INTERMODULATION

VERSION 1

Sigma Wireless Communications Ltd

McKee Avenue
Finglas, Dublin 11 Ireland
Phone: + 353 1 8142100
Fax: + 353 1 8142101
Email: info@sigma.ie
www.sigmawireless.com
 Contents
1 INTERMODULATION........................................................................................................................................... 4
1.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 LAYOUT OF THIS DOCUMENT .............................................................................................................................. 4
1.3 WHERE DOES IM GENERALLY OCCUR ................................................................................................................ 4
1.4 DEFINITION OF EXPRESSIONS ............................................................................................................................. 4
1.4.1 Description of Expressions............................................................................................................................ 5
1.4.2 Significance of Harmonics ............................................................................................................................ 5
1.5 MATHEMATICAL FORM OF INTERMODULATION PRODUCTS ................................................................................ 5
1.6 MINIMUM ORDER WHICH OCCURS IN A GIVEN SYSTEM CONFIGURATION .......................................................... 6
1.7 LIKELIHOOD OF A PARTICULAR IM OCCURRING. ............................................................................................... 7
1.8 BANDWIDTH OF RESULTING INTERMODULATION ............................................................................................... 7
1.9 RELATIVE LEVELS OF INTERMODULATION ORDERS ........................................................................................... 8
1.10 LEVELS OF IM PRODUCTS IN RELATION TO TRANSMIT POWER .......................................................................... 9
2 ANTENNA INTERMODULATION .................................................................................................................... 10
2.1 GENERAL.......................................................................................................................................................... 10
2.2 ANTENNA INTERMODULATION LEVELS ............................................................................................................ 10
2.3 FREQUENCY PLANNING AND ANTENNA INTERMODULATION PREVENTION....................................................... 11
3 TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER IM .............................................................................................................. 13
3.1 TRANSMITTER INTERMODULATION .................................................................................................................. 13
3.2 RECEIVER INTERMODULATION ......................................................................................................................... 13
4 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF THESE PRINCIPLES ............................................................................. 15
4.1 INTERMODULATION MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY ........................................................................................ 15
4.2 USING A SPECTRUM ANALYSER TO OBSERVE INTERMODULATION PRODUCTS ................................................. 16
4.3 ANTENNA CONNECTORS AND INTERMODULATION ........................................................................................... 16
4.4 USING MOBILE UNITS NEAR TO BASE TRANSMITTERS ..................................................................................... 17
4.5 ANTENNA INTERMODULATION IN ANTENNA .................................................................................................... 18
4.5.1 Problem Description ................................................................................................................................... 19
4.5.2 Problem Investigation ................................................................................................................................. 20
4.5.3 Explanation of Results................................................................................................................................. 25
4.5.4 Adding a Channel to Site 2.......................................................................................................................... 27
4.5.5 Final Outcome............................................................................................................................................. 28
5 APPENDIX A – MATHEMATICAL BASIS FOR INTERMODULATION.................................................... 29
5.1 LINEAR DEVICES. ............................................................................................................................................. 29
5.2 NON-LINEAR DEVICES ..................................................................................................................................... 29
5.2.1 Slightly Non-Linear Systems ....................................................................................................................... 29
5.2.2 Two Inputs to System................................................................................................................................... 29

©Sigma Wireless Communications 2 of 37 08/02

 5.2.3 Bandwidth of Resulting Intermodulation..................................................................................................... 31
6 APPENDIX B - INTERMODULATION IN PORTABLE ................................................................................. 34

7 APPENDIX C – ANTENNA ISOLATION .......................................................................................................... 35

7.1 ISOLATION BETWEEN VERTICALLY SPACED ANTENNAS .................................................................................. 35
7.2 ISOLATION BETWEEN HORIZONTALLY SPACED ANTENNAS ............................................................................. 36

List of Figures
Figure 1 - Graphical Illustration of Intermodulation Products........................................................................... 6

Figure 2 - Multi - Frequency System Configuration........................................................................................ 10

Figure 3 - Illustration of Lowest Order Intermod for a given Transmit Band. ................................................ 12

Figure 4 – Transmitter Intermodulation........................................................................................................... 14

Figure 5 – Receiver Intermodulation ............................................................................................................... 14

Figure 6 - Portable Intermodulation................................................................................................................. 18

Figure 7 – Site Receiver Test Set-up ............................................................................................................... 22

Figure 8 – Graphical Representation of Intermodulation Products at Site 1 ................................................... 23

Figure 9 – Graphical Representation of Intermodulation Products at Site 2 ................................................... 24

Figure 10– Graphical Representation of IM Products at Site 1, Including Frequency Spread ........................ 25

Figure 11 – IM Products at Site 2 after Extra Channel Added ........................................................................ 28

Figure 12 – Schematic Representation of Frequencies & Bandwidth in IM ................................................... 33

Figure 13 - Frequency Relationship for Portable Intermodulation Illustration................................................ 34

List of Tables
Table 1 Relative Levels of Intermodulation Products....................................................................................... 9

Table 2 - Maximum RF bandwidth allowed on a site so that given Order of IM will not occur..................... 12

Table 3 – Frequencies at Site 1 ........................................................................................................................ 20

Table 4 - Site 2 Frequencies............................................................................................................................. 23

Table 5 – Amplitude and Harmonics of Intermodulation Products at Site 2 ................................................... 24

Table 6 – Frequencies at Site 2 after Extra Channel Added ............................................................................ 27

Table 7 – Resultant Intermodulation Products of Two Sinusoidal Inputs ....................................................... 30

Table 8 – Calculation of Upper and Lower limits of Intermodulation Product ............................................... 32

©Sigma Wireless Communications 3 of 37 08/02

1 Intermodulation

1.1 Introduction

Many people ask the question "Where do the extra frequencies which are generated in intermodulation come
from?" This paper attempts to address this question, and many others in relation to passive intermodulation
distortion. Intermodulation products (undesired frequencies) are generated whenever two or more
frequencies mix in a non-linear element. Because transistors, transmission lines and most components have
non-linear characteristics, intermodulation (IM) occurs to some degree in all transmission systems.

1.2 Layout of this document

This document is broken into 4 sections. This section (Section 1) deals with the general principles
underlying all types of intermodulation. Section 2 deals with things specific to antenna intermodulation.
Section 3 deals with how transmitter and receiver intermodulation occur. Section 4 presents some examples
of how systems have been affected by this phenomenon and how the investigations into these effects were
conducted along with the solutions arrived at. Appendices are provided at the end to illustrate the
mathematical basis for some of these phenomena.

1.3 Where does IM generally Occur

It should be noted that IM occurs in three distinctly different places within a radio system: -

a) In the Antenna.

b) Transmitter IM.

c) Receiver IM

Antenna IM is generated in the antenna (when two or more transmitters are combined into it). Transmitter
and Receiver IM are usually due to interaction between systems attached to different antennas, and is
dealt with in section 3. Almost all of the general comments made in the body of the text do not necessarily
apply to antenna intermodulation.

1.4 Definition of Expressions

It is necessary to define some terms before this discussion can proceed with the discussion: -

1. A, B, C etc. refers to the Constituent Frequencies from which the IM products are derived (Usually
the Transmitter Frequencies).

©Sigma Wireless Communications 4 of 37 08/02

2. Harmonic - whole multiple of the Fundamental (Constituent) Frequency.

3. Order - Classification of IM by the Sum of Harmonics of Constituent Frequencies (2nd, 3rd, 4th etc).

1.4.1 Description of Expressions

The second harmonic of the constituent A, is designated 2A and the third harmonic of the constituent B, is
designated 3B and so forth. The frequencies obtained by adding or subtracting fundamental frequencies A
and B (that is A + B, or A - B) are second order products. Likewise 2A - B and A + B - C are third order
products and 3A - 2B is a 5th order product. There is no theoretical limit to the number of products, but
fortunately only a few are normally of consequence in mobile radio system operation.

1.4.2 Significance of Harmonics

Even-order harmonics (2nd, 4th, 6th, etc.) are of no significance since these harmonics are so far apart in
frequency that the inherent selectivity of transmitters, receivers, and antennas precludes any interfering
effects of these types. Except in unusual circumstances1, intermodulation interference concerns only odd-
order IM products and here again only 3rd order IM product is of most concern, unless specific frequency
planning is performed to avoid the lower orders. Higher order odd products (5th, 7th, 9th etc.), cannot be
ignored since they fall on closely adjacent frequencies and are, therefore, potential sources of interference.
Fortunately, higher order products are generated at significantly lower amplitude than the third order
products (See section 1.9 on page 8) and their practical importance can sometimes be minimised. However,
they should never be ignored. Lower orders should be examined first and then higher orders considered in
turn.

1.5 Mathematical Form of Intermodulation Products

The form that an IM product normally takes is: -

A + n(A - B) and B - n(A - B)

This gives rise to the following IM products for two frequencies: -

2A – B 2B – A
3A - 2B 3B - 2A
4A - 3B 4B - 3A
In other words if A and B are separated by "s" kilohertz, products will fall periodically at intervals of "s" kHz
above the frequency of A and "s" kHz below the frequency of B. For example, if we substitute B = A + s

1
Unusual circumstances would include items such as Dual Band antennas operating at both 900MHz and 1800MHz. In
this case 1805-925=880MHz, which is on a receive frequency for GSM at the opposite end of the 900MHz band.

©Sigma Wireless Communications 5 of 37 08/02

into the formulas given above, we can see that the intermodulation products which are generated. An
example would be 3 A − 2 B = 3 A − 2( A + s ) = A − 2 s , meaning that the 5th order intermodulation 3A-2B
would fall on a frequency which is 2s below the frequency A. Therefore we can now see how the allocation
of channels with uniform spacing has significant bearing on the prevalence of IM interference in mobile
operation. (See also Appendix A – Mathematical Basis for Intermodulation on page 29). This is illustrated
graphically in Figure 1 below.

Transmitters
+44dBm Typically

Third Order
Intermod.
Figure
3rd Order
-100dBm Typically

5th Order

7th Order
Frequency A
4A - 3B

3A- 2 B

2A - B

2B - A

3B - 2A

4B - 3A
Frequency B

Figure 1 - Graphical Illustration of Intermodulation Products

Third order products can also occur from the mixing of three signals and take the form A + B - C, A + C - B,
C + B - A, 2A - B, 2B - A, 2A - C, 2C - A, 2B - C, and 2C - B. The types of intermodulation that include the
three fundamental frequencies are often introduced on a site where different frequency bands are used. They
can sometimes be difficult to detect, as it is easy to forget this type of intermodulation. (See also 1.7 on page
7). However, no type of intermodulation should ever be ignored, as all types are valid and can always
contribute to a specific problem. The best thing to do is to rank them in likelihood each time new
information becomes available.

1.6 Minimum Order which Occurs in a Given System Configuration

To assist in frequency planning, a simple relationship between factors involved in making an intermodulation
exists. This relationship is between: -

©Sigma Wireless Communications 6 of 37 08/02

 • Transmit to Receive spacing (DS or Duplex Spacing)

• The bandwidth (BW) or the difference between the highest and lowest transmit or receive frequency

• Order (Ord) of system intermodulation.

This relationship is: -

Equation 1 BW <
(2 * DS )
(Ord + 1)
This relationship is generally only of interest in situations where multiple transmitters are combined into one
antenna, and can be used to determine whether an intermodulation product is can occur in a particular system
configuration. By choosing the correct maximum bandwidth allowed on any site, a system designer is able to
guarantee that the minimum order chosen will never occur on any site in the system. It is usual that the
planners should try to keep the frequencies as close together as is practical (taking into account the minimum
spacing requirements of the combiner) to reduce the likelihood of intermodulation occurring at a site. (See
also section 2.3 on page 11).

1.7 Likelihood of a Particular IM Occurring.

Depending on the specific frequency separations, some products coincide with each other, and some may fall
on one of the transmitter frequencies itself. In the special case of a frequency separation between A and B
being the same as that between B and C, only 4 significant IM products result. Higher order products of 3
signals, such as fifth-order products 2A + B - 2C or 3A - B - C are also possible.

Third order products alone may constitute a situation which appears quite complex where a large number of
transmitters are concerned. A six channel installation, for example, will consist of 30 IM products of the 2A
- B and 60 of the A + B - C 3rd order variety. Fortunately many IM products coincide, making the number of
significant IM products far less.

1.8 Bandwidth of Resulting Intermodulation

When attempting to locate intermodulation products, it is often essential to know the bandwidth of the
resultant intermodulation factor. This is useful to know if a product falls on a channel adjacent to one of the
receivers, because some of the energy from the intermodulation product could “spill over” into the receiver
and cause problems, even though ‘normal’ calculations do not show up any problem. First select the largest
harmonic number used in creating the Intermodulation product under consideration. Then multiply the
bandwidth of the constituent frequency by this factor, giving the bandwidth of the intermodulation product
(See also 5.2.3 on page 31). This effect is referred to as “spreading” in this document.

©Sigma Wireless Communications 7 of 37 08/02

If we look at FM transmitters deviating on average by ±3.3kHz, maximum ±5kHz peak, the resultant
bandwidth of the signal is regarded as 25kHz. If we look at the 3rd order products (of type 2A – B) the
resultant intermodulation product a total bandwidth of 50kHz (2 x 25kHz). A fifth order of type 3A – 2B will
have total bandwidth of 75kHz (3 x 25kHz). However, a seventh order three-transmitter intermodulation
product of type 3A + 1B – 3C will also have a total bandwidth of 75kHz (3 x 25kHz).

If an intermodulation product on an FM system is listened to off-air, then the predominant modulation that
will be heard from the interfered-with receiver will be that of the highest harmonic involved in generating the
product. If we consider a third order product of form 2A – B, the capture effect will cause the receiver to
demodulate the modulation of 'A' in preference to that of 'B' whose intermodulation deviation is lower. If the
harmonic involved in the intermodulation is 2B - A then the predominant interfering modulation will be that
of ‘B’ transmitter.

For digital radio systems such as TETRA, GSM, UMTS or CDMA, the modulation is such that the
transmitter occupies the full bandwidth at all times, rather than when modulation is applied in the case of FM
systems. Thus the spectrum of the transmitter will appear on a spectrum analyser as full bandwidth noise-
like signal. The resulting intermodulation will thus occupy a bandwidth which is the signal bandwidth
multiplied by the largest multiplier involved in the resultant intermodulation product.

Another point of interest is when commercial radio station transmissions are involved in producing
intermodulation. Their maximum deviation is 75kHz, and this will not be heard in a normal 12.5kHz or
25kHz FM receiver, even if only a unity multiple of the nominal frequency is involved in the resulting
intermodulation. In fact there is a correlation between the modulation of the commercial radio and the 'noise'
heard in the loudspeaker of the interfered-with receiver. (It is frequently heard as a series of bursts of noise
which correspond to the beat of a drum, or the cadence of speech).

Thus, if a situation is being considered where there is a mixture of modulation schemes involved, each
constituent frequency must be considered separately to calculate the resultant bandwidth. The bandwidth of
an intermodulation product is the largest of the bandwidths obtained from multiplying each of the
constituent frequency bandwidths by the harmonic number used to form the intermodulation product.

1.9 Relative Levels of Intermodulation Orders

From work done on different types of equipment Sigma Wireless has found that the relative levels of each
subsequent order is -5dB. In other words if the level of the 3rd order intermodulation is taken to be 0dB (the
reference), then the 5th order will be at least 5dB below that of the 3rd order. It is more likely to be between 5
and 10dB below it, but the relationship will vary from product to product, with the worst being only 5dB
down. These relationships have been empirically derived and are illustrated in Table 1 below. The 'Worst'

©Sigma Wireless Communications 8 of 37 08/02

column shows the minimum difference observed over many measurements and the 'Most Likely' column
illustrates the relative levels observed most frequently.

Relative Level Relative Level

Order Order
Worst Most Likely Worst Most Likely
3rd 0dB 0dB 11th -20dB -32dB
5th -5dB -8dB 13th -25dB -40dB
7th -10dB -16dB 15th -30dB -48dB
9th -15dB -24dB 17th -35dB -56dB
Table 1 Relative Levels of Intermodulation Products

1.10 Levels of IM Products in Relation to Transmit Power

There is also a relationship between changes in transmit power and the levels of the resulting
intermodulation. If both transmitter powers are reduced by one dB, then the resulting intermodulation will
reduce by 3dB. (In some instances a reduction of the intermodulation product will be only 2dB, but this is
rare). This is why intermodulation levels MUST be specified at a specified transmit power level. If the power
of one transmitter is reduced by 1dB, then the power of the resulting intermodulation product will be reduced
by 1 or 2dB, depending on the product under consideration. (See section 5.2.2 item vi) on page 30).

©Sigma Wireless Communications 9 of 37 08/02

2 Antenna Intermodulation

2.1 General

When multiple transmitters are combined together into one antenna as shown in Figure 2 below, the
intermodulation of the transmit signals can potentially produce unwanted signals on a receive frequency.
(This can be the receiver corresponding to one of the transmitters involved in the intermodulation product, or
it may be another transmitter attached to the same antenna). These unwanted IM signals would be fed back
into the receivers as an on-channel signal and would cause many problems and be perceived by the system as
on-channel interference.

Antenna

Duplex Filter

Tx Combiner Rx Multicoupler

Tx1 Tx2 TxN Rx1 Rx2 RxN

N by RF Channels

Figure 2 - Multi - Frequency System Configuration

2.2 Antenna Intermodulation Levels

This section gives an example of how to calculate the required specification of intermodulation for an
antenna. However, it is important to realise that it is relatively easy to measure –130dBc, it is almost
impossible to measure –150dBc in a consistent manner. (It is important to remember that at this specification
the power of the intermodulation product is 0.0000000000000001 or 10-15of the power of the transmitter).
The difference between –130dBc and –150dBc is two orders of magnitude or a factor of 100. At these levels,
the measurement system (which includes the cables connecting the antenna to the test equipment) becomes
very difficult to maintain.

©Sigma Wireless Communications 10 of 37 08/02

If the receivers have a sensitivity of -106dBm and the transmitters have a power of 25 Watts (+44dBm) into
the antenna (after the combiner and the duplexer), then any 3rd order intermodulation produced in the antenna
would need to be 150dB below the carrier (-106-44 = -150dBc). This parameter is more usually set at -
140dBc, measured at a transmit level of 7 Watts (+38.5dBm). It is also very difficult to measure, as the
measurement technique can introduce as many intermodulations as the antenna under test. (See 2.3 below for
information about avoiding 3rd, 5th (etc.) order products being generated in a system at design time.

The Intermodulation Order to be tested and the Transmit Power at which the test is performed are required to
specify the antenna Intermodulation parameter. The Transmit power is required because there is not a linear
relationship between absolute Transmit Power and the level of the resulting Intermodulation Product (See
1.10 on page 9).

2.3 Frequency Planning and Antenna Intermodulation Prevention

Frequency planning is a very complex process. The system designer must balance conflicting requirements,
taking into account the limited available frequencies, channel loading and attempting to maximise frequency
re-use. Additionally potential intermodulation in the antenna must be taken into account.

To make the process of selecting channels for use on a particular site easier (in relation to antenna
intermodulation) the system designer can make use of Equation 1 on page 7. A maximum spacing between
any two channels allowed on any one site is decided upon. This figure is used throughout the planning
process to ensure that antenna intermodulation is avoided on any order up to and including the chosen order.
This is illustrated graphically in Figure 3 below. It shows how the intermodulation orders are distributed
along the frequency line using the transmit separation 's' (See section 1.5 on page 5). It is clearly visible that
not 7th order intermodulation will occur no matter which site-specific frequencies are used, provided that they
are within the specified Tx bandwidth.

©Sigma Wireless Communications 11 of 37 08/02

 Transmitters
Lowest in Highest in
Band Band

Duplex Spacing
Rx
Bandwidth

Rx Band Tx Band
9th Order

7th Order

5th Order

3rd Order
Tx
Bandwidth

Figure 3 - Illustration of Lowest Order Intermod for a given Transmit Band.

Using Equation 1 for TETRA frequencies, we can see that a site which is expected to accommodate an RF
bandwidth of 5MHz, the lowest IM order which would cause interference on it's own receiver is 3rd. Table 2
below lists the maximum RF bandwidth (the largest spacing between highest and lowest Tx frequencies)
allowed on a site so that the listed order of IM will not occur for both TETRA and GSM.

Maximum RF bandwidth of ALL

Lowest IM Order Transmitters before IM order occurs in
Possible on Site Receivers
TETRA 400MHz GSM
rd
3 5.0 MHz 22.5 MHz
5th 3.3 MHz 15.0 MHz
7th 2.5 MHz 11.3 MHz
9th 2.0 MHz 9.0 MHz
11th 1.7 MHz 7.5 MHz
13th 1.4 MHz 6.4 MHz
15th 1.3 MHz 5.6 MHz
Table 2 - Maximum RF bandwidth allowed on a site so that given Order of IM will not occur.

©Sigma Wireless Communications 12 of 37 08/02

3 Transmitter and Receiver IM

Transmitter and Receiver IM are two completely separate occurrences and must always be cured at source.
If there is IM in two transmitters no amount of filtering at the receiver can effect a cure. The reverse is also
true.

This effect is illustrated in Figure 4 and Figure 5.

3.1 Transmitter Intermodulation

Transmitter intermodulation is shown in Figure 4. Any receivers on either 86.0 MHz or on 86.3MHz will
receive a signal on frequency, and demodulate them as signal. If mixing occurs in transmitter A, the received
frequency will be 2B-A. To calculate the level of interference generated in this manner, the coupling
between antennas should first be assessed (by measurement is best). When this is known it is possible to
calculate what the equivalent transmit-power of the interference source is. If the Transmit power of
Transmitter A in Figure 4 is Tx dBW (expressed as dB above 1 Watt), and the inter-antenna isolation is Iso
dB, then the Interfering source power (expressed as dBW) will be: -

Equation 2 Interference Source (dBW) = (Tx - Iso – 5) dBW

This source of interference is an equivalent transmitter with this power at the end of the cable leading to the
antenna number 1. The equivalent conversion loss in a transmitter is about typically about 5dB (See
Appendix C – Antenna Isolation on page 35 for an expression to assist in estimating isolation if
measurements are not available).

It will also mean that any receiver on this frequency will receive the modulation of transmitter A at its normal
deviation, or of transmitter B at twice its normal deviation. The capture effect means that the receiver will
demodulate the signal with the higher deviation, so it will demodulate the B transmitter’s modulation.

One cure for this type of intermodulation is to add an isolator (circulator) in series with each transmitter
output. However, since an isolator is by definition non-linear, it will in itself produce intermodulation
products. Normally, manufacturers of isolators recommend the use of notch filters tuned to the third
harmonic of the transmitter to which it attached. Experience has shown that this is generally inadequate, and
that band-pass filters give better results.

3.2 Receiver Intermodulation

In Figure 5 receiver intermodulation is illustrated. In this instance when the signals impinging on the
receiver are within 20dB or so of each other and both signals are above the intermodulation specification of

©Sigma Wireless Communications 13 of 37 08/02

 the receiver, mixing will occur in the front end and / or the mixer. (Frequently the intermodulation
specifications for Receivers are not published or available). This intermodulation product will appear to the
rest of the receiver as an on-frequency signal and be received as such. The best solution to such problems is
to install a band-pass filter in front of the receiver. If the system uses a duplexer, it is best to use a bandpass
duplexer to prevent issues such as this from arising.

In essence the difference is that the signal is on the receiver frequency in Figure 4 and only appears to be in
Figure 5.

86.0MHz and 86.3Mhz

86.1MHz to Mobile Stations
86.1 MHz to Mobile Stations

Transmitter
No. 1 - 86.1 Transmitter
MHz No. 1 - 86.1
A Small path loss MHz
A Large Path Loss
Receiver tuned to
either 86.3 or Receiver tuned
86.0 MHz to either 86.3 or
Transmitter 86.0MHz and 86.3Mhz 86.0 MHz
No. 2 - 86.2 Transmitter 86.2Mhz to Mobile Stations
MHz 86.2MHz to Mobile Stations No. 2 - 86.2
B
MHz
Simplified output stage of transmitter number 1, shown below with B
explanation of the intermodulating mechanism.
+V Supply

86.0 and 86.3 MHz 86.1Mhz

86.1 MHz Transmit Harmonic Filter 86.2Mhz RF Selectivity RF Amplifier

IF Amplifier
(Passive) (Including some
86.2 MHz from Transmitter 2 Selectivity)

Local Oscillator
86.3 – 10.7 = 75.6 MHz
Two frequencies mix at the collector of the transistor. The 86.2MHz coming into the
output from the antenna will intermodulate with the 86.1MHz frequency of the drive to RF amplifier and mixer are both non linear at high amplitudes, causing mixing of 86.1 and 86.2MHz,
the transistor, and be fed back out to the antenna at 2*86.2 – 86.1 = 86.3 MHz. giving 86.3 MHz, which in turn mixes with local oscillator, giving 10.7MHz.

Figure 4 – Transmitter Intermodulation Figure 5 – Receiver Intermodulation

©Sigma Wireless Communications 14 of 37 08/02

4 Practical Applications of these Principles

4.1 Intermodulation Measurement Uncertainty

Always, when specifying a measurement, a tolerance is must also be specified. This is because all
measurement instruments have a tolerance on their accuracy, measurement techniques are not totally
repeatable (are the results the same at 10:00AM as at 3:00PM, while still using the same test equipment?) or
necessarily reproducible (are the results the same in Paris as in Rome on different instruments being
performed by different personnel?). Thus it is necessary to specify a measurement tolerance, usually with a
plus or minus variation.

For intermodulation, however, the results of measuring the intermodulation distortion performance of a
device will always show a small amount of intermodulation due to the measurement set-up.

A theoretical measuring instrument, which is 100% linear, will contribute nothing to the intermodulation
measured on a device under test. If a device, which has an absolute performance of –130dBc, is measured on
an instrument with a performance of –140dBc, the result will be –129.586dBc. (This is the sum of the dB
levels of the separate intermodulation products expressed as absolute numbers and then converted back to
dB). If the instrument’s performance was –160dBc then the result would be –129.996dBc. In fact the
measurement instrument performance would have to be approximately –170dBc before the measurement
would return a level of –130.000dBc. At an instrument performance of –130dBc, the result would be
approximately –127dB. This does not allow for the fact that the mating and unmating connectors will
introduce intermodulation into the resulting measurement of the system. In other words, the measurement
system will introduce intermodulation into any results measured, causing the measured result to be
always worse than the device under test.

In fact, none of the above results are realistic, as all instruments measuring a level of –100 to –110dBm will
introduce a certain amount of noise into the results. A tolerance of +3dB, -1dB on the measurement is
typical of a result on the screen of the measurement instrument. However, the intermodulation level itself
will have a further tolerance as shown above. Usually long averaging times are required to assist in making
the measurement accurately.

Thus, the results of making a measurement will include the measurement system’s performance, including
both the intermodulation performance of the test equipment and the accuracy of the instrument used to
measure the resultant intermodulation product. The more often the measurement system is used, the more
likely it is to introduce additional intermodulation into the results of the device under test. (See Section 4.3
on page 16)

©Sigma Wireless Communications 15 of 37 08/02

4.2 Using a Spectrum Analyser to Observe Intermodulation Products

Usually a spectrum analyser has a dynamic range of 60 to 80dB. What this means is that the instrument will
faithfully illustrate on-screen the spectrum so long as there no signals on or off-screen which are more than
60 to 80dB above the bottom of the screen range (depending on the equipment specification).

Great care is required to examine intermodulation levels which are 130dB below the carrier. Even if the
spectrum analyser is set to examine a small bandwidth around the Receive frequencies, it must be
remembered that the Transmit frequencies (even though they are not visible on-screen) are at a level which is
130dB above the signal being examined. Thus some form of filtering must be employed to reduce the
transmitter levels to less than the level under test plus the 60 to 80dB instrument specification and that
filtering must be known to have a good intermodulation performance.

Before studying the Receive frequencies, a check should always be made on the Transmit frequencies to
ensure that the spectrum analyser’s front end will not be overloaded, by the transmit frequency amplitude
being over the top of the screen. If this happens, intermodulation will occur in the instrument itself and
create totally erroneous results. Any changes in the attenuation settings or the IF gain settings will require a
re-assessment of this situation.

4.3 Antenna Connectors and Intermodulation

As stated in section 2.2 on page 10 that, while it is relatively easy to measure –130dBc, it is almost
impossible to measure –150dBc in a consistent manner. (It is important to remember that, at this
specification, the power of the intermodulation product is 1,000 trillionths2, 0.0000000000000001 or 10-15 of
the power of the transmitters).

One of the reasons why it is very difficult to measure such levels is that the cable and connector from the test
equipment to the antenna are crucial to the measurement. The manner in which the connector is attached to
the cable matters as well as the number of times the connector has been mated. For levels of intermodulation
below –130dBc (at 25 watts) the N type connector is inadequate. Even at this level of specification, it is
difficult to obtain a connector which provides sufficiently good mating to keep the intermodulation products
at low enough a level. The N type connector was designed at a time when intermodulation was not a
consideration, so a specially designed connector which far exceeds the basic specification is required.

2
The mean Earth-Sun distance is very important in astronomy. It is called an Astronomical Unit or AU.
One AU = 150 x 106 km or 150 million kilometres.

©Sigma Wireless Communications 16 of 37 08/02

The 7 / 16 connector was designed with intermodulation products in mind. However, not all connectors are
the same – some are better than others. Manufacturers of connectors are wary of specifying the
intermodulation performance of connectors as this very much depends on the skill of the person making the
cable connection (and the quality of the cable). Additionally, to perform any test requires two connectors -
the male and the female. Again, care is needed in making off both connectors to the cable.

An additional issue is the number of times connectors have been mated. Each time a connector is mated with
another, minute particles of swarf are created. This swarf collects on the white PTFE / Teflon support for the
centre pin within the connector body. These minute particles are in contact with each other and will have a
certain amount of oxide on their surface, creating a diode effect. Since these particles are in very high RF
field areas, large currents will flow through these junctions. These will then re-radiate an intermodulation
back into the centre pin, which will be conducted along the cable toward the antenna and the receiver. Since
we are considering levels of the order of 10-13 to 10-15 this effect becomes significant.

Thus, when installing antennas with high intermodulation specification, it is necessary to take great care with
the installation of the connectors. Users should make sure to follow the manufacturer’s instructions totally,
taking great care with the interface between the cable and the connector. Use only high quality cable in the
whole path from the BTS to the antenna. Make sure that this applies to any ‘tails’ and lightening arrestors.
Additionally, if these connectors are ever unscrewed, it is necessary to clean both halves thoroughly before
re-mating them. Great care is required to ensure that all swarf is removed from both halves of the connector.
This also applies to any connections in the cabling from the transmitters to the antennas, including jumper
cables and lightening arrestors.

4.4 Using Mobile Units near to Base Transmitters

In recent years, the use of multi-channel systems has increased. Such a situation would apply to systems
with a control channel and a number of voice channels and such systems would include MPT1327, GSM and
TETRA systems. This gives rise to a particular type of intermodulation in the portable / mobile unit (called a
Mobile Station or MS from here on) which can be difficult to find. It is a form of three transmitter
intermodulation and happens when the MS is in close proximity to the base antenna, and at least two RF
channels are in use at the base station at the same time. This would occur in an MPT1327 system, for
example, when the portable is operating on a single voice channel.

If we consider the situation in Figure 6 where we have two Base Stations combined into one anteenna
transmitting on air. At the same time an MS is transmitting in close proximity to the base antenna, so two
high level RF signals are impinging on the MS transmitter’s output stage. The MS will emit signals on the
frequencies of both the base stations’ receivers, one being the intended frequency and the second being the
intermodulation frequency. The intermodulation frequency will be at a much lower level, of course, but it

©Sigma Wireless Communications 17 of 37 08/02

will still be present. Thus the MS transmitter becomes the source of two signals – the wanted one on the
intended frequency and the unwanted one on the frequency of the control channel, but at a very reduced
level.

Thus, in an MPT1327 system, the control channel modulation (Channel 1 Tx) will be 'heard' through
Receiver 2 (which will then be re-transmitted out on Tx2 in the normal manner). It will swamp out the voice
because the deviation of the control channel will on average be much higher than on the voice channel (see
section 1.8 on page 7). This situation has also been reported for GSM systems and can also occur with
TETRA systems. However, in these cases, the only effect will be a reduction in range of the Tx1 channel for
the duration of the time that the user is transmitting on Tx2.

The mechanism for generating this intermodulation is described in Section 6 - Appendix B - Intermodulation
in Portable on page 34.

From practical experience it is recommended (for a 400MHz system) to configure the physical constraints
around the base antenna structures to keep portables at least 6metres from the antennas under all
circumstances, or this type of intermodulation problem may occur.

Tx1
Tx2

Rx2

Portable / Mobile
Base 1 Tx1
Combiner &

Rx1 On Base 2
Duplexer

Rx1

Base 2 Tx2 Unwanted

Intermodulation
Rx2
Product

Figure 6 - Portable Intermodulation

4.5 Antenna Intermodulation in Antenna

An example is provided to illustrate many of the principles shown in previous sections. It is totally fictitious,
and is generated to illustrate many of the points made in Section 1. It is presented in story form to make
presentation easier, but it is not a story about real events. It is not based on any specific incidents, but rather
on a single fictional incident which accumulates into one story some incidents which happened and some
which were avoided by problem analysis. Finding intermodulation prodcuts is a very slow and painstaking
business. Eliminating one source will often reveal another which was hidden, as the second source’s product
is as little as 3dB below the first. Eliminating the second will always reveal a third and eliminating that will
reveal another (which may even be the first one previously fixed. Additionally, if the investigation is being

©Sigma Wireless Communications 18 of 37 08/02

conducted on-site, the measurement system will always be suspect until it has been proved NOT to be a
source of intermodulation products.

4.5.1 Problem Description

A TETRA system for use by police, fire and ambulance is being designed and deployed. It operates in the
380 – 385 MHz (Base receive), 390-395MHz (Base Transmit) band. A frequency plan is devised so as to
avoid intermodulation, up to 5th order, at all the sites by making sure that all frequencies at each site on the
system all fit within a 3.2MHz band. (This is less than the 3.333MHz from Table 2, which is the largest
spacing possible without allowing for either the transmitter or receiver signal being anything other than a
single frequency. Obviously all signals will have a bandwidth when modulated). No antenna
intermodulation specification was issued at system design time. The system has been designed using 25-
Watt base stations. All sites are designed to operate the Transmitters and one set of Receivers through a
duplexer to one antenna and to use a second antenna for diversity for the second set of Receivers (through
suitable filtering).

There have been some complaints of a reduction in range from some sites almost since the system was
installed. However, it seems to be impossible to repeat the problem at will.

The following observations would typically be made in respect to an intermodulation problem, making it
very difficult out figure out what is going wrong with a system: -

1. “There have been some complaints of a reduction in range almost since the system was installed. All
were investigated and many led to no observable conclusion. There would seem to be some sort of a
noise phenomenon, which has only become apparent over a long period of time.”

2. “The noise is not present at all sites (approximately 50% of the sites exhibit this phenomenon) nor is
it always present at any one site. The reasons for this are not entirely clear yet, but it would appear
that the site has to have three transmitters and other cellular systems present to cause the noise to
appear.”

3. “Attempts have been made to observe the noise in the companion antenna (i.e. all three transmitters
into one antenna and receivers and spectrum analyser connected to the second antenna). The noise
can only be observed in the second antenna, if an amplifier is used to compensate for the isolation
between antennas (with suitable filtering). This would explain why the system has no noise problems
when the transmitters operate without a duplexer into one antenna and the receivers operate from
the single second antenna – the system has no diversity at that site.”

©Sigma Wireless Communications 19 of 37 08/02

4.5.2 Problem Investigation

After some time, it transpires that the ‘problem’ occurs while the system is busy in the area. This
information is derived from comments, such as those quoted above. It is decided to investigate the problem
exhaustively at two sites – chosen because these two had the most complaints of this problem registered.
Five other sites with the same problem are chosen as ‘control sites’ to verify any theories developed during
the investigation stand up to a broader set of circumstances at many sites.

Both of these sites designated for additional study also have GSM systems installed on them but it is not
possible to confirm the exact frequencies in use (GSM systems now use frequency hopping at sites and can
even hop from the 900MHz band to the 1800MHz band during a single call). This is a potential source of
noise at each site. However, two of the other five ‘control sites’ do not have GSM installed at or near them,
so this possible source of noise is pushed down the list of potential problem sources. Nothing should ever be
taken off the list until the problem has been satisfactorily resolved. All need to be prioritised.

4.5.2.1 Site 1

Discussions with users of the system shows that the problem occurs only when the system is very busy –
which, upon checking into the traffic logs, shows that the problem occurs when all three transmitters at the
site are on air. This shows that the problem could easily be related to some form of intermodulation. This
could be caused by any component in the path from the transmitters through the combiner, lightening
arrestors, the cable to the antenna, the antenna itself and the path back through the duplexer and multicoupler
to the receivers. As stated previously the problems could alternatively be due to external influences, such as
the GSM system illustrated above.

Table 3 below shows the 3 frequencies installed at Site 1.

Tx 391.125 391.225 394.325

Rx 381.125 381.225 384.325

Table 3 – Frequencies at Site 1

Much testing is conducted on this site in an attempt to reduce the number of potential sources of interference.
A spectrum analyser is connected to a spare output from the receiver multicoupler, which is in turn connected
to the duplexer and noise is observed on-screen. The noise takes the form of “wideband spikes” of noise of
different amplitude across the Receive Frequency band. No attempt is made to explain these spikes as they
could be an artefact of the spectrum analyser in use (An additional item for further investigation, for analysis
at another time when more information is available). No alternate spectrum analyser is available at this time.

©Sigma Wireless Communications 20 of 37 08/02

Substituting components one at a time produces no conclusive results – sometimes a substitution causes
deterioration of the intermodulation and re-installing the original causes further deterioration. During this
time it is possible that the connectors were not cleaned well enough, although normally this only has an effect
when the intermodulation is less than –100dBm. Testing can be very frustrating, leading to no conclusive
results. Many tests are not repeatable, so that the results of each test are always suspect in nature.

Eventually, it was decided to use one of the receivers as the test instrument. This was achieved by using a
3dB directional coupler in-line with one of the receivers (See Figure 7 below). First the Directional Coupler
is disconnected from the Rx Multicoupler and terminated in a dummy load. An on-channel signal is injected
from the TETRA Test Set through the coupler and its output is adjusted until the BER is at the test
specification. The multicoupler is now connected back onto the Rx Multicoupler. With no transmitters on-
air, there is only a slight increase in signal out for the TETRA Test Set required to obtain the same BER.
Transmitters are keyed up one at a time and the level out of the TETRA Test Set is adjusted so that the test
specification BER is obtained. The increase in level required in the Test Set is the amount by which the
receiver is being de-sensitised.

This testing method allows better repeatability but again, it is difficult to eliminate the duplexer, as it is
involved in the tests. Replacing the cable and the lightening arrestor gave slight improvements in the system
performance, after all connectors have been cleaned. However, It has been reported that when the antenna
rigger is climbing on the lower reaches of the tower, the receiver sensitivity changes. In fact any movement
that shakes the tower seems to improve and deteriorate as things are moved or changed around. During one
testing session, no decrease in sensitivity is noticed at all. Over many days of testing, it appears like the
antenna may be contributing to the problem.

©Sigma Wireless Communications 21 of 37 08/02

 Cable to Antenna

Duplexer

Rx
Multicoupler

Coupler Tx Combiner

Transmitter
Transmitter
Transmitter
TETRA Test
Receiver
Receiver
Receiver

Set

BER Tester

Figure 7 – Site Receiver Test Set-up

The results of calculating the intermodulation products at this site show that intermodulation products exist,
13th and 15th order. Normally these do not cause problems, but it is possible that it may be in this case. From
Table 1, these will be typically at a level of 40 and 48dB down from the third order product. In the worst
case these levels will be 25 and 30dB down.

8 * 391.125 – 4 * 391.225 – 3 * 394.325 = 381.125 (Which is Receive number 1) 15th order

7 * 391.125 – 3 * 391.225 – 3 * 394.325 = 381.225 (Which is Receive number 2) 13th order
7 * 391.125 – 4 * 391.225 – 2 * 394.325 = 384.325 (Which is Receive number 2) 15th order

Figure 8 shows this information in graphical form. As well as showing the on-channel intermodulation, it
shows all the other intermodulation products in a frequency range. The absolute level in this representation
of the 3rd order intermodulation is –71dBm and 7dB per odd order is assumed. (A slightly different level
than that shown in Table 1 and is used to illustrate the point that this level can vary from system to system).
Since the static reference sensitivity of a TETRA base receiver is –115dBm, this should be taken as the level
below which any intermodulation products should arrive at the receiver. At the same time, the system link
budget will be calculated based a dynamic receiver sensitivity of –106dBm for the MS.

The absolute levels shown are based upon a Transmitter power of 25 watts (+44dBm), giving a third order
intermodulation performance of the antenna of –115dBc (-71 –44). This reference will be used for clarity in
the other examples given later in this discussion.

©Sigma Wireless Communications 22 of 37 08/02

 -65
380.85 381.35 381.85 382.35 382.85 383.35 383.85 384.35

-70

-75

-80
Absolute Level (dBm)

-85

Rx Freq Marker
-90
IM Total, No
Spread
-95

-100

-105

-110

-115
Frequency (MHz)

Figure 8 – Graphical Representation of Intermodulation Products at Site 1

4.5.2.2 Site 2

Discussions with users again shows that the problem occurs only when the system is very busy –which, upon
again checking into the traffic logs, shows that the problem occurs when all three transmitters at the site are
on air. Thus it could easily be related to some form of intermodulation or other forms of noise generation.

Table 4 below shows the frequencies installed at Site 2.

Tx 390.675 391.600 393.875

Rx 380.675 381.600 383.875

Table 4 - Site 2 Frequencies

Tests were again performed on the system as described in section 4.5.2.1 using the receiver as the test
instrument. This time a duplexer from another supplier was used and still came up with somewhat similar
results. This helps eliminate the duplexer from the considerations. As always measurement repeatability is
problematic, but as time goes along sources of error are eliminated. However, it is a painstaking process and
takes time.

Completing intermodulation calculations in this case shows no intermodulation falls on any of the receiver
frequencies.

©Sigma Wireless Communications 23 of 37 08/02

 -65
380.4 380.9 381.4 381.9 382.4 382.9 383.4 383.9

-70

-75

-80
Absolute Level (dBm)

-85

Rx Freq Marker
-90
IM Total, No
Spread
-95

-100

-105

-110

-115
Frequency (MHz)

Figure 9 – Graphical Representation of Intermodulation Products at Site 2

If we review the statements in section 1.8 - Bandwidth of Resulting Intermodulation on page 7, we see that
the picture in Figure 9 is too simplistic. (This effect is referred to as “spreading” in this document). Thus the
bandwidth as well as the level of each intermodulation product must be taken into account. This is illustrated
in Figure 10, using the same levels as shown in section 4.5.2.1. The absolute levels shown are based upon a
Transmitter power of 25 watts (+44dBm), giving a third order intermodulation performance of the antenna of
–115dBc (-71 –44). For reference these levels are given in Table 5, including the harmonics which produce
them.

Frequency Level Harmonics

386.675 -92.0dBm 9, 19
381.600 -92.0dBm 9
383.875 -85.0dBm 7, 19

Table 5 – Amplitude and Harmonics of Intermodulation Products at Site 2

Figure 10 clearly shows that there are intermodulation products on each receiver. Thus the “noise spikes”
(intermodulation products) seen on the screen of the spectrum analyser are explicable by this method.

©Sigma Wireless Communications 24 of 37 08/02

 -65
380.4 380.9 381.4 381.9 382.4 382.9 383.4 383.9

-70

-75

-80
Absolute Level (dBm)

-85

-90 Rx Freq Marker

-95 IM Total, Including

Spread

-100

-105

-110

-115
Frequency (MHz)

Figure 10– Graphical Representation of IM Products at Site 1, Including Frequency Spread

4.5.3 Explanation of Results

Some of the test results do not have an immediate explanation. Listed below are the prime items of concern,
with explanations of why the problems existed.

4.5.3.1 Problem not Easy to Replicate at Sites

Since TETRA is a system which is modulated even when there is no-one speaking on the channel, the actual
signal transmitted all the time the channel is keyed up occupies the full 25kHz. (In fact this is true of all
digital systems, such as GSM and 3G). For TETRA, only one RF channel is keyed permanently. As the time
slots ‘fill up’ with traffic, other RF channels come on air. Usually, there are two different ways of doing this
– configurable on a per-site or per-system basis.

1. The voice calls fill up all the time slots on one RF channel before keying up the next channel. Thus,
all the slots on one RF channels are full before another RF channel comes up.

2. Each voice call fills up one time slot per RF carrier on the site before going around again with the
next time slot on each RF channel. Thus one RF carrier comes up with each additional voice call
until they are all on air.

Changing the system to type 2 will make the problem occur much more often than type 1 as all the RF
channels will be ‘up’ much more often. None of the intermodulation products will happen until the three

©Sigma Wireless Communications 25 of 37 08/02

transmitters are keyed up at the same time. This explains why the observations were intermittent and why it
was difficult to replicate the problem when a reduction in range was reported.

4.5.3.2 Reporting of Noise on System

Since there is spreading of the signal (as described in section 1.8) and TETRA occupies the full 25kHz
bandwidth of the channel all the time the transmitter is keyed, the resultant intermodulation will also occupy
the full ‘spread’ spectrum. Since the TETRA spectrum looks like noise on a spectrum analyser, the resulting
intermodulation product will appear as a much wider band noise. Thus the comments were made about noise
on the system. Additionally, some observers may have been overloading the spectrum analyser as described
in section 4.2.

4.5.3.3 No ‘Noise’ in Companion Antenna

As described in section 4.5.1 on page 19, the noise did not seem to be present in the companion antenna. The
reason for this is that the currents from the transmitters were not flowing in the diversity companion antenna.
For an intermodulation to occur, current must flow and very little current on the intermodulating transmit
frequencies flows in this antenna. Since the current flowing in the antenna are reduced by the coupling factor
between the two antennas (probably more than 20dB), all intermodulation products will be reduced by the
same amount. Additionally, this companion antenna operates into a separate diversity receiver, so the
apparent gain of the overall receive leg of the system would not be reduced by the same amount as the
desensitisation of the receiver attached to the Tx / Rx antenna. The overall system disimprovement would be
approximately half of this desensitisation as the diversity receiver compensates for the additional noise on the
receive leg of the main antenna.

4.5.3.4 Intermodulation Levels

After further (fictional) investigation, it was found that the antennas in question exhibited 3rd order
intermodulation level of –130dBc when measured in the test chamber. However, the level of the resulting
intermodulation became worse by up to 10dB when the antennas were vibrated. When the antennas are
mounted on a tower a low level of vibration is present constantly, due to wind vibration of the tower.

The system was designed to avoid 5th order intermodulation products by limiting the maximum spacing
between the Highest and Lowest frequencies to less than 3.2MHz.

For TETRA the Static Reference Base sensitivity is –112dBm. For this project the transmit power is 25
watts (46dBm). At 5dB per ODD order (see 1.9 on page 8), the relative level of the 7th order will be 10dB
down when compared with the 3rd order. The 7th order is the first one which will ‘appear’ within the

©Sigma Wireless Communications 26 of 37 08/02

frequency window of the receivers, so it is the only one which needs to be considered. Thus the specification
for this system will need to be set so that the 3rd order Intermodulation product will be –146dB relative to the
carrier, at a carrier power level of 47dBm (25Watts).

To provide coverage predictions, it is necessary to use a different reference sensitivity – the dynamic
reference sensitivity, which is –106dBm for a standard TETRA BTS. This sensitivity is based upon a
situation where multiple signals arrive at the receiver at the same time with different amplitudes and phases
and fading relative to one another all the time. This is the most realistic type of signal which would be
received from a moving MS. However, the signal received from an antenna intermodulation would be
present at all times with almost no fading. Thus it is necessary to use the static receiver sensitivity for setting
the intermodulation level, but still use the dynamic sensitivity for the coverage calculations.

4.5.4 Adding a Channel to Site 2

Before these conclusions were reached and corrective actions taken the traffic levels on site 2 increased
significantly, due to the addition of the Fire Service to the system. The new frequency list at the site is
shown in Table 6. (The added channel is 390.750 / 380.750MHz). The results of calculating the
Intermodulation Products are illustrated graphically in Figure 11. This clearly shows that adding a channel to
the site dramatically increases the number of intermodulation products. Even the graph without “Channel
Spreading” looks very crowded, while the one with the one with the Spreading present is a continuous floor
of noise from one end of the spectrum under consideration to the other.

Tx 390.675 390.750 391.600 393.875

Rx 380.675 380.750 381.600 383.875

Table 6 – Frequencies at Site 2 after Extra Channel Added

Additionally, each receiver now has a 13th or 15th order intermodulation directly on-channel, as shown below.

-2*TX1 + 7*TX2 – 1*TX3 - 3*TX4 = 380.675 (Which is Receiver Number 1) 13th order
-3*TX1 + 8*TX2 – 1*TX3 - 3*TX4 = 380.750 (Which is Receiver Number2) 15th Order
-3*TX1 + 7*TX2 - 3*TX4 = 381.600 (Which is Receiver Number 3) 13th order
-3*TX1 + 7*TX2 – 1*TX3 - 2*TX4 = 383.875 (Which is Receiver Number 4) 13th order
If we examine Receiver 1 closely, the amplitude of the intermodulation without spreading is –106dBm.
However, if we take into account that frequency spreading adds signal from one ninth order, one eleventh,
three thirteenth and two fifteenth order intermodulation products all falling on this receiver, then the actual
signal calculates out to be at a level of –91dBm. Similarly the level for the second receiver is –91dBm, for
the third receiver is –90dBm and for the fourth receiver is –84dBm.

©Sigma Wireless Communications 27 of 37 08/02

 -65 -65
380.4 380.9 381.4 381.9 382.4 382.9 383.4 383.9 380.4 380.9 381.4 381.9 382.4 382.9 383.4 383.9

-70 -70

-75 -75

-80 -80
Absolute Level (dBm)

Absolute Level (dBm)

-85 -85

Rx Freq Marker Rx Freq Marker

-90 -90

IM Total, No
Spread IM Total, Including
-95 -95 Spread

-100 -100

-105 -105

-110 -110

-115 -115
Frequency (MHz) Frequency (MHz)

Without Channel Spreading With Channel Spreading

Figure 11 – IM Products at Site 2 after Extra Channel Added

4.5.5 Final Outcome

Antennas with an intermodulation specification of –146dBc at 47dBm were installed. New instructions were
issued to the installers in relation to ensuring that all connectors are to be kept scrupulously clean and that
records of mating and unmating should be kept. The system designer decided that connectors will now be
replaced on principle after 10 mating cyles. All connectors, cables and lightening arrestors now go through
an approval process before being used on the system. A procedure for finding and eliminating sources of
interference has been written and can be used if any problems arise.

Some problems still occur at sites and investigation using the techniques given in the preceding sections
allows a process of substitution to assess the impact of each potential source and eliminate the offending one.

©Sigma Wireless Communications 28 of 37 08/02

5 Appendix A – Mathematical Basis for Intermodulation

5.1 Linear Devices

In a linear system, each and every input will produce a proportional response independently of all other
inputs. Say an input F1(t) produces a response G1(t), and a second input F2(t) produces a corresponding
response G2(t). Then if we apply both inputs simultaneously in the form X*F1(t) + Y*F2(t) we will have an
output of X*G1(t) + Y*G2(t), X and Y both being real numbers. Thus: -

a. All the output frequencies are proportional to those in the input.

b. Only those frequencies which are present in the input waveform will appear at the output.

5.2 Non-Linear Devices

In this case, with one input signal, harmonics are created resulting from the distortion introduced by the
system, and the number (and amplitude) of these depends on the degree of non-linearity in the system.

5.2.1 Slightly Non-Linear Systems

In a slightly non-linear system the transfer characteristic can be considered as a power series. This is a
normal mathematical technique for representing this type of system. If we expand about the operating point
we obtain an equation as shown in Equation 3: -

Equation 3 V out = K1*Vin + K2*Vin2 + K3*Vin3 + etc…

5.2.2 Two Inputs to System

If the input consists of two sine waves i.e. Vin = V1* Sin (ω1t) + V2* Sin (ω2t) then the equation to be
expanded (ignoring all orders above the third order) looks like: -

Equation 4 V out = K1* [V1* Sin (ω1t) + V2* Sin (ω2t)] + K2*[V1* Sin (ω1t) + V2* Sin (ω2t)] 2 + K3* [V1*
Sin (ω1t) + V2* Sin (ω2t)] 3

After simplification, the output will consist of: -

Part of Equation Comment

V out
=
2
(V1 + V22 )
K2 2
DC Component

©Sigma Wireless Communications 29 of 37 08/02

 Part of Equation Comment
 3K 3 3K 3V13   3K 3K 

+  K1V1 + V1V2 +
2
 Sin(ω1t ) +  K1V2 + 3 V2V12 + 3 V23  Sin(ω 2 t ) Fundamentals
 2 4   2 4 

K2 2 K Second
− V1 Cos (2ω 1t ) − 2 V22 Cos (2ω 2 t )
2 2 Harmonics

K3 3 K Third
− V1 Sin(3ω 1t ) − 3 V23 Sin(3ω 2 t )
4 4 Harmonics

+ K 2V1V2 [Cos ((ω 1 − ω 2 )t ) − Cos ((ω 1 + ω 2 )t )] Sum &

Difference
3K 3 2
+ V1 V2 [Sin((2ω 1 − ω 2 )t ) − Sin((2ω 1 + ω 2 )t )] 2A-B and 2A+B
4

3K 3
+ V1V22 [Sin((2ω 2 − ω 1 )t ) − Sin((2ω 2 + ω 1 )t )] 2B-A and 2B+A
4

Table 7 – Resultant Intermodulation Products of Two Sinusoidal Inputs

It is interesting to note a number of points: -

i) A DC component is introduced. This is a form of rectification.

ii) Both fundamentals are present. Their amplitude has a complex dependence on the variables
involved.

iii) Second and third order harmonics are present.

iv) Both Sum and Difference frequencies are present. The amplitude of these components is the product
of the input voltages and the constant K1.

v) The frequencies involved in the final two lines are the ones which of most interest for this paper.

They are of the form 2ω1-ω2 and 2 ω2-ω1. This could be expressed as 2A-B and 2A+B.

vi) Note the amplitude of the 2A-B and 2A+B terms. If the amplitude of A is increased in the 2A-B
term, the resulting intermodulation will increase by the square of that amplitude (i,e., if V1 is
increased by 1dB, then the resulting intermodulation will increase by 2dB). For a 1dB increase in V2
there will be an increase of 1dB in the intermodulation. If both are increased by 1dB, the resulting
intermodulation increases by 3dB. A similar situation pertains for the levels of the 2B-A and the
2B+A terms. This is why intermodulation levels MUST be specified at a specified transmit power
level.

©Sigma Wireless Communications 30 of 37 08/02

vii) It is also interesting to note that the order of the expansions which give rise to the second harmonics
is the second order expansion, and the third order expansion gives rise to the Third Harmonic, the
Sum & Difference and the last two elements.

If further expansion is entered into, i.e. 4th 5th etc., all the other forms normally referred to will be found
(fifth, seventh order intermodulation factors).

5.2.3 Bandwidth of Resulting Intermodulation

5.2.3.1 Theory One - Minimum Transmitter Spreading

This theory is derived from analysing the intermodulation from the point of view of FM theory and probably
applies best to PMR or narrowband FM transmissions.

Frequency modulation occurs when the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is made proportional to the
modulating signal vm(t). If the carrier frequency is fc, this will be increased to fc + ∆fc when the amplitude of
the modulating signal (vm(t)) has its most positive value and will be decreased to fc - ∆fc when the amplitude
of vm(t) has its most negative value. The parameter ∆fc is known as the carrier deviation and a further
parameter β, known as the modulation index, is defined as β = ∆fc/fm. The expression for the frequency
modulated carrier when vm(t) = A Sin(2πfmt) is

Vc(t) = A* Sin[2πfct + β Cos(2πfmt)]

If we substitute ωt for 2πt in above equation we get

Vc(t) = A* Sin[ωct + β Cos(ωmt)]

If we now look at the last two terms of the expression in Table 7 (the intermodulation products of interest)
and replace the ω1 and ω2 terms with an FM modulation term (ω + β Cos(ωm)), it is visible that the deviation
β, is multiplied by the harmonic which makes up the intermodulation. For example, in the intermodulation
equations (Table 7), the term Sin (2ω1- ω2)t becomes: -

Equation 5 ω1t + β 1 Cos (ω

Sin [2*{ω ωm1t)} - ω2t + β 2 Cos (ω
ωm2t)].

Thus the resultant intermodulation has a bandwidth which is twice that of ω1 itself, as the factor β1 (the
modulation index) is multiplied by two. The modulation index of β2 is unaffected, so the deviation of the
second carrier is unaffected. In a similar fashion it is visible that the resultant intermodulation products will
increase in bandwidth in proportion to the largest multiplier used to create the harmonics involved in the
resultant Intermodulation. This effect is referred to as “spreading” of the intermodulation product.

©Sigma Wireless Communications 31 of 37 08/02

Thus, for this mode of spreading, the intermodulation output bandwidth will be the result of multiplying the
bandwidth of a single carrier by the largest multiplier involved in the resultant intermodulation product.

5.2.3.2 Theory Two - Maximum Transmitter Spreading

This theory assumes that the carrier amplitude is spread evenly across the whole transmitter bandwidth.

If the carrier of the first channel Fc1 has similar amplitude to the extremes of that band (Fc1 + δ1 and Fc1 – δ1),
and the same applies to the second channel Fc2, and Fc1 is lower in frequency than Fc2, then for a third order
IM, the intermodulation between the two carrier frequencies (of the form 2B – A) will be on 2*Fc2 – Fc1. The
layout of the frequencies in this example is shown in Figure 12 below. The two bandwidths associated with
each carrier are represented in the upper part of the sketch, while the intermodulation of individual
frequencies is illustrated in the lower part of the sketch.

Second order Intermodulation of the Centre Frequencies would be expressed as follows: -

IM Centre = 2*FC2 – FC1

Examining Figure 12 below, shows that the relationship between the centre frequency and the highest
frequency in its band is FC + δ, where δ is half the total bandwidth of the whole RF carrier system. The table
below shows the method for calculating the lower upper limit of the resulting intermodulation.

Lower IM Limit Upper IM Limit

IM Lower = 2 * (FC2 - δ2) – (FC1 + δ1) IM Upper = 2 * (FC2 + δ2) – (FC1 – δ1)
IM Lower = 2 * FC2 - 2 * δ2 – FC1 - δ1 IM Upper = 2 * FC2 + 2 * δ2 – FC1 + δ1
IM Lower = 2 * FC2 - FC1 - (2 * δ2 + δ1) IM Upper = 2 * FC2 – FC1 + (2 * δ2 + δ1)
IM Lower = IM Centre - (2 * δ2 + δ1) IM Upper = IM Centre + (2 * δ2 + δ1)
Table 8 – Calculation of Upper and Lower limits of Intermodulation Product

From these calculations it is visible that the limits of the product are placed at (2 * δ2 + δ1) above and below
centre of the IM. Since δ is half of the bandwidth of the original signal in all cases, the resulting IM product
then depends on the bandwidth of both signals according to the multipliers used to obtain the centre
frequency.

The above proof applies only to one second order case, but it is self evident from the fact that since only
simple multiplication, addition and subtraction are used to generate IM products, all of which are
commutative, the single case can be extended to all cases, involving two or more carriers.

For this mode of spreading, the intermodulation output bandwidth will be the result of multiplying the
bandwidth of each carrier by the multiplier associated with that carrier and summing all the results.

©Sigma Wireless Communications 32 of 37 08/02

 Transmitter Carriers
Fc1 Fc2
Amplitude

δ1 δ1 δ2 δ2

Frequency

Intermodulation Products
Amplitude

IM Centre

2 * δ1 2 * δ2 2 * δ2 + δ1 2 * δ2 + δ1

Figure 12 – Schematic Representation of Frequencies & Bandwidth in IM

©Sigma Wireless Communications 33 of 37 08/02

6 Appendix B - Intermodulation in Portable

The purpose of this Appendix is to explain the example given in section 4.4 on page 17. The physical
relationships between the different transmitters and receivers are shown in Figure 6 and are illustrated
differently on the frequency axis in Figure 13 below.

Base Base
Receivers Transmitters

Spacing 's' Spacing 's'

Rx1

Rx2

Tx1

Tx2
Figure 13 - Frequency Relationship for Portable Intermodulation Illustration

We first establish some mathematical relationships between frequencies: -

Tx2 = Tx1 + s Rx2 = Rx1 + s

An intermodulation product will be generated in the output of the portables’ power amplifier (As described in
section 3.1 on page 13) and will be on a frequency of (Tx2 – Tx1) + Rx1. This is because the portables own
transmitter is on the frequency Rx1 and the two base station transmitter signals are impinging on the output
stage (on frequencies Tx1 and Tx2).

IM = (Tx2 – Tx1) + Rx1

= ((Tx1 + s) – Tx1) + Rx1
= s + Rx1
= Rx2.

Thus, no matter what absolute frequencies are used at a site, there will always be an intermodulation product
on the second receiver’s frequency, provided that the portable is close enough to the base station for the
phenomenon to occur.

©Sigma Wireless Communications 34 of 37 08/02

7 Appendix C – Antenna Isolation

7.1 Isolation Between Vertically Spaced Antennas

This Calculation provides you with an estimate of the isolation between antennas isolated Vertically. At
best, it is only an estimate and the radiation pattern will affect the final result. These calculations only apply
to antennas in the same frequency range. The isolation increases significantly as soon as the two antennas go
‘out of band’.

Strong caution must be exercised when evaluating the isolation between antennas on towers. Experimentally
it has been determined that a maximum realistic value of isolation which can be achieved is about 70dB.
Different combinations of values entered on the form could result in isolation values much larger. Never use
values in your system design which are larger than 70dB. In the example below, an omni and a panel are
shown on a mast. Both patterns have deep nulls along the vertical axis and this minimises the coupling
between the two antennas. If the antennas are significantly ‘out of line’ then the horizontal isolation comes
into play. The gain of the antennas will also affect the isolation by a small amount, but this is never taken
into account in the formulas.

-15
-20
-30
dB 90
2700 -3 -6 -10
Vertical Distance

180

-15
-20
-30
dB 90
2700 -3 -6 -10

180

The formula used to calculate the above isolation is (which only applies of the distance exceeds one
wavelength): -

©Sigma Wireless Communications 35 of 37 08/02

 Dv
Isolation = 28 + 40 * Log
λ

Where

Dv Vertical Distance Between Antennas

λ Wavelength

7.2 Isolation Between Horizontally Spaced Antennas

This Calculation provides you with an estimate of the isolation between antennas isolated horizontally. At
best, it is only an estimate and the radiation pattern will affect the final result. These calculations only apply
to antennas in the same frequency range. The isolation increases significantly as soon as the two antennas go
‘out of band’.

The gain values you enter for the antennas must be the gain the direction at which the antennas 'see' each
other. For example, if the antennas are omni-directional at much the same height then the omni gain must be
used. If they are two directional/panel antennas mounted horizontally and facing in the same direction, the
gain values entered must be the horizontal gain of each antenna at 90 degrees from the maximum gain. If, as
in the example shown below, they are facing at an angle to each other than estimate the gain at the angle for
each antenna, and use that gain. The Red antenna is rotated at an angle where the gain is approximately
1.5dB below the maximum gain of the panel. The Blue antenna is rotated much more relative to the Red
antenna and the gain is approximately 4dB below the maximum panel gain.

Horizontal Distance

The Two Antennas do not point directly at each other.

There is an angle between them, and the gain used for
each antenna is the gain shown with an Arrow
in the Diagrams below.

0 0

-15 -15
-20 -20

dB 90 dB 90
270 0 -3 -6 -10 270 0 -3 -6 -10

180 180

©Sigma Wireless Communications 36 of 37 08/02

The formula used to calculate the above isolation is (which only applies if the distance is greater than 10
wavelengths): -

DH
Isolation = 20 * Log − AG1 − AG2 + 17.7
λ

Where

Dh Horizontal Distance Between Antennas

λ Wavelength

AG1 Gain of First Antenna

AG2 Gain of the second Antenna

Copyright
This document was written by John Reilly and it is the property of Sigma Wireless Communications. All
rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, or transmitted in any form by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of Sigma Wireless
Communications.

©Sigma Wireless Communications 37 of 37 08/02