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 Physica Scripta

Phys. Scr. 95 (2020) 045226 (7pp) https://doi.org/10.1088/1402-4896/ab6da3

Effect of torus-shape curved space on

energy spectrum and magnetization of Dirac
fermions in graphene
M Shahin, H Goudarzi1 and M Lotfizadeh
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Urmia University, PO Box: 165, Urmia, Iran

E-mail: h.goudarzi@urmia.ac.ir and m.lotfizadeh@urmia.ac.ir

Received 13 November 2019, revised 9 January 2020

Accepted for publication 20 January 2020
Published 19 February 2020

Abstract
In this paper, the dynamical properties of charge carriers in the two-dimensional atomic layer of
graphene lattice with torus-shape geometry is studied in the presence of a gauge field. The
curved space considerations involves Dirac equation along with a magnetic field for relativistic
quasiparticles in graphene. By using the Heun’s differential equation, we are able to analytically
find discrete Landau levels of graphene in torus-like curved space. The magnetization of energy
states is investigated.

Keywords: geometry of torus, Dirac equation in curved space, Heun’s equation, Landau levels
(Some figures may appear in colour only in the online journal)

1. Introduction The problem of a particle confined on a spatially curved

Two-dimensional (2D) zero-effective mass Dirac fermions in
atomic layer graphene [1–3] provide a feasible platform to
study and unify fundamental concepts from quantum field
theory, topology and curved space-time considerations
[4–11]. Moreover, the particular structure of 2D honeycomb
lattice allows to take into account defects, disclinations and
gravitational contributions on the surface of graphene
[12–16]. However, producing 2D condensed matter is often
entailed with defects, leading to appearance of unexpected
results in electronical properties of structure. Therefore,
description of behavior of 2D charge carriers on a non-flat
surface needs to involve the curved space-time concepts into
Dirac equation. Also, lattice distortions, arisen from elastic
strain, ripples and topological defects can be described by
introducing a gauge field in the low-energy Dirac theory
[17, 18]. The curvature of a surface can really affect the
dynamics of the system constrained on the surface. Recently,
the Dirac equation in curved space-time has gained important
interest in some applications such as condensed matter phy-
sics for describing the dynamics of charge carriers in
deformed 2D Dirac materials [8, 19, 20].
1
Author to whom any corresponding author should be addressed.
surface has been considered for more than 50 years [21].
When spinless quantum particle or relativistic quantum par-
ticle is confined to curved surface, it’s quantum behavior is
non-trivially influenced by the curvatures of the space. The
Dirac equation, which describes the behavior of charge car-
riers in graphene can be considered for a deformed graphene
sheet to be taken in curved space by (iγ μ∇μ−Δ)ψ=0,
where γ μ are Dirac matrices in curved space and ∇μ is a
covariant derivative, which contains the effect of curvature in
the form ∇μ=∂μ+Γμ. Γμ denotes spin connection [22].
Also, applying gauge field or magnetic field to the relativistic
fermions in graphene can generate curious effect. For exam-
ple, charged carriers in a surface attain Landau level quanti-
zation, when a magnetic field is applied in the normal
direction [23]. In [24–26], the 2D Dirac equation on a
spheroid has been used to study electronic states in spheroidal
fullerenes. Recently, massless Dirac–Weyl fermions in gra-
phene have been studied in flat space in the presence of
nonuniform magnetic field [27, 28]. In this paper, our aim is
to study dynamical properties of a charged fermion confined
on the surface of torus-shape graphene in the presence of the
external magnetic field as a gauge field associated with a
gravitational effect. In section 2, we discuss the geometry of a
torus shape spatial configuration, and introduce the tetrad and

0031-8949/20/045226+07$33.00 1 © 2020 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK

Phys. Scr. 95 (2020) 045226 M Shahin et al

spin connection. In section 3, we introduce 2D Dirac equation

in curved space, describing the dynamics of fermions in torus-
like graphene structure, and obtain the spin connection, and
corresponding energy spectrum and magnetization. Finally,
we close with a discussion and conclusion in section 4.

2. Geometry of torus-like curvature

The torus with radius r and R is defined geometrically with

points on the surface
X (u , v) = (g (u) , h (u) sin v , h (u) cos v) , (1 )
where
g (u) = r sin u , h (u) = R + r cos u. Figure 1. Sketch of the torus geometry of graphene lattice.

The line element for surface is determined by relation In the curved space Glms is the usual affine connection
ds 2 = -c 2 dt 2 + r 2 du2 + (R + r cos u )2 dv 2 . Embedding (1 (Chiristoffel symbol) related to the metric tensor by
+2)-dimensional torus into higher dimensional (1+3)-
1
dimensional space can generate effective gravity or effective Glms = gnl (gsn , m + gmn , s - gms, n ).
curvature to the reduced space-time. Fermions living on the 2
reduced space-time actually experience space-time curvature. The spin connection for fermion (spin 12 ) can be written as:
One can define line element for (1+3)-D Minkowski space- 1
Gm (x ) = w ab
m [ga , gb] , (7 )
time coordinate in the form dx′μ={cdt, dx, dy, dz}, and 8
dxm = {c dt , du , dv} as a (1+2)D torus. The transformation where w mab are the spin connection coefficients
matrix is given by: n bl
w ab
m = en (¶m + G ml ) e .
a
(8 )
¶x ¢m
gmn = To obtain vierbeins, we use the following relation:
¶x n
⎛1 0 0 0 ⎞ gmn = emi enj hij ,
= ⎜ 0 r sin u - r sin u cos v 0 ⎟.
where ηij=diag.(−1, 1, 1) in (1+2)-dimensions and i, j ò {0,
⎜ ⎟
⎝0 0 - (R + r cos u) sin v (R + r cos u) cos v ⎠ (2)
1, 2}. Consequently, vierbeins becomes
The behavior of fermions in curved space is more compli- ⎛1 0 0 ⎞
cated than that of scalar or vector fields, because their Lorentz emi (u , v) = ⎜ 0 r 0 ⎟. (9 )
⎜ ⎟
transformation do not generalize easily to arbitrary coordinate ⎝ 0 0 (R + r cos u)⎠
systems. Instead of the metric g μν (described in arbitrary
One can consider fermion in Minkowski space subject to the
coordinate), a set of locally inertial coordinates x aX and the
vierbein fields fixes the transformation between the local and torus embedding constant.
the general coordinates:
¶x aX (x ) 3. Graphene in magnetized torus geometry
ema (X ) = . (3 )
¶x m
The curved space Dirac gamma matrices, γ μ(x) then satisfy We consider a gapped graphene lattice with torus geometry
the Clifford algebra: (as sketched in figure 1) subjected in a magnetic field. The
strong magnetic field can strongly affect the fermion
{gm , gn} = 2gmn . dynamics, similar to a gravity in resulting curved space.
μ Therefore, we use Dirac equation in the curved space in the
The γ are related to the constant flat space matrices γ a by:
presence of vector potential
g m (x ) = eam g a, (4 )
(ig iPi - D) y = 0, (10)
and the spin connection Gm (x ) is defined via the vierbein
where the canonical momentum Pi of fermion in the presence
1
ga gb ela (x ) gls (x ) m esb (x ) ,
Gm (x ) = (5 ) of an electromagnetic potential is:
4
⎛ e ⎞
where the covariant derivative ∇μ acting on the esb (x ) can be Pi = eim ⎜ -  m + i Am ⎟ ,
⎝ c ⎠
defined as
and ψ represents the Dirac spinor field, Δ is the rest mass of
m esb (x ) = ¶m esb - Glms elb (x ). (6 ) the particle, c is the speed of light in the curved space -time, e

2
Phys. Scr. 95 (2020) 045226 M Shahin et al

is electric charge and Aμ is electromagnetic four-potential. Now, we are in a position to define the pseudo-vector
Also, γ i are the Dirac matrices given by: potential as following:
0 sa , icr sin u 1
( )
g0 = 1 0 , ga =
0 -1 -s a 0 ( ) (11) Au¢ =
2e (R + r cos u)
, Av =
2
B (u) R. (18)

The effective gauge potential in a specified direction, Au¢ is

where σ a are Pauli spin matrices. They obey the Clifford
generated by the curvature along the direction Γv, in this case,
algebra:
torus gravity connection manifests itself in the form of
{g i , g j} = 2h ij. (imaginary) gauge connection in the perpendicular direction
on the surface. The second term in equation (18) is similar to
The useful relation between Pauli matrices, which we will use a spin–orbit-curvature coupling potential. We consider the
later is: relation for 2D fermions described by the Dirac equation in
s as b = d ab + i abcs c, (12) the presence of the effective potential arising from the torus
geometrical structure and the gauge field. One can consider
where ò abc is Levi-Civita symbol. The covariant derivative of the stationary state of the Dirac spinor ψ(t, u, v) in the form:
the spinor interaction with gauge field in the curved space is ⎛ f (u , v ) ⎞
given by: y (t , u , v ) = ⎜ ⎟ e-iEt , (19)
⎝ c (u , v ) ⎠
m = ¶m - Gm . (13)
where f(u, v) and χ(u, v) are two-component spinors.
We can define the Christoffel symbols Γkji using the metric Equation (17) can be written in the form of coupled equation
(2) as: for the f(u, v) and χ(u, v)

Guvv = - r sin u (R + r cos u) , ( - E - D) f (u , v) + Dc (u , v) = 0,

Gvuv = R + r cos u , Df (u , v) + (E - D) c (u , v) = 0. (20)
Gvvu = r cos u (R + r cos u). (14) In the presence of electromagnetic potential in the v direc-
tion, the charged fermion that moving in the v direction is
Then, the spin connections can be written as:
expected to form a stationary state with quantized angular
Gt = 0, Gu = 0, momentum and energy, i.e. the Landau levels energy in the
1 curved space with hole. To show this, we need to solve our main
Gv = g1g 2r sin u (R + r cos u). (15) equation to the stationary states of the system. Starting from the
2
equation (20) the deferential equation for f(u, v) becomes:
Now, the equation (10) can be written in the form:
D 2f (u , v) = (E 2 - D2) f (u , v). (21)
⎡ i m⎛ e ⎞ ⎤
⎢g ei ⎜⎝Pm + iGm - Am ⎟⎠ - D⎥ y (u , v) = 0. In the next section, we will proceed to solve corresponding
⎣ c ⎦ differential equation to achieve the Landau levels.
By substituting the gamma matrices γ i, we arrive at:
3.1. Energy spectrum of torus graphene
¶ ⎛ e ⎞
[ - ig 0e00 + g1e1u ⎜Pu + iGm - Au ⎟ To obtain the energy spectrum via the relation (21), one can
¶t ⎝ c ⎠
write the operator D in the following form:
⎛ e ⎞
+ g 2e2v ⎜Pv + iGv - Av ⎟ - D] y (u , v) = 0. 1 ¶2 2sinu ¶
⎝ c ⎠ D2 = - -
r ¶u
2 2 r (R + r cosu) ¶u
By using relations (9) and (15), one can result in: cosu 3sin2 u
- -
⎡ ¶ g1 ⎛ ¶ e ⎞ g2 2r (R + r cosu) 4 (R + r cosu)2
⎢ - ig 0 + ⎜- - Au ⎟ +
⎛ ¶
⎣ ¶t r ⎝ ¶u c ⎠ R + r cos u 1 e ⎞2
⎜-i - Av ⎟
⎛ ¶ i e ⎞ ⎤ (R + r cosu) ⎝ ¶v
2 c ⎠
´ ⎜-i + g1g 2 sin u - Av ⎟ - D⎥ y (u , v) = 0. es 3
⎝ ¶v 2 c ⎠ ⎦ - Fuv ,
(16) cr (R + r cosu)
We can write the equation (16) in the matrix form as: where Fuv=∂uAv−∂vAu is the field strength. For stationary
state, the wave function f(u, v) needs to be single-valued at
⎛- E - D D ⎞⎟ y (u , v) = 0,
⎜ (17) every point in space-time, and it must be a periodic function:
⎝ D E - D⎠
⎛f+(u)⎞
where the operator D is defined as follow: f (u , v) = ⎜ - ⎟ eimv ; f (v + 2 p , u ) = f (v , u ) , (22)
⎝ f (u ) ⎠
s1 ⎛ ¶ ie ⎞ s2 ⎛¶ e ⎞
D = -i ⎜ - Au¢ ⎟ - i ⎜ - i Av ⎟. where m is the orbital angular momentum quantum number,
⎝
r ¶u c ⎠ ⎝
R + r cos u ¶v c ⎠ m=0, ±1, K, and f+(u) and f−(u) are wave functions for

3
Phys. Scr. 95 (2020) 045226 M Shahin et al

spin-up and spin-down fermions, respectively. By substituting the equation (25) is reduced to the following form:
the wave function f(u, v) in equation (21), we obtain the
d2f  ⎛a b c ⎞
following relation for spinor components: +⎜ + + ⎟
dx 2 ⎝x x-1 x - x2 ⎠
⎡ 1 ¶2 2 sin u ¶ df  ab (x - x1¢ )
D 2 f (u , v ) = ⎢ - 2 2 - ´ + f  = 0. (27)
⎣ r ¶u r (R + r cos u) ¶u dx x (x - 1)(x - x2)
cos u 3 sin2 u
- - With the following condition, the above equation is found to
2r (R + r cos u) 4 (R + r cos u)2 be Heun’s differential equation [29] with the parameterization
1 ⎛ e ⎞⎟2
⎜m - Av ab = F , a + b + 1 = a + b + c,
(R + r cos u)2 ⎝ c ⎠
es 3 ⎤ where
- Fuv - K 2⎥ f (u , v) = 0.
cr (R + r cos u) ⎦
(23) (a + b + c - 1 ) + (a + b + c - 1 )2 - 4 F
b= ,
2
To solve this equation, one can use x = R + r cos u and F
a= .
dx = -r sin u du , then equation (23) is transformed in to the b
following differential equation for spinor components: (28)

d2f  Dx 3 + Cx 2 - Ax df  To solve the Heun’s differential equation (27), one can

+ 2 2 use the power series f(x ) = Sa nx n , where the relation
dx 2 x (x - Ax + B) dx
between the coefficient an is:
Fx 2 + H x + G 
+ 2 2 f = 0. (24)
x (x - Ax + B) a n + 1 = An a n + Bn a n - 1,
(1 + x2) n (n - 1 + a) + (bx2 + c) + Fx2¢ 
In the above equations, the parameters A, B, C, D, F, G, H± An = ,
are defined as: x2 (n + 1)(n + a)
- (n - 1 + a)(n - 1 + b )
A = 2R , B = r 2 - R 2 , C = 2r 2 - rR + 4R , Bn = .
x2 (n + 1)(n + a)
1 3
D = 2 - r , F = - r 2 - K 2r 2, K 2 = E 2 - D2 , To obtain energy spectrum, we can use the following relation
4 4
 er ¶Au ⎛ e ⎞2 3 Fx ¢
H  = -R - , G = r 2 ⎜m - Av ⎟ + R 2. a1 = - 2
a 0 = A 0 a 0.
c ¶u ⎝ c ⎠ 4 x2 n
After an easy calculation, one can write the equation (24) in In equation (28), one can put A0=1. Now, we are able to
the form of the following differential equation [14]: find the energy spectrum of fermions in 2D graphene super-
⎛a lattice associated with the torus curvature as following:
d2f  b c ⎞
+⎜ + + ⎟
dx 2 ⎝x x - x1 x - x2 ⎠ 1 3
En, m2 = D2 + 2
-
 
df F (x - x1¢ )(x - x2¢ )  4r 4
´ + f = 0, (25) er ¶Av
dx x 2 (x - x1)(x - x2)
+
(
2n R + ) (2 R + (8 R - 4 r ) )
c ¶u
2 2 1
2

4r (r (m - ) + ) eAv 2 3R 2
where 2 2
c 4
A
A Dx2 + C - A n2 (2R + (8R 2 - 4r 2) 2 )
1

a =- , b=D-
x2
+ , + . (29)
x1x2
Dx2 + C -
x2 - x1
A
x1x2
( (
4r 2 r 2 m -
eAv 2
c) +
3R 2
4 )
x2
c= , The parameters n and m denote integer numbers. The other
x2 - x1
energy spectrum can be obtained from the equation (26) and
-H  H 2 4G
A A2 - 4B  - has the following form:
x1,2 = ¢ =
, x1,2
2 F2 F
.
2 2 1 3
Em2 = D2 + -
By applying the conditions 4r 2 4
eAv 2
-H 
-
H 2
-
4G
+
(
4r 2 m - c ) + 3R 2

x1¢  = r2
2 F2 F
= 0,
2 1

x1 =
A- A2 - 4B
= 1, (26) +
( (
4r 2 m -
eAv 2
c ) + 3R 2 + 4 ).
2

(30)
2 2r 2

4
Phys. Scr. 95 (2020) 045226 M Shahin et al

We choose one of the energy spectra, because the energy are given by:
spectrum (29) is close to the Landau level energy spectrum. In
equation (29), En+, m and En-, m are energy spectra for spin-up lf 0
¶A
Av = ,
and spin-down fermions, respectively. The term c ( er ¶uv ) 2p (R + r cos u)
shows the interaction between magnetic field and spin of
fermion, where±denotes interaction between spin-up and and the differential of the Av with respect to u reads:
down fermions with magnetic field. Also, the term
eA 2 e 2A 2 ¶Av lf0 r sin u
( ) 2 2
e
r 2 m - c v = r 2m2 + cc v - 2r 2m c Av shows other inter-
¶u
=
2p (R + r cos u)2
.
actions, for example r m represents orbit–orbit interaction,
me
and -2r 2 c Av shows interaction between orbit and magnetic
field. We must apply the constraint (26) into equation (29). If we consider Av and its derivative at the point u = p2 , one
This constraint tells us that the relation between R and r is can then obtain
R2+2R−1=r2. Hence, we obtain equation (29), when we lr 2B0 ¶Av lr 3B0
put x1=1 and x2=a. This is one of the cases that we apply Av = , = .
2R ¶u 2R 2
on equation (25) to obtain Heun’s differential equation for
Dirac spinor. There is another case when we put x1=1 and Further, we consider the special case when m=l, conse-
x2=a where a, is the regular singular point of the Heun’s quently, the energy spectrum becomes:
differential equation. In this case the energy spectrum E En, m2 = D2eff
becomes:

En, m2 = D2 +
1
-
3 +
(
(2R + (8R 2 - 4r 2) 2 ) n2 + 2n R +
1
( emr 3B
2Rc )) ,
2 ⎛ 1
⎞
4r
(
2n R +
4
er ¶Av
) (2 R - (8 R - 4 r ) ) 2 2 1
2
⎝ (
4 r 2 ⎜r 2 m -
emr 2B
2Rc ) 2 3
+ 4 R2⎟
⎠
(32)
c ¶u
+
where D2eff = D2 + 41r 2 - 34 . The magnetization is a deriva-
4r (r (m - ) + )
2 2 eAv 2 3R 2
c 4 tive of the energy over the magnetic field. At zero temper-
¶E 
n2 (2R - (8R 2 - 4r 2) 2 ) ature, this quantity becomes Mn, m = - ¶Bn, m , where Mn, m is
1

+ . (31)
the magnetic moment of the (n, m) state for spin up and down
( (
4r 2 r 2 m -
eAv 2
c ) +
3R 2
4 ) particles. After an easy calculation the magnetization
becomes:

⎡ ⎤


n, m =
1
⎢ (2R + (8R 2 - 4r 2) 12 ) er 3nm
⎢ cR
+
( )
(2R + (8R 2 - 4r 2) 2 ) n2 + 2n R +
1
( ( emr 3B
2Rc ) )( )(m -
emR 4
cr
mer 2B
2cR ) ⎥
⎥
2En, m ⎢ 2 ⎛ 2 1
⎞ ⎛ 1
⎞2 ⎥. (33)
⎢ 4r ⎜r m - 2Rc
⎣ ⎝ (
emr 2B 2 3
+ 4 R2⎟)⎠
emr 2B
4r 2 ⎜r 2 m - 2Rc
⎝ ( ) 2 3
+ 4 R2⎟
⎠
⎥
⎥⎦

Also, we remember that +En, m are the energy spectra for It is evident that the magnetic field is uniform with respect to
particles and -En, m are the energy spectra for anti-particles or the time.
holes. Finally, to have magnetic susceptibility quantity, one can
obtain it from the derivative of magnetization respect to the
magnetic field. At zero temperature, this quantity is achieved
3.2. Magnetization and magnetic susceptibility by c  
n, m = ¶n, m ¶B , where n, m is given by equation (33)
for spin-up and spin-down fermions, respectively. After an
To calculate magnetization for energy spectrum (31), we easy calculation, we find the following relation for magnetic
consider the magnetic flux through the solenoid of torus with susceptibility:
radius r. Let us consider a closed curve C on torus and let l be
its winding number, therefore, it is evident that:
- n, m emg1
⎛ nr 4g + g g R 5 ⎞
c = ⎜ 2 3 4
⎟
∮ A · dl = lf0, n, m 
En, m2 8cr 2g2 ⎝ rRg2 ⎠
g1 e 2m 2 ⎛ nr 5 g R3 g4 g3 R 3r ⎞
where l is integer number and f0 is equal to πr2B0 (B0 denotes +  2 2⎜ 3
⎜ng R 3 + - 4 + ⎟⎟,
8En, mc g 2 ⎝ 4 g3 R 2
2r 2g2 ⎠
a constant magnetic field). The vector potential components (34)

5
Phys. Scr. 95 (2020) 045226 M Shahin et al

Figure 2. The Landau energy levels as a function of magnetic field Figure 3. The plot shows magnetic moment of energy states as a
for several values of the quantum number n and m. function of magnetic field for different values of the quantum
number n and m.
where we define
of the electronic energy spectrum of slightly deformed fullerene.
g1 = 2R + (8R 2 - 4r 2) 2 ,
1
Therefore, as a key result, the curvature of surface, where the
3 Dirac fermions movement obeys from its can effectively influ-
g2 = r 2 g3 + R 2 ,
4 ence dynamical properties of 2D Dirac materials. Another
⎛ eBr 2 ⎞ important physical quantity associated with energy spectrum is
g 3 = m ⎜1 - ⎟, the magnetization of states, given by equation (33). In figure 3,
⎝ 2Rc ⎠
we present this quantity versus the strength of magnetic field for
and various Landau levels. It is shown, that positive magnetization is
⎛ achieved in low magnetic field strength, B„10, and negative
emr 3B ⎞
g4 = n2 + 2n ⎜R + ⎟. ones appear for a high magnetic field for all Landau levels. The
⎝ 2Rc ⎠ amount of magnetization strongly depends on the m quantum
number, and it significantly increases for states with largest m.
The excited states associated with increasing n number and fixed
lowest m=1 show no sizeable change in magnetization.
4. Conclusion Therefore, the magnetic moment of states has no further
dependency on the principal quantum number of Landau levels.
We have proposed an exact solvable model to analyze the
influence of a geometric deformation in a graphene layer with a
gauge field defect such as gravitational aspect. By the use of Acknowledgments
particular space-time metric associated with torus geometry, we
have introduced the proper covariant derivative to merge the 2D The authors are grateful to M T Ahmadi for discussions and
fermions with Dirac equation related to the curved space. Via the design of torus-shape of graphene.
Heun’s differential equation, it was provided the possibility to
exactly achieve the energy spectrum of torus-shape graphene as
its Landau levels, as shown in figure 2. The Landau levels have ORCID iDs
been presented in terms of magnetic gauge field for various
integer quantum numbers n and m. We see increasing discrete H Goudarzi https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9565-3925
energy levels with the increase of quantum numbers. There is no
degenerate levels for m number in magnetic field strength greater
than B≅5, whereas for B≅3, degeneracy of energy states
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