYNTHETIC ANTIBACTERIAL AGENTS
Hydrochloride pedis, t. corporis, t. cruris QUINOLONES
(Lamisil) • More potent than naftitine & w/ oral activity – Patterned after Nalidixic Acid
against onychomycosis – Confined to treatment of UTI due to good oral abs,
• (nail fungal infection) activity against G (-), high urinary conc.
Tolnaftate • 1% in cream, powders, aerosols, gels,
(Tinactin, solution for treatment of ringworm, jock itch,
Aftate, NP-27) athlete’s foot Generation Action Example
• Squalene epoxidase inhibitor – allylamine First Have moderate gram- Cinoxacin (Cinoxacin),
antimycotic negative activity and Nalidixic acid (NegGam,
• Used with artificial fingernails – to decrease minimal systemic Wintomylon), Oxolinic acid
ringworm of nail beds distribution
Second Have expanded gram- Class I: Lomefloxacin
AZOLE ANTIFUNGALS – fungicidal at high conc (damage to cell membrane = loss of negative activity and (Maxaquin), Norfloxacin
potassium ions and amino acids) and fungistatic at low conc (inhibition of CYP450 and atypical pathogen (Noroxin), Enoxacin
lanosterol 14α- demethylase coverage, but limited (Penetrex)
Imidazole Triazole gram- positive activity Class II: Ofloxacin (Floxin),
Ciprofloxacin (Cipro)
SAR: (1) increased potency – 2-3 aromatic ring at least one is (2, and/or 2,4) halogen Third Retain expanded Levofloxacin (Levaquin),
substituted and with nonpolar functional groups, (2) increased lipophilicity – non polar gram-negative and Sparfloxacin (Zagam)*,
functionality [except water soluble Fluconazole) atypical intracellular Moxifloxacin (Avelox)
activity but have
Clotrimazole • Broad-spectrum improved gram-positive
(Lotrimin, • Solution in PEG400, lotion, 1% cream – coverage
Gyne- tinea pedis, tinea cruris, tinea capitis, Fourth Improve gram-positive Clinafloxacin, Gemifloxacin
Lotrimin, tinea versicolor coverage, maintain (Factive), Moxifloxacin
Mycelex) • 1% vaginal cream, 100mg or 500mg tabs gram-negative (Avelox, Vigamox),
for vulvovaginal candidiasis coverage, and gain Gatifloxacin (Tequin),
• not for systemic infections, protein anaerobic coverage Sitafloxacin, Trovafloxacin
bound, not optimally BA (Trovan) (withdrawn)

• Congener of Oxolinic
Econazole • (Spectazole) 1% cream for topical treatment acid
Nitrate of local tinea infections and cutaneous • More completely
candidiasis absorbed, less protein-
Butoconazole • (Femstat) Specifically effective against C. bound than Nalidixic acid
Nitrate albicans
Cinoxacin
• 2% salt in vaginal cream
• Not effective against
Sulconazole • (Exelderm) 1% in solution and cream for
obligate anaerobic,
Nitrate treatment of jock itch, athlete’s foot,
increased potency for G
ringworm
(+) due to F at position 6
Oxiconazole • (Oxistat) 1% in cream, lotion for treatment of • 800mg single PO dose
Nitrate tinea pedis, tinea corporis, tinea capitis Norfloxacin
for uncomplicated
Tioconazole • 6.5% in vaginal ung gonorrhea
(Vagistat) • More effective against Torulopsis glabrata • Tx of UTI, STD,
Miconazole • Cream, lotion, powder, spray for tinea uncomplicated
Nitrate infections and cutaneous candidiasis gonococcal urethritis and
(Monistat, • Available in free bases injectable form, chancroid
Micatin) solubilize with PEG + castor oil for serious • Reduced BA by divalent
systemic fungal mycoses Enoxacin
metal ions; Enzyme
Ketoconazole • Oral administration for treatment of systemic inhibitor
(Nizoral) mycoses Ciprofloxacin • Active against P.
• Weakly basic; A/E: hepatocellular toxicity aeruginosa; Enzyme
• High doses lower testosterone and inhibitor
corticosterone levels • For UTI, lower respiratory
• Enzyme inhibitor to cyclosporine, phenytoin, infections, sinusitis,
terfenadine diarrhea, bone, joint and
• Enhances responses to sulfonylureas and skin infection,
coumarin gonococcal urethritis
• Antagonizes amphotericin B • DOC for bacterial
• 2% in cream and shampoo for cutaneous gastroenteritis,
and tinea infections prophylactic treatment for
inhalational anthrax

• Better than Ciprofloxacin

• Low PO abs by food

Terconazole • Exclusively for vulvovaginal moniliasis by C.

(Terazol) albicans & species. Ofloxacin
• 0.4% cream for 7-day treatment and 0.8% • Tx of acute bacterial
cream for 3-day treatment; 80mg exacerbations of chronic
suppositories bronchitis by H. influenza
Itraconazole • Orally active alternative to ketoconazole or M. catarrhalis
(Sporanox) • Acidic environment for optimal solubilization
• For treatment of systemic infections by Lomefloxacin
blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, Sparfloxacin • Long t1/2, for treatment
nonmeningeal coccidioidomycosis, of bacterial
sporotrichosis gastroenteritis,
• More effective and better tolerated than cholecystitis
ketoconazole • Least phototoxic
• Not hepatotoxic, no adrenal or testicular
suppression NITROFURANS --- First nitro heterocyclic chemotherapeutic compounds
 11

Sodium • Agent of choice for Leishmaniasis

Stibogluconate
Suramin • For treatment and prophylaxis of
Sodium trypanosomiasis
Nitrofurazone • With activity against G (+) ANTIHELMINTICS
and G (-) bacteria, not anti- Piperazine •
Treatment of pinworm and roundworm
fungal •
Blocks response of ascaris muscle to
• 0.2% usual conc in sol’n, acetylcholine causing flaccid paralysis
ung and suppositories Pyrantel • Treatment of pinworm and roundworm
Furazolidone • Bactericidal, antiprotozoal Pamoate • Depolarizing NMB that causes spastic
against G. lamblia paralysis
• Aldehyde dehydrogenase Thiabendazole • Inhibits the helminth-specific enzyme
inhibitor fumarate reductase, also arrest nematode
cell division in metaphase by interfering with
Nitrofurantoin • Disrupts bacterial enzyme microtubule assembly
system Niclosamide • Potent taeniacide that causes rapid
• Active against G (+) and G disintegration of worm segments and the
(-) scolex
Praziquantel • Inc. cell membrane permeability of
susceptible worms, resulting in the loss of
extracellular calcium resulting to muscle
contraction
Ivermectin • Destroys the microfilariae, immature forms
of the nematode
ANTISCABIES AND ANTIPEDICULAR AGENTS
Scabicides Control Sarcoptes scabei
Benzyl Benzoate Antipruritic, from Peru Balsam and resins
Crotaminon (Eurax) Scabicidal, general antipruritic
Methenamine • Urinary Pediculocides Used to eliminate head/body/crab lice
(Urothropin, antiseptic Lindane (Kwell, Scabene, Kweldane) ADR: Neurotoxicity
Uritone) • Requires an Permethrin Treatment of head lice
acidifying Piperonyl Enhances pyrethrin effect
agent like Butoxide
ammonium Pyrethrin from Chrysanthenum plants that acts via nerve
chloride or poisoning
sodium ANTI-MALARIAL AGENTS
bisphosphate Quinine Sulfate • Cinchona alkaloid, generalized
Methenamine • Can furnish protoplasmic poison
Mandelate own acidity • + clindamycin = treatment of babesiosis
• Cinchonism: tinnitus, headache, nausea,
disturbance of vision
Methenamine • Readily Chloroquine • Preferred agent used to suppress malaria
Hippurate absorbed symptoms and to terminate acute malaria
after oral attacks resulting from P. falciparum and P.
administration malariae infections
• Highly Primaquine • Important for the radical cure of relapsing
concentrated vivax or ovale strains
in the urinary Quinacrine • Erythrocytic schinzonticide, use in the
bladder treatment of blackwater fever when the
use of quinine is contraindicated, an
Isonicotinic Hydrazide • Bactericidal against replicating effective curative agent for giardiasis, for
organisms, but bacteriostatic elimination of intestinal cestodes
against nonreplicating organisms Mefloquine • Active against P. falciparum and P. vivax
Ethionamide • Treatment of isoniazid resistant infections
Tuberculosis Pyrimethamine • Diaminopyrimidines, acts by interfering
Pyrazinamide • Bioactivated to pyrazinoic acid with the synthesis of folic acid
Ethambutol • Active only against dividing bacteria • + sulfanilamide to treat toxoplasmosis &
P– aminosalicyclic • Interferes with incorporation of p- use prophylactically for chloroquine-
acid aminobenzoic acid into folic acid resistant strains of p. Falciparum and p.
Vivax
Clofazamine • Slow, bactericidal effects
• + sulfadiazine = treatment of
• Treatment for dapsone-resistant
toxoplasmosis
leprosy, and skin lesions by M.
ulcerans ANTIBACTERIAL SULFONAMIDES
Rifampicin • Binds to bacterial DNA-dependent
RNA polymerases
• Most active agent for clinical
treatment of Tuberculosis
Rifabutin • Lower plasma conc than Rifampicin
Cycloserine • Sterically and stereochemically Sulfamethizole
analogous to D- alanine Sulfisoxazole Used for infections involving sulfonamide sensitive
Capreomycin • Inhibits protein synthesis by binding bacteria
to the 70S ribosomal unit Sulfisoxazole Acetyl derivative is tasteless, thus suitable for oral
Streptomycin • Intramuscular administration; Acetyl admin
Inhibits protein synthesis by binding Sulfapyridine
to the 12S ribosomal unit Sulfamethoxazole Closely related to sulfisoxazole in chemical
ANTIPROTOZOAL AGENTS structure and antimicrobial activity
Metronidazole • For treatment of dysentery, giardiasis, Sulfamethoxazole • + Trimethoprim = antibacterial, former
trichomoniasis agent of choice for UTI
• Active against all anaerobic cocci, G (-) • Agent of choice for atypical
• Agent of choice for C. difficile infections pneumonia by Pneumocystis carinii,
unstable for IV prep, reconstituted jirovecii
• Metronidazole HCl is stable for 96 H, ready to Sulfanilamide • +Pyrimethamine = antimalarial, tx of
use solns for 24 H acute attack of UTI
Diloxanide • Treatment of asymptomatic carriers of E. • +Cotrimoxazole = 1st attack of UTI
histolytica, giardia cysts, and extraintestinal Silver Sulfadiazine, Treatment of burns
amebiasis Mafenide
Iodoquinol • (Yodoxin, Diodoquin, Diquinol) Treatment of Sodium Treatment of conjunctivitis
intestinal amebiasis Sulfacetamide
• Long term A/E – optic neuritis and peripheral Sulfones Same MOA with Sulfonamides but less effective
neuropathy
Emetine • Amebicidal Ipecac protoplasmic poison
• Tx of invasive, instestinal amebiasis, amebic
abscess, amebic hepatitis, balantidial, fluke
infestation
Dapsone • Folate synthesis inhibitor
Pentamidine • (NebuPent, Pentam 300) Agent of choice for
• Resistance can emerge in large
Isethionate prophylactic infections of P. carinii
populations of M. leprae (Lepromatous
• Alt for Suramin in African sleeping disease,
leprae) if very low dose
Kala-Azar, Babesiosi
• Used to prevent and treat
Atovaquone • Treatment of P. carinii, T. gondi, second line for Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia in
treatment of Cotrimoxazole intolerant mild- AIDS patient
moderate P. carinii infections • ADR: hemolytic anemia
Eflornithine • Treatment of African sleeping sickness, ANTIBACTERIAL ANTIBIOTICS
(Ornidyl) meningoencephalic stage of T. brucei Alexander Fleming: discovery of antibacterial properties of P. notatum
• Enzyme activated inhibitor of ornithine He discovered it through a Petri dish and saw a growth of a bowl
decarboxylase Alexander is a microbiologist
Nifurtimox • Only agent active against T. cruzi Florey and Chain: Penicillin therapy & Lyophilization they’re biochemist produced penicillin
Benznidazole • Tx of Chagas disease Jean Paul Vuillemin: Antibiosis (against life)
• A/E – peripheral neuropathy, bone marrow Waksman: Antibiotic – substance produced by microorganisms with the capacity of
suppression inhibiting growth and even destroy other microorganisms, isolated more than 15 antibiotics,
Melarsoprol • Tx of meningoencephalic forms of T. his most famous isolated antibiotic is streptomycin and is known to be the most effective
gambiense, T. rhodesiense treatment for tuberculosis
• Agent of choice for late stages of African ANTIBIOTIC DEFINITIONS
trypanosomiasis
 12

– A product of metabolism (although it may be duplicated or even have been

anticipated by chemical synthesis).
– A synthetic product produced as a structural analog of a naturally occurring
antibiotic.
– It antagonizes the growth of survival of one or more species of microorganisms
effective in low concentrations.
– Exhibit sufficient selective toxicity to be effective against pathogenic
microorganism.
– Should be chemically stable enough to be isolated, process, and stored for a
reasonable length of time.
– Slow biotransformation to allow convenient dosing schedule, yet rapidly and
completely facilitate removal of drug after discontinuation.
 Empiric Therapy: Administration then diagnosis
 Definitive Therapy: Diagnosis and Administration, term discovered by Paul ehrlich
who discovered salvarsan
 Selective Toxicity: Antimicrobial, limited group of microorganisms, toxic on the
microorganism but not on the person
 Chemotherapeutic Spectra: Narrow, Extended, and Broad Spectrum
AMINOPENICILLINS – Have antibacterial spectrum similar to Pen G but are more effective
BACTERIAL RESISTANCE
against G (-) bacilli, they are not resistant to penicillinase
Some bacteria (esp. G- bacteria) are naturally resistant.
The ff are the biochemical mechanism of penicillin resistance:
Ampicillin • α-amino benzylpenicillin; Poor GI abs (given IV)
a. Bacterial elaboration of enzymes (b-lactamases) • IV prodrugs (Hetacillin, Bacampicillin( have no
b. Decreased permeability of penicillin antibacterial properties ), Cyclacillin,
c. Alteration of the number and nature of porins Pivampicillin)
d. Changes of affinity of PBPs to penicillin
Lincomycin Streptomyces lincolensis
Penicillin Penicillium notatum
Penicillinase-Resistant Pens Penicillium chrysogenum
Cephalosporins Cephalosporium acremonium
Bacitracin Bacillus subtillis Amoxicillin • α-amino-p-hydroxybenzylpenicillin; Good GI abs,
Cycloserine Streptomyces orchidaceus; administered orally
Streptomyces lavendulus; • the electron withdrawing group is responsible for
Streptomyces garyphalus the good GI absorption of amoxicillin
Vancomycin Streptomyces orientalis
Chloramphenicol Streptomyces venezulae
Streptomycin Streptomyces griseus
Gentamicin Micromonaspora purpurea
Neomycin Streptomyces fradiae
Chlortetracyline Streptomyces aureofaciens
Oxytetracycline Streptomyces rimosus
EXTENDED SPECTRUM PENICILLINS
Erythromycin Streptomyces erythreus SAR: the presence of a polar group (carboxylic acid functional group COOH) at the α
Colistin Bacillus colistinus carbon of the benzoyl substituent confers activity against gram (-) bacteria
Polymixin Bacillus polymyxa CARBOXYPENICILLINS
Rifampicin Streptomyces mediterranei Carbenicillin • Prototype; Not stable in acid and is
Natamycin Streptomyces natalensis inactivated by penicillinases
Capreomycin Streptomyces capreolin • Ionizable carboxyl group rather than
Amphotericin B Streptomyces nodosus the amino group
Nystatin Streptomyces noursei Ticarcillin • Unstable in acid and therefore IV
BETA-LACTAM ANTIBIOTICS Is considered as a admin
MOA: isostere of carbenicillin • Two adv: better pharmacokinetic
 selective inhibition of bacterial cell wall synthesis (increase serum level, increase DOA),
 inhibition of biosynthesis of dipeptidoglycan that provides strength and rigidity of Isostere means having greater in vitro potency against G-
the cell wall the similar molecular species
 they are bactericidal shape, same ions
 the active form of penicillin is 6-aminopenicillanic acid
SAR:
 Beta lactam ring: active component
 Thiazolidine ring: penicillin is one of the most obvious substituents of penicillin
 Carboxylic acid: solubility
 Acylamino/modification site: spectrum of activity

UREIDOPENICILLINS
SAR: presence of a polar group at the α carbon of the benzoyl substituent confers activity
against gram (-) bacteria
Mezlocillin • An acylureidopenicillin recommended for serious
infections
NATURAL PENICILLINS Piperacillin • Most potent, generally useful extended-spectrum
PenG • Acid labile – salts of Na, K, Ca • Resistant to beta-lactamase producing strains
(Benzyl • Acid instable unless given with antacids, • Acid unstable, given IV/IM
Penicillin) is because it is resistant to gastric hydrolysis
given via IM • Rapidly eliminated thus repository forms were
made – Pen G Benzathine, Pen G Procaine
• it is the first widely used amine salt
PenV • Acid stable, given PO (resistant to gastric
(Phenoxy hydrolysis)
Penicillin) is • Uniform concentration in the blood
given orally
PENICILLINASE DRUGS RESISTANT PENICILLINS AKA: antistaphylococcal
penicillins
-which have narrow spectrum
SAR: Substitution of bulkier substituents to increase resistance to Beta-lactamases
 Isoxazolyl Di-ortho substituted aromatic rings
 Naphthyl ring
Methicillin • 2,6-dimethoxyphenylpenicillin
• Prototype drug, causes severe interstitial nephritis
Nafcillin • 2-ethoxyl-1-phenylpenicillin
• Can be administered to px with renal failure
Isoxazolyl • Isoxazolyl ring prevents binding to beta-lactamases •
Penicillins Oxacillin(IV), Cloxacillin, Dicloxacillin(ORAL),
Flucoxacillin (ORAL)

BETA-LACTAMASE INHIBITORS
CLASS I INHIBITORS
 Possess atom leaving group at position 1; Prolong inactivation by enzymes
 Prevent degradation of β- lactams
 Used with extended spectrum, β- lactamase sensitive penicillins
 No antibacterial property – suicide substrate
 B-lactamase INH plus penicillin will resort to a synergistic effect
Clavulanic + Amoxicillin = (Augmentin); + Ticarcillin = (Timentin)
Acid Came from Streptomyces clavuligerus
Sulbactam + Ampicillin = (Unasyn)
Tazobactam + Piperacillin = (Tazocin)
CLASS II INHIBITORS: possess potent antibacterial activity in addition to its ability to
cause transient inhibition of some β-lactamases
CARBAPENEMS
Imipenem • 1st carbapenem; Inactivated by DHP
BN: Primaxin (Deactivated hydrepeptidase)
• Most effective and has potent antibacterial
activity
Cilastatin DHP inhibitor; Cause less degradation of Imipenem in
kidney
 13

Thienamycin From S. cattleya; Susceptible to DHP ▪ G (+) bacteria, mycoplasma, chlamydia, legionella
Monobactam • with a monocyclic lactam ring; E.G. – ADR: Epigastric distress, cholestatic jaundice
Aztreonam SAR:
• The beta-lactam ring is not fused to another ▪ Lactone ring (12,14,16 atoms)
ring ▪ With ketone group
• 3-methoxy group was responsible for B- ▪ Glycosidically linked amino sugars
lactamase stability in the series, contributed to
the low antibacterial potency and poor
chemical stability.
CEPHALOSPHORINS
– B-lactam antibiotics isolated from Cephalosporium spp.
MOA:
 Inhibit bacterial cell wall synthesis
 Reduction in cell wall stability
 Membrane lysis
SAR: Erythromycin • DOC for Corynebacterium infections; Esters
 Dihydrothiazine ring, Beta Lactam, Acetoxylmethyl: most reactive site • Clarithromycin (q12h); Azithromycin (OD)
 Acylamino side chain/ Modification Side: Spectrum of antibacterial activity • isolated from Ilo-Ilo.
• Brand name: Ilosone from the company ELI
LILLY.
• DIFFERENT FORMS OF ERYTHROMYCIN:
o Erythromycin base - Acid-labile.
They are usually present in enteric-
coated form.
o Erythromycin stearate - Acid-stable.
o Erythromycin estolate - Most
bioavailable form. Most hepatotoxic
Clarithromyci • More potent; With or without food
n • Improved BA with food
Azithromycin • t1/2 = 40-68 hours
Cephalosporins Adverse Reactions and Drug Interactions • High drug concentration; OD, w/o food
Cross sensitivity but less frequent than Penicillins: Allergic and hypersensitivity reaction,
LINCOMYCIN
Mild rashes, Anaphylaxis
– sulfur-containing antibiotics, with the same spectrum and MOA as macrolides
Criteria:
Clindamycin
a. Severity of illness
• Chlorine substituted lincomycin
b. Effectiveness and safety
• Prophylactic agent for endocarditis
c. Severity of previous response to penicillin
• + Primaquine = treatment of Pneumocystis jirovecii, pneumonia in AIDS patient
N-methyl-5-thiotetrazole (MTT) DISULFIRAM LIKE EFFECTS side effects such as
• + Pyrimethamine = toxoplasmosis infection
flushing reflex tachycardia and hypotention
• ADR: Pseudomembranous colitis
1. Cefamandole (2nd gen)
POLYPEPTIDES
2. Cefotetan (2nd gen)
– Most powerful bactericidal antibiotic, used topically that can cause severe nephrotoxicity
3. Cefmetazole (2nd gen)
once orally administered
4. Moxalactam
MOA: Bind to bacterial membrane, interfere with permeability, inhibition of cell wall
5. Cefoperazone (3rd gen)
synthesis (the reason why it is called as the most powerful bactericidal antibiotic)
Hypoprothrombinemia: poor nutritional status, hepatic dx, renal failure takes VITAMIN K
Vancomycin
to lessen effects of hypoprothombinemia
• Not absorbed in GI Tract, treatment for pseudomembranous colitis,
Disulfiram-like effect: with CNS drugs
• Given intravenously for MRSA Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus)
1st Generation • Begins with “ceph” except Cefazolin, • ADR: flushing
Cefadroxil Bacitracin
2nd Generation • Begins with “cef” except Loracarbef
• None end with “ime” and “one” except UNCLASSIFIED
cefuroxime Chloramphenicol
3rd Generation • Ends with “ime” or “one” except cefditoren, • DOC for typhoid fever, rocky mountain spotted fever
Known to be cefdinir, moxolactam, ceftibuten • MOA: Inhibition of protein synthesis at the 50S
nephrotoxic • ADR: Aplastic anemia, gray baby syndrome
4th Generation • Cefipime, Cefpirom • SAR: Chlorine, Amino, Phenyl, Nitro, Alcohol
5th Generation • With “ceft” or “ol”; Ceftbiprole, Ceftaroline, – Nitro group is responsible for antibacterial + toxicity =aplastic anemia in adults
Ceftolozane – Alcohol is responsible for the antibacterial activity
– Metabolic pathway: GLUCURONIDATION
ACID RESISTANT ACID SENSITIVE – The lack of glucuronosyltransferase can cause gray baby syndrome
• Cephalexin • Cephalothin
• Cephadrine • Cephapirin
• Cefadroxil • Cefazolin
• Cefachlor • Cefamandole
• Cefprozil • Cefonicid
• Loracarbef • Ceforanide Mupirocin (Bactroban)
• Cefuroxime axetil • Cefuroxime
• Inhibition of DNA and RNA synthesis
• Cefpodoxime proxetil • Cefotaxime • Tx of eczema, impetigo, streptococcal & Beta-hemolytic streptococcal
• Cefixime • Ceftizoxime infections.
• Ceftazidime • Available in topical form.
• Cefoperazone POP QUIZ
AMINOGLYCOSIDES ● More potent than erythromycin. Clarithromycin
• “-mycin” = Streptomyces * “-micin” = Micromonospora ● it is the primary target of aminoglycosides for bacterial inactivating enzymes.
MOA: inhibition of CHON synthesis at the 30s ribosomal subunit ,chloramphenicol, - Ring 1.
erythromycin, linezolid, clindamycin targets 50 ribosomal unit ● Difference of -micin and -mycin. -mycin (streptomyces) -micin (micromonospora
 Synergistic effects with Penicillin species)
 Highly polar hence do not cross BBB ANTIVIRAL AGENTS
ADR: - Either purine or pyrimidine analogs
 Nephrotoxic (Neomycin, Tobramycin, Gentamicin) - They are usually prodrugs
 Ototoxic (Neomycin, Kanamycin, Amikacin) - Most of them require undergoing metabolic pathway (phosphorylation) to be
 Vestibulotoxic (Streptomycin, Gentamicin) activated.
All are given IV except Neomycin (due to severe system toxicity) - Inhibits active replication of viruses.
SAR: Life cycle of viruses
Ring I – for characteristic broad-spectrum antibacterial act, and it is the primary target for 1. Attachment and entry on the cell surface.
bacterial inactivating enzymes 2. Penetration inside the cell
Ring II – modification is possible without appreciable loss of activity 3. Uncoating
Ring III – appear to be somewhat less sensitive to structural changes than those of either 4. Replication
ring I and ring II a. Protein synthesis
b. Synthesis of a new or viral RNA or DNA.
c. DNA transcription
d. Reverse transcription
e. Translation
f. Synthesis of Structural proteins
5. Packaging and assembly
TETRACYCLINES 6. Viral release
MOA: Inhibition of protein synthesis at the 30S Viruses become alive when they already find a host. It needs to be inside a cell to become
DOA: Rickettsial, chlamydial, mycloplasmal infections, amoebiasis, bacillary infections alive
ADR: Teeth discoloration, stunting, hepatotoxicity, vestibular problems STEPS BLOCKERS
Alternative to Penicillins in: Anthrax, syphilis, gonorrhea, H. influenza respiratory infections Attachment and entry Enfuvirtide (HIV)
SAR: 4-alpha-dimethyl amino – BASIC Conjugated triones – ACIDIC Cl at R1 – inc Maraviroc (HIV)
phototoxicity (CHLORTETRACYCLINE AND DEMECLOCYCLINE) Docosanol (Herpes simplex virus)
Palivizumab (RSV)
Penetration Interferon-alpha ( hepatitis c virus,
hepatitis b virus )
Uncoating Amantadine (flu)
Rimantadine (flu)
Replication Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor
(HIV)
Acyclovir (Herpes simplex virus)
Foscarnet (Cytomegalovirus)
MACROLIDES Entecavir (Hepatitis b virus)
- It is called MACROLIDES due to its large lactone ring.
MOA: Inhibition of protein synthesis at the 50S ribosomal subunit. Viral release Neuraminidase inhibitor (flu)
Spectrum of activity: CHEMOPROPHYLAXIS INFLUENZA
▪ Resembles Pen G ♦ AMANTADINE (Symmetrel)
 14

– Tx for Parkinson disease Cidofovir • Diphosphate form is a competitive inhibitor of

– Excreted largely unchanges in the urine viral DNA polymerase and is incorporated into
♦ RIMANTADINE (Flumadine) growing viral DNA strands causing DNA chain
– 4-10x more active than amantadine termination; With a high therapeutic index
– With fewer side-effects due to extensive biotransformation against CMV
MOA: • Dose-limiting toxicity – renal impairment, must
▪ Inhibit viral uncoating be given with pre-hydration and probenecid
▪ Interferes with hemagglutinin processing which inhibits viral assembly Foscarnet • No significant intracellular metabolism – a
▪ Interferes with the uncoating by blocking the M2 protein (M2 ion channel) Sodium reversible non-competitive inhibitor of
o M2 protein is needed to affect the pH change that will help to initiate pyrophosphate binding site of viral DNA
the uncoating process of the virus. It is an integral membrane proton polymerase
transport system in the influenza virus. • With synergistic activity with Zidovudine and
Uses: Didanosine
▪ Treatment of influenza type A • Second-line for CMV in AIDS patients.
▪ Seasonal treatment with 70-90% protection against Type A. REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE INHIBITORS (Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor)
▪ Not effective to type B Zidovudine • former Azidothymidine (AZT)
• Against HIV 1 and 2
NEURAMINIDASE INHIBITORS • Triphosphate form competitively inhibits
♦ OSELTAMIVIR (Tamiflu) reverse transcriptase, causes DNA chain
– First effective drug against influenza types A and B; Prodrug – in ethyl ester termination – yielding incomplete proviral DNA
form • Adverse drug reaction: bone marrow
♦ ZANAMIVIR suppression
– Effective for pre& post exposure to Influenza virus; Dry powder for oral Didanosine • Purine nucleoside analog
inhalation • ddATP (2’,3’-dideoxy-ATP) which inhibits RT
Use: Effective against Influenza types A and B and is incorporated into viral DNA
MOA: Inhibits neuraminidase which prevents enhancing of penetration of viruses to host • 10-100-fold less potent than AZT but less
cells = viruses tend to aggregate and migration of viruses to host cells are inhibited myelosuppression
Hemagglutinins Is responsible for the binding of the virus to the host cell membrane by a • Treatment of AIDS patients intolerant to AZT
terminal sialic acid residue. • Also known as dideoxyinosine.
The role of neuraminidase is that it cleaves The bond between the terminal sialic acid and • The absorption is reduced bye foods
the sugar which is important in the penetration of the viruses To the host cell. • It can lead to pancreatitis Especially to
INTERFERONS – extremely potent cytokines (small proteins important in cell signaling alcoholics
particularly during inflammation) with antiviral, immunomodulating, and antiproliferative • It can also cause peripheral neuropathy
actions, are synthesized by infected cells in response to inducers which elicit antiviral state Zalcitabine • Against HIV-1 and 2, and AZT resistant forms
or natural killer cell response • Dideoxycytidine triphosphate (ddCTP) inhibits
RT which causes termination of viral DNA
♦ INTERFERON ALFA chain elongation
- mostly used for the treatment of chronic hepatitis b virus • also known as deoxycytidine
♦ INTERFERON BETA (Betaseron) • Side effects are nephrotoxicity, Peripheral
Use: With broad-spectrum antiviral activity against DNA and RNA viruses neuropathy, Pancreatitis, and esophageal
Pharmacokinetics: Not orally available, given IM/SC/topical (nasal spray) Ulceration
Stavudine • Close congener of AZT, a thymidine
NUCLEOSIDE ANTIMETABOLITES: Inhibitors of DNA Polymerase
nucleoside analog
Idoxuridine • 1963: introduced for the treatment of herpes • Triphosphate form competitively inhibits
simplex keratitis incorporation of thymidine triphosphate into
• Iodinated analog of thymidine retroviral DNA
• Inhibits replication of DNA viruses – • Dose-limiting effect – peripheral neuropathy,
herpesvirus, poxvirus • side effects are Lactic acidosis and hepatic
• Phosphorylated to triphosphate form which steatosis
inhibits viral DNA synthesis by inhibiting viral • Not a first-line agent
DNA polymerase and leads to strand
Abacavir • Triphosphate form is a nucleoside reverse
breakage and faulty transcription transcriptase inhibitor in combination therapy
Cytarabine • Pyrimidine nucleoside, related to Idoxuridine for HIV and AIDS
• Phosphorylated to triphosphate form which • A guanosine analog.
blocks DNA polymerase and blocks cellular Tenofovir • Prodrug analog with Abacavir
utilization of deoxycytidine which inhibits viral Disoproxil • Synergistic with reverse transcriptase
DNA replication
inhibitors for HIV adult patient
• Treatment of shingles, herpetic keratitis,
Lamivudine • With antiretroviral activity against HIV and low
Idoxuridine resistant-viral infections
toxicity
Trifluridine ● (Viroptic)
• + AZT = increases CD4 count in patients with
● Trifluorinated pyrimidine nucleoside with
HIV.
inhibitory action against HSV-1 and HSV-2,
• Least toxic
CMV, vaccinia, adenovirus
Emtricitabine • Orally active NRTI, OD
● Triphosphate form inhibits thymidine
• Contraindicated to pregnant women and
triphosphate incorporation into DNA by DNA
young children because it can lead to hepatic
polymerase = fragile, poorly functioning viral
or renal failure
DNA
REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE
● Tx of primary keratoconjunctivitis, recurrent
- these are enzymes that are used to generate complementary DNA from an
epithelial keratitis by HSV 1 and 2
RNA.
● For Acyclovir-resistant HSV infections
- It is responsible for the conversion of RNA to DNA
Vidarabine ● Alternative to Idoxuridine for tx of HSV
keratitis, HSV encephalitis
MISCELLANEOUS NUCLEOSIDE ANTIMETABOLITES
● Obtained from Streptomyces antibioticus
Ribavirin
● Activity confined to DNA viruses –
• Inhibits replication of RNA and DNA viruses; MOA not known
triphosphate form competes with
• Used in the treatment of influenza a and influenza b virus
deoxyadenosine triphosphate for viral DNA
NON-NUCLEOSIDE REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE INHIBITORS
polymerase
Nevirapine, Delavirdine, Efavirenz
Adefovir ● Orally active prodrug for chronic form of HepB
• Bind directly to a site on the viral reverse transcriptase that is near to but
Dipivoxil ● Diphosphate form inhibits Hepatitis B Virus
distinct from the binding site of the NRTIs (Allosteric Site)
DNA polymerase
• Neither compete with nucleoside triphosphate nor require phosphorylation to be
Acyclovir ● The most popular antiviral drug is used active
primarily in the herpes simplex virus. • Specific activity against HSV-1
● Treatment for herpes virus infections – most • The rapid emergence of resistance prohibits monotherapy with any of the
active against HSV-1, 2x less active to HSV- NNRTIs and the NRTIs or the protease inhibitors
2, 10x less potent to Varicella zester virus. HIV PROTEASE INHIBITORS
● ADV: uninfected human cells are unaffected Saquinavir, Ritonavir. Amprenavir, Nelfinavir, Lopinavir, Indinavir, Atazanavir,
by the drug Fosamprenavir, Tipranavir
● Triphosphate form inhibits viral DNA MOA: Arrests replication of the virus at the maturation step to prevent the spread of cellular
polymerases and is incorporated into viral infection
DNA as a chain term ● INDINAVIR
● Oral and parenteral administrations ○ Side effects: crystalluria
Valacyclovir ● L-valyl ester of acyclovir ● FOSAMPRENAVIR
● increases bioavailability by increasing ○ active form is APMRENAVIR
lipophilicity ● SAQUINAVIR (SQV)
● Tx of shingles in immunocompromised ○ First HIV Protease inhibitor
patients. POP QUIZ
Ganciclovir • Acyclovir analog; Against HSV, VZV and ● Used against HSV-1 and HSV-2 and against varicella-zoster virus, Epstein-Barr
CMV Virus and Cytomegalovirus
• Triphosphate form inhibits DNA polymerase ○ Acyclovir
and is incorporated into viral DNA leading to ● Approved for combination w/ Ritonavir
strand breakage and cessation of elongation ○ Lopinavir
• Limited use due to myelosuppression ● Given as Buffered Drugs
(neutropenia, thrombocytopenia, anemia) ○ Didanosine
o Myelosupression - there is a bone ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS
marrow supression. – Drugs given to patients to mitigate the cancer cells/ cancer, not necessarily to cure the
o Decrease in the bone marrow disease but to slow down the progression and to target cancer cells.
activity that results in a reduced ALKYLATING AGENTS
production of the blood cells. – Compounds that work by adding an alkyl group to the guanine base of DNA molecules so
Penciclovir • Triphosphate form is a competitive inhibitor of that later on it will prevent the strands of the double helics from linking as they should so
viral DNA polymerase there is a breakage in the DNA strands affecting the ability of cancer cells to multiply
• 100-fold less potent than acyclovir; Treatment Nitrogen • Cyclophosphamide (deactivated form: phosphamide
for HSV-1 and 2 Mustards mustard)
Famciclovir • Diacetyl inactive prodrug – lacks antiviral • Ifosfamide (deactivated form: Iifosfamide mustard)
activity Thiotepa • Aziridine – active alkylating agent: Aziridine less
reactive than mechlorethamine
 15

Busulfan • Utilizes two sulfonate functionalities as leaving groups

separated by a four-carbon chain that reacts with DNA.
Mechlorethamine • MOPP treatment of Hodgkin’s Lymphoma
Nitrosoureas • Carmustine, Lomustine, Semustine
• MOA: Form covalent bonds with nucleophilic groups
present on DNA – alkylation of DNA leads to cell death
• Undergo spontaneous non-enzymatic degradation BARBITURATES
with the formation of the 2-chloroethyl carbonium ion - NAME of structure: 5,5-disubstituted barbituric acid or 2,4,5-
from diazohydroxide formed trioxohexa-hydro-pyrimidine
• Liberates isocyanate that attach carbamoyl groups to - MOA: Enhance GABAergic transmission; Increased opening
the lysine residues of proteins- inactivate DNA time of GABAergic channel
Chlorambucil • Treatment of Hodgkin’s lymphoma and CLL/ Chronic - Effective and relatively inexpensive than BZD; classified under
Lymphoblastic Leukemia with Prednisone Schedule II drugs wherein there is physical and psychological
dependence but lesser than Schedule I
PLATINUM BASED: Cisplatin, Oxaliplatin, Carboplatin - Binds to an allosteric site on the same receptor as
Antimetabolites benzodiazepine but different allosteric site
– Structurally related to natural metabolite necessary for cellular growth - Most of them are dealkylated & undergo metabolism by
– Inhibit the production of utilization of these metabolites conjugation through the process of glucuronidation
– Chemicals that will prevent the RNA/ DNA from being synthesized - Example of drugs under here are enzyme inducers like phenobarbital
– Examples of Antimetabolite drugs: - SIDE EFFECTS:
Purine Analogs: • In respiration, it can cause depression in respiration with increasing doses (WORST)
o 6-Mercaptopurine, Thioguanine • Cardiovascular, decrease blood pressure and heart rate especially at the sedative-
- MOA: Inhibition of purine biosynthesis hypnotic doses
- Major pathway for inactivation is through S-methylation by Thiopurine-S- • Liver, can bind to cytochrome P450
methyl-transferase (TPMT) Drug Half-life Uses
- Also inactivated through oxidation by xanthine oxidase Phenobarbital, Long (>6 hrs) Anticonvulsant
o Azathioprine Mephobarbital Daytime sedation
- Derivative of 6-mercaptopurine; used as an immunosuppressive agent Amobarbital, Butabarbital Intermediate (3- Pre-op sedation
o Pentostatin 6hrs)
Pyrimidine Analogs: Pentobarbital, Secobarbital Short (<3 hrs) Pre-op sedation
o Fluorouracil (AKA 5-FU) – first choice for colon cancer treatment; it was designed
Thiopental, Thiamylal, Ultrashort (15-40 Anesthesia
to block the conversion of uridine to thymidine
Methohexital mins) induction
o Floxuridine, Cytarabine (AKA Cytosine Arabinoside), Gemcitabine
 Chloral hydrate: used as a sedative in pediatric dentistry for diagnostic imaging procedures
Folic Acid Analog
 Ramelteon: more effective in initiating sleep rather than circadian rhythm
 Folic/ Folate acid inhibition kills the cells in the S-Phase
o Methotrexate (MTX)
- it blocks DNA synthesis through the inhibition of dihydrofolate reductase
- Leucovorin: given 6-24hrs after the methotrexate administration to prevent NEUROLEPTICS/ ANTIPSYCHOTICS
toxicity in the normal cells of an individual - Most commonly prescribed drugs for reducing the psychosis symptoms that is usually
CYTOTOXIC ANTIBIOTICS associated with schizophrenia
– Cytotoxic: compounds or agents that disrupt DNA function and cell division TYPICAL ATYPICAL
– MOA: planar molecule inserts itself between base pair of DNA (-) topoisomerase MOA Blockade of dopamine 2 Blockade of dopamine 2
– Doxorubicin, Plicamycin, Streptozocin, Valrubicin receptors in the CNS especially and serotonin receptors
ACTINOMYCINS: isolated from streptomyces mesolimbic system
o Dactinomycin: cardiotoxic Subclass, Phenothiazenes • Aripiprazole
o Bleomycin: intercalates between G-C pairing and it can induce pulmonary fibrosis drug • Chlorpromazine (Thorazine): • Clozapine
o Mitomycin first phenothiazine compound • Olanzapine
ANTHRACYCLINES: isolated from Streptomyces peucetius introduced • Quetiapine
o Daunorubicin, Idarubicin, & Epirubicin: Cardiotoxic and intercalates into the DNA • Fluphenazine. *Thioridazine • Risperidone
pairing that decreases both the DNA & RNA synthesis SAR: • Ziprasidone
PLANT PRODUCTS
Epipodophyllotoxins • Mayapple – Etoposide, Tenoposide
**Etoposide acts on the topoisomerase II
• Semi-synthetic derivatives
• Inhibitor of microtubule functions
Camptothecins • From Camptotheca accuminata; Inhibitors of  Phenyl + Ketone = Phenone
(Topotecan, topoisomerase I and are used clinically for the Thioxanthene – Thiothixene
Irinotecan) treatment of various cancers SAR:
Vinca Alkaloids • MOA: Inhibit microtubule synthesis
Periwinkle: • Composed of Cantharanthine moiety containing the
Vincristine, indole subunit and the Vindoline moiety containing
Vinblastine, the dihydroindole subunit joined by a C-C bond
Vinorelbine
Taxanes • Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) – Paclitaxel Butyrophenone – Haloperiodol

OTHER AGENTS ANTISEIZURE AGENTS

L – Asparaginase General SAR for Classical Antiseizure Agents
- Cause inactivation of asparaginase, depriving all of these important substance • If the substituents in R1 & R2 are:
- Tumor cells are unable to make sufficient amounts of asparagine which acts as a a) Lower Alkyls like methyl & ethyl they tend to be found useful in absence seizures,
nutrient for tumor cells however, they have no effectivity in generalized tonic/clonic seizures
HORMONES b) Aromatic Substituents, compounds will be used for generalized tonic/clonic seizures
Tamoxifen • Estrogen antagonist; Treatment of estrogen receptor and inactive to absence seizures
• Toremifene - Tamoxifen analog with Chlorine
Goserelin • Analog of GnRH/ GnRH receptor – inhibit FSH and
LH release
Trifluoromethylaniline • Flutamide, Nilutamide, Bicalutamide; Anti-androgen
• Block effects of testosterone and androgens
Mitotane Selective for adrenal glands

ANXIOLYTIC AGENTS
BENZODIAZEPINES/ BZD
MOA:
• Enhance GABAergic transmission;
• Increased frequency of GABAergic channel openings
 leading to its effect which sedative-hypnotic inducing anxiolytic effects or anti-anxiety,
anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant properties CHOLINERGIC AGENTS
SAR:
 Name is derived from the benzene ring with a 7-
membered/ 7 carbon atoms diazepine ring
• 1st ring: Phenyl ring – attached at the 5 position SAR:
of the diazepine ring & it is required for the • Components: Ammonium group, ethylene bridge, ester group
benzodiazepine activity • For ammonium group, replacement of ammonium moiety with either sulfonium or
• 2nd ring: Diazepine ring phosphonium results in a complete loss of activity
• 3rd ring: Benzene ring – Benzene component • Increasing 1/one methyl group to a larger/higher alkyl results to 25% activity (ex: you will
needs an electron withdrawing group (Cl &
change methyl to ethyl)
Nitro group: most common entities attached to • Increase in 2/two methyl groups in terms of size will lose all the activity
BZD) in the R-7 to have an enhanced activity
• Ethylene bridge act as a perfect spacer or serves as a ruler between carbonyl group and
quaternary ammonium moiety; also ensure proper distance for receptor binding
2 – KETO BENZODIAZEPINES – Called like this because of the ketone group • Branching on the ethylene bridge tolerates only methyl
Chlordiazepoxide Dizepam Flurazepam Flunitrazepam Clonazepam • Ester group are not very amenable to modification
(Librium) (Valium) (Dalmane) (Rohypnol) (Klonopin) • Change from a methyl to phenyl makes a good antagonist
• Some activity can be maintained by replacement with a ketone or ether and carbamate

DIRECT – ACTING
Acetylcholine, Betanechol, Metachloine Chloride, Carbachol Chloride

INDIRECT-ACTING
3 – HYDROXY TRIAZOLO IMIDAZOLO Carbamates (Carbamic acid ester) Organophosphates
BENZODIAZEPINES BENZODIAZEPINES BENZO - Trimethyl ammonium group is placed on - A is usually Oxygen, Sulfur,
Lorazepam Oxazepam Alprazolam Triazolam Midazolam the para position to the carbonyl group but Selenium
(Ativan) (Serax) (Xanax) (Halcion) (Versed) the meta position provides better inhibition - R1 is the alkoxyl
like in neostigmine, a cholinesterase - R2: alkyl/ alkoxyl/ 3 nitrogen
 16

inhibitor, used in the treatment of - X is the good leaving group: these ➔ The compounds of these don’t affect the blood pressure and they are not as
myasthenia gravis are displaced when the rapid as the suxamethonium. (45 minutes)
- Their action is reversible organophosphate
- Presence of dimethyl carbamate increases phosphorylates – Tubocurarine analog (Antagonist of acetylcholine blocks the nerve transmission
stability to hydrolysis acetylcholinesterase; most from the nerve to the muscle.)
- Neostigmine, Physostigmine, sensitive to hydrolysis
– It resembles ACTh when it comes to structure’ also binds receptors which
Pyridostigmine, Ambenonium Chloride,
Demecarium Bromide, Edrophonium causes depolarization and contraction.
Chloride, Tacrine Hydrochloride – Ester group is susceptible to chemical and enzymatic hydrolysis
– Once hydrolysis occurs, the molecule can no longer bridge the two-receptor site
and becomes inactive.

OTHER CHOLINERGIC ANTAGONISTS

Snake Toxins
MUSCARINIC ANTAGONISTS – Bind irreversibly to the Ach receptor thus blocking cholinergic transmissions
Hyoscine Alphabungarotoxin: From the Indian Cobra
Atropine: naturally occurring alkaloid, has similarities with acetylcholine Pralidoxime
- Quaternary nitrogen is essential to the structure because it reduces the passage across – Organophosphate antidote; Requires hydrolysis of the phosphate-serine bond
the blood brain barrier. ADRENERGIC AGENTS
- Tertiary nitrogen is for the broader volume of distribution CATECHOLAMINES
� Dopamine, Epinephrine, Norepinephrine, Isoproterenol
SYNTHETIC AGENTS - Catechol (specifically at position 3 and 4)
- Bulky analogs of acetylcholine allowing the molecules to bind other receptors without - 3,5 dihydroxy
inducing cholinergic effects - Increase beta-2 activity
- Metaproterenol
 alteration in the alpha carbon will decrease the action but the reduction on muscarinic
effects will be greater, therefore, greater reduction in the nicotinic activity that is due to the - 3(hydroxymethyl)4(hydroxy)
beta carbon substitution - Increase beta-2 activity
SYMPATHOMIMETICS - Albuterol
● Substances that mimic/modify the actions of endogenous catecholamine of the
sympathetic nervous system. ➔ Absence of one or both OH groups in the phenyl ring will increase the
DOPAMINE AGONIST bioavailability after oral administration and it can lead to prolonged duration of
Fenoldop • D1 receptor agonist action, and increase the distribution of the molecule in the CNS.
am • Selectively leads to peripheral ➔ In order for us to enhance the beta receptor activity = also increase the size of
vasodilation in some vascular beds alkyl substitution
Dopamine • Immediate metabolic norepinephrine ➔ The addition of isopropyl at the amino nitrogen group will also enhance the beta
precursor
• Selectively leads to peripheral receptor activity.
vasodilation in some vascular beds ➔ The larger the substituent on the amino group the lower the activity of the alpha
Others: Ephedrine, Amphetamine, Methamphetamine, receptor
Methylphenidate, Pemoline, Phenylpropanolamine, Tyramine

SYNTHETIC CHOLINERGIC BLOCKING AGENTS

▪ AMINO ALCOHOL ETHERS
o Benztropine Mesylate, Orphenadrine Citrate
o Used as antiparkinsonian
▪ AMINO ALCOHOL ESTERS NON-CATECHOLAMINES
o Clinidium Br, Cyclopentolate HCl, Dicyclomine HCl, Eucatropine ➔ CH3: substitution on the alpha carbon, commonly attached group
HCl, Glycopyrrolate, Oxyphencyclimine HCl, Propantheline Br ➔ Direct acting agonist: typically they have beta hydroxyl group
o Used primarily as Antispasmodics or Mydriatics and Cholinolytic
▪ AMINO ALCOHOLS
o Biperiden, Procyclidine, Trihexethyl Cl, Trihexyphenidyl HCl
o All used for parkinsonism is a tertiary amine
▪ AMINO AMIDES
o Isopropamide Iodide, tropicamide
▪ MISCELLANEOUS
o Diphemanil methylsulfate
o Papaverine HCl
o Ethopropazine HCl

ALPHA – 1 AGONISTS
Phenylethylamines
• Phenylephrine
• Metaraminol
• Methoxamine
2-Arylimidazolines
• Xylomethazoline
•Oxymethazoline
• Tetrahydrazoline
•Naphazoline

ALPHA 2 AGONIST
- Clonidine
- Methyldopa
- Guanfacine
- Guanabenz
BETA- 1 AGONIST
Dobutamine
– Synthetic catecholamine
– Two isomers of Dobutamine:
• (+) isomer: potent beta 1 agonist and an alpha1 receptor antagonist.
NEUROMUSCULAR BLOCKING AGENTS
Two classes: • (–) isomer: potent alpha 1 agonist, capable of causing significant
1. Non-depolarizing/Competitive Agents vasoconstriction when given alone
No muscle contraction
Suxamethonium (most rapid) (duration of action is 5 minutes)
2. Depolarizing Agents.
Succinylcholine (the only depolarizing neuromuscular blocker that is
use in the clinical practice)
Flexible structures with free bond rotation. They were devised (not natural products)
through mimicry of the N+ - N+ distance, but they act by a different mechanism.

Decamethonium
BETA-2 AGONISTS
➔ CURARE was a term used to describe collectively the very potent arrow
� Albuterol, Metaproterenol, Pirbuterol, Salmeterol, Formoterol, Terbutaline, Ritodrine
poisons used since early times
➔ The botanic source was Chondrodendron tomentosum and it can cause ADRENERGIC ANTAGONISTS
paralysis, and stops the heart. REVERSIBLE ALPHA-ANTAGONIST: imidazole derivatives, non-selective, dissociate
➔ PANCURONIUM and VECURONIUM, they act like tubocurarine but they have from receptors
a steroid nucleus that acts as a spacer. Phentolamine + Papaverine = HTN in pheochromocytoma patients
➔ ACYL GROUPS were also added to introduce the 2 Acetylcholine skeletons to Tolazoline = used for persistent pulmonary HTN of the newborn
Phentolamine Tolazoline
the molecule in order to improve the affinity for the receptor sites.
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ENZYME INVOLVED IN THE TRANSFORMATION OF CHOLESTEROL TO HORMONES:

CYP450 and dehydrogenases
Classification
1. Sterols: R = aliphatic chain
2. Cardiac glycosides: R = lactone ring
3. Bile acids: R= 5C side chain ending with -COOH
4. Sapogenins: R= oxacyclic (ethereal) ring system
IRREVERSIBLE ALPHA-ANTAGONIST: imidazole derivatives, non-selective, dissociate 5. Sex hormones: R = ketone or hydroxyl; possess 2C side chain
from receptors
Phenoxybenzamine Physicochemical Properties
o Crystalline solids
o Water insoluble
• Decrease the release rate of the drug from IM
• Dermatological preparation
• +OH or decrease carbon � increase water solubility
SELECTIVE ALPHA-1 ADRENERGIC BLOCKING AGENTS
– Terazosin, Prazosin, Doxazosin, Alfusozin • IV preparation
o Salts are water soluble
– Selective, competitive alpha1 antagonists, consist of:
o 4-en-3-one steroids
a. Quinazoline
• Light sensitive (Light- resistant containers)
b. Piperazine
c. Acyl Moiety
STEROL
– SAR: • Zoosterol Cholesterol
• Phytosterol • Ergosterol • Stigmasterol
• Mycosterol

SELECTIVE ALPHA-2 ADRENERGIC BLOCKING AGENTS

Yohimbine – indolealkylamine alkaloid

CARDIAC GLYCOSIDES BILE ACIDS

BETA-BLOCKERS
Chemical class: Aryloxypropanolamines (Propranolol) which has an –OCH2- grp (resp for
blocker fx) incorporated into the molecule between the aromatic ring and the ethylamino
side chain

SAPOGENINS
– are the aglycone, or non- saccharide, portions of the family of natural products
known as saponins.
– contain steroid or other triterpene frameworks as their key organic feature

ADRENERGIC AGENTS
B1-SELECTIVE BLOCKERS
�Acebutolol, Atenolol, Betaxolol, Bisoprolol, Esmolol, Metoprolol
B-BLOCKERS WITH A1-ANTAGONISTIC ACTIVITY
�Labetalol, Carvedilol
SEX HORMONES
STEROID HORMONES ∆ ANDROGEN
• Comprised of a group of cyclical organic compounds ⮚ Testosterone
• Characteristic arrangement of 17 C atoms in a four-ring structure linked • Natural androgen
together from three 6-carbon rings followed by a 5-carbon ring and an 8-C side • For normal spermatogenesis, development of secondary male characteristics,
chain for growth
• used primarily in birth control, hormone-replacement therapy (HRT), • Use: Breast CA & Growth and development of male sex organs
inflammatory conditions, and cancer treatment.
∆ ESTROGEN
o NATURAL FORM OF ESTROGEN IS SYNTHESIZED BY:
GRAFIAN FOLLICLE, CORPUS LUTEUM, PLACENTA
o SYNTHESIS/PATHWAY OF ESTROGEN:
▪ ANDROSTENEDIONE ->(AROMATASE)-> ESTRONE-
>ESTRIOL
▪ TESTOSTERONE->(AROMATASE)->ESTRADIOL-
>ESTRIOL
• Primary female sex hormones
• Functions:
o Development of female reproductive tract and female secondary sex characters
o Stimulation of proliferative phase of endometrium
o Vasodilation
o Cardio protection
o Maintain integrity of skeleton in reproductive age

NATURAL ESTROGEN -- Secreted by ovary

⮚ Estradiol / 17 B Estradiol
• Primary female sex hormone
• Principal estrogen in premenopausal women
• Important in the regulation of menstrual cycle
⮚ Estriol
• 1/3 estrogenic activity of estradiol; Primary circulating after menopause
⮚ Estrone
• Less potent than estradiol
• Present in significant amounts during pregnancy
• Principal estrogen produced by placenta

CHOLESTEROL ~ MEVALONATE PATHWAY

PREGNENOLONE ~ rate limiting step
STAR ~ involved in the translocation SYNTHETIC ESTROGEN
“Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein” ~ congenital lipoid adrenal hyperplasia (rare • Long DOA, slow metabolic rate
condition marked by deficiency of adrenal and gonadal steroid hormone)
 18

• Steroidal: Ethinylestradiol, Mestranol

• NS: diethylstilbestrol, hexestrol, dienestrol
Uses:
1. Contraception, Hormone Replacement Therapy, Osteoporosis, Senile vaginitis
AE: nausea and breast tenderness, headache, Edema, hypertension

∆ PROGESTERONE
– Natural progestational hormone
– USES:
• Prevent habitual abortion
• Treatment of functional uterine bleeding resulting due to lack of estrogen
• Oral contraceptives
• Pregnancy diagnosis
• Tx of advance carcinoma in breast
• Treat premature discomfort in breast
• Skin elasticity and bone strength