CHAPTER FOUR

SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
 Outline

✓System architecture for SDI

✓Interoperability
✓Interoperability and standards
✓Client server architecture
 System Architecture

▪ The system's architecture is the conceptual design that defines

the structure and/or behavior of the system.
▪ However, there is no universally agreed-upon definition of which
aspects constitute a system architecture, and various
organizations define it in different ways.
▪ The system architecture can best be thought of as a
representation of an existing or yet-to-be-created system.
▪ The set of relations that an architecture describes may be
expressed in hardware, software, or organizational management.
 Cont.…

✓ These architectures can be simple, such as a stand-alone home

desktop systems, or they can be intricately complex, like cloud-
architectures that rely on layers of developers, engineers, and
technicians to satisfy challenging business or governmental
requirements.
 Types of Architecture

✓ Stand-alone Architecture
▪ The simplest GIS architecture is a stand-alone desktop or laptop
that houses all components.
▪ This architecture is appropriate for users who are working alone
and do not need to regularly share data.
▪ Examples of this include ArcMap software or, in the non-spatial
world, use of Microsoft desktop programs like Word, Excel, or
PowerPoint on files stored on your personal hard drive.
 Cont.…

✓ Network Architecture
▪ Since most GIS projects and training involves some measure of
collaboration, most architectures separate components in the
client-server model.
▪ Servers are computers on a network that are dedicated to
managing network resources.
▪ Servers provide services to other computers on that network
called clients that need those services
 Cont.…

✓ Enterprise Architecture
• As the needs of an organization get larger and the types of clients become
more diverse, an enterprise architecture is needed to separate the system
components across multiple servers and networks in various
configurations.
• In this usage, the term enterprise refers to large businesses and
government organizations.
✓ Cloud Architecture
▪ As a network continues to grow, the expense and difficulty of maintaining
increasing numbers of dedicated physical server computers becomes an
issue.
▪ In a cloud architecture, massive racks of servers run in large data centers,
and customers contract with cloud providers to have access to services
provides across the internet by those virtual servers
 Interoperability

✓ “The capacity to communicate, execute programs, or transfer data among

various functional units in a manner that requires the user to have little or no
knowledge of the unique characteristics of those units” (ISO 1993).
✓ Ability to access, share and manipulate of geospatial data stored in
heterogeneous distributed repositories
▪ Determines how products communicate with other products.
▪ It refers to the ability of a program to share data or functions with another
program.
▪ These often adhere to open standards protocols for communication between
applications.
▪ The basic idea is to define standards that aren’t dependent on one particular
software package.
 Cont.…

▪ Types of interoperability include:

✓Syntactic interoperability refers to the format of the transferred
data, that is, compliance with spatial data standards.
✓Semantic interoperability builds on syntactic interoperability; it
refers to the accurate preservation and interpretation of the
meaning of the transferred information.
✓Cross-domain or cross-organization interoperability: This refers to
the standardization of practices, policies, foundations and
requirements of disparate systems.
• Rather than relating to the mechanisms behind data exchange, this
type only focuses on the non-technical aspects of an interoperable
organization.
 Cont.…

✓ Hence, we focus on syntactic interoperability and the standards

enabling heterogeneous GI systems and services to interoperate.
✓ Interoperability is a key requirement for the seamless exchange
of spatial data between users and organizations employing
different GI systems and Web services.
✓ On a broader scale, the standards enabling interoperability are
the cornerstones of SDI.
✓ Without agreements on the formats of the transferred spatial data
and the interfaces, accessing the corresponding Web services for
mutual data exchange between different GI systems would at
least require manual transformation of the data or even be
impossible altogether.
 Cont.…

Two information systems are interoperable, if they are able to

…
 Cont.…

• The two most important organizations that develop such

standards for the geospatial domain are:
✓OGC (Open Geospatial Consortium) and
✓The ISO/TC211, which are responsible for geographic
information and geomatics.
• Both organizations have a working agreement, resulting in
frequent mutual adaptation of standards.
• This is a crucial issue for many large organizations, especially
government agencies, where sharing data across departments can
make or break the efficiency of that organization.
 Client/Server architecture

✓ It is a network architecture in which each computer or

process on the network is either a client or a server
• Client Server Architecture is a computing model in which the server
hosts, delivers and manages most of the resources and services to be
consumed by the client.
 Cont.…

• Client/server architecture is also known as a networking

computing model or client/server network because all the
requests and services are delivered over a network
✓ Clients are requesting information (e.g. a specific web page)
✓ Servers are responding to individual requests
 Cont.…

✓Request by URL
 Cont.…

▪ Returning a map of current precipitation

Cont.…
 CHAPTER FIVE

SPATIAL DATA QUALITY

 Outline

✓Data Quality Information (DQI)

✓Accuracy, Precision, Bias
✓Error
 Data quality information

✓ Data is information, information is knowledge, and knowledge is

power, so data has become a form of contemporary currency, a
valued commodity exchanged between participating parties.
✓ It helps people and organizations make more informed decisions,
significantly increasing the likelihood of success.
✓ However, datasets can be beneficial or disadvantaging.
✓ For instance, incomplete, erroneous, redundant, or unapplicable
data can occasionally occur.
✓ Fortunately, the idea of data quality exists to make it simpler to
comprehend and deal with.
 Cont.…

✓ spatial data quality have increased, as a result of a two developments:

(1) the emergence of (GIS) in the 1960s and
(2) from the 1970s onwards, a strong increase of available spatial data
from satellites.
✓ With the large-scale adoption of GIS, the number of users from non-
spatial disciplines has grown.
✓ Similarly with GIS, opportunities to use and combine data have grown
extremely.
✓ It is now much easier to use spatial data in all sorts of applications,
even if it is inappropriate considering the quality of the data.
 Cont.…

✓ In simple terms, data quality tells us how reliable a particular set of data is
and whether or not it will be good enough for a user to employ in
decision-making.
✓ It is the degree to which data meets a company’s expectations of accuracy,
validity, completeness, and consistency.
✓ Also includes data relevance, which determines whether or not the data
are suitable for a particular application.
✓ Aspects of data quality are often characterized overall as “fitness for use.”
✓ The degree to which data are fit for an application can be affected by a
number of characteristics, ranging from discrepancies and inconsistencies
in the formatting of the data to the data being of the wrong type or having
too many errors.
 Cont.…

✓ However, in GIS the imperfection of data and its effects on GIS analysis had
not been considered in great detail until recent years.
✓ Those who work with GIS data should understand that error, inaccuracy,
and imprecision can affect the quality of many types of GIS projects, in the
sense that errors that are not accounted for can turn the analysis in a GIS
project to a useless exercise.
✓ The saying, “Garbage in, garbage out” applies all to well when data that is
inaccurate, imprecise, or full of errors is used during analysis.
✓ Hence, data quality is the measure of how well suited a dataset is to serve its
specific purpose.
✓ Data quality characteristics such as accuracy, completeness, consistency,
validity, uniqueness, and timeliness.
✓ Data must be complete, unique, valid, timely, consistent, and accurate.
 Cont.…

Accuracy:
• Accuracy can be defined as the degree or closeness to which the
information on a map matches the values in the real world.
• Therefore, when we refer to accuracy, we are talking about
quality of data and about number of errors contained in a certain
dataset.
• In GIS data, accuracy can be referred to a geographic position,
but it can be referred also to attribute, or conceptual accuracy.
• In addition, accuracy must consider all aspects of accuracy
including its position; temporal aspects; thematic aspects and
completeness.
 Cont.…

Precision:
✓ While accuracy refers only to how close the measurement is to the
true value, is precision related to resolution and variation.
✓ It refers to the level of measurement and exactness of description
in a GIS database.
✓ Precise locational data may measure position to a fraction of a
unit.
✓ Precise attribute information may specify the characteristics of
features in great detail.
 Cont.…

✓ Figure 1: Accuracy and Precision

✓ Consistency refers to the absence of apparent contradictions in a

database.
✓ Data consistency describes the data’s uniformity as it moves across
applications and networks and when it comes from multiple sources.
 Cont.…

✓ Completeness refers to relationship between the objects in the database and

the 'abstract universe' of all such objects.
▪ Completeness measures the data's ability to deliver all the mandatory values
that are available successfully.
✓ Timeliness measures how up-to-date or antiquated the data is at any given
moment.
✓ Validity refers to information that fails to follow specific company formats,
rules, or processes.
▪ Data must be collected according to the organization’s defined business rules
and parameters.
▪ The information should also conform to the correct, accepted formats, and all
dataset values should fall within the proper range.
✓ Integrity of data refers to the level at which the information is reliable and
trustworthy.
 Cont.…

✓ Uniqueness means that no duplications or redundant information are

overlapping across all the datasets. No record in the dataset exists
multiple times.
✓ An error is the difference between a measured, or observed, value and
the true value.
✓ The objective is to minimize error to acceptable levels.
✓ Error in GIS must happen , but must be defined , quantified and planned
for solve it
✓ Types of Error in GIS
a. Positional b. Attributional
c. Conceptual d. Numeric
✓ Bias refers to a systematic pattern of error like the error arising from map
misregistration. Hence, when bias is absent, error is said to be random.
 Sources of inaccuracy and imprecision

✓ Some sources of error in GIS data are very obvious, whereas

others are more difficult to notice.
✓ GIS software can make the users to think that their data is accurate
and precise to a degree that is not quite real.
✓ Scale or map scale
✓ The ability to show detail in a map is determined by its scale. A
map with a scale of 1:1000 can illustrate much finer points of data
than a smaller scale map of 1:250000.
✓ The age of data may be another obvious source of error. When
data sources are too old, some, or a big part, of the information
base may have changed.
 Cont.…

• There are some types of errors created when formatting data for
processing.
• For instance changes in scale, reprojections, import/export from raster
to vector, etc. are all examples of possible sources of formatting errors.
Areal cover
• Data on a given area may be completely lacking, or only partial levels
of information may be available for use in a GIS project.
• Accessibility to data is not equal. What is open and readily available in
one country may be restricted, classified, or unobtainable in another.
Cost:
• Extensive and reliable data is often quite expensive to obtain or convert
 Assessment of data quality:

✓ Data quality is assessed using different evaluation techniques by

different users.
▪ The first level of assessment is performed by the data producer.
This level of assessment is based on data quality check based on
given data specifications.
▪ Second level of data quality assessment is performed at
consumer side where feedback is taken from the consumer and
processed.
▪ Then the data is analyzed / rectified on the basis of processed
feedback.
 Data quality improvement techniques:

▪ Choice of relevant data from a relevant source.

▪ Data quality testing in each phase of data capture.
▪ Using automated software tools for spatial and non-spatial data
validation.
▪ Assessment of the mode of data uses and user.
 CHAPTER SIX

DATA MODELING FOR SDI

 Data Modeling

✓ All phenomena in our environment can’t be directly observed at

one time, we use models.
✓ “A model is a simplified representation of reality which presents
significant features or relationships in a generalized form.
✓ It is a selective approximation of reality”
⁻ Data modeling is the process of creating a visual representation of
either a whole information system or parts of it to communicate
connections between data points and structures.
⁻ The goal is to illustrate the types of data used and stored within the
system, the relationships among these data types, the ways the data
can be grouped and organized and its formats and attributes.
 Cont.…

⁻ In GIS, this is done by representing reality as a set of map layers

and relationships between them.

⁻ A geographic data model, geospatial data model, or simply data

model in the context of geographic information systems, is a
mathematical and digital structure for representing phenomena
over the Earth.

⁻ An abstraction of real world entities and their relationships into

structures that can be implemented with a computer language.
 Cont.…

• Generally, such data models represent various aspects of these phenomena by

means of geographic data, including spatial locations, attributes, change over
time, and identity.
• For example: In GIS there are two commonly known models
a) Vector data model represents geography as collections of
• Points
• Lines
• polygons.
b) Raster data model represent geography as cell matrices that store numeric
values.
▪Cells or pixels
 Abstraction of Real World

• Abstraction is a design technique that focuses on the essential

aspects of an entity and ignores or conceals less important or
non-essential aspects.
• Abstraction is an important tool for simplifying a complex
phenomenon to a level where analysis, experimentation, or
understanding can take place.
• In addition, it is the process or result of generalization by
reducing the information content of a concept or an observable
phenomenon, typically to retain only information which is
relevant for a particular purpose.
 Levels of data model abstraction

• When representing the real-world in a computer, it is helpful to

think in terms of four different levels of abstraction (levels of
generalization or simplification).
• First, reality is made up of real-world phenomena (buildings,
streets, wells, lakes, people, etc.), and includes all aspects that
may or may not be perceived by individuals, or deemed relevant
to a particular application.
• Second, the conceptual model is a human-oriented, often partially
structured, model of selected objects and processes that are
thought relevant to a particular problem domain.
 Cont.…

• Third, the logical model is an implementation-oriented

representation of reality that is often expressed in the form of
diagrams and lists.
• Lastly, the physical model portrays the actual implementation in a
GIS, and often comprises tables stored as files or databases.
• Or how data will be structured in memory or in files.
 Distributed Database Concept

Definition :
– Distributed Database (DDB) is a collection of interrelated
databases interconnected by a computer network.
– A distributed database is a database in which portions of the
database are stored on multiple computers within a network.
What constitutes a distributed database?
✓ Connection of database nodes over computer network
✓ Logical interrelation of the connected databases
✓ Possible absence of homogeneity among connected nodes
 Cont.…

◼ Distributed database management system (DDBMS)

 Software system that manages a distributed database.

 Making the distribution transparent to the users.

◼ Local area network

⁕ Hubs or cables connect sites

◼ Long-haul or wide area network

⁕ Telephone lines, cables, wireless, or satellite connections

◼ Transparency
• Hiding implementation details from the end user
 Advantages of a DDB

 Supports various levels of transparency

Distribution (network) transparency
• Degree to which user is unaware of the networked nature of the
DB
Replication transparency
• Degree to which user is unaware of copies of the DB
Fragmentation transparency
• Degree to which user is unaware the DB is broken into pieces
 Increased Reliability and Availability
Reliability – probability a system is running at a particular point
in time
Availability – probability a system is continuously available
during a time interval
 Cont.…

 Improved Performance
Supports data localization – data is kept near where it is most
often used to reduce affects of network delay
 Easier Expansion
Adding more data, increasing DB size, adding resources is
easier
 Reduced Operation Costs (when considering a mainframe system)
cheaper to add workstations than a new mainframe computer
 Disadvantages of a DDB

 Significant increase in complexity

Normalization, query optimization, security, transaction
processing, concurrency control, crash recovery, etc.
ALL become much more difficult to handle
 Increased storage requirements
Since multiple copies of various portions of the DB exist, more
storage space is required
 Problems of information sharing

✓ Various information systems are different in architecture,

technical system, and message standard, which lead to the lack
of information inter-operability among different information
systems.
✓ Besides, in different information systems, different terms may
be used to describe the same information, or the same terms
may be used to describe different information, which lead to the
heterogeneity of semantics.
✓ Hence, the heterogeneity of information leads to the difficulty
of information sharing among systems, particularly spatial
information
 Cont.…

✓ Geospatial data sharing between two or more organizations can

take many forms, from sharing metadata via single data layers
to sharing complete datasets.
✓ Sharing of the most current and relevant geospatial data
facilitates economic improvements, empowers people in
general and establishes win-win situations for all actors within
the geospatial data-sharing process (such as spatial data
providers, service providers and final customers).
 Cont.…

✓ However, geospatial data sharing faces a set of high-level

challenges:
(1) Data are scattered and locked within their respective sectors;
(2) Efforts are duplicated within geospatial data acquisition;
(3) Data are not updated and maintained regularly;
(4) Finding available data is relatively difficult
(5) Organizations are not capable of meeting their geospatial data
requirements alone.
 Cont.…

▪ Moreover;
✓Lack of coordination between sectors
✓Technological barriers
✓Poor data quality and compatibility
✓Policy barriers
✓Institutional barriers
• Hence, those are the principal challenges to geospatial data sharing
between sectors or counties.
 CHAPTER SEVEN

GIS INTERNET SERVICES

&
SDI TECHNOLOGIES
 Reading Assignment

✓Review on Internet and World wide web

✓Web mapping
✓Types of web mapping:
✓Static Vs Interactive
✓Web map users
✓Internet GIS
✓Components/infrastructures of web mapping
✓Elements of a web map
 Revision

Internet and World Wide Web

Network
• A network is a set of devices (nodes) connected by
communication links.
• A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable
of sending and/or receiving data
• LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between
personal computers or workstations.
• A WAN provides long-distance transmission of data, image,
audio, and video information over large geographic areas
 Cont.

Internet
⁕ The Internet is a global, interconnected computer network in
which every computer connected to it can exchange data with
any other connected computer.
⁕ Internet born in 1969 - called ARPANET
⁕ Public files on computers can be read by remote user
⁕ is the most basic building block of the Web. It defines the
meaning and structure of web content.
⁕ URL - is a unique identifier used to locate a resource on the
Internet.
 Cont.

What is a domain name?

✓ Text version of Internet protocol (IP) address
✓ Number that uniquely identifies each computer or device connected to Internet

The World Wide Web (WWW)

✓ Is a world wide collection of electronic documents
✓ Also called the Web
✓ Each electronic document is called a Web page
✓ Can contain text, graphics, audio, video
✓ A Web site is a collection of related Web pages
 GIS Internet Services & SDI Technologies

• Both are two related fields of information technology.

• GIS Internet Services are the ways in which data is accessed and
used through the Internet, such as web mapping applications, web
services, and mobile applications.
• It is a great way to access GIS data and services online, providing
access to a wide range of data sources, tools, and applications.
• You can use GIS Internet Services to create custom maps, analyze
spatial patterns, and visualize data to gain insights.
• SDI Technologies are the hardware and software used to develop and
manage an SDI, such as data management systems, data warehouses,
and software development.
 Cont.

• The technologies enable users to collect and manage geospatial

data, and to make the data available to other users.
• They also provide users with the ability to analyze, visualize, and
interpret spatial data.
• By using SDI technologies, organizations can collaborate more
effectively, and make more informed decisions.
 Internet GIS supporting

• There are several technologies that can be used to support internet GIS services.
For instance: cloud computing, web mapping services, desktop GIS software,
mobile GIS applications, geospatial databases, and application programming
interfaces (APIs).
✓ Cloud computing enables users to access GIS data from any internet-connected
device, while web mapping services allow users to view, create, and analyze GIS
data online.
✓ Desktop GIS software allows users to analyze and display geographic data, while
mobile GIS apps enable users to collect, map, and analyze data.
✓ Geospatial databases store, organize, and manage GIS data, and APIs allow
developers to access and use GIS data in their applications.
✓ All of these technologies provide powerful tools to support internet GIS services.
 Cont.

Here is a list of technologies that support web GIS:

Web Mapping Libraries:
✓ Web mapping libraries like Open Layers, Leaflet, and Cesium allow
developers to quickly create interactive maps. These libraries are often used
in conjunction with other web technologies like HTML, CSS, and
JavaScript.
Web Feature Services (WFS):
✓ WFS is a web-based protocol for serving geographic features over the
Internet. It is often used to provide real-time access to GIS data.
Web Map Services (WMS):
✓ WMS is a web-based protocol for serving pre-rendered geospatial data. It is
used to create and share static maps, such as satellite imagery and
topographic maps.
 Cont.

Web Processing Services (WPS):

▪ WPS is a web-based protocol for executing geoprocessing services. It is
used to perform spatial analysis tasks, such as buffering and overlaying.
Web Coverage Services (WCS):
▪ WCS is a web-based protocol for serving geospatial data as a raster
image.
▪ It is used for sharing satellite imagery, aerial photography, and other
raster-based data.
Web Map Tile Services (WMTS):
▪ WMTS is a web-based protocol for serving pre-rendered map tiles. It is
used to create fast, seamless map experiences with an emphasis on
performance.
 Commercial tools for internet GIS

• Commercial GIS software involves a paid license of some kind,

either through subscription or a one-time perpetual license.
• They can be divided into two categories: Desktop and online
• Each of the platforms below involves a one-time perpetual
license fee and must be installed onto a specific computer.
✓ ArcGIS Pro (ESRI)
✓ MapInfo Pro (Pitney Bowes)
✓ GeoMedia (Hexagon GeoSpatial) Reading Assignment
✓ Smallworld (General Electric)
✓ OpenCities Map (Bentley Systems), and etc.
CHAPTER EIGHT

GLOBALIZATION
POLITICS
&
GIS
 Globalization, politics, and GIS

✓ Globalization, politics and Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

are intertwined in many ways.
✓ Globalization is the process of increasing interconnectedness
between countries and peoples, which has been enabled by
advances in technology, particularly digital technology.
✓ Politics is the activity of making decisions that apply to members
of a group or society, and GIS is a set of digital tools used to
capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present spatial or
geographic data.
 Cont.

✓ GIS can be used to analyze many aspects of globalization, such

as the patterns of international migration, the influence of global
media, and the emergence of global markets.
✓ GIS can also be used to visualize the political implications of
globalization, such as the impact of global trade agreements on
regional economies or the spread of political ideologies.
✓ globalization, politics and GIS are interconnected, and GIS can
be used to gain a deeper understanding of the effects of
globalization on politics.
 Global databases

✓ There are two obvious approaches to creating global databases:

✓ To use existing mapping
✓ To create something wholly new from imagery or other sources.
✓ The latter has developed hugely in recent years through imagery
produced by NASA, ESA, and similar bodies, and commercial
organizations.
 Global partnerships for standards

▪ There are already a number of well-resourced and long-term

groupings which bring together countries for particular
purposes and which have direct or indirect impacts on GIS such
as:
• International Standards Organization (ISO),
• World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), and
• The World Trade Organization (WTO).
 Cont.

▪ These are voluntary groupings bound through signature of

treaties or through the workings of a consensus process.
▪ But other groupings of bodies exist which have specific
importance for GIS.
▪ Perhaps the most important of these is the Open Geospatial
Consortium (OGC), formerly the Open GIS Consortium.
▪ The OGC is a voluntary consensus standards organization
operating in the GIS arena.
▪ The OGC is a not-for-profit, global industry association founded
in 1994 to address geospatial information-sharing challenges.
 Cont.

• Its membership is primarily US-based, reflecting its origins and

also the US dominance of the GIS marketplace, but the
geographic spread of membership has continually increased.
• The OGC’s worldwide membership, which totals 260 entities,
includes geospatial software vendors, government integrators,
information technology platform providers, US federal agencies,
agencies of other national and local governments, and
universities
 Cont.

• The other approach to building worldwide consistent facilities has

been to seek to create a Global Spatial Data Infrastructure.
• GSDI is the result of a voluntary coming together of national
mapping agencies and a variety of other individuals and bodies.
• The Steering Committee defined the GSDI as ‘the broad policy,
organizational, technical, and financial arrangements necessary to
support global access to geographic information’.
• Initially, the organization sought to define and facilitate creation of
a GSDI by learning from national experiences.
• But, creating a SDI have helped many countries affected by
terrorist action.
 Cont.

• since everything happens somewhere and since targets of terrorism

are picked to cause maximum effect, GI and systems to deal with it
are at the forefront of governmental efforts to carry out their first duty
– to protect their citizens.
• To aid this mission, we must first know how GIS can potentially help
terrorists so we can guard against such threats.
• We must also know how best to use such systems to minimize the
consequences of any terrorist actions.
 How GIS can potentially help attackers

In principle, GIS can help a potential terrorist in at least four ways:

✓ Finding locations of a particular type (e.g., major ‘choke points’ in
roads, population centers, or highly critical places such as nuclear
plants);
✓ Adding data layers to enrich the understanding of that location’s
‘uniqueness’ or ‘connectedness’;
✓ Modeling of the likely effects of a disruption (in three dimensions and
time, if desired) to the facility and of escape routes for the attackers;
✓ Providing descriptive material or GPS coordinates to lead the
attackers to the spot and to exit after the attack.
 Use of GIS in Counterterrorism

Geospatial technologies an be applied to counterterrorism in five

principle manners.
✓ Firstly, GIS and related technologies can serve as a tool for
intelligence analysis.
✓ Secondly, GIS can be employed to simulate scenarios for terrorist
attacks to identify and, ideally, to harden targets.
✓ Thirdly, GIS can be used to coordinate the immediate response to an
actual attack by providing information on the proximity of
attacked sites to first responders — police, fire, medical, and other
resources.
 Cont.

✓ Fourthly, GIS as well as GPS and airborne technologies such as aerial

videography, infrared detection, and laser detection and ranging
(LIDAR) can be used to assess the short-term and intermediate-term
effect of an attack and aid in establishing the boundaries of
evacuation zones, locating evidence, locating and rescuing victims,
and controlling fires and minimizing the potential for secondary
damage from delayed explosions, building collapse, and so on.
✓ Fifthly, and lastly, GIS, and in particular satellite remote sensing and
digital aerial imagery, can be used to coordinate retaliation in the
form of air strikes and to assist a whole range of more subtle military,
paramilitary, and law enforcement responses.
 GIS contribution in extreme events

Risk Assessment
▪ It involves assessing the likelihood and possible impacts (on life,
property, and other assets and the environment) of terrorist
activity, an emergency, or disaster – and then communicating the
appropriate authorities.
▪ It involves identifying risks and their potential impacts, which
organizations should be involved, and the necessary mitigation,
response, and recovery procedures, and testing the procedures.
 Preparedness

• This covers those activities necessary because terrorist attack or

other hazards cannot be confidently anticipated and obviated.
• It involves creating a set of operational plans to deal with a set
of defined scenarios, including who is to be in charge (e.g., in
different zones) for the different scenarios.
• Early warning systems need to be installed. Training exercises
will be carried out.
• Emergency supplies of food and medical supplies need to be
stockpiled and their delivery planned.
• All of these involve use of geographic information and GIS
 Mitigating

• This involves identifying activities that will reduce or obviate

the probability and/or impact of an event.
• e.g. maintaining an inventory of the contents and locations of
hazardous materials and mapping the geography and sensitivity
of environmental dissemination of contaminants.
• For instance , reservoirs and water distribution facilities.
 Response

▪ These are the activities immediately following a terrorist attack,

or other emergency, and are designed to provide emergency
assistance for victims, stabilize the situation, reduce the
probability of secondary damage, and speed up recovery
activities.
▪ They include providing search and rescue, emergency shelter,
medical care, and mass feeding; controlling transport links so as
to prevent further injury, looting, or other problems; shutting off
contaminated utilities; and/or carrying out a damage assessment.
 Recovery

o These are the actions necessary to return all systems to the pre-
recovery state or better.
o They include both short- and long-term activities such as
creating an agreed and shared ‘status map’.
o ‘Cleaning up’, provision of temporary housing, return of power
and water supplies and allocation of government assistance are
essential parts of aiding recovery.
 CHAPTER NINE

ASPECTS OF GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

• Aspects of Geographic Information
✓Legal aspect
✓Economic aspect
✓Ethical aspect
• Dissemination of geospatial information
 Aspects of Geographic Information

✓ The legal, economic, and ethical aspects of Geographic Information

can be complex topics, however they are closely intertwined.
✓ When it comes to legal aspects, it is important to consider the
implications of collecting, storing, and using geospatial data.
✓ Depending on the jurisdiction, there may be laws surrounding the use
of geospatial data for certain purposes.
✓ Additionally, it is important to consider potential copyright or
intellectual property violations when using geospatial data created by
other sources.
✓ Legally, Geographic Information is subject to various laws and
regulations, such as privacy and copyright laws, depending on the
type of data being used.
 Cont.

▪ In terms of economic aspects, the use of geospatial data can help

to improve efficiency and productivity for a variety of
businesses and organizations.
▪ Geospatial data can help to optimize workflows and allow for
better decision-making.
▪ It can also be used to analyze and predict market trends, which
can help businesses to stay competitive.
▪ It can help companies make informed decisions about their
operations and investments.
 Cont.

• Ethically, Geographic Information can be used to ensure that

decisions are made in an equitable and sustainable manner.
• It is important to take into account the potential implications of
using geospatial data, such as privacy concerns.
• It can help to ensure that individuals and communities are not
disadvantaged due to their location or other factors.
• In addition, it can also be used to help inform social policies and
initiatives, which can have positive impacts on local
communities.
 Dissemination of Geospatial Information

• Geospatial information can be disseminated in a variety of ways depending

on the specific needs of the user.
• One way is through the use of GIS software, which allows users to create
maps, analyze spatial data, and share information with others.
• Additionally, web-based mapping services such as Google Maps and
OpenStreetMap can be used to provide an interactive view of geospatial
data.
• Furthermore, mobile apps, such as those created by Esri, can be used to
provide access to geospatial information. Moreover, data can be shared
through the use of web services such as WMS and WFS.
• Hence, by utilizing these tools, users can easily and effectively share and
access geospatial information with others.
 THE END

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