C++ For Embedded Systems (PDFDrive)

Table
of Contents
Introduction. 3
Acknowledgements. 4
C++ code style. 5
Software primitives. 5
Mutual exclusion. 5
Parallel execution. 14
Containers. 19
C++ templates. 41
Memory management. 50
Operator new. 74
I/O access. 77
I/O access in C. 79
I/O access in C++. 87
Indirect I/O access. 99
Code ROM and data RAM. 103
C++ Initialized data. 104
ROM patching. 106
Composition. 109
Static (class) member. 110
Non static member. 119
Interprocess communication. 122
Log. 133
Software Timers. 154
Lambda. 182
Fixed point arithmetic. 187
Interview questions. 191
General programming. 191
Bit tricks. 205
Popular online tests. 208
Brain teasers. 230
Conclusion. 232
Bibliography. 233
Introduction.
I've come to the conclusion that any
programmer that would prefer the project to
be in C++ over C is likely a programmer that
I really would prefer to piss off, so that he
doesn't come and screw up any project I'm
involved with.
Linus Torvalds

This book is intended for firmware developers who mainly use the C language. I
assume that the reader is comfortable with ARM or Intel assembly language and
has working knowledge of the C++ syntax. In this book, I have tried to give
examples of C++ code in situations where, arguably, C is not the perfect tool for
the task. Many C++ code examples come with snippets of the resulting
assembly. The examples of code have been constructed in a way that allows
immediate reuse in real-world applications. Examples cover topics such as
memory and speed optimization, organizing arrays, FIFOs, thread safety, and
direct access to the hardware. The book addresses issues such as code bloat and
the hidden performance costs of C++.
In all examples I assume that the C++ compiler supports version 11 of the
language. One example of such a compiler is GNUC 4.8. The availability of a
C++ compiler supporting version 11 for specific hardware is not required, and
most code examples can be rewritten for older C++ compilers. Throughout the
book, I have demonstrated some of the lesser known features of the C++11
standard, such as type traits, static assertion, constant expressions and OpenMP
support.
Problem can be solved in numerous ways. Where it was possible and made
sense, I provided an alternative implementation in C and compared the
performance of the C and C++ solutions.
Acknowledgements.
I would like to thank my cousin and friend Andre Bar'yudin. Without Andre's
help and contributions this book would have been much poorer. I think that
between two of us this is Andre who knows C++.
C++ code style.
#define AND && #define OR ||
#define EQ ==

I have done my best to follow consistent C/C++ code style in all source code
examples. In this book I have not placed curly brackets on a separate line.
Please, do not send me hate mail. The only reason is to make the code snippets
shorter. Shorter code has a better chance of fitting in the smaller e-reader
displays. There are no comments in the code itself for the same reason.
Hopefully, the lack of comments has been compensated for by the interspersed
explanations. I am using the camelcase name convention. Types and class names
begin with uppercase and variables begin with lower case, while constants are all
upper case with the underscore delimiter.
Software primitives.
Mutual exclusion.
The great thing about Object Oriented code
is that it can make small, simple problems
look like large, complex ones.

In the multi-task environment, threads and interrupts can concurrently read and
write data objects. I can use different tools to synchronize access to the data
between different contexts and create thread safe APIs. Among the available
tools are semaphores and mutual exclusion APIs provided by operating systems,
as well as disabling all interrupts, disabling some interrupts, disabling the
operating system scheduler, and using spin locks. When I write a wrapper
around an API provided by my real-time operating system or by the hardware, I
want the wrapper to be as thin as possible. Usually, I measure the overhead of
the wrapper using a number of assembly instructions. The number of instructions
provides a good approximation of the CPU cycles or execution time.
I am starting with a code snippet that creates and calls a dummy lock object.

class LockDummy {
public: LockDummy() {
cout << "Locked context" << endl; }

~LockDummy() {
cout << "Lock is freed" << endl; }

};

In the following usage example the C++ specifier “auto” tells to the compiler to
automatically supply the correct type – the C++11 compiler knows to deduct
certain types of variables in some situations. For example, the C++ compiler can
figure out the return type of the left side of an assignment or the return type of a
function.
In the function main() compiler will call the output function two times and will
not add any other code. The lock is released – the destructor ~LockDummy gets
called – when the scope of the variable myDummyLock ends. The scope could
be a while loop. I do not have to call “unlock” before each and every return from
the function. The C++ compiler makes sure that the destructor is always called
and called exactly once (see more about RAII in [1]). This convenient service
comes without any performance overhead. The output of the following code is
going to be Locked context Protected context Lock is freed
int testDummyLock() {
#if (__cplusplus >= 201103) // use "auto" if C++11 or better auto myDummyLock =
LockDummySimple(); #else LockDummySimple myDummyLock = LockDummySimple(); #endif cout
<< "Protected context" << endl; return 0; }
I want to stress this idea using another example. In the following code, I set a
scope around the declaration of the lock variable. The output of the code is going
to be Locked context Protected context Lock is freed End of main
int main() {
LockDummy lock; cout << "Protected context" << endl; }

cout << "End of main" << endl; return 0; }

My second lock is a more realistic one, and it disables a hardware interrupt. I
assume that there is an API that disables and enables an interrupt. I am
refactoring the original lock code a little bit. First of all, I use a template, which
is a feature of C++ that allows you to declare a class that operates with generic
types. I am going to reuse the code in the template Lock for different
synchronization objects. The code in the template Lock can manipulate any
structure or class that implements two public methods: static methods get() and
release(). I carefully avoid polymorphism here, I do not require synchronization
objects to belong to the same hierarchy of classes. The wrapper around the
disable/enable interrupts API, which likely writes to the hardware, is not going
to be a child/friend/parent/relative/derivation of a wrapper for the operating
system semaphore.
This is what the API that disables and enables interrupts looks like:
static inline void interruptDisable(void) {
cout << "Disable" << endl; }

static inline void interruptEnable(void) {
cout << "Enable" << endl; }
I am describing a synchronization object. The class implements two methods:
“get” and “release”. Both methods are “inline”, which helps the optimizer to
decide if calls to the methods should be substituted by the methods code. The
end result is going to be similar to using a macro definition in C. The default
constructor in the class SynchroObject is private, I do not want any objects of
this type in the application. My C++ compiler so far has not added any object
code to my executable file.

class SynchroObject {

SynchroObject() {};

public:

static inline void get() {
interruptDisable();
}

static inline void release() {
interruptEnable();
}

};

The template class Lock can manipulate any type of synchronization objects that
provides a get/release API. All methods of the template class Lock are “inline”.
The C++ compiler is not going to add any functions to the object code, but will
rather replace the calls to the Lock methods with the code of the get/release from
the synchronization object.

template<typename Mutex> class Lock {

public: inline Lock() {
Mutex::get(); }

inline ~Lock() {
Mutex::release(); }
}; Declare a new type MyLock that uses my SynchroObject to disable/enable
interrupts. There is still no additional data or code in my executable except for
the calls to the interrupt enable and interrupt disable API.
typedef Lock<SynchroObject> MyLock; Output of the function main() is going to be two
words: Disable, Enable
int main() {
MyLock lock; }
return 0; }
Overhead of the wrapper around the functions that disable and enable interrupts
is exactly zero. Indeed, if I check the disassembly, I will see two calls to the
print function in the main routine and nothing else. I have written some C++
code which gets optimized to nothing. What did I gain? What is an added value?
The code does not allow me to leave out enable interrupts after I called disable
interrupt. No matter how many return points or breaks out of a loop my function
has, the C++ compiler ensures that the function interruptEnable is called exactly
once.
Parallel execution.
Some people, when confronted with a
problem, think, 'I know, I'll use threads' – and
then two they hav erpoblems.

I have a quad core CPU in my system. Compiler GCC 4.8 is available for my
hardware. If I compile the code below with the compilation flag -fopenmp I will
get the output “4”: void testReduction(void) {
int a = 0; #pragma omp parallel reduction (+:a) {
a = 1; }
cout << a << endl; }
Without the flag -fopenmp the output will be “1”. When the C++ compiler
encounters pragma “omp parallel”, it adds a chunk of code which spawns a
“team” of threads (in Linux POSIX pthreads) according to the number of cores
in the system. The following section is executed by the group of threads in
parallel.

Execution of the following function on my system requires 0.179s with OpenMP
and 0.322s without OpenMP: volatile uint_fast8_t myArray[(size_t)512*1024*1024];
uint_fast32_t testOpenMPLoop() {
uint_fast32_t sum = 0; #pragma omp parallel for reduction(+:sum) for (uint64_t i=0; i <
sizeof(myArray); i++) {
sum += myArray[i]; }
return sum; }
If the array size is under 10M entries the OpenMP overhead kicks in and the
multi-thread version of the loop requires more time than the single thread
version. OpenMP implementation in the GCC compiler, GOMP library, calls
malloc() from the C standard library to allocate pthread threads.
My next synchronization object is based on the OpenMP lock.

I restrict the instantiation of the class to one object. There is going to be only one
instance of the class SynchroObjectOmpLock. This design pattern is called
“singleton” ([2]): class SynchroObjectOmpLock {
public: static inline void get(); static inline void release(); ~SynchroObjectOmpLock(); protected:
omp_lock_t lock; static SynchroObjectOmpLock *instance; inline SynchroObjectOmpLock(); };
SynchroObjectOmpLock *SynchroObjectOmpLock::instance = new SynchroObjectOmpLock();
The rest of the class methods:
void SynchroObjectOmpLock::get() {
omp_set_lock(&instance->lock);
}

void SynchroObjectOmpLock::release() {
omp_unset_lock(&instance->lock);
}

SynchroObjectOmpLock::SynchroObjectOmpLock() {
omp_init_lock(&lock);
}

SynchroObjectOmpLock::~SynchroObjectOmpLock() {
omp_destroy_lock(&instance->lock);
}

I have a new type – a lock which is based on the OpenMP synchronization
object:
typedef Lock<SynchroObjectOmpLock> LockOmp;
And usage example:
{
LockOmp lock;
}

Containers.
When your hammer is C++, everything
begins to look like a thumb.

Standard template library (STL) contains a lot of smart and very convenient code
dealing with vectors, stacks, queues, hash tables, trees, and many other types of
dynamic and static data storage. Unfortunately, a firmware developer often
needs something different. There are cases when high performance and small
code/data footprint should coexist in one application. In this chapter I will
demonstrate a container which makes sense in an embedded system with limited
resources. The API should be reentrant and allow safe concurrent access. The
performance of the container is going to be at least not worse than an alternative
implementation in the C language. All memory allocations are going to be static
and done at build time – I will deal with the dynamic allocations later in this
book.
Cyclic buffer.
Asking from C++ programmers more
content, less bloat is unfair.

My first example is going to be a cyclic buffer, which is also known as a ring
buffer. A “producer” adds objects to the “tail” of the cyclic buffer and a
“consumer” pulls the objects from the “head” of the cyclic buffer. An example
of producer can be an interrupt routine which gets characters from an UART
device (RS232 port). A “consumer” is a function called from the application
main loop which handles commands arriving from the UART. The CyclicBuffer
class is a template class, which should help the optimizer to generate the most
efficient code possible for the given integer type and the CPU architecture.

template<typename ObjectType, typename Lock, std::size_t Size> class CyclicBufferSimple {
public: CyclicBufferSimple(); ~CyclicBufferSimple() {}

inline bool add(const ObjectType object); inline bool remove(ObjectType &object); inline bool
isEmpty(); inline bool isFull(); private: inline size_t increment(size_t index); inline void
errorOverflow() {}
inline void errorUnderflow() {}

ObjectType data[Size + 1]; size_t head; size_t tail; };
The CyclicBufferSimple constructor will fail the build if the application attempts
to store in the buffer anything but integer. Storage for the objects larger than the
size of the integer on the given CPU architecture should probably have a
different API.

template<typename ObjectType, typename Lock, std::size_t Size>
CyclicBufferSimple<ObjectType, Lock, Size>::CyclicBufferSimple() {

#if (__cplusplus >= 201103)
static_assert(std::numeric_limits<ObjectType>::is_integer, "CyclicBuffer is intended to work only with
integer types");
#elif defined(__GNUC____)
__attribute__((unused)) ObjectType val1 = 1;
#else
volatile ObjectType val1;
*(&val1) = 1;
#endif
this->head = 0;
this->tail = 0;
}

There are two methods returning the buffer state: template<typename ObjectType,
typename Lock, std::size_t Size> inline bool CyclicBufferSimple<ObjectType, Lock,
Size>::isEmpty() {
bool res = (this->head == this->tail); return res; }

template<typename ObjectType, typename Lock, std::size_t Size> inline bool
CyclicBufferSimple<ObjectType, Lock, Size>::isFull() {
size_t tail = increment(this->tail); bool res = (this->head == tail); return res; }

A method handling wrap around of the buffer index:
inline size_t CyclicBufferSimple<ObjectType, Lock, Size>::increment(size_t index) {
if (index < Size) {
return (index + 1);
} else {
return 0;
}
}

Add/remove API of the cyclic buffer:
inline bool CyclicBufferSimple<ObjectType, Lock, Size>::add(const ObjectType object) {
Lock lock;
if (!isFull()) {
data[this->tail] = object;
this->tail = increment(this->tail);
return true;
} else {
errorOverflow();
return false;
}
}

inline bool CyclicBufferSimple<ObjectType, Lock, Size>::remove(ObjectType &object) {
Lock lock;
if (!isEmpty()) {
object = data[this->head];
this->head = this->increment(this->head);
return true;
} else {
errorUnderflow();
return false;
}
}

Instantiate a new type – a lock which does nothing: typedef
Lock<SynchroObjectDummy> LockDummy; The following function returns a number of
the elements in the cyclic buffer. Compiler will fail if the value can not be
calculated at the build time: constexpr size_t calculateCyclicBufferSize() {
return 10; }

I create an object of class CyclicBuffer dealing with unsigned 8 bits integers. I
use uint_fast8_t, which is yet another C++11 marvel targeting portability. Type
uint_fast8_t allows the C++ compiler to choose best performing integer that has
at least 8 bits. Operations with 32 bits integers can be faster on some CPUs than
8 bits operations. If the performance is more important than memory allocated
by the storage, it makes sense to choose 32 bits integer instead of 8 bits. The
smallest possible 8 bits unsigned integer is uint_least8_t, and the maximum
unsigned integer available on the platform is uintmax_t.
static CyclicBufferSimple<uint_fast8_t, LockDummy, calculateCyclicBufferSize()> myCyclicBuffer;
In the usage example there is a range loop from the C++11 standard. The main
function will print numbers 1, 3, 11
int main() {
for (int i : { 1, 3, 11 }) {
myCyclicBuffer.add(i); }

uint8_t val; while (myCyclicBuffer.remove(val)) {
cout << (int) val << endl; }
return 0; }

Let's examine the assembly generated by the GNUC compiler for the Intel CPU
for a single call to the method add().
xor %esi,%esi inline void add(const ObjectType object) {
mov 0x2009c0(%rip),%rax return (index + 1); mov %rsi,%r8
...............................................
inline void add(const ObjectType object) {
mov %rcx,%rdx cmovbe %rdi,%r8
if (!isFull()) {
cmp %r8,%rax ...............................................
data[this->tail] = object; movb $0x0,0x6011a0(%rcx) return (index + 1); mov %r8,%rdx this->tail
= increment(this->tail); mov %r8,0x2009a0(%rip) I see a couple of move instructions which
update the tail, update of the data in the cyclic buffer, a comparison when the tail
is incremented. There are 9 opcodes total. There is no unexpected overhead in
this code.
I coded one cyclic buffer implementation, but I gained four different cyclic
buffers optimized for four different integer types, equally efficient when
working with 8, 16, 32, 64 bits integers on different CPUs. Class CyclicBuffer
encapsulates the data in the private region. The private data is accessible only via
the class methods and this is supposed to be a good thing.

I could pointers instead of the index in the array ([3]), like this:
template<typename ObjectType, typename Lock, std::size_t Size> class CyclicBufferFast {
…..............................
ObjectType *head;
ObjectType *tail;
};

For example, the class constructor could be:
inline CyclicBufferFast<ObjectType, Lock, Size>::
CyclicBufferFast() {
this->head = &data[0];
this->tail = &data[0];
}

The increment method: template<typename ObjectType, typename Lock, std::size_t Size>
ObjectType *CyclicBufferFast<ObjectType, Lock, Size>:: increment(ObjectType *entry) {
if (entry < &data[Size]) {
return (entry + 1); } else {
return &data[0]; }
On my Intel desktop both versions of the cyclic buffer have similar performance.
It is rather possible that for some CPUs the C++ compiler generates better
optimized code for the “fast” version. The STL iterator in the class “array”
accesses the data via a pointer.
Cyclic buffer – C alternative.
/**
* Returns true */
int compare(int C) {
return (C > C++); }

The following C implementation of the cyclic buffer is type safe. The C
implementation contains approximately the same number of source code lines:
80 lines in C vs 90 lines in C++.

#undef CYCLIC_BUFFRE_SIZE
#define CYCLIC_BUFFRE_SIZE 10

#undef CYCLIC_BUFFER_OBJECT_TYPE
#define CYCLIC_BUFFER_OBJECT_TYPE uint8_t

#define CYCLIC_BUFFRE_DECLARE(ObjectType, Size) \
typedef struct { \
ObjectType data[Size+1]; \
size_t head; \
size_t tail; \
} CyclicBuffer;\

CYCLIC_BUFFRE_DECLARE(CYCLIC_BUFFER_OBJECT_TYPE, CYCLIC_BUFFRE_SIZE);

CyclicBuffer myCyclicBuffer; static inline size_t CyclicBufferIncrement(size_t index, size_t size) {
if (index < size) {
return (index + 1); }
else {
return 0; }
static inline bool CyclicBufferIsEmpty(CyclicBuffer* cyclicBuffer) {

bool res = (cyclicBuffer->head == cyclicBuffer->tail); return res; }

static inline bool CyclicBufferIsFull(CyclicBuffer* cyclicBuffer) {
size_t tail = CyclicBufferIncrement(cyclicBuffer->tail, CYCLIC_BUFFRE_SIZE); bool res =
(cyclicBuffer->head == tail); return res; }

static inline void errorOverflow() {
}

static inline void errorUnderflow() {
}

static inline bool CyclicBufferAdd(CyclicBuffer* cyclicBuffer, const
CYCLIC_BUFFER_OBJECT_TYPE object) {
if (!CyclicBufferIsFull(cyclicBuffer)) {
cyclicBuffer->data[cyclicBuffer->tail] = object; cyclicBuffer->tail =
CyclicBufferIncrement(cyclicBuffer->tail, CYCLIC_BUFFRE_SIZE); return true; } else {
errorOverflow(); return false; }

}

static inline bool CyclicBufferRemove(CyclicBuffer* cyclicBuffer,
CYCLIC_BUFFER_OBJECT_TYPE* object) {
if (!CyclicBufferIsEmpty(cyclicBuffer)) {
*object = cyclicBuffer->data[cyclicBuffer->head];
cyclicBuffer->head = CyclicBufferIncrement(cyclicBuffer->head, CYCLIC_BUFFRE_SIZE);
return true;
} else {
errorUnderflow();
return false;
}
}

Function main prints digits 0,1,2,3
int main() {
for (int i = 0;i < 4;i++) {
CyclicBufferAdd(&myCyclicBuffer, i); }

uint8_t val; while (CyclicBufferRemove(&myCyclicBuffer, &val)) {
cout << (int) val << endl; }; return 0; }

This code has some limitations. Only cyclic buffers manipulating the same
integer type can be used in the same C source file. Add/remove functions can be
defined only once in a C file.

Corresponding assembly contains 10 opcodes for a call to add() API: return (index
+ 1); xor %esi,%esi static inline void CyclicBufferAdd(CyclicBuffer* cyclicBuffer, const
mov 0x2009be(%rip),%rax # 0x6011b0 <myCyclicBuffer+16> return (index + 1); mov %rsi,%r8

int main() {
push %rbp return (index + 1); lea 0x1(%rcx),%rdi ...............................................
static inline void CyclicBufferAdd(CyclicBuffer* cyclicBuffer, const
mov %rcx,%rdx push %rbx return (index + 1); cmovbe %rdi,%r8
...............................................
if (!CyclicBufferIsFull(cyclicBuffer)) {
cmp %r8,%rax ...............................................
cyclicBuffer->data[cyclicBuffer->tail] = object; movb $0x0,0x6011a0(%rcx)
GNUC for ARM produces essentially the same assembly for the C and the C++
code xor %esi,%esi mov 0x2009be(%rip),%rax
mov %rsi,%r8
push %rbp
lea 0x1(%rdx),%rdi
cmp $0x9,%rdx
mov %rdx,%rcx
push %rbx
cmovbe %rdi,%r8
cmp %r8,%rax
je 40081c <main+0x3c> movb $0x0,0x6011a0(%rdx)
mov %r8,%rcx
mov %r8,0x20099c(%rip)
xor %r12d,%r12d Performance of the C and the C++ versions measured on Intel is
the same.
C++ templates.
To understand what recursion is, you must
first understand recursion.

At this point a patient reader would ask about “code bloat” caused by the C++
templates and object code duplication. Typically, an implementation in C should
have a smaller memory footprint, should not it?
In the C++ implementation of the cyclic buffer, all methods are inline and there
is no any specific “template code”. In the general case, for every pair
ObjectType/Size used in the code, the C++ compiler is going to instantiate a
class and add a full set of methods to the application code. A careful C++
programmer shall move the methods which do not require template arguments to
a base class and derive the CyclicBuffer template from the new class. Moving
type-invariant code into a base class sometimes is called “code hoisting”. Code
hoisting does not necessary cause a performance hit. In the following example I
call the base class CyclicBufferBase. Constructor of the base class is protected.
An application can create only objects of the child class.

class CyclicBufferBase {
public: bool isEmpty() {

bool isFull() {

protected: CyclicBufferBase(size_t size) {
this->size = size; this->head = 0; this->tail = 0; }

void errorOverflow() {
}

void errorUnderflow() {
}

size_t increment(size_t index) {
if (index < this->size) {
return (index + 1); } else {
return 0; }
}

size_t head; size_t tail; size_t size; };
The template class CyclicBuffer contains data which depends on the template
argument Size and add/remove methods which depend on the size of the integer.
Class CyclicBuffer is derived from the class CyclicBufferBase, inherits all
methods of the class CyclicBufferBase, and exposes all methods of the class
CyclicBufferBase.

template<typename ObjectType, typename Lock, std::size_t Size> class CyclicBuffer:public
CyclicBufferBase {
public: CyclicBuffer() : CyclicBufferBase(Size) {
static_assert(std::numeric_limits<ObjectType>::is_integer, "CyclicBuffer is intended to work only
with integer types"); }

~CyclicBuffer() {
}

bool add(const ObjectType object) {
Lock lock; if (!isFull()) {
data[this->tail] = object; this->tail = increment(this->tail); return true; } else {
errorOverflow(); return false; }

}

bool remove(ObjectType &object) {
Lock lock; if (!isEmpty()) {
object = data[this->head]; this->head = this->increment(this->head); return true; } else {
errorUnderflow(); return false; }
}

private: ObjectType data[Size + 1]; };
Where a C++ template causes object code duplication the C code can lead to the
source code and object code duplication. Analyzing of the object code generated
by the C/C++ compiler helps to locate parts of the code responsible for the
object code duplication. For example, a post build utility can look for patterns in
the object code which occur more than once, and use a map file to report the
corresponding position in assembly.
There is one use case for C++ templates that is rather hard to replicate in the
plain vanilla C. It is called template “metaprogramming”. Let's declare a
template which recursively calculates a factorial:

template<const uint32_t N> struct factorial
{
static constexpr uint32_t value = N * factorial<N - 1>::value;
};
I need to define factorial of zero explicitly:
template<>struct factorial<0>
{
static constexpr uint32_t value = 1;
};

Now I can have the following statement in my C++ code: constexpr uint32_t
factorial_3 = factorial<3>::value; C++ compiler will replace the call to factorial<3> with
6 and the variable factorial_3 will be a constant known at the build time. I have
never met firmware code which was required to calculate a factorial, but there
were cases when I needed to force the compilation failure instead of getting a
run-time error. Calculating a number of bits in the “int” variable and failing the
compilation if the integer is not large enough could be a good example, if C++11
already had not std::numeric_limits<T>::max() which returns maximum value
representable by type T. Yet another example is calculating non-trivial constants.
In the following example the function testSum() will print 15. The template
function accepts variable number of arguments and is called a variadic template
function.

int sum()
{
return 0;
}

template<typename ... Types>
int sum (int first, Types ... rest)
{
return first + sum(rest...);
}

const int SUM = sum(1, 2, 3, 4, 5);

This function prints 15:
void testSum()
{
cout << "SUM=" << SUM << endl;
}
Memory management.
Programming is like sex, one mistake and
you have to support it for the rest of your life.

I am going to discuss two frequently used types of memory allocation in the
embedded software – static allocation at the build time and allocation from
memory pools.
I will start the discussion of the dynamic memory allocation from memory pools
by declaration of a new class Stack. Template class Stack is similar to the class
CyclicBuffer used previously. Class Stack implements two methods: “push” and
“pop”.

class Stack: public StackBase {
public:

Stack() :
StackBase(Size) {
}

~Stack() {
}

inline bool push(ObjectType* object);
inline bool pop(ObjectType** object);

private:

ObjectType* data[Size + 1];
};

Base class StackBase contains “top” and “size” fields and a couple of useful
APIs

class StackBase {

public: bool isEmpty() {
bool res = (this->top == 0); return res; }

bool isFull() {
bool res = (this->top == size); return res; }

protected: StackBase(size_t size) {
this->size = size; this->top = 0; }

void errorOverflow() {
}

}

size_t top; size_t size; };
Example of implementation of the push and pop methods:

inline bool Stack<ObjectType, Lock, Size>::
push(ObjectType* object) {
Lock lock;
if (!isFull()) {
data[this->top] = object;
this->top++;
return true;
} else {
errorOverflow();
return false;
}

}

inline bool Stack<ObjectType, Lock, Size>::
pop(ObjectType** object) {
Lock lock;
if (!isEmpty()) {
this->top--;
*object = (data[this->top]);
return true;
} else {
errorUnderflow();
return false;
}
}

My next step is to define a block of “raw” data memory. A block of memory is a
correctly aligned array of bytes, which, optionally, can be placed at a specific
memory address. One popular application for the memory blocks is DMA
transfers. Data buffer can be placed in the regular RAM or in the dedicated
address space.
I define a memory region. I use operator “new” – a placement new operator – to
“place” the data at the specified address. My memory region has a name for
debug purposes. A region address is of type uintptr_t which is an unsigned
integer that is capable of storing a pointer.

class MemoryRegion {

public: MemoryRegion(const char *name, uintptr_t address, size_t size) : name(name), address(address),
size(size) {
data = new (reinterpret_cast<void*>(address)) uint8_t[size]; }

size_t getSize() const {
return size; }
const char* getName() const {
return name; }
uintptr_t getAddress() const {
return address; }

protected: const char *name; uintptr_t address; size_t size; uint8_t *data; };
I create an object of MemoryRegion type and point to the area dmaMemoryData
in the dynamic data:
static uint8_t dmaMemoryDummy[512];
static MemoryRegion dmaMemoryRegion("dmaMem", (uintptr_t)dmaMemoryDummy,
sizeof(dmaMemoryDummy));

I need an allocator. This is a class dealing with allocation of memory blocks. The
allocator handles the correct alignment. I am going to use the allocator code only
once (or rarely). For example, I need an allocator when I fill my memory pool
with the data blocks. The performance is not extremely important here. The
method reset “frees” all allocated blocks back to the allocator.

class MemoryAllocatorRaw {

public: MemoryAllocatorRaw(MemoryRegion memoryRegion, size_t blockSize, size_t count, unsigned
int alignment); uint8_t* getBlock(); bool blockBelongs(const void* block) const; const
MemoryRegion& getRegion() const; void reset(); constexpr static size_t predictMemorySize(
size_t blockSize, size_t count, unsigned int alignment); protected: int alignment; size_t blockSize;
const MemoryRegion& memoryRegion; size_t count; size_t sizeTotalBytes; size_t alignedBlockSize;
uintptr_t firstNotAllocatedAddress; static constexpr size_t alignConst(size_t value, unsigned int
alignment); inline static uintptr_t alignAddress(
uintptr_t address, unsigned int alignment); };
Implementation of the allocator methods follows. The allocator constructor
makes sure that there is enough space in the memory region. I initialize the fields
in the first line of the constructor, right after the constructor name:

MemoryAllocatorRaw::MemoryAllocatorRaw(MemoryRegion memoryRegion, size_t blockSize, size_t
count, unsigned int alignment) :
alignment(alignment), blockSize(blockSize), memoryRegion(memoryRegion), count(count) {

alignedBlockSize = alignAddress(blockSize, alignment);
sizeTotalBytes = alignedBlockSize * count;
if (sizeTotalBytes > memoryRegion.getSize()) {
// handle error
}
firstNotAllocatedAddress = memoryRegion.getAddress();
reset();
}

Allocator implements only the “get a block” API. Memory pool calls the “get
block” API from the pool constructor.
uint8_t* MemoryAllocatorRaw::getBlock() {
uintptr_t block;
block = alignAddress(firstNotAllocatedAddress, alignment);
firstNotAllocatedAddress += alignedBlockSize;
return (uint8_t*)block;
}

My pool needs sanity check to ensure that “free” is called only for the blocks
that indeed “belong” to the pool.
bool MemoryAllocatorRaw::blockBelongs(const void* block) const {
uintptr_t blockPtr = (uintptr_t)block; bool res = true; res = res && blockPtr >=
memoryRegion.getAddress(); size_t maxAddress = memoryRegion.getAddress()+sizeTotalBytes; res = res
&& (blockPtr <= maxAddress); uintptr_t alignedAddress = alignAddress(blockPtr, alignment); res = res
&& (blockPtr == alignedAddress); return res; }
The rest of the methods: constexpr size_t MemoryAllocatorRaw::alignConst(
size_t value, unsigned int alignment) {
return (value + ((size_t)alignment-1)) & (~((size_t)alignment-1)); }

uintptr_t MemoryAllocatorRaw::alignAddress(uintptr_t address, unsigned int alignment) {
uintptr_t res =
(address+((uintptr_t)alignment-1)) & (~((uintptr_t)alignment-1)); return res; }

const MemoryRegion& MemoryAllocatorRaw::getRegion() const {
return memoryRegion; }

void MemoryAllocatorRaw::reset() {
firstNotAllocatedAddress =
memoryRegion.getAddress(); }

Before I declare an object of the allocator, I check that the memory region is
large enough. I want the compilation to fail if the memory region is too small:
static_assert((sizeof(dmaMemoryDummy) >= MemoryAllocatorRaw::predictMemorySize(63, 3, 2)),
"DmaMemoryDummy region is not large enough");
static MemoryAllocatorRaw dmaAllocator(dmaMemoryRegion, 63, 3, 2);

My memory pool is a stack of data blocks. The class contains allocate/free API,
some debug statistics. Every memory pool has a name. Providing a name for the
objects is useful for logging and printing debug statistics. The stack in the
memory pool is intentionally protected by a LockDummy and is not thread safe.
I am going to use a real synchronizer in the memory pool methods.
Class methods with “const” keyword in the signature, for example
resetMaxInUse(), can not alter any member of the class. How comes that
resetMaxInUse() changes the statistics field anyway?. Field “statistics” is
mutable and this allows the “const” methods to modify it. Debug counters is a
book example of using of the keyword “mutable”. Method resetMaxInUse()
does not affect (not in a meaningfull way) the visible state of the object.

template<typename Lock, size_t Size> class MemoryPoolRaw {

public: MemoryPoolRaw(const char* name, MemoryAllocatorRaw* memoryAllocator);
~MemoryPoolRaw() {
memoryAllocator->reset(); }

inline void resetMaxInUse() const {
statistics.maxInUse = 0; }

typedef struct {
uint32_t inUse; uint32_t maxInUse; uint32_t errBadBlock; } Statistics; inline bool
allocate(uint8_t** block); inline bool free(uint8_t* block); inline const Statistics &getStatistics(void)
const {return statistics;}

protected: mutable Statistics statistics; const char* name; Stack<uint8_t, LockDummy, Size> pool;
MemoryAllocatorRaw* memoryAllocator; };
Memory pool constructor calls the allocator to fill the stack of free blocks.
Constructor can, for example, register the newly created memory pool in the data
base of the memory pools. Application can provide meanings for the run-time
inspection of the memory pools. Destructor would remove the pool from the data
base: template<typename Lock, size_t Size> MemoryPoolRaw<Lock, Size>::
MemoryPoolRaw(const char* name, MemoryAllocatorRaw* memoryAllocator) : name(name),
memoryAllocator(memoryAllocator) {
memset(&this->statistics, 0, sizeof(this->statistics)); for (size_t i = 0;i < Size;i++) {

uint8_t *block = memoryAllocator->getBlock(); pool.push(block); }

If the Lock class is not a dummy lock, memory pool allocate/free API is
reentrant and thread safe. All activity which can modify the state of the stack is
protected by the lock. If an application uses the pool only in one context the
application can provide LockDummy template argument for the memory pool.
LockDummy adds no code to the executable. Statistics counters are relatively
low cost, but are immensely helpful for debugging errors such as allocation
failure.

template<typename Lock, size_t Size> inline bool MemoryPoolRaw<Lock, Size>:: allocate(uint8_t**
block) {
bool res; Lock lock; res = pool.pop(block); if (res) {
statistics.inUse++; if (statistics.inUse > statistics.maxInUse) statistics.maxInUse = statistics.inUse; }
return res; }
Memory pool “free” makes sure that the pointer belongs to the pool. The
memory allocator knows to recognize it's own blocks.

template<typename Lock, size_t Size> inline bool MemoryPoolRaw<Lock, Size>:: free(uint8_t*
block) {
bool res; Lock lock; res = memoryAllocator->blockBelongs(block); if (res) {
res = pool.push(block); statistics.inUse--; }
else {
statistics.errBadBlock++; }
return res; }
It is going to be fairly easy to prevent release of the same block more than once.
If the data blocks are part of the continuous memory, the allocator can provide a
method generating a unique index based on the address of the block. Memory
pool can contain an array where blocks are marked as allocated or free, and
method free() can check the block against this array. If the memory region is not
continuous, the allocator can implement a hash function translating the address
of a data block to a unique data block index.
Operator new.
Algorithm (noun)
Word used by programmers when they do not
want to explain what they did.

Many small microcontrollers have a relatively small heap for dynamic memory
allocation. The design choice not to use the dynamic memory allocation at all is
very popular. Often it does not make sense in the firmware to use standard
implementations of operators “new” and “delete” from the C/C++ library.
Operator new can throw an exception – a dynamically allocated object by itself –
if the system runs out of free memory. Calls to new and delete for different
objects in run-time will eventually cause memory fragmentation. Software
timers from the later chapter and STL containers can take advantage of the user-
defined memory allocation that employs custom allocators. Customized operator
new can be based on a “placement new”. Constructor in the
CyclicBufferDynamic class can be redefined like this:
template<typename ObjectType, typename Lock> inline CyclicBufferDynamic <ObjectType,
Lock>:: CyclicBufferDynamic(size_t size, void *address) {

this->head = 0; this->tail = 0; this->size = size; if (address != nullptr) {
this->data = new (address) ObjectType[size]; }
else {
this->data = new ObjectType[size]; }

static_assert(sizeof(ObjectType) <= sizeof(uintptr_t), "CyclicBuffer is intended to work only with
integer types or pointers"); }

In the following example I make the compiler to allocate the required memory
statically and use the address of the allocated data in the call to the constructor:
static uint32_t myDynamicCyclicBufferData[calculateCyclicBufferSize()];
CyclicBufferDynamic<uint32_t, LockDummy> myDynamicCyclicBuffer(calculateCyclicBufferSize(),
&myDynamicCyclicBufferData);

I/O access.
How many programmers does it take to
change a light bulb? None – it's a hardware
problem.
Embedded software accesses the hardware via hardware registers. I will assume
that there are three groups of registers: read and write registers, read only
registers and write only registers. All registers are memory mapped and there is
an address for every register. The software can access a register in the same way
as it reads or writes a variable given the variable's address. In case of write only
registers it is a custom to keep a cached value. Cache is a variable sitting in the
data memory that contains the latest value written to the write only register.

The following example is based on the user interface of the Parallel Input/Output
controller (PIO) in the Atmel SAMA5d3 microcontroller. I have simplified the
interface to save lines of code and text.
PIO Enable Register PIO_PER Write-only
0x0000
PIO Disable Register PIO_PDR Write-only

0x0004
PIO Status Register PIO_PSR Read-only

0x0008
Reserved
0x000C
Output Enable Register PIO_OER Write-only

0x0010
Output Disable Register PIO_ODR Write-only

0x0014
Output Status Register PIO_OSR Read-only

0x0018
Reserved
0x001C
Not used
0x0020
0x0024 Not used
Not used
0x0028
Reserved
0x002C
Set Output Data Register PIO_SODR Write-only

0x0030
Clear Output Data Register PIO_CODR Write-only

0x0034
Output Status Register PIO_ODSR Read-only

0x0038

There are five blocks such as this one called A, B, C, D, E, F in the
microcontroller. The registers are mapped starting at the address 0xFFFFF200. A
user wishing to modify a write only register shall write 1 to the relevant bits. For
example, user shall write 0x04 to PIO_SODR, PIO_PER, PIO_OER to drive pin
2 (zero based) of the PIO high. Write to the PIO registers is an atomic operation.
The hardware interface allows to change the configuration of a single bit in a
thread safe manner. The hardware provides convenient read only status registers
which keep the current value of the write only registers.
I/O access in C.
"Writing in C or C++ is like running a chain
saw with all the safety guards removed" –
Bob Gray.

I am providing quick and dirty C implementation. Macro RESERVED
demonstrates a neat trick to generate a unique identifier name.
#define TOKEN_CAT(x, y) x ## y #define TOKEN_CAT2(x, y) TOKEN_CAT(x, y) #define
RESERVED TOKEN_CAT2(reserved, __COUNTER__) Declaration of the PIO structure, a
group of32 bits registers, follows. I want to ensure that the compiler does not do
any padding and I mark the structure “packed”. Pragma “pack” is potentially not
safe. Some architectures, such as ARM or MIPS, do not support non-aligned
access.

#pragma pack(push) #pragma pack(1) struct PIO {
volatile uint32_t PIO_PER ; volatile uint32_t PIO_PDR ; volatile uint32_t PIO_PSR ; volatile
uint32_t RESERVED ; volatile uint32_t PIO_OER ; volatile uint32_t PIO_ODR ; volatile uint32_t
PIO_OSR ; volatile uint32_t RESERVED ; volatile uint32_t RESERVED ; volatile uint32_t
RESERVED ; volatile uint32_t RESERVED ; volatile uint32_t RESERVED ; volatile uint32_t
PIO_SODR ; volatile uint32_t PIO_CODR ; }; #pragma pack(pop)
Declaration of the pointer to the memory area:
#ifdef REAL_HARDWARE
static PIO *pios = (PIO*)0xFFFFF200;
#else
static PIO pioDummy[5];
static PIO *pios = pioDummy;
#endif

Five PIO blocks:
typedef enum {
PIO_A,
PIO_B,
PIO_C,
PIO_D,
PIO_E,
PIO_F,
} PIO_NAME;

Function which configures a pin as output:
static void enableOutput(PIO_NAME name, int pin, int value) {
PIO *pio = &pios[name];
uint32_t mask = 1 << pin;
if (value) {
pio->PIO_SODR = mask;
}
else {
pio->PIO_CODR = mask;
}
pio->PIO_PER = mask;
pio->PIO_OER = mask;
}

Function which drives PIO A, pin 2 high can look like this:
static void main() {
enableOutput(PIO_A, 2, 1);
}
This is how the relevant assembly for Intel looks like – as expected there are
three 32-bits moves

PIO *pio = &pios[name]; uint32_t mask = 1 << pin; if (value) {
pio->PIO_SODR = mask; 4007e0: c7 05 e6 19 20 00 04 movl $0x4,0x2019e6(%rip)
4007e7: 00 00 00
4007ea: 31 c0 xor %eax,%eax pio->PIO_SODR = mask; }
else {
pio->PIO_CODR = mask; }
pio->PIO_PER = mask; 4007ec: c7 05 aa 19 20 00 04 movl $0x4,0x2019aa(%rip)
4007f3: 00 00 00
pio->PIO_OER = mask; 4007f6: c7 05 b0 19 20 00 04 movl $0x4,0x2019b0(%rip)
4007fd: 00 00 00
Assembly generated for ARM is slightly longer. In ARM an address should be
loaded to a register before a value can be stored.

PIO *pio = &pios[name]; uint32_t mask = 1 << pin; if (value) {
pio->PIO_SODR = mask; 8650: e59f3014 ldr r3, [pc, #20]
8654: e3a02004 mov r2, #4
8658: e5832090 str r2, [r3, #144]
865c: e3a00000 mov r0, #0
pio->PIO_SODR = mask; }
else {
pio->PIO_CODR = mask; }
pio->PIO_PER = mask; 8660: e5832060 str r2, [r3, #96]
pio->PIO_OER = mask; 8664: e5832070 str r2, [r3, #112]
I/O access in C++.
"C(++) is a write-only, high-level assembler
language." Stefan Van Baelen.

This is not easy to compete with the C implementation when accessing the I/O.
The C compiler for i386 translated every line of the C code into a single machine
opcode. There is no need to manually specify an address for every register. It is
enough to create a pointer which references the physical address of the first
register in the block. I want a C++ implementation with the same perfect
performance score, similar convenience of usage AND some added value, for
example type safety.

First class is an abstraction of a hardware module. The class constructor is
protected. Application can create only objects of the derived classes.
class HardwareModule {
protected:
HardwareModule(const uintptr_t address): address(address) {}
~HardwareModule() {}
const uintptr_t address;
};

I declare a template for all hardware registers. Static assert will fail compilation
if the argument IntegerType specified in the type instantiation is not an integer
type. API “std::atomic” ensures an atomic read/write operation on any
architecture, such as reading of 32 bis value on 8 bits CPU

template<typename IntegerType> class HardwareRegister {
protected:
HardwareRegister() {}

inline IntegerType get() const {
return atomic_load(&value);
}
inline void set(IntegerType value) {
atomic_store(&this->value, value);
}

volatile atomic<IntegerType> value;

static_assert(numeric_limits<IntegerType>::is_integer,
"HardwareRegister works only with integer types");
};

Next class is a 32 bits register. Static assertion will fail the build if the object
consumes more than 32 bits. Correct size of the data is absolutely vital for the
access to the hardware and comes instead of the “packed” attribute in the C
version.
class HardwareRegister32: public HardwareRegister<uint32_t> {
protected: HardwareRegister32() {}
}; static_assert((sizeof(HardwareRegister32) == sizeof(uint32_t)), "HardwareRegister32 is not 32 bits");
Read only and write only registers follow. The read only register class overloads
the type cast operator and allows to use an assignment to read the register value.
The write only register class overloads the assignment operator and allows to use
an assignment to write the register value. Read/write registers would implement
both the assignment operator and the type cast operator.

Read only register:
class HardwareRegister32RO : public HardwareRegister32{
public:
operator uint32_t() const {
return get();
}
};
static_assert((sizeof(HardwareRegister32RO) == sizeof(uint32_t)), "HardwareRegister32RO is not 32
bits");

Write only register:
class HardwareRegister32WO : public HardwareRegister32{
public:
uint32_t operator=(uint32_t value) {
set(value);
return value;
}
};
static_assert((sizeof(HardwareRegister32WO) == sizeof(uint32_t)), "HardwareRegister32WO is not 32
bits");

For the clarity I add a register “reserved” – I call it “not used”: class
HardwareRegister32NotUsed : HardwareRegister32 {
public: HardwareRegister32NotUsed() {}
~HardwareRegister32NotUsed() {}
}; static_assert((sizeof(HardwareRegister32NotUsed) == sizeof(uint32_t)), "HardwareRegister32NotUsed
is not 32 bits"); The framework is in place and can serve any 32 bits register.
Declare the PIO hardware module. There is nothing unexpected, but just a
repetition of all the same tricks including build time check of the size of the
structure. An object of the type HardwarePIO requires about the same amount
data as the competing C version. Depending on the optimization level and
complexity of the class there is going to be one additional pointer in the RAM, a
pointer “this”. In the specific implementation below all methods of the class are
“inline” and the object data gets optimized out completely.

class HardwarePIO : HardwareModule {
public: HardwarePIO(const uintptr_t address) {
interface = (struct Interface*)address; }
~HardwarePIO() {}

struct Interface {
HardwareRegister32WO PIO_PER ; HardwareRegister32WO PIO_PDR ; HardwareRegister32RO
PIO_PSR ; HardwareRegister32NotUsed RESERVED ; HardwareRegister32WO PIO_OER ;
HardwareRegister32WO PIO_ODR ; HardwareRegister32RO PIO_OSR ; HardwareRegister32NotUsed
RESERVED ; HardwareRegister32NotUsed RESERVED ; HardwareRegister32NotUsed RESERVED ;
HardwareRegister32NotUsed RESERVED ; HardwareRegister32NotUsed RESERVED ;
HardwareRegister32WO PIO_SODR ; HardwareRegister32WO PIO_CODR ; };
static_assert((sizeof(struct Interface) == (14*sizeof(uint32_t))), "struct interface is of wrong size, broken
alignment?"); enum Name {A, B, C, D, E, F, LAST}; inline Interface &getInterface(Name name) const
{return interface[name];}; inline void enableOutput(Name name, int pin, int value); protected: struct
Interface *interface; };
Implementation of the method enableOutput is similar to the C version: inline void
HardwarePIO::enableOutput(Name name, int pin, int value) {
struct Interface &interface = getInterface(name); uint32_t mask = 1 << pin; if (value) {

interface.PIO_SODR = mask; }
else {
interface.PIO_CODR = mask; }
interface.PIO_PER = mask; interface.PIO_OER = mask; }

Usage example: static HardwarePIO hardwarePIO(reinterpret_cast<uintptr_t>(pioDummy)); void
main() {
hardwarePIO.enableOutput(HardwarePIO::A, 2, 1); }
This C++ implementation produces the same assembly as the old trusty C one.
There is no more “code bloat” than in the C implementation. C++ framework
comes with some worthy benefits. If a user attempts to read a write only register
the build will fail. The following statement will break the compilation: uint32_t per
= hardwarePIO.getInterface(HardwarePIO::A).PIO_PER; Access to the PIO registers is
encapsulated in the class methods of the hardware module. The methods in the
HardwarePIO class are the only way to modify a register. C++ implementation
allows to catch other wrong doings at compilation time, for example reading or
writing reserved registers.
It is easy to cache all written values in the hardware module. One way to cache
or log the read and write transactions is to add a “shadow” interface field to the
hardware module class.
Indirect I/O access.
In some case the hardware is accessible via a serial interface. One example of
such interface is SPI. I am using a direct access API for the sake of brevity. A
real access interface for a real SPI device can contain system calls or calls to the
serial interface driver:

template<typename IntegerType>
class HardwareDirectAccessAPI {
public:
inline uint32_t get() const {
return atomic_load(&value);
}
inline void set(uint32_t value) {
atomic_store(&this->value, value);
}
protected:
volatile atomic<IntegerType> value;
static_assert(numeric_limits<IntegerType>::is_integer,
"HardwareDirectAccessAPI works only with integer types");
};

I am adding an argument to the template class HardwareRegister:
template<typename IntegerType, typename AccessAPI>
class HardwareRegister {
protected:
HardwareRegister() {}

inline IntegerType get() const {
return api.get();
}
inline void set(IntegerType value) {
api.set(value);
}

AccessAPI api;
};

Instance of the HardwareRegister for 32 bits registers, direct access will look
like this:
class HardwareRegister32:
public HardwareRegister<uint32_t, HardwareDirectAccessAPI<uint32_t> > {
protected:
HardwareRegister32() {}
};
The rest of the classes remains the same.

Code ROM and data RAM.
If at first you don't succeed; call it version
1.0.

There are very popular hardware platforms, where ROM and RAM distinction is
very important. One example of such device is rather popular 8 bits
microcontrollers Atmega. In the Atmega MCUs code can not be placed in the
data memory and CPU can not execute code sitting in the RAM. Any access to
the data in the code memory requires special instructions. Another example is
Application Specific Integration Circuits or ASICs. An ASIC often contains
integrated ROM and RAM. Integrated, also called on die or on chip, ROM
storage is relatively cheap, because it requires relatively small amount of space
on the silicone wafer. RAM is relatively expensive because it requires more
logic per bit of memory and square inches on the integrated circuit (die) come at
premium. RAM consumes significantly more power. I think that the vast
majority of the electronic device around us have integrated ROM and RAM
(frequently SRAM) inside. Typically the on chip RAM is much smaller than the
ROM.
There are two types of ROM: erasable and not erasable. In the Atmega MCUs
different areas of the ROM can be programmed by the firmware, assuming that
the firmware runs from another area. In case of ASICs the ROM is often not
erasable. Programming of the ROM is a part of the ASIC production process.
The ROM can not be modified after the chip leaves the factory (the FAB).
If there is not enough RAM to load the firmware, then parts of the firmware code
should be located in the chip ROM. In case of an ASIC it means that the ROM
based parts of the firmware can be changed only in the future versions of the
chip. High complexity of the modern ASIC firmware makes it very hard to reach
100% code coverage in the ASIC verification process. Even if the ROM based
firmware is verified and tested completely, still there is a chance that this or that
protocol has been misunderstood by the development team, or product
requirements has changed. The development team prepares the firmware and the
hardware for the not unlikely event that a need to patch the ROM will arise.
This chapter covers some of the ROM related problems.
C++ Initialized data.
At least one code section, a boot, constants and initialized data are parts of the
ROM. Initialized, non-zero data is going to consume memory two times.
Initialization values of the initialized data are part of the ROM. Usually boot
process copies the values from the ROM to the RAM. If I inspect an object file
generated by a compiler, I can easily find initialization data for the strings. There
are utilities which help to inspect the object files, dump different section into
separate files, and prepare the images for the ROM programming. One example
of such utility is GNU objdump. Let's see some C++ initialized data in action.
Following code produces two lines of output: “Hello, world!”, followed by
“Hello from main()!”

class HelloWorld {
public: HelloWorld() {
cout << "Hello, world!" << endl; }
}; static HelloWorld helloWorld; int main() {
cout << "Hello from main()!" << endl; return 0; }
The function main() contains only one output. The entity responsible for
initializing of the C++ object helloWorld and printing the first line is an object
loader running in my operating system. In case of the embedded systems this
code is usually part of the boot process. The constructor of the HelloWorld class
is “text” and appears only once in the ROM. Arguments of the cout, the strings,
can exist in two places in the memory: original or “master copy” is in the ROM,
a second copy, created by the loader, is in the RAM. Pointer “this” which
contains address of the statically allocated object helloWorld has two copies too.
There is an initialization value for “this” pointer in the ROM and “this” pointer
in the RAM. Size allocated by helloWorld object in the ROM of 32 bits CPU is
at least 4 bytes of “this” and 14 bytes of the zero terminated string. The linker
script is responsible for correct placement of different sections of the code and
the data. If the CPU can not access data stored in the code memory, the linker
script should contain relevant allocation instructions. Specifically place for the
constant data section will be allocated two times: in the code ROM address
space and in the RAM.
In a typical case, a linker script will add global variables that reference the start
and the end address of the not initialized data section(s) “bss”, initialized data,
and a table of “ctor” functions. Usually the ctor section is a table or tables of
functions that the boot code calls to initialize static C++ objects. See your linker
documentation for details.
ROM patching.
Programming is a lot like sex. One mistake
and you're providing support for a lifetime.

I want to prepare the constructor code for a patch in the future. I will check some
location in the RAM. If there is a non-zero entry, then I will use the string from
there. If not, I will print the default value – the ROMed one.

static const char *helloWorldStr = 0; class HelloWorld {
if (helloWorldStr == 0) cout << "Hello, world!" << endl; else cout << helloWorldStr << endl; }
}; Loading of an ASIC which can be patched contains two stages. In the first
phase external CPU (also called a host processor) loads some firmware to the
ASIC RAM. There is a dedicated hardware/boot firmware supporting load of the
application firmware to the RAM. An alternative can be that the boot code in the
ASIC loads the application firmware from some external programmable memory
chip, for example, EEPROM or SPI FLASH. The second phase is when the boot
jumps to the application code in the RAM. If the code loaded by the host
processor contains non-zero at the address helloWorldStr the ROM based
application code will print a new string. I am calling this type of patch a patch
type A. In the patch type A I fix a part of the function.
For the patch type B I need the hardware support. If the CPU fetches an
instruction from a specific address or a range of addresses – in case of the code
below this is an address of the function printHello() – I want to “interrupt” the
execution and switch control to the interrupt handler located in the RAM.
Default interrupt handler does nothing. The handler is empty and simply returns
allowing the function printHello() to complete it's useful work. The patched
interrupt handler can modify the string “Hello, world” in the RAM before letting
the function printHello() to print it The interrupt handler can execute some
arbitrary code and return the control to the caller of the printHello(), skipping the
original print code completely.

class HelloWorld {
printHello(); }
protected: void printHello() {
cout << "Hello, world!" << endl; }
}; For the patch type C I need support in the linker script. I want to place the
constructor of the HelloWorld in the ROM, but method printHello() I want to
execute in the RAM. If the HelloWorld constructor calls a function in the RAM I
can easily patch the function code.

Composition.
Have you ever noticed the difference between
a 'C' project plan, and a C++ project plan?
The planning stage for a C++ project is three
times as long. Precisely to make sure that
everything which should be inherited is, and
what shouldn't isn't. Then, they still get it
wrong.
Remember the length of the average-sized 'C'
project? About 6 months. Not nearly long
enough for a guy with a wife and kids to earn
enough to have a decent standard of living.
Take the same project, design it in C++ and
what do you get? I'll tell you. One to two
years. Isn't that great?

I will attempt to write a wrapper for the “create task” API. A typical wrapper for
APIs similar to the pthread_create or FreeRTOS xTaskCreate is based on a static
method in a class called, for example, MyThread. Indeed this is the only way I
know to write a portable C++ wrapper that will work for most operating systems.
I will duly present a basic example of this approach not because it is fascinating,
but because it is expected of a reasonable “C++ for embedded” book. Feel free
to jump right to the next paragraph where I present non-portable code of C++
create task wrapper.
Static (class) member.
C allows you to shoot yourself in the foot.
C++ allows you to re-use the bullet.

I am going to allocate my job thread objects from a pool. For example an
implementation of the Remote Procedure Call could use a pool of job threads to
execute procedures locally. Allocation of a thread object from the memory pool
is faster than calling the operating system API to create a new thread.
MemoryPool is a generic pool of objects which allocates the objects statically.
This is a reuse of the memory pool class from the previous chapters. I am
skipping the details here, such as name for the pool, debug statistics.

template<typename Lock, typename ObjectType, size_t Size>
class MemoryPool {
public:
MemoryPool();
~MemoryPool() {}

inline bool allocate(ObjectType **obj);
inline bool free(ObjectType *obj);

protected:
Stack<ObjectType, LockDummy, Size> pool;
ObjectType objects[Size];
};

The stack keeps reference to the free (not allocated) objects. The pool
constructor fills the stack of objects:
template<typename Lock, typename ObjectType, size_t Size>
MemoryPool<Lock, ObjectType, Size>::MemoryPool() {
for (int i = 0;i < Size;i++) {
pool.push(&objects[i]);
}
}

Allocate and free methods call the stack pop and push API: template<typename Lock,
typename ObjectType, size_t Size> bool MemoryPool<Lock, ObjectType,
Size>::allocate(ObjectType **obj) {
bool res; Lock lock; res = pool.pop(obj); return res; }

template<typename Lock, typename ObjectType, size_t Size> bool MemoryPool<Lock, ObjectType,
Size>::free(ObjectType *obj) {
bool res; Lock lock; res = pool.push(obj); return res; }
A JobThread implements a “start” API and a static method with loop forever.
More realistic implementations would add “wait for completion”, some
mechanism for asynchronous notifications of the calling context that the job is
done, support for arguments for the job function.

template <typename JobType> class JobThread {
public:

JobThread();

void start(JobType *job);

protected:

JobType *job;
xTaskHandle pxCreatedTask;
xQueueHandle signal;

static void mainLoop(JobThread *jobThread);
};

JobThread constructor creates a binary semaphore and spawns (this specific
choice of verb is based on “taskSpawn” which is a create task API in vxWorks)
a new thread. I am assuming FreeRTOS API in this example, but any other API
would work here: template<typename JobType> JobThread<JobType>::JobThread() :
job(nullptr) {
static const char *name = "a job"; vSemaphoreCreateBinary(this->signal); portBASE_TYPE res =

xTaskCreate((pdTASK_CODE)mainLoop, (const signed char *)name, 300, this, 1, &this-
>pxCreatedTask); if (res != pdPASS) {
cout << "Failed to create a task" << endl; }

The thread entry, the mainLoop method, enters the while loop and waits for the
binary semaphore. In the real code I would probably test an object variable “bool
exitFlag” instead of the condition which is always true: template<typename JobType>
void JobThread<JobType>::mainLoop(JobThread *jobThread) {
while (true) {
xSemaphoreTake(jobThread->signal, portMAX_DELAY); if (jobThread->job != nullptr) {
jobThread->job->run(); }
jobThread->job = nullptr; }

Method “start” sets the job pointer and wakes up the mainLoop:
template<typename JobType>
void JobThread<JobType>::start(JobType *job) {
this->job = job;
xSemaphoreGive(this->signal);
}

In the example below the code prints “Print job is running”:
struct PrintJob {
void run(void) {
cout << "Print job is running" << endl;
}
};

MemoryPool<LockDummy, JobThread<PrintJob>, 3> jobThreads;
PrintJob printJob;

int main( void )
{

JobThread<PrintJob> *jobThread;
jobThreads.allocate(&jobThread);
jobThread->start(&printJob);

vTaskStartScheduler();

return 1;
}

Non static member.
"C makes it easy to shoot yourself in the foot;
C++ makes it harder, but when you do it
blows your whole leg.

I am modifying only two lines in the code above. The call to xTaskCreate gets a
pointer to a member function. The C++ compiler warns about converting of the
address of the method to a generic pointer:
void *pMainLoop = (void*)&JobThread<JobType>::mainLoop;
portBASE_TYPE res = xTaskCreate((pdTASK_CODE)pMainLoop, (const signed char *)name, 300, this,
1, &this->pxCreatedTask);

Main loop method is not a static method anymore and does not need any
argument: template<typename JobType> void JobThread<JobType>::mainLoop() {
while (true) {
xSemaphoreTake(signal, portMAX_DELAY); if (job != nullptr) {
job->run(); }
job = nullptr; }
The trick works because most (all?) C++ compilers push “this”, a pointer to the
object, first to the arguments stack. The trick can fail if C and C++ code use
stack frames differently. Pointers to virtual methods can fail too. This is always
possible to use brute force – disassembly, and figure out how to call the member
function correctly. The implementation of the calls to virtual functions differ
widely between compilers. Most C++ compilers replace the call to a virtual
member with a small chunk of assembly code which calculates the method
address.
A reader of this text could ask what is the point behind this pointer-to-member
exercise. When I run the application under a debugger, sometimes I want to set a
break point using an absolute address. I can print an absolute address of a
member and see in run-time how many instances of the same method my generic
class creates. Taking a pointer of a function insures that the function is not an
“inline” function.
Interprocess communication.
I hate threading anyway. Multiprocessing is
the way to go, and message-passing, not
shared memory. That just doesn't scale. I use
multithreading so I can use all of my 16
cores, or whatever is the average number of
cores in a machine these days. Big furry deal.
I've got a few thousand servers waiting for
me in the data center and how do I use those
with threading? – Alex Martelli.

The classical Interprocess Communication (IPC) design pattern is a mailbox or a
message queue. The mailbox design pattern has gained popularity when
Windows 3.11 and the first real-time operating systems, such as RT Kernel and
vxWorks, were a bleeding edge of the technology. Some operating systems
support the message queue API. I am going to demonstrate a message queue that
based on two primitives: a semaphore and a FIFO. The Mailbox class is an
example of “object composition” ([4],[5]). I use “a mailbox HAS a FIFO”
relationship. Alternatively, I could use “a mailbox is a FIFO” formula and
subclass – inheritance – the mailbox from the class FIFO. It is considered a good
practice not to overuse inheritance.

The mailbox API has two methods: send a message and wait for a message ([6]):
template<typename ObjectType, typename Lock> class Mailbox {
public: Mailbox(const char *name, size_t size); const char *getName() {return name;}

inline bool send(ObjectType msg); enum TIMEOUT {NORMAL, NONE, FOREVER}; bool
wait(ObjectType *msg, TIMEOUT waitType, size_t timeout); protected: const char *name;
xQueueHandle semaphore; CyclicBufferDynamic<ObjectType, Lock> fifo; };
The mailbox constructor employs the FreeRTOS counting semaphore:
template<typename ObjectType, typename Lock>
Mailbox<ObjectType, Lock>::Mailbox(const char *name, size_t size) :
fifo(size),
name(name) {
semaphore = xSemaphoreCreateCounting(size+1, 0);
}

The send method adds a message to the FIFO and bumps the semaphore:
bool Mailbox<ObjectType, Lock>::send(ObjectType msg) {
bool res;
res = fifo.add(msg);
xSemaphoreGive(semaphore);
return res;
}

Receive message handles different types of the timeout: template<typename
ObjectType, typename Lock> bool Mailbox<ObjectType, Lock>::wait(ObjectType *msg, TIMEOUT
waitType, size_t timeout) {
bool res = false; portBASE_TYPE semaphoreRes = pdFALSE; while (semaphoreRes == pdFALSE) {
if (waitType == TIMEOUT::FOREVER) {
semaphoreRes = xSemaphoreTake(semaphore, portMAX_DELAY); }
else if (waitType == TIMEOUT::NORMAL) {
semaphoreRes = xSemaphoreTake(semaphore, timeout); break; }
else {
semaphoreRes = xSemaphoreTake(semaphore, 0); break; }
}

if ((semaphoreRes == pdTRUE) && !fifo.isEmpty()) {
res = fifo.remove(msg); }

return res; }

In the example application an interrupt (a producer) reads data from the UART
devices, and sends the collected data to the processing task (a consumer). My
message object contains two things: a message event and some data. The
consumer task is expected to switch by the message event: enum EVENT {UART0,
UART1}; typedef struct {
enum EVENT event; size_t data[32]; int dataSize; } Message;
In the example below I reuse the memory pool from the previous chapter:
MemoryPool<LockDummy, Message, 3> pool; Mailbox<Message*, LockDummy> myMailbox("mbx", 3);
void rxTask( void ) {
myMailbox.wait(&message, myMailbox.TIMEOUT::FOREVER, 0); cout << "data=" << message->data
<< ", event=" << message->event << endl; pool.free(message); }

int main( void ) {
Message *message; pool.allocate(&message); message->data[0] = 0x30; message->dataSize = 1;
message->event = EVENT::UART0; myMailbox.send(message); }
In many cases a modern firmware developer will use a “pipeline”. A “pipeline is
a set of data processing elements connected in series, where the output of one
element is the input of the next one” (Wikipedia). A processing element, for
example a thread, wakes up and checks the mailbox – the job queue. If the queue
is not empty, the thread executes one stage of processing and forwards the
processed data to the next thread in the pipeline.

The pipeline task has two methods: add a new job and process the data. A
pipeline task – a stage – has a name and keeps a reference to the next stage:
template<typename ObjectType, typename Lock, std::size_t Size> class PipelineTask {
public: PipelineTask(const char *name, PipelineTask *nextStage = nullptr) : name(name),

nextStage(nextStage){}

void doJob(); void addJob(ObjectType &data); protected: const char *name; PipelineTask
*nextStage; CyclicBuffer<ObjectType, Lock, Size> fifo; };
The add job API adds data to the FIFO:
void PipelineTask<ObjectType, Lock, Size>::addJob(ObjectType &data) {
fifo.add(data);
}

The method doJob() fetches data from the FIFO, increments it – I assume that
the data type supports operator++(), pushes the data to the next stage:
template<typename ObjectType, typename Lock, std::size_t Size> void PipelineTask<ObjectType,
Lock, Size>::doJob() {
while (!fifo.isEmpty()) {
ObjectType data; fifo.remove(data); data++; cout << "Stage:" << name << ", data=" << data << endl;
nextStage->addJob(data); }

A new type MyPipelineTask: typedef PipelineTask<int, LockDummy, 3> MyPipelineTask;
Three stages of the pipeline – the third last stage does not have a “next”:
MyPipelineTask pipelineTask3("3"); MyPipelineTask pipelineTask2("2", &pipelineTask3);
MyPipelineTask pipelineTask1("1", &pipelineTask2); I can invoke stages of the pipeline from
interrupts or from a main loop, for example, like this: void testPipeline() {
int data = 0; pipelineTask1.addJob(data); pipelineTask1.doJob(); pipelineTask2.doJob();
pipelineTask3.doJob(); }
The code above generates the output: Stage:1, data=1
Stage:2, data=2
Stage:3, data=3
The pipeline paradigm can improve utilization of the CPU, pipelines make it
easier to leverage multi-core systems.

Log.
Perfection is achieved, not when there is
nothing left to add, but when there is nothing
left to take away – Antoine de St. Exupery In
one C project I have seen following code for
generating log entries: enum {
LOG_LEVEL_INFO, LOG_LEVEL_ERROR, LOG_LEVEL_LAST, }; static const char
*LOG_LEVEL_NAME[] = {"INFO", "ERROR", “UKNOWN”};
#define LOG_INFO(fmt, ...) log_print(__LINE__, LOG_LEVEL_INFO, fmt, ##__VA_ARGS__ )
#define LOG_ERROR(fmt, ...) log_print(__LINE__, LOG_LEVEL_ERROR, fmt, ##__VA_ARGS__ )

static void log_print(int line, int level, const char *fmt, ...)
{
va_list ap;

printf("%s: line=%d, msg=", LOG_LEVEL_NAME[level], line);
va_start(ap, fmt);
vprintf(fmt, ap);
va_end(ap);
}

void testLog(void) {
LOG_INFO("This is info %d", 1);
LOG_ERROR("This is error %d", 2);
}

On my machine the code above generates output:
INFO: line=402, msg=This is info 1
ERROR: line=403, msg=This is error 2

There are many calls to the log API and size of the image is important. Calls to
log_print() push at least three arguments into the stack. I think that I can save
one push – a log level. In the C implementation I would add functions
log_print_info(...) and log_print_error(...) which in turn call log_print(), and fix
the macros accordingly. In C++ I have a template. The constructor is an exact
copy of the original log_print function minus log level:

template <int Level> class Log {
public:
Log(int line, const char *fmt, ...) {
va_list ap;

printf("%s: line=%d, msg=", LOG_LEVEL_NAME[Level], line);
va_start(ap, fmt);
vprintf(fmt, ap);
va_end(ap);
}
};

The log macros call the constructor: #define LOG_INFO(fmt, ...) Log<LOG_LEVEL_INFO>
(__LINE__, fmt, ##__VA_ARGS__ ) #define LOG_ERROR(fmt, ...) Log<LOG_LEVEL_ERROR>
(__LINE__, fmt, ##__VA_ARGS__ ) C++ compiler has duplicated two print log
functions for me and saved a push to the stack for every call to the log API.
Class log is a “functoid – it is a function on steroids. I can use a functoid based
on a regular class instead of a template like this:
class Log {
public:
Log(const char *level) : level(level) {}

void print(int line, const char *fmt, ...) const {
va_list ap;

printf("%s: line=%d, msg=", level, line);
va_start(ap, fmt);
vprintf(fmt, ap);
va_end(ap);
}
protected:
const char *level;
};

const Log LogInfo("INFO");
const Log LogError("ERROR");

#define LOG_INFO(fmt, ...) LogInfo.print(__LINE__, fmt, ##__VA_ARGS__ )
#define LOG_ERROR(fmt, ...) LogError.print(__LINE__, fmt, ##__VA_ARGS__ )

I have dropped array LOG_LEVEL_NAME and now it is easier to expand an
enumeration of log levels. There is only one instance of the print function in the
object code. The cost is a couple of words in the data RAM or two objects of the
type Log. The code and the data can be placed in the ROM.
Call to vprintf() is not something firmware developers do often. Indeed the code
calls vprintf() again and again for the same set of format strings. I can send to
the console only the arguments to the vprintf() and the exact location in the
source code or the offset in the object file.
Class BinaryLog below handles only arguments of type “int”. A location in the
source code is defined by a “unique” file identifier and a source line number:
class BinaryLog {
public: BinaryLog(int fileId, int line, int count, ...); }; I assume that there is “sendData” API
which can send arbitrary number of integers to the console:
BinaryLog::BinaryLog(int fileId, int line, int count, ...) {
const int HEADER_SIZE = 3; int header[HEADER_SIZE]; header[0] = fileId; header[1] = line;
header[2] = count; sendDataStart(); sendData(header, HEADER_SIZE); va_list ap; va_start(ap, count); for
(int j=0; j < count; j++) {
int arg = va_arg(ap, int); sendData(arg); }
va_end(ap); sendDataEnd(); }
API “send data” in my simulation looks like this:
inline void sendData(const int data) {
cout << dec << data << " "; }

inline void sendDataStart() {cout << endl;}

inline void sendDataEnd() {cout << endl;}

void sendData(const int *data, int count) {
for (int i = 0;i < count;i++) {
cout << hex << data[i] << " "; }
}

Two macro definitions call constructor BinaryLog. Macro
ARGUMENTS_COUNT is fairly portable and shall return number of arguments
in a variadic macro:
#define ARGUMENTS_COUNT(...) (sizeof((int[]){__VA_ARGS__})/sizeof(int))
#define LOG_INFO(fmt, ...) BinaryLog(FILE_ID, __LINE__, ARGUMENTS_COUNT(__VA_ARGS__),
__VA_ARGS__ )
#define LOG_ERROR(fmt, ...) BinaryLog(FILE_ID, __LINE__,
ARGUMENTS_COUNT(__VA_ARGS__), __VA_ARGS__ )

The file identifier is generated by the compiler from the file name during the
build. I use a simple hash function. A real thing, an MD5 hash, can be found in
[7].
constexpr int hashData(const char* s, int accumulator) {
return s ? hashData(s + 1, (accumulator << 1) | s) : accumulator; }

constexpr int hashMetafunction(const char* s) {
return hashData(s, 0); }

constexpr int FILE_ID = hashMetafunction(__FILE__);
Usage example:
void testBinaryLog(void) {
LOG_INFO("This is info %d %d", 1, 2);
LOG_ERROR("This is error %d %d %d", 0, 1, 2);
}

In my system the test function produces output:
262140 511 2 1 2 262140 512 3 0 1 2
All I need now is a short script ([8]) that calculates file identifiers for all my
source files, finds the right file according to the file identifier 262140, parses
lines 511 and 512 in the C++ file and produces two readable output lines:
This is info 1 2
This is error 0 1 2
Yet another post build script can ensure that format strings correctly represent
arguments in calls to the macros.
By removing an expensive call to vprintf() I saved lot of CPU cycles, lot of
ROM and some bandwidth. The binary log API does not use any static data and
the API is thread safe. My system generates logs which require additional
processing before they can be read by a human, but there are situations when this
is a small price to pay.
In the next example I assume that the application is statically linked and all
addresses are getting resolved at build time. I can get rid of the line number and
file identifier and, instead, use value of the program counter. Code below will
work only for GCC. GCC compiler allows to get the address of a label.

The BinaryLog constructor accepts an address of the log entry:
BinaryLog::BinaryLog(void *address, int count, ...) {
const int HEADER_SIZE = 2; int header[HEADER_SIZE]; header[0] = ((uintptr_t)address) &

INTMAX_MAX; header[1] = count; sendDataStart(); sendData(header, HEADER_SIZE); va_list ap;
va_start(ap, count); for (int j=0; j < count; j++) {

The magic macros generate unique labels and forward the labels address to the
BinaryLog constructor: #define TOKEN_CAT(x, y) x ## y #define TOKEN_CAT2(x, y)
TOKEN_CAT(x, y) #define LABEL TOKEN_CAT2 (logLabel_, __LINE__) #define LOG_INFO(fmt, ...)
{ \
LABEL:\
BinaryLog(&&LABEL, ARGUMENTS_COUNT(__VA_ARGS__), __VA_ARGS__ ); \
}

A post build script shall read a map file generated by the linker, collect list of
labels according to the pattern logLabel_XX and process format strings in the
source code.
It is not done yet. I can save one more argument – an address of the label. GCC
allows to find out a return address of the function. The functoid can look like
this: class FastLog {
public: FastLog(int count, ...); };
The FastLog constructor calls __builtin_return_address() to get the return
address: FastLog::FastLog(int count, ...) {
const int HEADER_SIZE = 2; int header[HEADER_SIZE]; void *retAddress =
__builtin_extract_return_addr(
__builtin_return_address(0)); header[0] = ((uintptr_t)retAddress) & INTMAX_MAX; header[1] =
count; sendDataStart(); sendData(header, 2); va_list ap; va_start(ap, count); for (int j=0; j < count; j++) {

And the macros do not forward an address anymore: #define LOG_INFO(fmt, ...)\
FastLog(ARGUMENTS_COUNT(__VA_ARGS__), __VA_ARGS__ ); If I need to support two
or more configurable destinations – log sinks – I need only to add to the functoid
FastLoad a method which switches the destination. The logic of the code
remains encapsulated in the class. They say in the academic world that the
encapsulation is a good thing. I could convert the FastLog class into a template
and provide Lock interface: template <typename Lock> class SystemLog {
public: SystemLog(int count, ...); }; When I call the system log from interrupts I need to
disable the interrupts. For the task level system log a mutex is probably
adequate. The C alternative with the similar performance would require a macro.
Software Timers.
C++: Hard to learn and built to stay that
way.

So far I have demonstrated fairly simple software components, such as a mutex
or a cyclic buffer. In this chapter I am going to implement a software timer.
Modern operating systems provide timers API. Typically an application can start
a timer with arbitrary expiration time. When the timer expires the operating
system calls the application hook from a dedicated timer thread or a system
interrupt. Performance of such API can degrade quickly if an application starts a
lot of different timers. There is usually no control over the priority of the process
which handles the timers. The API presented here allows an application to
handle all timer related code in a single context or in multiple contexts running
with different priorities.
The software timers API will have O(1) complexity. The API is going to be
thread safe. The source code for the software timer can be found in [9].
You already know the object-oriented design routine. Let's declare a timer object
first. A timer object keeps a unique timer identifier.
A unique timer identifier can be used to solve possible race conditions between
stopTimer and timerExpired. Consider following scenario: timer “a” is started by
context A. Timer “a” is stopped by context A, but too late - timer “a” has just
expired and the application code handling the expiration is running. Depending
on the implementation of the application callback, the processing of the event
can be done asynchronously. Meanwhile the same timer object can be allocated
and modified by context B, a different thread. If context A keeps identities of all
started timers, the application callback can check if the timer identifier is on the
list of running timers. If the timer was stopped, the callback can ignore the timer
expiration. Using the reference to the timer object itself for such bookkeeping is
not good because the pool of timer objects is probably a shared resource.

When starting a timer the user can supply optional pointer to the application
data, a cookie. The timer class could be a template like this: template<typename
CookieType> class Timer {

protected: CookieType cookie; }; I want to simplify the interface and avoid using of
virtual methods – more on virtual methods in a moment – in the timer objects.
Instead of objects of an arbitrary type a timer object will keep a pointer to the
application data.
A user can access the timer's data only via the public methods: getters and
setters. This approach helps to maintain the code in the future.
The class Timer implements a constructor without arguments. I want to be able
to create a static array of timers without too much of trouble. The TimerList
class, which is not declared yet, is a friend class of the class Timer and can call
protected methods of the Timer. Method start() is protected, because application
shall start timers using the TimerList methods.

class Timer {
public:
Timer();
inline void stop();
bool isRunning() const;
TimerID getId() const;
inline uintptr_t getApplicationData() const;
SystemTime getStartTime() const;

protected:
friend class TimerList;
TimerID id;
uintptr_t applicationData;
bool running;
SystemTime startTime;
inline void start();
inline void setApplicationData(uintptr_t applicationData);
inline void setId(TimerID id);
inline void setStartTime(SystemTime systemTime);
};

The implementation of the methods is straightforward: Timer::Timer() {
stop(); }

TimerID Timer::getId() const {
return id; }

SystemTime Timer::getStartTime() const {
return startTime; }

bool Timer::isRunning() const {
return running; }

void Timer::stop() {
running = false; }

void Timer::start() {
running = true; }

void Timer::setApplicationData(uintptr_t applicationData) {
this->applicationData = applicationData; }

uintptr_t Timer::getApplicationData() const {
return applicationData; }

void Timer::setId(TimerID id) {
this->id = id; }

void Timer::setStartTime(SystemTime systemTime) {
this->startTime = systemTime; }

The system time is often a tick incremented by an interrupt or read from the
hardware. In this example I use size_t type. In a more advanced design the
System Time type and the Timeout type could be two classes. The timer API
only needs a function with the signature “bool isTimerExpired(SystemTime,
Timeout, SystemTime)”. In the following implementation I handle SystemTime
wrap around, assuming that timers timeouts are small relatively to the
SystemTime maximum value.
typedef size_t SystemTime; typedef size_t Timeout; static inline bool isTimerExpired(SystemTime
startTime, Timeout timeout, SystemTime currentTime) {
bool timerExpired = false; SystemTime timerExpiartionTime = startTime + timeout; timerExpired =
timerExpired || ((timerExpiartionTime >= currentTime) && (startTime < currentTime)); timerExpired =
timerExpired || ((timerExpiartionTime >= currentTime) && (startTime > currentTime)); timerExpired =
timerExpired || ((timerExpiartionTime <= currentTime) && (startTime > currentTime) &&
(timerExpiartionTime < startTime)); return timerExpired; }

My API has an enumeration of possible return codes of the C+11 kind. C++11
“enum class” is not an integer and can not be converted to an integer. A member
of one enumeration can not be assigned to a member of another enumeration.
enum class TimerError {
Ok, Expired, Stopped, Illegal, NoFreeTimer, NoRunningTimers }; I need an application
callback which handles timer expiration. The callback could be a template
function in a more advanced design: typedef void (*TimerExpirationHandler)(const Timer&
timer); I am going to provide a synchronization API via an argument to the
constructor. In the base class TimerLock I set the get/release interface to zero.
The lock API is going to be implemented by the derivative. Typical performance
overhead of a virtual function is 1 or 2 opcodes.

class TimerLock {

public:
virtual void get() = 0;
virtual void release() = 0;

protected:
virtual ~TimerLock() {}

};

class TimerLockDummy : public TimerLock {

public:
virtual void get() {}
virtual void release() {}

protected:
};

I need a cyclic buffer that uses the dynamic allocation from the heap via operator
new[]. In the previous chapters I have discussed the operator new[] and
situations when an allocation from the memory heap is not possible.
template<typename ObjectType, typename Lock> class CyclicBufferDynamic {
public: inline CyclicBufferDynamic(size_t size); ~CyclicBufferDynamic() {
}

inline bool isEmpty(); inline bool isFull(); inline bool add(ObjectType object); inline bool
remove(ObjectType *object); inline bool getHead(ObjectType *object); private: void
errorOverflow() {
}

}

size_t increment(size_t index); ObjectType *data; size_t head; size_t tail; size_t size; };
Constructor calls the operator new[] to allocate array of pointers. There is a static
assert which insures that the template class is used only for pointers:
template<typename ObjectType, typename Lock> inline CyclicBufferDynamic<ObjectType,
Lock>:: CyclicBufferDynamic(size_t size) {
this->head = 0; this->tail = 0; this->size = size; this->data = new ObjectType[size];

static_assert(sizeof(ObjectType) <= sizeof(uintptr_t), "CyclicBuffer is intended to work only with integer
types or pointers"); }

The rest of the code is similar to the previous implementation: template<typename
ObjectType, typename Lock> inline bool CyclicBufferDynamic<ObjectType, Lock>:: isEmpty() {

template<typename ObjectType, typename Lock> inline bool CyclicBufferDynamic<ObjectType,
Lock>:: isFull() {

inline bool CyclicBufferDynamic<ObjectType, Lock>::
add(ObjectType object) {
Lock lock;
if (!isFull()) {
data[this->tail] = object;
this->tail = increment(this->tail);
return true;
} else {
errorOverflow();
return false;
}

}

remove(ObjectType *object) {
Lock lock;
if (!isEmpty()) {
*object = data[this->head];
this->head = this->increment(this->head);
return true;
} else {
errorUnderflow();
return false;
}
}

getHead(ObjectType *object) {
Lock lock;
if (!isEmpty()) {
*object = data[this->head];
return true;
} else {
errorUnderflow();
return false;
}
}

size_t CyclicBufferDynamic<ObjectType, Lock>::
increment(size_t index) {
if (index < this->size) {
return (index + 1);
} else {
return 0;
}
}

Use of LockDummy is deliberate here. I do not need the ring buffers storing
pointers to objects of the class Timer to be reentrant: typedef
CyclicBufferDynamic<Timer*, LockDummy> TimerCyclicBuffer; A list of timers keeps timers
with the same timeout. The timers expiration time depends on the start time. The
timer API assumes that there are finite and relatively small number of different
timers, timers with different timeout, in the system. Often I know what timers I
need in the system before I start to write the code. The TimerList is an example
of “object composition” – I compose simple objects, such as FIFOs, into a more
complex one. Instead of a ring buffer I could use a memory pool for the list of
free timers freeTimers.

class TimerList {

public:

TimerList(size_t size, Timeout timeout,
TimerExpirationHandler expirationHandler,
TimerLock &timerLock,
bool callExpiredForStoppedTimers=false) :

timeout(timeout),
expirationHandler(expirationHandler),
callExpiredForStoppedTimers(
callExpiredForStoppedTimers),
freeTimers(size),
runningTimers(size),
timerLock(timerLock) {

Timer *timers = new Timer[size];
for (size_t i = 0;i < size;i++) {
freeTimers.add(&timers[i]);
}
}

TimerError processExpiredTimers(SystemTime);

enum TimerError startTimer(
SystemTime currentTime,
SystemTime &nearestExpirationTime,
uintptr_t applicationData = 0,
const Timer **timer = nullptr);

inline enum TimerError stopTimer(Timer &timer) {
timer.stop();
return TimerError::Ok;
}

SystemTime getNearestExpirationTime() {
return nearestExpirationTime;
}

protected:

inline static TimerID getNextId();

enum TimerError _startTimer(
SystemTime currentTime,
SystemTime &nearestExpirationTime,
uintptr_t applicationData = 0,
const Timer **timer = nullptr);

TimerError _processExpiredTimers(SystemTime);

Timeout timeout;

TimerExpirationHandler expirationHandler;
bool callExpiredForStoppedTimers;
SystemTime nearestExpirationTime;

CyclicBufferDynamic<Timer*, LockDummy> freeTimers;
CyclicBufferDynamic<Timer*, LockDummy> runningTimers;

TimerLock &timerLock;
};

Protected methods of the TimerList class are not necessary thread safe. For
example getNextId() implementation is not thread safe. Only a child class or a
public method can access protected class members and shall take care of the
synchronization: TimerID TimerList::getNextId() {
static TimerID id = 0; id++; return id; }

enum TimerError TimerList::startTimer(SystemTime currentTime,
SystemTime &nearestExpirationTime, uintptr_t applicationData,
const Timer **timer) {

timerLock.get();

TimerError res = TimerList::_startTimer(
currentTime,
nearestExpirationTime,
applicationData,
timer);

timerLock.release();
return res;
}

The protected method _startTimer() moves a timer from the list of the free
timers to the list of the running timers enum TimerError TimerList::_startTimer(
SystemTime currentTime, SystemTime &nearestExpirationTime, uintptr_t applicationData, const Timer
**timer) {

Timer* newTimer; if (freeTimers.isEmpty()) return TimerError::NoFreeTimer;
freeTimers.remove(&newTimer); newTimer->setStartTime(currentTime); newTimer-
>setApplicationData(applicationData); newTimer->setId(getNextId()); newTimer->start();
runningTimers.add(newTimer); Timer* headTimer; runningTimers.getHead(&headTimer);
nearestExpirationTime = headTimer->getStartTime() + timeout; this->nearestExpirationTime =
nearestExpirationTime; if (timer != nullptr) *timer = newTimer; return TimerError::Ok; }

The method _processExpiredTimers() moves stopped and expired timers from
the head of the list of the running timers to the list of the free timers. A user of
the timer list shall call processExpiredTimers() which will call the application
callback for expired timers. The user shall call getNearestExpirationTime() to
get expiration time for the next timer, time when processExpiredTimers() shall
be called again. Difference between the nearestExpirationTime and currentTime
can be used, for example, in the system call to sleep(). Timers on the
runningTimers list is ordered by expiration time. I always add timers to the tail
and timeout is the same for all timers on the list. The protected method is not
reentrant:
TimerError TimerList::_processExpiredTimers(
SystemTime currentTime) {
Timer* timer; while (!runningTimers.isEmpty()) {

if (!runningTimers.getHead(&timer)) break; bool timerExpired = isTimerExpired(timer-
>getStartTime(), timeout, currentTime); bool timerIsRunning = timer->isRunning(); bool
callExpirationHandler = timerExpired; callExpirationHandler = callExpirationHandler || (!timerIsRunning
&& callExpiredForStoppedTimers); if (callExpirationHandler) {
(expirationHandler)(*timer); }

if (timerExpired || !timerIsRunning) {
runningTimers.remove(&timer); freeTimers.add(timer); }

if (!timerExpired && timerIsRunning) {
nearestExpirationTime = timer->getStartTime() + timeout; break; }
}

if (!runningTimers.isEmpty()) return TimerError::Ok; else return TimerError::NoRunningTimers; }

Public method is reentrant: TimerError TimerList::processExpiredTimers(
SystemTime currentTime) {

timerLock.get(); TimerError res = TimerList::_processExpiredTimers(currentTime); timerLock.release();
return res; }
I group timer lists in “sets”. For example, a set of relatively long, low priority
timers with timeouts 5s, 20s, 60s and a set of high priority timers. Different sets
can be served by threads running in different priorities. I know what timers types
belong to a set at the compilation time.
The TimerSet class is an example of “object acquaintance” ([4], [5]). There is a
“knows of” relationship between the TimerSet class and the TimerList class. The
component objects, lists of timers, may be accessed through other objects
without going through the aggregate object, TimerSet. The components objects
may survive the aggregate object.

class TimerSet {
public:
TimerSet(const char* name, int size) :
name(name), listCount(size) {
this->size = size;
timerLists = new TimerList*[size];
}

const char *getName() {
return name;
}

TimerError processExpiredTimers(SystemTime currentTime,
SystemTime& expirationTime);

bool addList(TimerList* list);

protected:
const char *name;
TimerList **timerLists;
size_t listCount;
size_t size;
};

The addList API fills the array timerLists:
bool TimerSet::addList(TimerList* list) {
if (listCount < size) {
timerLists[listCount] = list;
listCount++;
return true;
} else {
return false;
}
}

Method processExpiredTimers() calls the corresponding API in all timer lists
and conveniently returns next time the method should be called. Complexity of
the method is O(number of timer lists): TimerError TimerSet::processExpiredTimers(
SystemTime currentTime, SystemTime &expirationTime) {
TimerList* timerList; size_t i; SystemTime nearestExpirationTime; bool res = false; for (i = 0; i <
listCount; i++) {
timerList = timerLists[i]; TimerError timerRes = timerList->processExpiredTimers(currentTime); if
(timerRes == TimerError::Ok) {
SystemTime listExpirationTime =
timerList->getNearestExpirationTime(); if (res) {
if (nearestExpirationTime > listExpirationTime) {
nearestExpirationTime = listExpirationTime; }
}
else {
nearestExpirationTime = listExpirationTime; }
res = true; }
if (res) return TimerError::Ok; else return TimerError::NoRunningTimers; }

Finally a usage example: static void mainExpirationHandler(const Timer& timer) {
TimerID timerId = timer.getId(); uintptr_t data = timer.getApplicationData(); cout << "Expired id=" <<
timerId << ",appdata=" << data << endl; }

TimerLockDummy timerLock; static TimerList timerList(3, 3, mainExpirationHandler, timerLock); int
main() {
SystemTime currentTime = 0; for (int i = 0;i < 3;i++) {
SystemTime nearestExpirationTime; TimerError err =
timerList.startTimer(currentTime, nearestExpirationTime, i); if (err == TimerError::Ok) {
cout << "nearestExpirationTime=" << nearestExpirationTime << endl; }
else {
cout << "timer start failed for timer "
<< i << endl; }
}

timerList.processExpiredTimers(3); return 0; }

Suppose, that I need two different Timer types – one with the timer identifier
and another without. I subclass a larger timer class from a new base class, where
the timer identifier setter is an empty method. The conversion will involve no
changes in the TimerList class. The TimerList class can work with any
“interface” ([10]) implementing the Timer class API – the Timer class
“contract”.
In a different system the system time is a structure containing the following
fields: hours, minutes, seconds and milliseconds. The TimerList class can handle
this system time if there are two operators defined: compare and add.
Yet in another system I can not work with dynamically allocated cyclic buffers. I
convert the TimerList class into a template class with a size of the list argument.
The TimerSet class can work with any list of timers implementing
processExpiredTimers() API. I subclass the TimerList class – now a template –
from an abstract base class with a pure virtual method processExpiredTimers().
The code modification will not affect the logic in the TimerList or TimerSet
methods.
In some application I start timers, stop timers and handle the expiration in the
same thread. I do not need reentrant API. I can save CPU cycles by using the
dummy lock for the timer list.
Once written and debugged, the TimerList and TimerSet classes serve me in
many different situations. I could do the same thing in C using void* here and
there and some type castings. C++ fans would argue that the C++ alternative is
more elegant and type safe.
Lambda.
Analog-to-digital converter (ADC) is a device that converts a continuous
physical quantity, for example voltage, to a digital number that represents the
quantity's amplitude ([11]). In my application I want to read ADC devices,
collect samples in a ring buffer, run a simple low path filter ([12]). The ADC
class looks like this:

template<typename ObjectType, std::size_t Size> class ADC {
public:
inline ADC(ObjectType initialValue=0);

typedef ObjectType (*Filter)(ObjectType current,
ObjectType sample);
inline void add(ObjectType sample, Filter filter);

inline ObjectType get();

protected:
CyclicBuffer<ObjectType, LockDummy, Size> data;
ObjectType value;
};

The ADC constructor sets an initial value for the calculated result:
template<typename ObjectType, std::size_t Size> ADC<ObjectType, Size>:: ADC(ObjectType
initialValue) {
value = initialValue; }
Method “get” returns the calculated value: template<typename ObjectType, std::size_t
Size> ObjectType ADC<ObjectType, Size>:: get() {
return value; }
Method “add” updates the cyclic buffer and calls the “filter” to calculate a new
ADC value: template<typename ObjectType, std::size_t Size> void ADC<ObjectType, Size>::
add(ObjectType sample, Filter filter) {
data.add(sample); value = filter(value, sample); }

The function pointer Filter is a template function. Instantiation of a template
function would require quite a few C++ lines. In the following usage example I
employ an anonymous function – a lambda function:
static void testADC() {
static ADC<double, 4> myAdc(3.0); cout << "ADC=" << myAdc.get() << endl; for (int i = 0;i <
10;i++) {
myAdc.add(4.0, [](double current, double sample) {
return current+0.5*(sample-current); }
); }
cout << "ADC=" << myAdc.get() << endl; }

On my desktop this code produces output: ADC=3
ADC=3.99902
Lambda functions save the code lines. Inline lambda functions help the C++
compiler to optimize the code. In the assembler code for my Intel based machine
the call to the method “add” is replaced by update of the CyclicBuffer data and
the filter code.

A composition of JobThread, HardwareModule and ADC classes creates a fully
functional ADC API. I am skipping details in the example below: class
HardwareModuleADC : HardwareModule {
public: double read(); protected: }; class ReadADC {

public: ReadADC() : myAdc(3.0) {}
void run(void) {
double sample = hardwareModuleADC.read(); myAdc.add(sample, [](double current, double
sample) {
return current+0.5*(sample-current); }); }
protected: ADC<double, 4> myAdc; HardwareModuleADC hardwareModuleADC; };
JobThread<ReadADC> jobThreadReadADC;
Fixed point arithmetic.
Three out of two people have trouble with
fractions.

Often in the application which requires analog-to-digital converters I need fixed-
point arithmetic ([13]). Fixed-point arithmetic is significantly faster – from 2x to
3x times – than the scalar floating-point code. Unfortunately, fixed-point
arithmetic is not a part of the C++ standard. There is support in the GCC
compiler ([14]). For a great example of fixed-point arithmetic API see Kurt
Guntheroth implementation ([15]). The following example is a simple
implementation of four arithmetic operations. In the code snippet below “lhs”
and “rhs” stand for left-hand side and right-hand side – two arguments on the
sides of an arithmetic operator. The unnamed enumeration with a single member
“scale” is a trick which helps to create a constant member of the template.
template<typename IntType, const int FRACTION_BITS> class FixedPoint {
public: typedef FixedPoint<IntType, FRACTION_BITS> T; FixedPoint(){}
FixedPoint(double d) {v = (IntType)(d*scale);}
FixedPoint(const T &rhs) : v(rhs.v) { }

T& operator=(const T &rhs) {v = rhs.v;return *this;}
double toDouble() const {return double(v)/scale;}

friend T operator+(T lhs, const T &rhs) {T r;r.v = lhs.v + rhs.v;return r;}
friend T operator-(T lhs, const T &rhs) {T r;r.v = lhs.v - rhs.v;return r;}
friend T operator*(T lhs, const T &rhs) {
T r; r.v = (lhs.v * rhs.v) / scale; return r; }
friend T operator/(T lhs, const T &rhs) {
T r; r.v = (lhs.v * scale)/rhs.v; return r; }
friend bool operator==(const T &lhs, const T &rhs) {return lhs.v == rhs.v;}
protected: int v; enum{scale = 1<<FRACTION_BITS}; };
A usage example:
static void FixedPointTest() {
typedef FixedPoint<int_fast16_t, 3> FixedPoint_3;
FixedPoint_3 value(3.43188);
value = (2*(value+FixedPoint_3(1.4)-FixedPoint_3(1.4)))/2;
cout << value.toDouble() << endl;
}

The usage example output:
3.375
I could extend the composition ReadADC from the previous chapter by an
instance of the fixed-point arithmetic template. The lambda function could look
like this: class ReadADC {
public: ReadADC() : myAdc(3.0) {}
typedef FixedPoint<int_fast16_t, 3> FPADC; void run(void) {
FPADC sample = FPADC(hardwareModuleADC.read()); myAdc.add(sample, [](FPADC current,
FPADC sample) {
return current+(sample-current)/2; }); }
protected: ADC<FPADC, 4> myAdc; HardwareModuleADC hardwareModuleADC; };
Interview questions.
The clever shall inherit the earth. -
Economist, Jan 20th, 2011

I know that for you and me programming is not about money. Still, some of my
dear readers have to think about the families. A programmer is one of the top
paying professions in the world.
“As technology advances, the rewards to cleverness increase. Computers have
hugely increased the availability of information, raising the demand for those
sharp enough to make sense of it. In 1991 the average wage for a male American
worker with a bachelor's degree was 2.5 times that of a high-school drop-out;
now the ratio is 3“([16]).

A skilled software developer can get a job paying 6 figures or an equivalent in
the US, UK, Canada, Australia and other countries. Between you and your
dream job lies a professional interview.
No worries if you often fail to answer brain teasers. In many companies this
specific class of interview questions is forbidden. There is a very small group of
people who is capable to find a solution for a hard question in real time. Be sure,
that these people are already hired by Googles and Apples of the world and they
are not competing with you for the job. Your interviewer most likely does not
expect the correct answer, but mainly wants to see how you approach tough
problems.
In this chapter I have attempted to gather a small set of questions which you can
encounter when applying for a job of a real-time, embedded, firmware
developer. I skip graphs, binary trees, jars of water because these type of
problems rarely appear in technical interviews of embedded system developers.

General programming.
Q. What are limitations of the code below? Are there any potential problems?
#define LOG_CAT(fmt, ...) print_log("%s %d" fmt, __FUNCTION__, __LINE__, ##__VA_ARGS__ )
static inline void print_log(const char *fmt, ...) {
va_list ap; va_start(ap, fmt); vprintf(fmt, ap); va_end(ap); }
A. Macro LOG_CAT assumes that “fmt” is a const string. For example, the
following code will not compile: void testLogCat() {
char *f = "Test %d"; LOG_CAT(f, 1); }
Call to function vprintf() is not reentrant on some platforms. On other platforms
vprintf() uses a large buffer on the stack which can create problems if called
from interrupts.
Q. What is wrong with the following interrupt routine? Try to point as many
potential problems as possible: uint32_t Tick = 0; int MyTickIsr() {
Tick++; printf("%s", __FUNCTION__); return 0; }

A.
1. Usually interrupt handlers should not return a value. The result of
returning a value depends on the operating system.
2. Incrementing of the global variable is a read-modify-write operation.
Another thread can be in the middle of modifying the value of the tick
when the interrupt handle is getting called.
3. In many systems printf() is not a reentrant API. Call to printf()
can cause interrupt stack overflow if printf() uses the stack to
allocate the string. Depending on the implementation call to
printf() can require significant time.
Q. List most popular ways to implement a FIFO between “producer” and
“consumer”. Assume that producer generates data blocks of different size
between 1 and 256 bytes.
A.
1. Ring buffer of pointers where every pointer is a linked list of, for
example, 16 bytes data blocks . Data blocks are allocated by the
producer from the linked list of free blocks.
2. Ring buffer of pointers referencing data blocks 256 bytes each. Data
blocks are allocated by the producer from the linked list of free
blocks.
3. Ring buffer of data where each chunk of data is prepended by the data
block size.
Be prepared to discuss pros and cons of every approach in terms of memory and
performance, “skb” buffers in the Linux kernel, DMA descriptors, zero copy
data processing.
Q. Write a program to find whether a machine is big endian or little endian.
A. In run-time this function can be used: int isLittleEndian() {
short int data = 0x0001; char *byte = (char *) &data; return (byte[0] ? 1 : 0); }
In compilation time this macro: #define IS_LITTLE_ENDIAN (*(uint16_t *)"\0\xff" >= 0x100)
In Linux we have a macro BYTE_ORDER. In GCC we have macros
__LITTLE_ENDIAN__, __BIG_ENDIAN__, __BYTE_ORDER__.
Q. Write a class such that no other class can be inherited from it.
A. The solution is based on Singleton design pattern – a class with a private
constructor: class YouCanNotInheritMe; class Singleton {
private: Singleton() {}
friend YouCanNotInheritMe; }; class YouCanNotInheritMe : virtual public Singleton {
public: YouCanNotInheritMe(){}
}; I can create an object of type YouCanNotInheritMe: YouCanNotInheritMe
youCanNotInheritMeObject; An attempt to inherit the class YouCanNotInheritMe will
fail with error “Singleton::Singleton() is private ”: class TryToInheritAnyway :
YouCanNotInheritMe {
public: TryToInheritAnyway() {}
}; In C++11 you can use the word final: class FinalClass final {
public: FinalClass() {}
}; Q. Is there a bug in the following code?

class A {
public: A() : isDone(false) {}
virtual void m1() = 0; void m2() {
m1(); MutexAB m; isDone = true; }
virtual ~A() {
MutexAB m; while (!isDone) {}
protected: bool isDone; }; class B : public A {

public: void m1() {}
virtual ~B() {}
}; void testAB() {
B *b = new B; std::thread t1{ [=] {
b->m1(); b->m2(); }}; std::thread t2{ [=] {
delete b; }}; }
A. Thread t2 can destroy the class object b and destroy virtual table as well while
thread t1 is calling the virtual method m1. C++ compiler can modify the virtual
table pointer the moment code enters class A, the base class, destructor. When
thread t1 kicks in it can discover that pointer b->m1 is not initialized.
Q. Is there a bug in the following code?

typedef struct {
int f1 : 8; int f2 : 8; } myDataT; static myDataT myData; void testMyData() {
std::thread t1{ [=] {
myData.f1 = 0; }}; std::thread t2{ [=] {
myData.f2 = 1; }}; }
A. On 32 bits architecture C++ compiler will place bit fields f1 and f2 in the
same 32 bits location. Write to the bit fields f1 and f2 is implemented as read-
modify-write operation. There is a race between threads t1 and t2. For example,
t1 reads myData, t2 interrupts t1, t2 continues to the completion and modifies f2,
t1 resumes and completes write to the field f1 using old value for the field f2,
field f2 remains unchanged.
Q. In the code below one of the functions consistently outperforms another.
Why?
static struct {
int a[128]; int b[128]; int c[128]; } dataArray; void initDataArrayB() {
memset(dataArray.a, 0, sizeof(dataArray.a)); memset(dataArray.b, 0, sizeof(dataArray.b)); }

void initDataArrayC() {
memset(dataArray.a, 0, sizeof(dataArray.a)); memset(dataArray.c, 0, sizeof(dataArray.c)); }
A. In some architectures the CPU can try to predict data usage and load the data
cash lines accordingly. Usually a single line in the cash memory is 64 or 128
bytes. In the function initDataArrayC when the second memset is called the data
cache will likely contain the field “a” and all or part of the field “b” – CPU
predicts sequential writes. The function initDataArrayC writes to the filed “c”
which causes data cache line flush and slows down the execution of the second
memset().
Q. What single modification of the code below could improve performance of
the function testFastSum?

class FastSum {
public: FastSum(int delta) : delta(delta) {}
virtual int sum(int a) { return delta+a;}
virtual ~FastSum() {}
protected: int delta; }; void testFastSum(int delta, int *result, int count) {
FastSum fastSum(delta); for (int i = 0;i < count;i++) {
result[i] = fastSum.sum(i); }

A. Devirtualization – replacing of the virtual method sum() by a non-virtual one
– can help. Replacing a virtual call by a non-virtual one can save 2-3 instructions
per iteration. If the C++ compiler does a decent job of devirtualization (GCC 4.8
does not) next option would be to ensure that the compiler inlines the constructor
FastSum and the method sum.

Q. There is a race condition in the code below. What is it?

class LazyInitialization {
static LazyInitialization *getInstance() {
if (instance == nullptr) {
MutexAB m; if (instance == nullptr) {
instance = new LazyInitialization(); }
return instance; }
private: LazyInitialization(); static LazyInitialization *instance; }; LazyInitialization
*LazyInitialization::instance = nullptr; A. Thread A enters synchronized section and
initializes the static variable “instance”. The constructor of the class
LazyInitialization is probably not called yet, but the variable “instance” is
probably already set. The exact order of the operations depends on the compiler.
At this moment thread B enters the method getInstance() and returns an invalid
pointer – a pointer to the object which is not completely initialized. Another
problem is that the assignment of the address, a 32 or 64 bits or something else
variable, is not necessary an atomic operation and can involve two write
transactions to the memory. The code can be fixed by declaring the variable
“instance” an atomic variable: atomic<LazyInitialization*> LazyInitialization::instance(nullptr);
Q. Explain rvalue and lvalue. What is the difference between ++x and x++?
A. Rvalues are temporaries that evaporate at the end of the full-expression in
which they live ("at the semicolon"). For example, 1729 , x + y ,
std::string("meow") , and x++ are all rvalues. Lvalues name objects that persist
beyond a single expression. For example, obj , *ptr , ptr[index] , and ++x are all
lvalues. The expression x++ is an rvalue. It copies the original value of the
persistent object, modifies the persistent object, and then returns the copy. This
copy is a temporary. Both ++x and x++ increment x, but ++x returns the
persistent object itself, while x++ returns a temporary copy.
Q. Explain what happens in every line of the following function: const char
*dataTest() {
// 1.
char *a = "123"; // 2.
char b[] = "123"; // 3.
const char *c = "123"; // 4.
static char d[] = "123"; // 5.
a[0] = '0'; // .................
// 6.
return a; // .................
// 7.
return c; // ................
// 8.
return b; }
A.
1. Assign local variable 'a' address of the constant data ['1','2','3',0].
Some compilers will generate a warning – assignment const pointe to
non-const pointer.
2. Run-time copy of the data ['1','2','3',0] to local (on the stack) array.
The initialization of the array 'b' will be done every time the function
is being called.
3. Same as 1, but compilation warning is fixed.
4. Run-time copy of the array ['1','2','3',0] to the static variable 'd'. The
copy is done only once by the code loader.
5. Attempt to modify the constant data. On some architectures constant
data is read only and this line can cause an exception.
6. Return pointer to the constant data. The pointer is global and exists in
the program address space.
7. Same as 6
8. Return address of the local (stack) variable. Data at the address 'b'
depends on the architecture.

Q. What does the following x86 assembly code do:
call next
next: pop eax
A. Operator 'call' pushes the current program counter (PC) to the stack. The
following 'pop' sets register eax with the PC value. This code is a way to get the
current value of the PC.
Q. Implement an efficient memory pool for allocation of 4 bytes blocks.
A. Organize a linked list of free blocks using the data in the blocks themselves.
Initially write in the first (offset zero) block “1” - offset of the next free block. In
the second block (offset 1) write “2” and so on. Example of code is below: static
const int POOL_SIZE = 7; static uint32_t fastPoolData[POOL_SIZE]; static uint32_t fastPoolHead;
static const int ALLOCATED_ENTRY = (POOL_SIZE+1); static inline uint32_t
fastPoolGetNext(uint32_t node) {
return fastPoolData[node]; }

static inline void fastPoolSetNext(uint32_t node, uint32_t next) {
fastPoolData[node] = next; }

void fastPoolInitialize()
{
fastPoolHead = 0;
for (int i = 0;i < (POOL_SIZE-1);i++)
{
fastPoolSetNext(i, i+1);
}
fastPoolSetNext(POOL_SIZE-1, ALLOCATED_ENTRY);
}

uint32_t *fastPoolAllocate()
{
uint32_t blockOffset = fastPoolHead;
if (blockOffset != ALLOCATED_ENTRY)
{
fastPoolHead = fastPoolGetNext(blockOffset);
fastPoolSetNext(blockOffset, ALLOCATED_ENTRY);
return &fastPoolData[blockOffset];
}

return nullptr;
}

void fastPoolFree(uint32_t *block)
{
uint32_t blockOffset = block-&fastPoolData[0];
fastPoolSetNext(blockOffset, fastPoolGetNext(fastPoolHead));
fastPoolSetNext(fastPoolHead, blockOffset);
}

Q. Implement itoa() - a function which converts an integer to string. Consider
only positive integers.
A.
int itoa(int value, char *s, int size) {
int i = 0; int chars = size - 1; int digits = 0; int v = value; while (v) {
v = v / 10; digits++; }
while (value) {
if (i >= chars) break; s[digits-1-i] = '0' + (value%10); i++; value = value / 10; }
if ((digits-1-i) < 0) {
s[digits-1] = 0; return size; }
else {
s[chars] = 0; return 0; }

Bit tricks.
Q. You have two numbers, M and N, and two bit positions, i and j. Write a
method to set all bits in M between i and j equal to N. Assume that i < j. For
example, if input M=0x00, N=0x10, i=0, j=5, then output is 0x10.
A. You need to clear bits from i to j in N, and use bitwise OR between M and N.
Using uint32_t or similar is probably a good idea – discuss it with the
interviewer.
int mask = ((i<< 1)-1) | ((1 << j)-1); M = M & mask; M = M | (N << i); Q.What does the
following code ((n & (n-1)) == 0)?
A. This condition is true if n is zero or if n is a power of 2.
Q. How to find the highest set bit?
A. GCC has a builtin function __builtin_clz() which returns the number of
leading zeros in the argument. Alternative solution: unsigned int v; unsigned r = 0; while
(v >>= 1) {
r++; }
Q. How to set or cleat bits without branching? Why would you need it?
A. You can use, for example, the following code: bool f; unsigned int mask; unsigned int
w; w ^= (-f ^ w) & mask; Lack of branching can improve performance by 5-10%
depending on the context and the CPU. See also [17].
Q. Find first set bit in an integer number.
A. In GCC we have a built in function __builtin_ffs(). Alternatively you can use
software implementation like one below. Discuss possible return code which
covers the case of x equal to zero.
int findFirst(int x) {
if (x == 0) return 0; int t = 1; int r = 1; while ((x & t) == 0) {
t = t << 1; r = r + 1; }
return r; }

Q. How to clear all but the least significant bit in an integer number? For
example for 0x60 (2 bits are set) the result is 0x20 (one bit is set).
A. In a single C line it is (see [18]) x &= -x; or, which is the same thing: x &= (~x+1)
Q. How to check if the integer is even.
A. In the even integer the least significant bits is zero: ((x & 1) == 0) Q. How to
clear the rightmost set bit?
A. Reduce the integer by 1 and use bitwise AND with itself: x & (x-1) Q. How to
set the rightmost zero bit?
A. Add 1 to the integer and use bitwise OR with itself: x | (x+1) Q. Count non-zero
bits in an integer. Is there a solution with one branch?
A. Clear rightmost bit and check if the result is zero (see [19]): int countBits(int n) {
int count=0; while(n) {
count++; n = n&(n-1); }

return count; }

Popular online tests.
In the following tests every question is followed by five possible answers. Up to
three answers can be correct. I do not provide the correct answers .
Which of the following statements describe the condition that can be used
for conditional compilation in C?
the condition must evaluate to 0 or 1
the condition can depend on the values of any “const” variables
the condition can use the sizeof to make decisions about compiler-
dependent operations based on the size of standard data types
the condition can depend on the value of environment variables

If an ANSI C operator is used with operand of differing types ,which of the
following correctly describes type conversion of operands or result?
no automatic conversion of the operands occurs at all
such an operation will be flagged as an error by the compiler
“narrow” operands are converted to the type of the “wider’ operands
to avoid losing information
the values of operands are changed to prevent possible overflow in
“barrow” types
assignment of th result to “narrow” type may lose information, but are
not illegal

Which of the following peripheral devices allow an embedded system to
communicate with other devices using a two wire or three wire serial
interface?
a bidirectional three-state buffer
an address decoder
a universal synchronous receiver transmitter
a digital-to-analogue converted
a non-volatile memory

What of the following statements correctly describe funcitons in the ANSI C
programmign language when used in an embedded system?
the name of global functions in two different files which are linked
together do need to be unique
function can be called by a value or pointer
functions cannot return more than one value
the maximum number of arguments that a function can take is 12
every function must returns a value

What of the following statements correctly describe the ANSI C code
below?
typedef char *pchar; pchar funcpchar(); typedef pchar (*pfuncpchar)(); pfuncpchar fpfuncpchar();
pfuncpchar is a name for a pointer to a function returning a pointer to
a char
fpfuncpchar is a pointer to char that returns a pointer to a function
fpfuncpchar is a pointer that returns a pointer to function that returns a
pointer char
fpfuncpchar is a function returning a pointer to a function that returns
a pointer to a char
funcpchar is a function that returns a pointer to a char

What of the following statements correctly describe the bitwise right-shift
operator >> in ANSI C?
the right-side operator must be one or greater,
it shifts every bit of its left-size operand to the right by the number of
bit positions specified by the right-side operand
it can be used to reverse the sign of a number
for unsigned integer it fills in vacated bits on the left with zero
it can be be used to divide an integer by powers of 2

What of the following statements are correct assuming 2s complement
implementation of ANSI C
a negative value expressed as a signed integer will be expressed as a
positive value greater than the maximum value of the signed integer if
expressed as an unsigned integer of the same size
the range of he signed and unsigned variations of the same integer
type are equivalent in size and numeric maximum and minimum
The range of the unsigned variation of an integer type is twice that of
the signed variation
the representation of a signed integer has one additional bit for the
sign

How call to the print function can look like in the following code void process
(int (*p)(int, int, char*)) {
int a = 5, b = 47; char *c = "aggregate"; /* Call print for b,a, c */

/***************/
return ; }

int main(void) {
process(report); return 0; }
p->report(b,a,c);
(*p)(b,a,c);
p(b,a,c);
(*p)(report, b, a, c)
p.report(b,a,c)

What is the right fix of the compilation failure in the code below: /* File A */
struct pair a[10]; void initialize(int x, int m, int b) {
int i; a[0].y = (a[0].x = x) * m + b; for (i = 1;i < 10;++i) a[i].y = (a[i].x = a[i-1].x + 1)*m + b; }
/*File B:*/
struct pair {int x, y;}; struct pair *op(int x) {
int i; for (i = 10;i > 0;--i) if (a[i].x == x) break; return a+ 1; }
extern struct pair a[];
the declaration of array a must occur before the definition of op().
the returned pointer is invalid unless the array is declared as extern in
all files with functions that call op()
the definition of the array a is missing the extern keyword in file A
the size of the array must be specified in file b
the definition of struct pair is missing the extern keyword in both files

Which of the following are properly formed #define directives in ANSI C ?
#define DIF(X,Y) (X-Y)
#define sqr(x) ((x)*(x))
#define mm_per_meter 1000;
#define SUM(X,Y) ((X)+(Y));
#define INCHES PER FEET 12

What is the output of executing the ANSI code below:
void f(void **p);

int k =2;
int *pk=&k;

int main()
{
int *p;
f(&p);
printf(“%d\n”, *p);
return 0;
}

void f(void **pp)
{
(*pk)++;
*pp = pk;
}

syntax error
address of pk
garbage
3
2

What is the contents of the array output after the completoonm of the for
loop?
int encode (char, char); int main(void) {
char input [7] = {'M', 'E',':','G','O',':'}, output [7]; int i; for (i = 0;i < 7;++i) {
output[i] = encode(input[i], ':'); }
return 0; }

int encode(char c , char t) {
switch(c) {
case 'E': c = 'A';break; case 'O': c = 'X'; break; case 'A': c = 'T'; break; case 'U': c = 'M'; break; }

if (c >= 'A' && c <= 'Z' || c >= 'a' && c <= 'z' && (c=t)) c = '\0'; return c; }
\0’,\0’,\0’,\0’,\0’,\0’,\0’
‘M’,’A’,’\0’,’G’,’O’,\0’,\0’
‘M’,’A’,’\0’,’G’,’X’,\0’,\0’
‘\0’,’\0’,’:’,’\0’,’\0’,’:’,’\0’
‘:’,‘:’,‘:’,‘:’,‘:’,‘:’,‘\0’

What function dump_port() shall output: /* Number of registers in the I/O */
#define PORT_SIZE 7
typedef unsigned int word; union IO_port {
word reglist[PORT_SIZE]; struct {
word ENABLE ; word DIRECTION; word OPEN_COLLECTOR; word DATA; } reg; }; static
union IO_port *GPIO = 0xE0004000; /* address of the port */

#include <stdio.h> void dump_port(union IO_port *p) {
int i; for (i = 0;i < PORT_SIZE;++i) {
printf("%X ", p->reglist[i]); }
int main(void) {
GPIO->reg.DATA = 0x000000D0; GPIO->reg.OPEN_COLLECTOR = 0x000000F0; GPIO-
>reg.DIRECTION = 0xFFFFFF0F; GPIO->reg.ENABLE = 0x000030F0; dump_port(GPIO);
return 0; }
D0 F0 FFFFFF0F 30F0
undefined
D000000 F000000 FFFFFF0F F0300000
FFFFFFF F0300000 20000000 D0000000
FFFFFF0F 30F0 2 D0

What is returned by the following function unsigned int process(unsigned int x, int p, int
n) {
return x ^ (~(~0 << n) << p + 1 -n); }

p bits of x beginning at position n
x multiplied by 2^(p-n)
x with the n bits beginning at position p set to 1
the nth bit of x at position p
x with the n bits that begin at position p inverted

A program must produce a pulse-width modulated signal on a digital
output. Value 0 is represented by digital output HIGH and value 0xFFFF is
represented by digital level LOW. What pulse signal represents a value
0x7000?
30ms period, 13.3ms pulse width
2000Hz, 563us pulse width
100KHz, 5.63us pulse width
100KHz, 4.38us pulse width
20ms, 11.25ms pulse width

Which of the following statements correctly describe the C++ code snippet
below?
void foo(long l); int i =12; foo(i);
i is promoted to a long to invoke the function foo.
the function foo is invoked with a long that has a value of “12”
the compiler instantiates a new function that accept an int instead of
long
the function foo is invoked with an int that has a value of “12”
the function foo is invoked with a long that has an undefined value

The following code tries to categorize the incoming mails by groups -
complains, complements, other. What is the code to use in the for loop?
enum class LetterType {complement, complaint, unknown}; LetterType getMailType(string letter) {
pair<string, int> happy = make_pair(happyString, 0); pair<string, int> sad = make_pair(sadString, 0);
string word; string fstream ss(letter); vector<string> letterWords; while (ss >> word)
letterWords.push_back(word); vector<string>::iterator words; for
(words=letterWords.begin();words<letterWords.end();words++) {
word = *words; //...
if (happy.second > sad.second) return complement; else if (happy.second < sad.second) return
complaint; else return unknown; }

if (happy.find(word)) happy.second++;if (sad.find(word))
sad.second++;
if (happy.find(word) != string::npos) happy.second++;if
(sad.find(word) != string::npos) sad.second++;
if (happy.first.find(word)) happy.second++;if (sad.first.find(word))
sad.second++;
if (happy.first.find(word) != string::npos) happy++;if
(sad.first::find(word) != string::npos) sad++;
if (happy.first.find(word) != string::npos) happy.second++;if
(sad.first::find(word) != string::npos) sad.second++;

Which of the following are C+ declare pointers that can not be changed as
opposed to declaring a pointer to something that can not be changed?
extern double *float;
extern const int *const reference_only;
extern const std::vector<int> *global_vector;
extern const void *anything;
extern float *const some_scalar;

Which of the following actions are performed by the C++ catch(...)
statement?
catch default exceptions.
ignore exceptions.
catch an exception, then pass it to the next level of program control.
disable the throwing of further exceptions.
catch exception types that do not have a corresponding catch block.

Which of the following statements correctly describe compiler generate
copy constructor?
the compiler-generated copy constructor creates a reference to the
original object.
the compiler-generated copy constructor invokes the assignment
operator of the class.
the compiler-generated copy constructor does nothing by default.
the compiler-generated copy constructor tags the object as having
being copy-constructed by the compiler.
the compiler-generated copy constructor performs a member-wise
copy of the original object.

When overloading C++ unary operators, which of the following statements
are correct?
no parameters when the operator function is a class member.
one parameter when the operator function is not a class member.
any number of parameters when the operator function is not a class
member.
one dummy parameter when the operator is a particular type of
increment/decrement and a class member.
no parameters when the operator function is not a class member.

In the C++ code segment below which of the following correctly describe the
behavior of the line containing assert()?
int val = 5; while (true) {
int res = testVal(val); assert(res); //...
}

It logs the value of val to a file
In debug mode it makes sure that val is within user-defined bounds
and terminates the program if not. When not in the debug mode it logs
the val to a file
If the program is not compiled in debug mode it does nothing
If val is negative it terminates the program
If the program is compiled in debug mode it causes the program to
terminate if val is zero.

Brain teasers.
Q. The submarine is located on a line and has an integer position (can be
negative). It moves at a constant integer speed each second in the same direction.
Is there a way to ensure that you can hit the submarine in a finite amount of time
if you allowed to fire once every second?
A. After T seconds the submarine is going to be in the position (v*T) or ((-
v)*T), where v is the absolute value of the velocity of the submarine. If v=1 two
bombs should be enough in the positions 1 and (-2). If there is a hit we have
solved the problem. If not we have wasted 2 seconds. Let's assume that the speed
is 2 and drop the bombs in the positions 2*3=6 and (-2)*4=(-8). After T seconds
we shall bomb positions T*(T+1)/2 and (-T)*(T/2).

Q. There is a building of 100 floors. If an egg drops from the Nth floor or above
it will break. If it’s dropped from any floor below, it will not break. You’re given
2 eggs. Find N, while minimizing the number of drops for the worst case.
A. Regardless of how we drop the first egg, we must do a linear search with the
second egg. A perfect system would be one in which drops of the first egg +
drops of the second egg is always the same. For example, if the first egg is
dropped on floor 20 and then floor 30 (where it breaks), second egg is
potentially required to take 9 steps. When we drop the first egg again, we must
reduce potential steps for the second egg to only 8. Which means that we must
drop first egg at floor 39. Therefore, the first egg must start at floor X, then go
up by X-1 floors, then X-2, ..., X+(X-1)+(X-2)+...+1 = 100
X(X+1)/2 = 100
X = 14
We go to floor 14, then 27, then 39, ... for maximum 14 steps (see [20]).

Q. How to negate a number using only operator “+”.
A. If the number is positive you can add -1 to the number and count how many
loops you did: int negate(int x) {
int result = 0; int sign = x < 0 ? 1 : -1; while (x != 0) {
result += sign; x += sign; }
return result; }

Q. Find mistakes, if any, in the following function: void mistake() {
unsigned int i; for (i = 100; i <= 0; --i) {
printf("%d\n", i); }
}
}

A. Print will never get executed. The “for” loop is an infinite loop.

Q. An application crashes when it is run. It never crashes in the same place. The
application is single threaded, and uses only the C standard library. What
programming errors could be causing this crash?
A. Crashes can be caused by the input: user input or a specific hardware state,
stack overflow, attempts to use not allocated (already freed) memory. It is
possible to log the system inputs. There are tools (valgrind) which help to
discover memory leaks and access to not initialize memory.

Q. Given a random numbers generator r5 which generates integer number
between 0 and 4 implement a random numbers generator r7.
A. A sum of two random numbers is not a uniformly distributed random number.
Any solution which involves a sum of randomly generated numbers will be
wrong. In the following code the first assignment generates a two digits number
base 5 – a random number between 0 and 24. The next line removes from the
series of random numbers 21, 22, 23, 24. The result of the operation is a series of
uniformly distributed numbers between 0 and 20. Modulus 7 completes the task.
int random_7() {
while (true) {
int ret = 5 * random_5() + random_5(); if (ret < 21) return (ret % 7); }

Conclusion.
You have delighted us long enough. Let the
other young ladies have time to exhibit –
Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice.

I hope you have found this book interesting and worth the time and money spent.
This book gets updates often. You can always get the updated version by turning
on “Automatic Update” in the “Manage Your Content and Devices” part of the
Amazon WEB site.
Please, let me know what do you think or ask questions by leaving a review on
the Amazon WEB site or sending an e-mail to arkady.miasnikov@gmail.com
Thank you, Arkady.

Bibliography.
[1] RAII
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_Acquisition_Is_Initialization]
[2] Singleton [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singleton_pattern]
[3] Cyclic Buffer
[https://github.com/larytet/emcpp/blob/master/src/CyclicBuffer.h]
[4] Object composition
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_composition]
[5] "Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented
Software",1994, Erich Gamma, Richard Helm, Ralph Johnson, John Vlissides
[6] Mailbox
[https://github.com/larytet/emcpp/blob/master/src/Mailbox.h]
[7] Constexpr hashes [https://github.com/mfontanini/Programs-
Scripts/tree/master/constexpr_hashes]
[8] Open TI
[https://www.assembla.com/code/OpenTI/subversion/nodes/641/scripts]
[9] Timers [https://github.com/larytet/emcpp/blob/master/src/Timers.h]
[10] Interface Class
[http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/More_C%2B%2B_Idioms/Interface_Class]
[11] ADC [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog-to-digital_converter]
[12] Low path filter [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-pass_filter]
[13] Fixed-point arithmetic [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-
point_arithmetic]
[14] Fixed-Point Types in GCC [https://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gcc-
4.9.0/gcc/Fixed-Point.html]
[15] Fixed-Point library from Kurt Guntheroth
[http://www.guntheroth.com/]
[16] The rise and rise of the cognitive elite
[http://www.economist.com/node/17929013]
[17] Bit Twiddling Hacks
[http://graphics.stanford.edu/~seander/bithacks.html]
[18] Low Level Bit Hacks You Absolutely Must Know
[http://www.catonmat.net/blog/low-level-bithacks-you-absolutely-must-know/]
[19] Puddle of Riddles! [http://puddleofriddles.blogspot.co.il/]
[20] Career cup [http://www.careercup.com/]

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Table

LockDummy lock; cout << "Protected context" << endl; }

bool res = (this->head == this->tail); return res; }

static inline bool CyclicBufferIsEmpty(CyclicBuffer* cyclicBuffer) {

mov 0x2009be(%rip),%rax # 0x6011b0 <myCyclicBuffer+16> return (index + 1); mov %rsi,%r8

memset(&this->statistics, 0, sizeof(this->statistics)); for (size_t i = 0;i < Size;i++) {

PIO Disable Register PIO_PDR Write-only

PIO Status Register PIO_PSR Read-only

Output Enable Register PIO_OER Write-only

Output Disable Register PIO_ODR Write-only

Output Status Register PIO_OSR Read-only

Set Output Data Register PIO_SODR Write-only

Clear Output Data Register PIO_CODR Write-only

Output Status Register PIO_ODSR Read-only

struct Interface &interface = getInterface(name); uint32_t mask = 1 << pin; if (value) {

bool res; Lock lock; res = pool.pop(obj); return res; }

static const char *name = "a job"; vSemaphoreCreateBinary(this->signal); portBASE_TYPE res =

public: PipelineTask(const char *name, PipelineTask *nextStage = nullptr) : name(name),

const int HEADER_SIZE = 2; int header[HEADER_SIZE]; header[0] = ((uintptr_t)address) &

this->head = 0; this->tail = 0; this->size = size; this->data = new ObjectType[size];

bool res = (this->head == this->tail); return res; }

if (res) return TimerError::Ok; else return TimerError::NoRunningTimers; }

data.add(sample); value = filter(value, sample); }

public: double read(); protected: }; class ReadADC {

protected: bool isDone; }; class B : public A {

int a = 5, b = 47; char *c = "aggregate"; /* Call print for b,a, c */

return x ^ (~(~0 << n) << p + 1 -n); }

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public: PipelineTask(const char name, PipelineTask nextStage = nullptr) : name(name),

int a = 5, b = 47; char c = "aggregate"; / Call print for b,a, c */