Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology

Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 320
Anabela Mesquita
António Abreu
João Vidal Carvalho
Cristina Helena Pinto de Mello Editors
Perspectives and
Trends in Education
and Technology
Selected Papers from ICITED 2022
123
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies
Volume 320
Series Editors
Robert J. Howlett, Bournemouth University and KES International,
Shoreham-by-Sea, UK
Lakhmi C. Jain, KES International, Shoreham-by-Sea, UK
The Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies book series encompasses the topics
of knowledge, intelligence, innovation and sustainability. The aim of the series is to
make available a platform for the publication of books on all aspects of single and
multi-disciplinary research on these themes in order to make the latest results avail-
able in a readily-accessible form. Volumes on interdisciplinary research combining
two or more of these areas is particularly sought.
The series covers systems and paradigms that employ knowledge and intelligence
in a broad sense. Its scope is systems having embedded knowledge and intelligence,
which may be applied to the solution of world problems in industry, the environment
and the community. It also focusses on the knowledge-transfer methodologies and
innovation strategies employed to make this happen effectively. The combination
of intelligent systems tools and a broad range of applications introduces a need
for a synergy of disciplines from science, technology, business and the humanities.
The series will include conference proceedings, edited collections, monographs,
handbooks, reference books, and other relevant types of book in areas of science and
technology where smart systems and technologies can offer innovative solutions.
High quality content is an essential feature for all book proposals accepted for the
series. It is expected that editors of all accepted volumes will ensure that contributions
are subjected to an appropriate level of reviewing process and adhere to KES quality
principles.
Indexed by SCOPUS, EI Compendex, INSPEC, WTI Frankfurt eG, zbMATH,
Japanese Science and Technology Agency (JST), SCImago, DBLP.
All books published in the series are submitted for consideration in Web of Science.
Anabela Mesquita · António Abreu ·
João Vidal Carvalho ·
Cristina Helena Pinto de Mello
Editors
Perspectives and Trends

in Education and Technology
Selected Papers from ICITED 2022
Editors
Anabela Mesquita António Abreu
Polytechnic Institute of Porto Polytechnic of Porto
Porto, Portugal Porto, Portugal
João Vidal Carvalho Cristina Helena Pinto de Mello

Polytechnic Institute of Porto ESPM—Higher School of Advertising
Porto, Portugal and Marketing
São Paulo, Brazil
ISSN 2190-3018 ISSN 2190-3026 (electronic)

Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies
ISBN 978-981-19-6584-5 ISBN 978-981-19-6585-2 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse
of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Preface
This book—Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology: Selected Papers

from ICITED22—from the SIST Series is composed of the best selected papers
accepted for presentation and discussion at the 2022 International Conference in
Information Technology & Education (ICITED’22). The ICITED is a multidisci-
plinary conference with a special focus on new Technologies and Systems in the
Education sector and was held between July 14 and 16, 2022. The ICITED’22
was supported by the Higher School of Advertising and Marketing (ESPM), Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil and by IADITI—International Association for Digital Transformation
and Echnological Innovation.
The International Conference in Information Technology & Education is an inter-
national forum for researchers and professionals in the education sector, which
enables the discussion of the latest innovations, trends and concerns in several areas,
in the education sector, associated with information technologies and systems. It is
an event for professionals in the sector, in search of technology solutions, where
academics, IT experts, and business managers meet to discuss new ideas that help
them maximize the potential of learning processes through technology.
The ICITED’22 Scientific Committee is composed of a multidisciplinary group
of 189 experts who assessed some 228 papers from 22 countries, received for
each of the main topics proposed for the conference: (a) ICT and Virtual learning;
(b) Pedagogical & Didactical Innovations; (c) Technologies issues in Educa-
tion in the different scientific areas; (d) Quality in Education; (e) Technological
Issues in Education and Research; (f) Educational Software and Serious Games;
g) Curriculum Design and Innovation; and (h) University-Industry Collaboration;
SPECIAL SESSIONS: DTLP’22—Digital Transformation in the Teaching and
Learning Process; FoE’22—Future of Education.
The papers accepted for presentation and discussion at the conference are
published by Springer and will be submitted for indexing by ISI, SCOPUS,
EI-Compendex, Google Scholar, and SpringerLink. We thank all those who
contributed to the ICITED’22 conference (authors, committees, workshop orga-
nizers, and sponsors).
v
vi Preface
We deeply appreciate your involvement and support, which were crucial to the
success of the conference.
Porto, Portugal Anabela Mesquita

Porto, Portugal António Abreu
Porto, Portugal João Vidal Carvalho
São Paulo, Brazil Cristina Helena Pinto de Mello
July 2022
Contents
Education 4.0 Approach for New Careers at Mexico City-IPN . . . . . . . . . 1

Vladimir Avalos-Bravo, Jorge Toro González, and Yaravid García Pérez
Business Strategies and University-Pharmaceutical Industry
Collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Eleonora Santos, Jacinta Moreira, and Rui Alexandre Castanho
Ethics and Marketing of Social Integration in Cultural, Heritage
and Educational Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Zilpa Lovisi Abreu, Bruno Barbosa Sousa, and Deibe Fernández-Simo
The Scarcity of Information Technologies in Accounting
Graduation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Helena Costa Oliveira and Susana Bastos
Development of a Web-Based System to Measure, Monitor
and Promote School Engagement Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Mahia Saracostti, Ximena de Toro, Andrea Rossi, Sara Salum,
Belen Sotomayor, and Laura Lara
Digital Competencies in Teachers of Regular Basic Education
in Tacna-Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Kevin Mario Laura-De La Cruz, Inés Reyna Injante-Córdova,
Marisol Isabel Flores-Arocutipa, Ricardo Jiménez-Palacios,
and Stefany Juliana Noa-Copaja
Study of the Visual Variables of the Elliptic Paraboloid and Their
Representations Through Digital Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Tito Nelson Peñaloza Vara, Jesus Victoria Flores Salazar,
and Jorge Luis Vivas-Pachas
vii
viii Contents
Mental State Equalization for Neuroeducation: Methodology

and Protocol for Applying Electroencephalogram in Educational
Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Lucas P. Prestes, Milton A. Zaro, Patrícia F. da Silva,
Fernanda R. de Aguiar, and Graziele Halmenschlager
The Impact of an Online Course on Upcycling for Sustainable
Development and the Circular Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Sara Calvo, Andrés Morales, and Rui Alexandre Castanho
Promoting Social Innovation Projects with an Online Course:
Creating Global Solutions for Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Sara Calvo, Andrés Morales, Rui Alexandre Castanho,
and Eleonora Santos
Universities as Spaces of Knowledge Creation—Going Through
the Test of the Pandemic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Artieres Estevão Romeiro and Ingrid Weingartner Reis
Developing Computational Thinking in Basic School: Resources
from Mathematics Teachers in Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
José Manuel Dos Santos Dos Santos,
Celina Aparecida Almeida Pereira Abar, Marcio Vieira de Almeida,
and Zsolt Lavicza
Lyrics Training: An E-learning Approach to Improve Listening
Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Veronica E. Martinez, Diego H. Rubio, Paulo C. Torres,
Gladys I. Tituanã, M. Xavier Lopez, and Jose E. Naranjo
Entrepreneurship Learning: Applying a Revised Experiential
Learning Model to Cultural and Creative Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Marilia Durão, Sónia Nogueira, Sandra Fernandes, and Augusto Neves
Assessment of the Evaluation of Technical and Soft Skills
in a Professional Training Course: Pilot Study to Analyze
the Efficiency of the Instruments and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Helder Rodrigo Pinto, Luís Borges Gouveia, and Miguel Trigo
Web Page to Promote the Values of School Coexistence in Basic
Education Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Eulalia Becerra and Lucía Escobar
Cognitive Biases in the Investment Decision Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Patrick Silva, Jorge Mendonça, Luís M. P. Gomes, and Lurdes Babo
Acquiring Information for the Social Organization: The Role
of Social Media Use and Social Capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Susana Bernardino, J. Freitas Santos, and Pedro Silva
Contents ix
Video Tutorials as a Didactic Strategy for the Knowledge

of Copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
María Alejandrina Almeida Aguilar, Rubén Jerónimo Yedra,
Eric Ramos Méndez, Gerardo Arceo Moheno,
José Luis Gómez Ramos, and Laura López Díaz
Interactive Application with Motion Comics in the School Bullying
Awareness Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Eduardo Navas and Sebastián Armendariz
Planning and Development of the MOOC-DTS “Digital Tutorial
Space”: Case Study in a University Tuna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Bruno F. Gonçalves and Vitor Gonçalves
The AmTriangle Meta-Dataset for Playing with Machine Learning . . . . . 243
Artur Marques, Rafael de Amorim Silva, and Filipe Madeira
Evaluation on Collaborative and Problem-Based Learning–Some
Teaching Experiences in Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Joana Becker Paulo, Arianne S. N. Pereira, and Catarina O. Lucas
Robotic Process Automation (RPA) Platforms to Boost Students’
Career Readiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Mary Lebens, Mousumi Munmun, and Roger Finnegan
Narrative of Videogames, Automation of a Proposed Analysis Model . . . 275
Patricia Salvador and Miguel Cobos
Innovation and Information Technologies in Microenterprises
in the Commerce Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Gerardo Arceo Moheno, Eric Ramos Méndez,
María Alejandrina Almeida Aguilar, Rubén Jerónimo Yedra,
Martha Patricia Silva Payró, and Carlos Mario Flores Lázaro
Quality and Practices for Sustainability in Higher
Education—An Impact Ranking Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Teresa Nogueiro and Margarida Saraiva
Efficacy of the Flipped Classroom Model on Students at Jorge
Basadre Grohmann National University of Tacna in English
Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Kevin Mario Laura-De La Cruz, Silvia Milagritos Bazán-Velásquez,
Cecilia Claudia Montesinos-Valencia, Miliam Quispe-Vargas,
and Sam Michael Espinoza-Vidaurre
Communication as a Democratic Strategy in the Republic
of Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Arturo Clery, Lilian Molina, Ana Tapia, Karla Ortíz, Shirley Huerta,
Lilibeth Orrala, and Gabriel Arroba
x Contents
Impact of Lecturer Training on Absenteeism and Job Performance:

Ecuador’s Higher Education Institution Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Rosa Llerena, Elsa Álvarez, John W. Castro, Nancy Rodríguez,
and Lucrecia Llerena
Developing the Pedagogical Capacity of English Language
Teachers in Regular Basic Education in Tacna Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Domingo Nicolás Pérez-Yufra,
Cecilia Rosario del Pilar Mendoza-Gómez,
Silvia Milagritos Bazán-Velásquez, Niria Rocío Ticahuanca-Mullo,
and Kevin Mario Laura-De La Cruz
Internet Access and Educational Backwardness in the Times
of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from Mexico’s Rural
Households . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Jorge Mora-Rivera, Fernando García-Mora,
and Noemí Vásquez Quevedo
Determinants of the Adoption of Digital Platforms in Higher
Education Institutions by Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Dália Pires and Nuno Fortes
MATHematics DIGital Escape Rooms—Empowering Students . . . . . . . . 375
Lurdes Babo, Carla M. A. Pinto, Jorge Mendonça,
Deolinda M. D. Rasteiro, Cristina M. R. Caridade,
Zsolt Lavicza, Eva Ulbrich, Imam Fitri Rahmadi,
- Fadhlan Muchlas Abrori, Selay Arkün Kocadere,
Branko Andić,
Konstantinos Petridis, Christos D. Nikolopoulos,
Evangelos A. Kokkinos, and Ioannis O. Vardiambasis
Training Routine for Electrical Power Station Operators Using
Virtual Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Pablo Teodoro, Leandro Mattioli, Gabriel Cyrino, Alexandre Cardoso,
Edgard Lamounier, Emmanuele Zorcot, and Daniel Ramos
Digital Tools and methods to Enhance Learning: The Digitools
Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Maria José Angélico Gonçalves, Célia Tavares, Ana Lúcia Terra,
Manuel Moreira da Silva, Óscar Bernardes, Iolanda Valente,
and Isabel Cristina Lopes
Management of Economic Development and Principles
of Environmental Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Gheorghe-Cosmin Manea and Andreea Cozea
Corporate Governance Performance and Performance
Comparison Between Two Groups of Banking Institutions
in Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Ângela Vaz and Adalmiro Pereira
Contents xi
Organizational Climate and Its Importance for Organizational

Success: A Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Emanuel Bohórquez, Maritza Pérez, Arturo Benavides,
and Eduardo Pérez
Is There a Gender Relationship Between Outdoor Activities
and Well-Being? Empirical Study in Northern Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Alcina Nunes, Maria Isabel Vieira, and Paula Odete Fernandes
The Intervention of Local Authorities on the Management
of Outdoor Tourism: The Case of Northern Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Paula Odete Fernandes, Patrícia Anjos, Alexandra Correia,
and Alcina Nunes
Adaptive Control of a Mobile Robot for Cargo Transportation
in Industrial Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Fidel N. Guerrero, Karen A. Proaño, Cesar A. Naranjo,
and Víctor H. Andaluz
Assessment of Digital Teaching Skills—A Pilot Study Based
on the Precepts of Digcompedu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Gustavo de Oliveira Andrade, Sani de Carvalho Rutz da Silva,
Manuel Florindo Alves Meirinhos, and Alessandra Dutra
A Fuzzy Logic Implementation to Support Second Language
Learning Through 3D Immersive Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Leidy Marcela Aldana-Burgos, Paulo Alonso Gaona-García,
and Carlos Enrique Montenegro-Marín
A BERT-Powered Writing Assistant for Academic Purposes
in European Portuguese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
Sílvia Araújo, Micaela Aguiar, and José Monteiro
App and Classroom Instruction for Better Pronunciation: Some
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Adelina Castelo
Appreciation of ICT Tools in Higher Education in Times
of Pandemic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Pierina D’Elia Di Michele, Angel Higuerey Gómez,
Reinaldo Armas Herrera, and Félix González Pulido
Exploring the Role of Emotional Intelligence and Artificial
Intelligence on Luxury Value and Customer-Based Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . 543
Sérgio Dominique-Ferreira, Helena Gomes, Pedro Quelhas Brito,
and Catherine Prentice
Perspectives of Media Competence in Communication
and Journalism Careers in the Andean Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
Abel Suing, Juan Pablo Arrobo-Agila, and Verónica González-Rentería
xii Contents
Contribution of Social Networks in Learning: A Study in Higher

Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
Laura Magali Chamba-Rueda, Reinaldo Armas,
and Mariuxi Pardo-Cueva
Technological Accessibility Plan for Students with Disabilities:
An Experience in Inclusive Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Karina Delgado Valdivieso and Janio Jadán-Guerrero
Evaluation of the Use of ICT Tools in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
Pierina D’Elia Di Michele, Angel Higuerey Gómez,
Reinaldo Armas Herrera, and Félix González Pulido
The Relationship Between Rural Tourism, Sustainable Tourism
and Outdoor Activities: A Systematic Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
Jessica Ferreira, Ana Cristina Silvério, Márcia Vaz,
and Paula Odete Fernandes
Portuguese Sports Fans Reaction to Professional Athlete’s
Activism on Social Media: A Systematic Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
Hugo Filipe Antunes Guedes and João Vidal Carvalho
The Game of Words Human Creative Writing Against Computer
Assisted Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
Joana Fernandes
Introduction to Spatial Data Infrastructures and Web Services.
The WMS Display Service and the Geographical Information
Metadata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
José Manuel Naranjo Gómez, Rui Alexandre Castanho,
and Daniel Meyer
The Transition of Television Entertainment Considering
the Application of Streaming Platforms—Systematic Review . . . . . . . . . . 643
Ana Paula Camarinha, António Abreu, and Bárbara Ribeiro
Graph Databases Assessment: JanusGraph, Neo4j,
and TigerGraph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
Jéssica Monteiro, Filipe Sá, and Jorge Bernardino
The Use of Mobile Technology in Outdoor Tourism: A Systematic
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
Elaine Scalabrini, Alexandra I. Correia, Alcina Nunes,
Cláudia Miranda Veloso, Elvira Vieira, Fernanda A. Ferreira,
Goretti Silva, Manuel Fonseca, Paulo Carrança, Sónia Santos,
Using Technology in Tourism: A Twofold Supply Perspective . . . . . . . . . . 677
H. A. Sampaio, A. I. Correia, C. Melo, A. Silva, and S. Shehada
Contents xiii
AR-Based Resources to Train Computational Thinking Skills . . . . . . . . . . 691

Lazaro Lima, Francisco Saraiva, Luis Gonzaga Magalh aes,
Pedro Rangel Henriques, and Alexandre Cardoso
International Mobility Flows and COVID-19 Effects: Evidence
from Instituto Politécnico de Bragança . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
Isabel M. Lopes, Luís S. Pais, and Paula Odete Fernandes
Learning Graphics in Supervised Teaching Practice
in an Educational COVID-19 Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
Catarina Moreira, Dárida Fernandes, and Maria Inês Pinho
Collaborative Training: Faculty and Library Combat
Plagiarism—The Case of the Instituto Superior de Contabilidade
e Administração do Porto Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
Inês Braga, Isabel Santos Moura, Iolanda Valente, and António Abreu
Cybersecurity Concerns Under COVID-19: Representations
on Increasing Digital Literacy in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
Justino Lourenço, José Carlos Morais, Susana Sá, Nelson Neves,
Fernando Figueiredo, and Mário Costa Santos
Active Methodologies in Higher Education: An Interdisciplinary
Project Applied to Teachers’ Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
Aldina Sofia Silva, Joana Cavalcanti, Joana Rodrigues-Carvalho,
Joana Nogueira, Ricardo Oliveira, and Rosa Martins
Social Education, Professional Knowledge and Deontological
Culture Under Construction Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
Renata Machado and Isabel Baptista
Initial Training in Social Education: A Study About Teaching
Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767
Cindy Vaz and Isabel Baptista
Learning in the Context of Digital Technologies: What Lessons
Can We Learn from Covid-19 in Basic Education? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775
Teresa Santos, Palmira Alves, and Susana Sá
Canvas RGPD Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
Miguel Magalhães, Tiago C. Pereira, Eusébio Costa,
Agostinho Sousa Pinto, José Luís Braga, and Isabel Borges
The (Re)invention of Pedagogy Through Digital Technologies
in Time COVID-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799
Susana Sá, Teresa Santos, Palmira Alves, Ana Noronha, Patrícia Silva,
and César Freitas
xiv Contents
Technologies and Their Impact on the Leadership and Current

Management of Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
Pedro Louro, Susana Sá, João Pascoinho, Laurentino Guimarães,
Eusébio Costa, Agostinho Sousa Pinto, and Manuel Trigueiro da Rocha
Virtual Accessibility to Enhance Research Efficiency: The Case
of Bolivian Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819
Makhabbat Ramazanova, Fátima Matos Silva,
Helena Albuquerque, Georgina Chavez, Ing Cynthia Bojanic,
Ingrid Orlandrini, Edgar Iñiguez, Jorge Eduardo Fuentes Ávila,
Beatriz Margarita Barrera Zuleta, Silvia Marín Guzmán,
and Susana Uzqueda
Research Management and Virtual Accessibility: The Case
of Paraguayan Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
Fátima Matos Silva, Helena Albuquerque, Makhabbat Ramazanova,
José Manuel Silvero, Luciano Román, José Díaz, Carlos Montiel,
Jorge Eduardo Fuentes Ávila, Beatriz Margarita Barrera Zuleta,
and Silvia Marín Guzmán
Interpreting the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use
of Technology from the Perspective of Teachers of Higher
Education Institutions in Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843
Humberto M. Ferreira, Agostinho Sousa Pinto,
Uelinton da Costa Leonídio, and Gladistone Afonso
Remote Leadership: A (Re)qualification of School Leaders
in Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857
Joana Oliveira-Pereira, Susana Sá, João Pascoinho,
Laurentino Guimarães, Eusébio Costa, and Agostinho Sousa Pinto
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869

About the Editors
Anabela Mesquita is Professor at the Porto Accounting and Business School / Poly-
technic of Porto since 1990. Vice Dean between 2007–2018. She is President of the
SPACE European network. She is Member of the Algoritmi Research Centre (Minho
University) and former Director of CICE (Research Center for Communication and
Education). She is Member of MAERA and President of the External Evaluation
Committee for the A3ES (Agency for Evaluation and Accreditation in Higher Educa-
tion) in the area of Executive Management. She has been (and is) involved in many
European and national research projects both as Researcher and as Coordinator.
She has published numerous papers in various international journals and conference
proceedings. She is Member of the program committee and scientific committee of
several national and international conferences. She serves as Member of the Editorial
Board and referee for IGI Global. She also serves as Associate Editor of the Informa-
tion Resources Management Journal and is Co-Editor-in-Chief of the International
Journal of Technology and Human Interaction and Associate Editor of Helyion. She
has also been Evaluator and Reviewer for Erasmus+ National Agency and European
Commission projects. Her interests include education, e-learning, technologies and
information systems, knowledge management, innovation and intellectual capital.
António Abreu is Professor at the Instituto Superior de Contabilidade e Adminis-

tração do Porto, Instituto Politécnico do Porto. He has done Post-Doctorate in Infor-
mation Technologies and Systems, University of Coimbra, Department of Computer
Engineering, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Coimbra. He has
done Ph.D. in Software Engineering based on reusable components with human–
machine interface applications, by the University of Vigo, and Master in Manage-
ment Informatics by the University of Minho and Degree in Applied Mathematics
Informatics by the Lusíada University. He currently works as Lecturer, in the scien-
tific area of Information Systems, at Instituto Superior de Contabilidade e Admin-
istração do Porto/Politécnico do Porto, ISCAP/PPorto. He is full Member of the
CEOS.PP—Centro de Estudos Organizacionais e Sociais do Politécnico do Porto
(Oporto Polytechnic Center for Organizational and Social Studies). He is Asso-
ciate Researcher at Centro de Investigação CISUC—Center for Informatics and
xv
xvi About the Editors
Systems of the University of Coimbra. Between 2015 and 2018, he was Coordi-
nator of the Professional Higher Technical Courses (CTeSP) of Instituto Superior e
Contabilidade e Administração do Porto (ISCAP) and Market Development Coor-
dinator of Centro de Formação e Serviços ao Exterior do ISCAP. He is currently
responsible for the information systems disciplinary group of CTeSP. He is Member
of the scientific commission of several national and international conferences and
initiatives in the area of Information Systems and Technologies (CISTI—Confer-
encia Ibérica de Sistemas y Tecnologías de Información; WORLDCIST—World
Conference on Information Systems and Technologies; CAPSI—Conference of the
Portuguese Association of Information Systems; COMETEL—Congresso Interna-
cional de Computación y Telecomunicaciones; RISTI—Revista Ibérica de Sistemas
e Tecnologias de Informação); MICRADS—Conferência Internacional Multidisci-
plinar de Pesquisa Aplicada à Defesa e Segurança. He is General Chair of ICOTTS—
International Conference on Tourism, Technology & Systems, General Chair of
ICITED—International Conference in Information Technology & Education, and
Author of several books published in the area of Information Systems.
João Vidal Carvalho is Adjunct Professor at Institute of Accounting and Admin-

istration of Porto, Polytechnic of Porto (Portugal). He has done Post-Doctorate in
Technologies and Information Systems from University of Coimbra (Portugal). He
has done Ph.D. in Information Systems and Technology from University of Santiago
de Compostela (Spain), M.Sc. in Information Technology Management from Univer-
sity of Minho (Portugal), and Bachelor in Computer Science. He is Vice Director of
the CEOS.PP Research Center—Center for Organizational and Social Studies of the
Polytechnic of Oporto and member of LIACC Artificial Intelligence and Computer
Science Laboratory – FEUP. He is Member of the Iberian Systems and Information
Technology Association (AISTI), Effective Member of the ISCAP/Polytechnic of
Porto Skills Recognition/Certification committee and Conference General Chair of
the ICOTTS—The International Conference on Tourism, Technology & Systems. He
published some books in computer science/database management. He is Scientific
Committee Member of several conferences in the area of information systems and
technologies. He is currently involved in an international quality assurance research
project for Higher Education Institutions’ information systems.
Cristina Helena Pinto de Mello has done Ph.D. in Economics at FGV-SP. Global
Management Education Program at Nankai University, China. She is National Dean
for Research and Graduate Studies at ESPM and Former Provost at the Pontifical
Catholic University of São Paulo. She is former President of the Management Council
of the Sorocaba Hospital Complex. She was Deputy Coordinator of the Professional
Master’s in Consumer Behavior and is currently Professor in the Program. She is
actually Deputy Coordinator of the Research Group on New Developmentalism and
Social Democracy, Member of the editorial board of the Brazilian Journal of Polit-
ical Economy, Visiting Professor at Pantheon Sorbonne, Paris 1, Academic Member
of the Committee of Global Business Conferences, Brazilian Correspondent at the
International Association of University Professors and Speakers (IAUPL), part of the
About the Editors xvii
Educamídia Advisory Council. She has experience in the area of Economics, with
an emphasis on Growth and Economic Development and Behavioral Economics,
acting mainly on the following themes: Education, Brazilian economy, economic
situation, economic policy, consumption and economy. É economista formada pela
Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo, com mestrado e doutorado em
Economia de Empresas da EAESP/FGV, Global Management Education Program
pela Nankai University, tendo sido Vice Reitora Administrativa da Pontifícia Univer-
sidade Católica de São Paulo e Presidente do Conselho Gestor do Complexo Hospi-
talar de Sorocaba. Atualmente é Vice Coordenadora e Professora do Mestrado Profis-
sional em Comportamento do Consumidor da Escola Superior de Propaganda e
Marketing e 2 professora da Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo. Avali-
adora de cursos para o Ministério da Educação. Pesquisadora Associada do Projeto
Temático Estado Desenvolvimentista e Social coordenado pelo prof. Dr. Luiz Carlos
Bresser Pereira. Autora do quadro Economia sem Mistérios da TV Câmara. Orga-
nizadora de Reestruturação Industrial e Economia: Pensamento e Ação, Autora
em Integração Econômica Regional e Samuelson (coleção Economistas). Membro
da Comissão de Avaliação do Prêmio Família Empresária organizado pela Hoft
Consultoria.
Education 4.0 Approach for New Careers
at Mexico City-IPN
Vladimir Avalos-Bravo , Jorge Toro González, and Yaravid García Pérez
Abstract Mexico City Instituto Politecnico Nacional (IPN) has carried out
Academic Programs development that respond to public and private productive
sector’s needs, performing an evaluation process that allows curricular strengths and
weaknesses identification. This process is an essential exercise that allows to system-
atically collect quantitative and qualitative data to support new careers creation with
solid arguments for their realization. Every Academic Programs design consists of
a deep analysis of similar careers in other national and international educational
institutions, external references as every career basis, labor market analysis of each
proposed topics to determine industry needs and verify their relevance. Subsequently,
objectives, educational profile, mission, vision, and graduation profile are defined to
rise the program curricular structure, defining learning units and their characteristics
(number of theoretical and practical hours, credits), knowledge transfer, teaching
strategies and other curricular elements. The design of the trajectories or curricular
maps of the Upper Middle High Level programs, comprise learning units cataloged
in three training areas: (1) Institutional training, (2) Basic scientific, humanistic,
and technological training and (3) Vocational training, meanwhile Higher Education
programs comprise learning units cataloged in four training areas: (1) Institutional
training, (2) Basic scientific training, (3) Professional training and (4) Terminal and
integration training. This paper shows a brief description of the new careers created
in the 20182019 period, considering the most important characteristics, curricular
trajectories with an Education 4.0 approach.
V. Avalos-Bravo (B)
Instituto Politécnico Nacional, DEV, SEPI-ESIQIE, UPIEM, SARACS Research Group ESIME
Zacatenco, Mexico City, Mexico
e-mail: ravalos@ipn.mx
J. T. González
Instituto Politécnico Nacional, ESFM, Mexico City, Mexico
e-mail: jtoro@ipn.mx
Y. G. Pérez
Instituto Politécnico Nacional, ENCB, Mexico City, Mexico
e-mail: ygarciap1000@alumno.ipn.mx
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 1
A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 320,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_1
2 V. Avalos-Bravo et al.
Keywords Education 4.0 · Mexico City-IPN · E-learning · Blended learning ·

Self-managing
1 Introduction
In an era that focuses on smart technology, artificial intelligence, big data, data
analytics, customable services and robotics, educational institutions must produce a
highly skilled and capable workforce who can take advantage of the tools available in
this technologically transformed world. Education 4.0 requires promoting students’
digital skills and abilities so that schools train graduates who can join the industry
that already has many automated processes and are developing new technologies.
Technological advances in different fields of knowledge and the immersion of infor-
mation and technologies (IT) in all human activities, mark the concept of a new era,
in which industries combine both physical, digital, and biological capacities, towards
the creation of value, in what is called Industry 4.0 or Fourth Industrial Revolution
(4IR) [1]. Several studies have shown that Lean Management and IT can match and
complement each other [2], 4IR is currently presented as a process of transformation
and productive evolution. The globalized behavior of markets, new technological
trends and the rise of innovative methodologies have transformed the industry into
an interdisciplinary interaction space for organizational decision making [3].
In fact, 4IR is based on new technologies use, production processes and work
processes of organizations that have led new businesses and new jobs emergence.
This in response to companies’ digital transformation that include automation,
autonomous and automatic learning, artificial intelligence, internet of things, data
analytics, cybersecurity, augmented reality, robotics, nanotechnology, among many
other technologies. The rapid growth of 4IR has prompted Education Institutions
around the world, to transform current education system into the future educa-
tion system 4.0 [4]. For this reason, Mexico City Instituto Politecnico Nacional
(IPN), as technological education governing institution in this country, had to adapt
its training schemes to our society current situation, introducing in its academic
programs, cutting-edge topics that provide solutions to current and future problems
and that allow the students to be professionally trained. Technology has propelled
human civilization further over the past two decades than in the last two hundred
years [5]. Education has never been an alien to the great transformations of humanity
and even less when they originate in Science and Technology. An example of this
are Massive Online Open Courses (MOOCs) and Blended Learning (BL), that are
amongst newer technologically enhanced educational approaches that have been
introduced. MOOCs and BL are now being implemented to enhance the educational
processes within university classrooms worldwide [6], even the English publication
entitled the economist carried out an analysis of the current situation in the world
and that was strengthened after the pandemic that was experienced in recent years by
COVID-19 pandemic [7]. For this reason, it is necessary to make a current reflection
Education 4.0 Approach for New Careers at Mexico City-IPN 3
on the academic context and modernize different universities of the world plans and
study programs.
1.1 Instituto Politecnico Nacional
Mexico City-IPN is the state educational institution created to consolidate, through

education, economic, scientific, technological, cultural, and political independence
to achieve nation social progress, in accordance with Mexican Revolution historical
objectives, which are contained in Mexican United States Political Constitution [8].
Likewise, it is considered the most important technological education institution in
Mexico due to the quality of its graduates, their contributions to country development
and their social commitment. Mexico City-IPN serves three educational levels such
as medium high school level with almost 68,000 students, undergraduate level with
almost 135,000 students and postgraduate with almost 4500 students through its
different academic units and that serves three branches of knowledge, such as physics
and mathematical sciences, administrative and social sciences, and biological and
medical sciences. The predominant being is mathematical and physics sciences,
and its strength is based in teaching engineering [9]. Its presence in national life,
as well as the contributions made for benefit Mexican society, have been possible
because Mexico City-IPN has been very clear about the mission it must fulfill and
the strategies to face the challenges and opportunities of the national environment.
and international where the only constant is change [10] (Table 1).
Since its origins, Mexico City-IPN has been characterized by supporting and
promoting Mexican State policies development, related to the industrialization of the
country and with the permanent improvement of public, private and social companies.
Through preparation among of engineers, masters, and doctors among other profes-
sions; executing scientific and technological research projects, with the necessary
link to maintain its institutional actions relevance, and with knowledge dissemination
that, in its classrooms or with its information technologies, is applied and innovated
through educational process. Mexico City-IPN must align and adapt to the national
and international context, to become one of the advanced and strategic pillars of
the growth and development model with which Mexico, within 4IR framework, will
Table 1 Academic programs in operation and students enrolled 2019–2020 [10]

Total students
Description Men SM Women SM Men NSM Women NSM Total
Medium high school level 41,619 27,479 754 762 70,614
Undergraduate level 66,670 43,200 1,886 2,319 114,075
Postgraduate level 3,759 2,631 88 86 6,564
Total 191,253
* SM—Scholar Modality, NSM—Non-Scholar Modality
face with justice, sovereignty, independence, nationalism and cosmopolitanism, the

challenges and opportunities that arise, for a successful and proactive insertion of the
world governance and governability avant-garde modalities [11]. As the governing
institution of public technological education in Mexico, is obliged to respond to
world needs that require new scientific, technological and innovation capacities. In
addition, it is committed to preparing trained people for the social environment and
the labor market needs; since it is highly recognized by Mexican society for the role
it has played in national development since its inception, and it should preserve it.
This social recognition is palpable by the great demand it has from young people to
study at our institution. That is why must have a vision of the future, to prepare the
next
graduates, since its students will be incorporated into the world of work in 4, 5
or 8 more years, therefore, Mexico City-IPN must strengthen the pertinent aspects
that enable student’s preparation with these skills, attitudes, knowledge and values,
demanded by the new systems of production of goods and services, empowering the
student with personalized learning, as well as permanent teacher training [11].
1.2 Education 4.0
The connectivity revolution has brought changes in educational models and teaching
paradigms, as the introduction of the internet in everyday life has an impact on the
ways of establishing socio-communicative and educational relationships in society.
Through the changes that occur thanks to technology, different models of educa-
tion are established that facilitate the way of learning and understanding Didactics
and Pedagogy. Education progressed from 1.0 to 3.0 based on the learning needs
of the students: from maintaining a single direction to being bidirectional, having
autonomy over content control. For its part, Education 4.0 is based on the main trends
of innovation and change. 4IR learnings are focused on XXI century competencies,
such as self-direction, self-assessment, and teamwork. Education 4.0 is not an educa-
tional model; it is the application of the already existing information technology and
communication tools and new technologies generations to prepare people who adapt
easily to the changes presented by 4IR. Its main objective is to train future graduates,
future professionals, and future technicians to join this new reality of the service
industry, where digital technologies play a very important role [11] (Fig. 1).
Some features are:
● Flexible learning and closely linked to productive sector.
● Adaptive learning to each student profile with help of digital media (customiza-
tion).
● Self-managed learning.
● Learning with constant feedback from student’s own progress data analysis
(Learning Analytics).
● Cooperation between student and teacher as teaching basis.
Fig. 1 Education 4.0 evolution [11]
● Communication as the main vehicle for learning.

● Real problem solving is encouraged.
● Incorporates play and real environments creation as learning main objectives.
● Evaluation is a constant process to improve and progress.
● IT use for access, organization, creation, and dissemination of content tool.
In the current digital age, even the designing tasks have been altered and modi-
fied to cope with and benefit from the potentials of the new designing methods
appeared and made a way of themselves into the conventional design process [12].
In other fields, digital media use has changed the perspective of Industry, Augmented
Reality (AR) currently plays an important role to undertake the challenges in inte-
grating technologies to expedite the march towards Industrial Revolution, therefore,
the machining industry relies on new design concepts and methods of an innova-
tive human–machine interaction application that overlays virtual components on a
real-world environment [13]. It is due to these tools use those new techniques and
methodologies based on IT have achieved an evolution of teaching and learning
experience in Upper Middle Higher Education and Higher Education, that witnesses
many techniques being introduced towards student-centered learning. One of the
most popular techniques is game-based learning or known as gamification to enrich
students experience in classroom [14]. But to focus on these techniques, we must
first define a general strategic transformation.
2 Mexico City-IPN General Strategic Transformation
Instituto Politecnico Nacional as an institution of the Mexican State, has responded to

nation needs throughout 83 years, always maintaining its commitment to the princi-
ples that gave rise to it. 4IR, characterized by information technologies, communica-
tion between machines, robotics, artificial intelligence, internet of things, Big Data,
has an impact on practically all disciplines and professions, productive branches, life
of societies and governments, Mexico has also undertaken a very profound change
aimed at the Fourth Transformation of the nation. In this double environment Mexico
Fig. 2 Strategic
transformation agenda [15]
City-IPN must be a relevant part of the change, that is why a transformation of the
institution was proposed to ensure its relevance and enhance its capacities to achieve
higher levels of quality. The foundations of this transformation have been built with
community’s participation, in order to make this transformation viable and consid-
ering the work carried out, it was necessary to build a Strategic Transformation
Agenda that indicates the direction and institutional priorities in the short term [15].
The agenda brings together the results of the work carried out by the community.
The strategies, priorities and actions that comprise it have been the product of this
collaborative reflection, in addition to being a map that will guide our efforts, the
agenda defines growth opportunities through important projects that require intelli-
gence, creativity, and a desire for change. Their results will reinvigorate the identity
and pride and have a greater impact on national development (Fig. 2).
The strategic transformation Agenda allows to carry out a transformation in
teaching systems for societies benefit, allowing to improve their life quality, so in
order to carry out this project it is necessary to get into new technologies use and
self-preparation, physical-organizational infrastructure, and financial resources.
2.1 Strategic Actions
Research and Innovation with social impact is about strengthening research, techno-
logical development and innovation through the active participation of the commu-
nity in projects with national impact that affect country’s transformation, the way to
achieve it, is through institutional policies that encourage, recognize and encourage
support staff and students to participate in group research and impact innovation,
with their help, it is intended to develop and implement new students profiles,
academic staff and support staff will strength talent 4.0 in a new homeland context,
the way in which this is going to be carried out is through an education 4.0 and
industry 4.0 specialist team integration with technical, humanistic, socio-cognitive
and digital capacities that support teacher´s academies in profiles definition and of
study programs redesign. The aim is to train Mexico City-IPN student and teachers
through education
4.0 with pertinent programs and study plans linked to various sectors with ethical
values, pertinent regulations, and the appropriate resources and infrastructure to
attend qualified human needs for a more just, inclusive and democratic Mexico
according to the 4IR. This will be done through an awareness strategy, information
and training for support staff and redesign of study programs. It is necessary to get a
needs diagnosis for Infrastructure and equipment 4.0 that supports Mexico City-IPN
students training. It will be achieved through a classroom, workshop and laboratory
needs survey in every school. Mexico City-IPN governance aims to incorporate more
people into academic training offer at its different levels and modalities with inclusion
and equity criteria besides excellence (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3 Transformation General Strategy [15]

Fig. 4 General scheme for curriculum design at Mexico City-IPN [16]
2.2 Mexico City-IPN Methodology for Plans and Programs

Redesign Within New Educational and Academic Model
Framework
All these new designs followed the methodology proposed in Manual for the plans
and programs redesign within new Educational and Academic Model Framework,
volume 12 of 2003 Materials for Reform series. In order to design a curriculum, it
is necessary to look for answers to several questions: (1) what, when and how to
learn and teach, and (2) what, how and when evaluate what was learned and taught.
Hence one of the first steps are to define what students are expected to learn and what
is going to be taught, what will be the curricular contents in terms of a: necessary
knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values to train a professional at Mexico City-IPN.
A strategy of successive approximations is proposed to solve the different stages and
concentrate the information [16]. This first stage of curriculum design has as purpose
to identify essential aspects of the educational project, which it is a part, as well as
social demands to which the institution must respond, both institutional as external
to the institution, which should be considered to develop the curriculum. In other
words, it deals with the rationale and guidelines of curriculum proposal [17] (Fig. 4).
Every stage has important actions to do after identifying educational project,
Curriculum referents like Mission, Vision, Educational Model, External references,
public policies and environmental diagnosis, then Curricular objectives and profiles
as the General objective of the program and professional field, entry profile, grad-
uation profile. academic model and curricular objectives. Study Plan Design like
Content selection and content research, Course design, Subjects design and peda-
gogical and didactic guidelines and finally Implementation of the study plan,
Teacher’s profile and academic person training, operation conditions development.
The proposed methodology follows the canons of curriculum design, but with an
adaptation based on strategic planning and participatory that has been used in
Academic Reform process. In order to develop each stage mentioned above, it will be
essential to use the SISPLAN software that was developed by National Computing
Center for CourseWorkshop “Strategic planning of structural change and curriculum
in Mexico CityIPN. This software is a tool that allows to identify ideas and opin-
ions around topics defined, its use facilitates agile and harmonious participation of a
working group, this is achieved through the exposition of approaches, the consider-
ation of their input and a review assessment of said contributions [16]. The proposal
seeks to provide teachers, who are the builders of curricular designs, with the infor-
mation and guidance necessary for the development of flexible programs focused on
learning in accordance with the Institute’s educational proposal. For this reason, the
design by competencies is incorporated, that is, the knowledge, skills, attitudes that
are put into play in an integrated manner for performance in a field of action [18], also,
it is based on a constructivist perspective of learning that considers that knowledge
is built from the re-elaboration of the previous knowledge of the learner, from the
internal reorganization of schemes and from the conflict between what is known and
what should be known [19]. The results of the analysis of the internal referents and
external sources provide essential information to delimit the profile of the graduate,
the curricular objectives and some of the criteria necessary to determine the content
curriculum (knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values). When it comes to designing
a new program educational, this part of the curricular design has the purpose, in
addition to the above, to assess your viability.
3 Discussion and Results
The first strategic action to achieve Education 4.0 guiding priority is based on new
talent development through education 4.0 at different educational levels offered at
Mexico City-IPN (medium high, undergraduate and postgraduate level), it’s current
situation does not have the programmatic or structural normative elements to effec-
tively meet 4IR environment needs, so it is necessary to carry out a strategy based on a
road map for education 4.0 implementation that has a proposal for regulatory require-
ments, an awareness program, a preliminary draft of financial self-determination,
and a bonding strategy to present updated study plans and programs designed with
4.0 elements. It is necessary to create an entrepreneurial and research culture in
the community to innovate and influence the transformation of the country, but
the support and efforts to implement relevant programs to promote and create an
entrepreneurial culture are unlimited and this slows down the momentum of the
innovation, the development of new products, services and the training of highly
competitive professionals, which is why a strategy is necessary that articulates the
potential and institutional strengths to generate an entrepreneurial culture with the
use of technology and ingenuity to serve society.
Another necessary action is to develop new access, education, and training
programs talent 4.0, but many people in Mexico CityIPN are unaware of education
4.0 context and their graduates lack of training in industry 4.0 skills required and do
not have teaching and technological skills focused on education 4.0. To achieve this,
it is necessary to integrate a group of specialists in education 4.0 and in industry 4.0
who will carry out an analysis of industry 4.0 in Mexico development to define the
required professional profiles and the definition of the teachers who will train the 4.0
talent, to increase access to education with equity and inclusion principles is neces-
sary to increase physical and academic infrastructure for new social demands. It is
important to mention that there is an absence of an inclusive culture and specialized
human resources, especially one that is aimed at admission processes because do not
have a comprehensive care program for people from highly vulnerable sectors, and
there are insufficient learning unit’s different modalities offered without mentioning
that there is no academic flexibility. Therefore, it is necessary to create a strategic
plan for infrastructure, equipment and institutional services by dependency. Unfor-
tunately, there is still no precise information on the needs to attend to these academic
programs in accordance with education 4.0.
4 Conclusions
There is no clarity on the concept of Education 4.0, Industry 4.0 and Economy 4.0 by
students and teachers, which builds the way in which they perceive the new designed
plans and programs, due to change resistance.
Education 4.0 also known as smart education, is a transformation of education to
solve new human needs based on 4IR, this allows CIT´s technologies incorporation,
as well as artificial intelligence, data analytics, education gamification portability
among other techniques and apply them to all educational models through flexible,
adaptive, self-managed, and feedback learning.
All of this based on cyber-physical systems such as, IoT to project technolo-
gies such as, robotics, mechatronics, Big Data, nanotechnology, among others.
To achieve this virtual expansion, it is necessary to carry out education in virtual
spaces for academic and work purposes according to community needs using new
methodologies such as e-learning, m-learning, b-learning, among others.
Education 4.0 is not an educational model, it is an adaptive teaching and
learning process, therefore both students and teachers must be trained in the use
of technological tools to implement them in classroom.
The current organizational structure by careers must tend towards inter-
disciplinarity like the new ones to be part of an education 4.0 approach, and the
contribution of the community to achieve transformation requires the collaborative
work of teachers and students, through monitoring and compliance with the general
transformation strategy.
There is Complexity to acquire adequate infrastructure for Education 4.0 careers
laboratories due acquisition policies, but it is necessary great investment in Connec-
tivity and infrastructure in every Mexico City-IPN school, besides government and
internal regulations need to be modified in order to accomplish new strategic agenda
objectives.
It is necessary to strengthen the link with productive sectors of goods and services
to know their trends and Talent 4.0 requirements, as well as know the infrastructure
used in their processes because it is necessary to establish alliances in research,
development, and innovation projects, including technology transfer to improve the
infrastructure of Mexico City-IPN.
Acknowledgements This project was funded under the following grants: SIP-IPN: No-20220326,
and the support of DEV-IPN Instituto Politecnico Nacional.
References
1. Flores-Martínez, D., Uribe-Galvis, C.P.: Fourth industrial revolution technologies for agricul-
ture sector: a trend analysis in agriculture 4.0. In: Proceedings of the LACCEI international
Multi-conference for Engineering, Education and Technology 2020 (2020). https://doi.org/10.
18687/LACCEI2020.1.1.11
2. Adam, M., Hofbauer, M., Mandl, B.: Integration of IT into a lean basic training: target group-
specific insights and recommendations. Proc. Manuf. 31, 52–59 (2019). https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.promfg.2019.03.009
3. Araque González, G.A. et al.: Big data and the implications of the fourth industrial revolution-
challenges, opportunities, and future trends: a review. In: Revista Venezolana de Gerencia, vol.
26–93, pp. 33–47 (2021). https://doi.org/10.37960/rvg.v26i93.34967
4. Bujang, S.D.A., Selamat, A., Krejcar, O., Maresova, P., Nguyen, N.T.: Digital learning demand
for future education 4.0. Case Stud. Malaysia Educ. Inst. Informat. 7 2, 13 (2020)
5. Adnan, A.H.M., Ya Shak, M.S., Karim, R.A., Tahir, M.H.M., Shah, D.S.M.: 360-degree videos,
VR experiences and the application of Education 4.0 technologies in Malaysia for exposure
and immersion Adv. Sci. Technol. Eng. Syst. J. 5(1), 373–381 (2020)
6. Adnan, A.H.M. et al.: J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 1793, 012002. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/
1793/1/012002
7. Excelsiornewspaper,Haciaunanuevanormalidad2021–2030 https://www.excelsior.com.mx/
nacional/hacia-una-nueva-normalidad-2021-2030economist/1430036. Accessed 26 Dec 2021
8. IPN Homepage, IPN Mission. www.ipn.mx/mision. Accessed 26 Dec 2021
9. Avalos-Bravo, V., Arellano, C.C., González, J.T.: Modular educational ecosystem as academic
support during COVID-19 emergency at Mexico City-IPN in 2020. In: Mesquita, A., Abreu, A.,
Carvalho, J.V. (Eds.) Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology. Smart Innovation,
Systems and Technologies, vol. 256. Springer, Singapore (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-
981-16-5063-5_4
10. IPN 2019 Annual Report. https://www.ipn.mx/informe-anual-2019.pdf. Accessed 26 Dec 2021
11. IPN Education 4.0 Homepage, definition. https://e4-0.ipn.mx/educacion-4-0/. Accessed 27 Dec
2021
12. Abdelhameed, W.: Industrial revolution effect on the architectural design. In: 2019 International
Conference on Fourth Industrial Revolution (ICFIR). IEEE. Manama Bahrain (2019). https://
doi.org/10.1109/ICFIR.2019.8894774
13. Rani, N.A., Aziz, F.A., Hairuddin, A.A., Ahmad, S.A., Hemdi, A.R.: Augmented reality: capa-
bilities and challenges in machining industry aligned with industry 4.0. Adv. Mater. Process.
Technol. (2020). https://doi.org/10.1080/2374068X.2020.1793269
14. IPN Academic Secretariat, resources. https://www.ipn.mx/seacademica/recursos/. Accessed
26 Dec 2021
15. IPNStrategicTransformationAgenda. https://e4-0.ipn.mx/wpcontent/uploads/2019/10/agenda-
estrategica-transformacion-4-0.pdf/. Accessed 05 Jan 2022
16. Ab Rahman, R., Ahmad, S., Hashim, U.R.: A study on gamification for higher education
students’ engagement towards education 4.0. In: Piuri, V., Balas, V., Borah, S., Syed Ahmad,
S. (Eds.) Intelligent and Interactive Computing. Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, vol.
67. Springer, Singapore (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-6031-2_5
17. Estevez, N., et al.: Cómo diseñar y reestructurar un plan de estudios. Universidad de Sonora
Hermosillo, Guía Metodológica (1998)
18. Perrenoud, P.: Construir competencias desde la escuela, Oceano, Santiago de Chile (2002)
19. Tünnermann, C.: El constructivismo y el aprendizaje de los estudiantes. Universidades, vol.
48, pp. 21–32, Mexico (2011)
Business Strategies
and University-Pharmaceutical Industry
Collaboration
Eleonora Santos , Jacinta Moreira , and Rui Alexandre Castanho
Abstract The literature provides plenty of evidence that innovation is a key driver
of corporate competitiveness. However, R&D involves many financial resources.
Thus, a way to overcome firms’ financial constraints is to form partnerships and
collaborations with universities, usually funded by public capital, to achieve strategic
corporate objectives. Therefore, and considering that the pharmaceutical industry is
the one that most depends on the results of R&D, this article is a case study of how
a pharmaceutical company in the Centro region of Portugal, where there is already
a health cluster, incorporated the collaboration with the university in its long-term
business strategy. We employ a narrative analysis of the media news, to show the
management capacity in dealing with numerous and continuous challenges of the
present context to continue pursuing the company’s long-term goals. The results
show that the corporate strategy is based on two main aspects, on the one hand,
collaboration with the university aiming at technological differentiation and, on the
other, on the flexibility of production to achieve long term growth. Our contribution
to the literature on the subject is twofold. First, we introduce the specific case of
the pharmaceutical industry and argue that geographical distance is important to
establish collaborations with academia due to the nature of the research (human
health) that relies greatly in labs with human experiments. Second, we identify and
highlight the role of Innovation prizes and publishing agreements as part of a strategy
to attract talents and gain access to innovation, and to retain and increase the number
of customers, as well as to improve the company’s notoriety and reputation.
Keywords University-industry collaboration · Innovation · Business strategies ·

Pharmaceutical industry · Corporate performance
E. Santos (B) · J. Moreira

Centre of Applied Research in Management and Economics, Polytechnic Institute of Leiria,
Leiria, Portugal
e-mail: eleonora.santos@ipleiria.pt
R. A. Castanho
WSB University, Dabrowa Górnicza, Poland
College of Business and Economics, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_2
14 E. Santos et al.
1 Introduction
Low innovation contributes to low productivity and stagnation. Thus, innova-

tion is a key factor of competitiveness. The capacity for research and innova-
tion are some of the current instruments for evaluating the success of countries.
The innovation process develops through the relationships established between
industry and universities, contributing to the strengthening of the market shares
of the companies. The traditional form of university-industry cooperation is
through research contracts and agreements, formal networks between researchers
and universities/government/business laboratories. University-industry cooperation
occurs through the support in 4 different ways: general research; cooperative research;
knowledge transfer; and technology transfer [1–5]. In cooperation agreements and
alliances between the University and Industry, the main role of the university in
innovation is that of educator and promoter, trainer of scientifically and technolog-
ically prepared people and to promote the existence of new knowledge. Although
the main mission of universities is teaching and research, they can provide other
services to companies through information, consultancy, continuing education, labo-
ratory work, analysis and experimentation, research contracts, licensing, spin-off
companies, parks scientific research and business incubators [6–9].
The transfer of technology and knowledge from the university to the industry
through licensing has become more frequent. However, the university and the industry
have different goals. University researchers aim to expand the limits of knowledge
by seeking logical explanations, while industrial models concern applications that
lead to increments in products with a view to commercialization. For them, the
“Know-How” value is the value of new apps that improve their business. They
own the knowledge and protect it through patents. Academics, on the other hand,
intend to make their findings public through publications in specialized journals. For
researchers’ academic recognition is more important than profit, while for industrial-
ists the financial result is very important [10, 11]. Furthermore, although universities
are at the forefront of scientific innovation, it is within companies that product or
process-oriented technical change occurs in most fields [12–14]. Thus, this work
carries out a case study of university-pharmaceutical Industry cooperation as part of
a strategy aimed at sustainable corporate growth, in the Centro region of Portugal.
The aim is to discuss whether the, at least apparently, antagonistic interests convert
into real benefits for companies in the pharmaceutical Industry. By doing so, we
expect to provide a further understanding on how pharmaceutical companies can
integrate several ways to collaborate with universities as part as a strategy for long
term growth. Furthermore, the proximity between the university and the industry
is being pointed as favouring better geographical collaboration. Yet, some authors
argue that the evolution of new technologies and telecommunications has reduced
the obstacles caused by geographical distance, making it possible for companies to
cooperate with universities located in other regions and abroad. Our contribution to
the literature on university-industry collaboration is twofold. First, we introduce the
specific case of the pharmaceutical industry and argue that geographical distance is
Business Strategies and University-Pharmaceutical Industry Collaboration 15
important in this industry due to the nature of the research (human health) that relies
greatly in labs with human experiments. Second, we identify and highlight the role
of Innovation prizes and publishing agreements as part of a strategy to attract talents
and gain access to innovation, and to retain and increase the number of customers,
as well as to improve the company’s notoriety and reputation.
Following the introduction, Sect. 2 reviews the literature; Sect. 3 sets the frame-
work of R&D in the Portuguese Pharmaceutical industry and provides the motivation
for the case study; Sect. 4 further explains the motivation for the study and the choice
of industry and location; by describing data sources and methodology. Sections 5 and
6 present and discuss the results considering the strategies adopted by the company;
and Sect. 7 concludes.
2 Literature Review
University-Industry R&D collaboration allows companies to expand and update their

knowledge base and explore scientific knowledge and new ideas [15]. Establishing
science-based links makes it possible to take advantage of economies of scale in
research; facilitate the selection of talents and researchers and the access of companies
to external knowledge, which can increase the probability of producing innovation
[16].
Regional development strategies to drive sustainable economic growth should
prioritize university-industry collaboration as a driver of innovation mechanisms
through knowledge transfer [17]. In this context, strategic collaborations with high-
tech industries, such as pharmaceuticals or biotechnology, where R&D results are
commercially exploited, are crucial [18] to promote learning and improve market
performance in terms of product development. better products or processes, as well as
qualified human capital [19]. In this framework, the organizational strategy involves
converting knowledge into a source of sustainable competitive advantage [20].
A study [21] considered the following channels of knowledge transfer and
university-industry cooperation in their research: Collaborative research, research
contracts, technology-related consultancy; mobility of personnel between compa-
nies and universities, cooperation in the education of postgraduate students, voca-
tional training for workers; use of intellectual property rights by public scientific
organizations, spin-offs, informal contacts, and personal networks.
There are several types of university-industry cooperation: curriculum develop-
ment and delivery, lifelong learning, student mobility, academic mobility, commer-
cialization of R&D results, R&D collaboration, entrepreneurship and governance
[22].
The university-industry collaboration includes all joint research activities, publi-
cations, supervision of student theses and projects, contract research, consultancy,
and informal networks. The results are important for the industry to produce new
products or services, improve processes and performance and increase profits. They
can be commercialized through spin-offs, licenses, or patents. The objective of
16 E. Santos et al.
curriculum development is to develop human resources, through lectures in different

courses. Lifelong learning involves acquiring additional knowledge and skills during
one’s career. Student and academic mobility comprise the movement of students
and researchers to companies and the movement of researchers from industry to
universities. Universities also develop entrepreneurial cultures in cooperation with
companies. Cooperation in governance is located at the management level, such
as managers sitting on university boards or academics on company boards. Most
practiced forms of collaboration with universities are formal, namely joint ventures,
networks, consortia, and alliances [23]. High-tech sectors [24] such as pharmaceuti-
cals are more likely to establish collaborations with universities [25]. Furthermore,
the intensity of R&D increases the probability of companies establishing links with
universities and establishing research parks [26] since they have the necessary absorp-
tion capacity to benefit from the knowledge produced in universities [27], such as
increasing productivity in R&D [28], product or process innovations [29]. This type
of collaboration between university and Industry may also exert indirect effects such
as knowledge spillovers to other companies in the region, further boosting economic
growth via innovation and productivity.
3 R&D in the Portuguese Pharmaceutical Industry
Following [30] about 80% of R&D performed in Portugal is focused on the field of
medical and health sciences (see Fig. 1).
In this context, the pharmaceutical industry continues to hold most of the research
(Fig. 2), although this percentage has dropped from 94% in 2010 to 89% in 2020.
This evolution was naturally accompanied by an increase in the share of academic
research, respectively, from 6 to 11% over 10 years.
Regarding investment in R&D in 2010–2019 (Fig. 3), it appears that the largest
volume of investment was recorded in 2017–2018, with 100 and 116.8 million euros,
respectively. Of the total investment made in the period (885 million euros), 45%
is concentrated on the last four years (2016–2019). It should also be noted that the
Fig. 1 Investment by scientific domain, 2019

Fig. 2 Type of promoter
evolution has been uneven. Thus, from 2010 to 2014 there was a significant drop in
investment in R&D, followed by a recovery in the period from 2014 to 2016. This
can be at least partly explained by the 2008 financial crisis. After this period, one can
observe a new cycle, albeit shorter, with a decrease in 2017 compared to 2016 and an
increase in the following year. Finally, in 2019, there was a sharp drop in investment
(−22.1%) compared to the previous year.
Concerning the number of submitted and authorized clinical trials (Fig. 4), nearly
1,500 trials were submitted, of which 93% were approved. It should be noted that
years 2018 and 2020 recorded the highest number of submitted clinical trials, with
Fig. 3 Investment in R&D, 2010–2019

18 E. Santos et al.
Fig. 4 Number of clinical trials submitted and authorized, and year-on-year changes
159 and 187 trials, respectively; while regarding authorized trials, the years of 2016
and 2020 recorded the highest rates, with 144 and 155 authorized trials.
Analysing the number of authorized trials in terms of year-on-year change, it
appears that the years with the highest growth compared to the previous period
were 2013 (17.2%) and 2016 (17.1%). By contrast, the number of authorized trials
decreased in 2011 (−17.1%) and 2017 (−11.8%).
Considering the investment by type of research as of 2019, it is possible to observe
in Fig. 5 that 62% of the investment was made in applied research, while the remaining
38% were applied in experimental development.
The distribution of clinical trials by therapeutic area (Fig. 6), shows that, in 2020
more than half were carried out on Antineoplastics—Immunomodulators (43.3%)
and the Central Nervous System (14.4%). A similar trend was observable in 2018.
Fig. 5 Investment by type of research, 2019
Fig. 6 Distribution of clinical trials by therapeutic area
4 Data and Methodology
Considering the results of the previous section, namely: (1) the large share of R&D
in Portugal is focused on health sciences; (2) almost 90% of this research is carried
out by pharmaceutical companies: (3) Most of the research is carried out on anti-
cancer drugs; and bearing in mind that Coimbra concentrates a large number of
pharmaceutical companies and is served by a central hospital of prime importance
in the country, this article focuses on the collaboration between a pharmaceutical
company and the University of Coimbra in R&D activities. Indeed, located in the
Centro region of Portugal, Coimbra concentrates a vast number of clinical facilities
and healthcare technology companies now grouped in Coimbra Health, a cluster of
medicine, knowledge, and technology. In addition, the Hospital is the biggest hospital
with integrated research, teaching and patient care approach. Its mission is to deliver
high-quality clinical care, in a context of pre and postgraduate training, and a strong
20 E. Santos et al.
focus on research, scientific knowledge and innovation, to consolidate its position as

national and international reference in a growing number of health fields.
Created in 2001, Bluepharma is a national pharmaceutical company, based in
Coimbra. The company was bought from Bayer, by a group of professionals,
connected with the pharmaceutical industry. Thus, it’s main competitive advantage
started to be the state-of-the-art industrial knowledge from a well-established phar-
maceutical company. With over 30 years of experience in producing pharmaceutical
products but with eyes set on the future, Bluepharma concentrates its efforts on the
manufacturing, development, and marketing of pharmaceutical drugs, to guarantee
standards of the highest quality, based on the know-how of technical staff, and vision
and dynamism of the management team.
The methodological approach involves a narrative analysis from news on websites
regarding the collaboration between the University of Coimbra and Bluepharma.
This framework allows us to design a case study and draw some conclusions on the
strategies followed by the company.
5 Results
By employing the narrative analysis, results suggest that corporate strategy is based
on two main aspects, collaboration with the university of Coimbra and the flexibility
of production. Figures 7 and 8 shows the various aspects of the university-industry
collaboration obtained from our analysis.
Collaborative Research. Bluepharma collaborates with the Department of Chem-
ical Engineering from the University of Coimbra (UC), to benefit from its know-how
on the synthesis of new polymers applied to the development of new pharmaceuticals.
An example is the ongoing project Inject4Pain-New biomaterials and their applica-
tion in innovative formulations of injectables for controlled release of drugs. The
project develops complex injectables (initially lipid-based), whose demand is very
Fig. 7 Features of the university-pharmaceutical industry collaboration

Fig. 8 The beneficial mechanism of the strategy based on production flexibility
high given the lack of technical and scientific skills to develop and manufacture this
type of drug. This collaboration is part of the strategy, initiated in 2017, to achieve
technological differentiation aiming to increase competitiveness. This differentia-
tion is embodied in R&D activities to discover new biomaterials with application to
complex, polymeric-based injectable drugs to meet the needs of this market niche.
Another collaboration between Bluepharma, the UC and Portugal Ventures
Luzitin is via a clinical trial with a drug LUZ11 that shows a high potential in the treat-
ment of various types of cancer. The first trial, coordinated by IPO-Porto, focused on
patients with advanced head and neck cancer. The treatment is done through photo-
dynamic therapy, i.e., using a drug that can be activated by light, followed by its
photoactivation using laser light only at the tumour site.
Spin-offs. Bluepharma is a shareholder of TREAT U, SA, a spin-off of the UC.
This spin-off owns the patent of a new generation lipid-based nanoparticle to fight
cancer, the PEGASEMP. The research was carried out over several years at UC’s
Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC) in collaboration with national and
foreign research centres. The UC has obtained the “orphan drug” status from the
European Medicines Agency (EMA) and the American regulatory authority Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of malignant mesothelioma, a rare
type of cancer that results from exposure to asbestos. This status is a facilitating factor
for conducting clinical trials in patients. “Orphan drugs” are aimed at the diagnosis
or treatment of serious rare diseases, identified as orphan diseases, which affect a
small number of people compared to the general population. The PEGASEMP is a
fat (lipid) bubble, containing an anticancer compound which accesses solid tumours
through a new gateway, blocking tumour growth and invasion. This gateway allows
easier access of the developed nanoparticle to solid tumours, which are difficult to
22 E. Santos et al.
treat, resulting in significant inhibition of tumour growth, comparing to conventional

chemotherapy. The results obtained show that the delivery of drugs encapsulated in
nanotechnology-based systems, by targeting nucleolin and, consequently, the tumour
vasculature, is an innovative and disruptive mechanism, which tries to go beyond the
traditional dogmas of drug delivery at the level of solid tumours. As such, they have
the potential to be applied transversally to nanoparticles other than lipid in nature,
as well as to other drugs, and simultaneously extended to different types of tumours,
resulting in a therapeutic effect associated with better safety.
Innovation Awards. At an international level, Bluepharma associates with the UC
through Bluepharma Innovation Award | UC, designed to distinguish the best scien-
tific projects developed in Health Sciences. The research must be at least partially
conducted by Portuguese researchers, developed in national or foreign institutions.
The award is in line with the company’s commitment to open innovation and transla-
tional research. Along with the investment in in-house R&D, this initiative is part of
the Business strategy aiming at position the company in the vanguard of innovation
in the pharmaceutical industry.
Publishing agreements. In collaboration with the Coimbra University Press,
Bluepharma, presents every year a facsimile edition of Pharmacopea Meadiana, in a
collection of ten Portuguese Pharmacopoeias. The works belong to the bibliographic
funds of the General Library of the UC. Considering the current pandemic situation,
this initiative, arising from the consistency of pharmaceutical knowledge accumu-
lated over time, contributes to transmitting confidence to society about the use and
production of medicines in Portugal. It is also designed to increase the notoriety of
the company and customers’ trust in the company’s production methods.
The flexibility of production to achieve long term growth is another aspect of
Bluepharma’s Business strategy. Figure 8 shows the beneficial mechanism of the
strategy based on production flexibility, leading to the ultimate goal, the sustainable
Growth. Results show how production flexibility is designed to achieve knowledge
transfer, and thus increase productivity and sustainable growth. With this knowledge
and capacity that we are going to install to make these medicines, if the opportunity
and need arises, we can quickly convert them into vaccines and collaborate in this
area. We are not thinking of doing research and development on vaccines, we are
thinking of having the structure in place so that, if necessary, we can manufacture
vaccines from other brands. This strategy may include Outsourcing. The company
has commercial relations with more than 80 countries and has 120 international
customers among the most important companies in the world. The new factory is
prepared to produce vaccines from other brands in Portugal. Bluepharma plans to
invest e150 million in the creation of a technology centre for the drug in Coimbra,
which will include the technology park will include, among other investments, an
R&D unit for “complex injectables”, under investigation for the last six years, a
factory to industrialize these drugs and a logistics platform from which “all the
drugs” produced by Bluepharma will come.
Specialized in generic drugs, the pharmaceutical company is finishing an invest-
ment of around 50 million euros, in the expansion of the current facilities where it
started its activity in 2001 and in the construction of a new industrial unit, north of
Coimbra. This new factory is a high-power unit, of very cancer-oriented medicines,

which have been under development at Bluepharma for about 12 years. The field of
generic drugs is extremely competitive. Strategy to manufacture increasingly difficult
generics, as a way of differentiating and capturing markets with less competition and
much added value. The project locates potent solids (capsules and tablets for cancer)
in Eiras and manufactures complex injectables at Bluepharma Park in Cernache.
This factory in Cernache will be a boutique unit that will produce “niche drugs
with great added value. Bluepharma exports 88% of its production to more than
40 countries and aims to bring them to the population and society at much lower
costs through generics. The new factory may represent for Portugal the possibility of
making vaccines. Knowledge Transfer is intended to be achieved through: Clusters
-The free space in the park offers partners all the knowledge acquired. We can transfer
these skills to other companies, we have quality control laboratories, pharmacovig-
ilance, all the structure set up to form a very attractive pole for other companies
and create a true technological centre for medicine in Portugal; Partnerships with
other national pharmaceutical companies, customers and Suppliers; FDI attraction-
Bluepharma Park involves a consortium of ten entities, led by the pharmaceutical
company and involving departments and research centres of the UC and small and
medium-sized companies from the Centre and North regions, it intends to attract
other companies, as well as foreign direct investment, because the partnerships form
their working principles and values.
6 Discussion
University-industry cooperation focuses on the flow of people and ideas in both direc-
tions, contributing to the increase of economic benefits at the national level. Indus-
tries often need a rapid infusion of technological and engineering knowledge in the
development of some products and services, thus resorting to universities [31–35].
From the analysis above it became clear that Bluepharma is constantly promoting
clinical research. The company’s tight connection to the Coimbra University and
its Faculty of Pharmacy, provides scientific differentiation, allowing it to access to
cutting-edge processes and products. The emphasis on increasing R&D partnerships
with Coimbra University and its Translational Research Centres and the build-up of
an intellectual property and R&D expertise are main tools to achieve national and
international leadership in research. The proximity between the university and the
industry is being pointed as favouring better geographical collaboration. Yet, some
authors argue that the evolution of new technologies and telecommunications has
reduced the obstacles caused by geographical distance, making it possible to phar-
maceutical companies to cooperate with universities located in other regions and
abroad. We argue that geographical distance is important in the case of the pharma-
ceutical industry due to the nature of the research (human health) that relies greatly
in labs with human experiments. Hence, the cases of reduced cooperation between
university and industry stem from the characteristics of the productive structure of
24 E. Santos et al.
the region and, sometimes, from the lack of Government assistance in promoting
the university-industry link [36–40]. The existence of University-Industry interface
institutions, through their role in the execution of research contracts, collaboration
in applied projects, provides opportunities for companies, making them competi-
tive. This is especially critical when supporting the financially distresses small and
medium-sized companies that prevent their access to large R&D laboratories other-
wise [41–45]. Companies live with uncertainty arising from scientific and technical
knowledge. In this context, University Laboratories contribute significantly to filling
the gap with existing scientific and technological knowledge, and sometimes are
responsible for the commercial success of the innovations. The success of these inno-
vations is determined by basic (fundamental) long-term research, by their institutional
configurations and by the transfer of knowledge/technology that bring together and
facilitate the relations between basic science, produced in universities, and industrial
innovation, applied in companies and industries [46–52]. Thus, numerous institutions
have been established in universities, such as the UC, originated from the initiative of
university researchers and companies, with the objective of, with greater efficiency
and professionalism, developing activities in close collaboration with companies
and the community at large. They act as interface institutions, dedicated to applied
research as well as to the transfer of knowledge/technology to companies.
7 Conclusion
In Portugal, technological innovation is still not at the level of the other European
Union countries. Due to the predominance of small companies in Portugal, with still
low levels of R&D and, sometimes, poorly qualified HR, the motivation for R&D is
reduced. As a result, companies have, for the most part, a poor performance in this
field, and the role of universities as engines of technological innovation have been
little used. Thus, although universities have the capacity to generate new ideas and
technologies, R&D of Portuguese universities continues, in general, to be leveraged,
either for the benefit of the institution itself or, above all, for the benefit of society. The
still low interaction between universities and industry was demonstrated in Sect. 2.
Indeed, the large majority of R&D in health sciences was carried out by pharmaceuti-
cals, and academia was only responsible for 11% in 2020. Typically, the cooperation
is established through Private non-profit institutions, short-term research contracts
and occasional help to solve technical problems of companies that do not have the
means to solve them, thus occurring a transfer of knowledge to companies. However,
there has been a growth and development of the Scientific and Technological System
that benefited from R&D support programs through the Community Support Frame-
works for Portugal. In contrast to this dismal scenario, in Coimbra there is a growing
cooperation between the university and Bluepharma. By increasing the technological
capacity of this industry, this collaboration contributes to increasing competitiveness
of Bluepharma. Bearing in mind the results, we suggest the creation of research poli-
cies and the valorisation of intellectual property that allows academia to constitute
itself in a system that privileges technological progress and economic development

at local level. It is fundamental to create mechanisms that lead to the emergence of
the true entrepreneurial university. Limitations of this analysis include the absence of
quantitative studies that allow us to assess how these strategies have had an impact on
a series of financial indicators that reflect the company’s performance on the one hand
and, on the other hand, the absence of comparative studies with other pharmaceutical
companies in the region or other regions countries that allow for more insights into
the evaluation of the adopted strategy and its effectiveness. These caveats provide
avenues for future research, namely a quantitative study that allow us to assess how
these strategies have had an impact on a series of financial indicators that reflect the
company’s performance. Another possible research would be a comparative study
with other pharmaceutical companies in the same region or other regions/countries
that provide further insights into the effectiveness of the adopted business strategy.
Acknowledgements This research was financed by National Funds of the FCT—Portuguese Foun-
dation for Science and Technology within the project UIDB/04928/2020 and under the Scientific
Employment Stimulus—Institutional Call CEECINST/00051/2018.
References
1. Weerasinghe, I.M.S., Dedunu, H.H.: Contribution of academics to university–industry knowl-

edge exchange: a study of open innovation in Sri Lankan universities. Ind. High. Educ. 35(3),
233–243 (2021)
2. Wang, W., Liu, Y.: Does University-industry innovation community affect firms’ inventions?
The mediating role of technology transfer. J. Technol. Transf. 1–30 (2021)
3. Grimaldi, R., Kenney, M., Piccaluga, A.: University technology transfer, regional specialization
and local dynamics: lessons from Italy. J. Technol. Transf. 46(4), 855–865 (2021)
4. Gu, Z., Meng, F., Farrukh, M.: Mapping the research on knowledge transfer: a scientometrics
approach. IEEE Access 9, 34647–34659 (2021)
5. Isaeva, I., Steinmo, M., Rasmussen, E.: How firms use coordination activities in university–
industry collaboration: adjusting to or steering a research center? J. Technol. Transf. 1–35
(2021)
6. Vac, C.S., Fitiu, A.: Building sustainable development through technology transfer in a
Romanian university. Sustainability 9(11), 2042 (2017)
7. Fassin, Y.: The strategic role of university-industry liaison offices. J. Res. Admin. 1(2), 31–42
(2000)
8. Puntillo, P., Rubino, F., Veltri, S.: Transferring knowledge to improve university competi-
tiveness: the performance of technology transfer offices. In: Governance and Performance
Management in Public Universities, pp. 129–147. Springer, Cham (2022)
9. Arcuri, M.C., Bocchialini, E., Gandolfi, G.: From local academic spin-off to international firm:
the case of VisLab. Int. Bus. Res. 13(6), 100–100 (2020)
10. Tootell, A., Kyriazis, E., Billsberry, J., Ambrosini, V., Garrett-Jones, S., Wallace, G.: Knowl-
edge creation in complex inter-organizational arrangements: understanding the barriers and
enablers of university-industry knowledge creation in science-based cooperation. J. Knowl.
Manage. (2020)
11. Fernandes, G., O’Sullivan, D.: Managing a major university–industry collaboration R&D
program. In: Managing Collaborative R&D Projects, pp. 163–182. Springer, Cham (2021)
26 E. Santos et al.
12. Radnejad, A.B., Vredenburg, H.: Disruptive technological process innovation in a process-
oriented industry: a case study. J. Eng. Tech. Manage. 53, 63–79 (2019)
13. Jøranli, I., Strønen, F.: Developing innovation capabilities through ecosystem collaboration:
the role of the entrepreneurial university. In: ECMLG 2021 17th European Conference on
Management, Leadership and Governance, p. 233. Academic Conferences limited (2021
14. Krätzig, O., Sick, N.: Exploring the role of entrepreneurial passion for facilitating university
technology commercialization: insights from battery research as an interdisciplinary field. J.
Eng. Tech. Manage. 60, 101627 (2021)
15. Galán-Muros, V., Plewa, C.: What drives and inhibits university-business cooperation in
Europe? A comprehensive assessement. R&D Manag 46(2), 369–382 (2016)
16. Berbegal-Mirabent, J., García, J.L.S., Ribeiro-Soriano, D.E.: University–industry partnerships
for the provision of R&D services. J. Bus. Res. 68(7), 1407–1413 (2015)
17. Ferreira, J.J., Raposo, M.L., Fernandes, C.I., Dejardin, M.: Bad news travels fast: the role
of informal networks for SME-KIBS cooperation DANIEL FESER AND TILL PROEGER.
In: Knowledge Intensive Business Services and Regional Competitiveness, pp. 100–114,
Routledge (2016)
18. McCarthy, I.P., Ruckman, K.: Licensing speed: its determinants and payoffs. J. Eng. Tech.
Manage. 46, 52–66 (2017)
19. Robertson, J., McCarthy, I.P., Pitt, L.: Leveraging social capital in university-industry knowl-
edge transfer strategies: a comparative positioning framework. Knowl. Manage. Res. Pract.
17(4), 461–472.2.1 (2019)
20. Archer-Brown, C., Kietzmann, J.: Strategic knowledge management and enterprise social
media. J. Knowl. Manage. 22(6), 1288–1309 (2018)
21. Polt, W., Gassler, H., Schibany, A., Rammer, C., Schartinger, D.: Benchmarking industry—
science relations: the role of framework conditions. Sci. Public Policy 28(4), 247–258 (2001)
22. Davey, T., Baaken, T., Galan Muros, V., Meerman, A.: The state of European university-business
cooperation. Part of the DG education and culture study on the cooperation between higher
education institutions and public and private organisations in Europe (2011), 140 p
23. Al-Tabbaa, O., Ankrah, S.: Social capital to facilitate ‘engineered’university–industry collab-
oration for technology transfer: a dynamic perspective. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Chang. 104,
1–15 (2016)
24. Segarra-Blasco, A., Arauzo-Carod, J.M.: Sources of innovation and industry–university
interaction: evidence from Spanish firms. Res. Policy 37(8), 1283–1295 (2008)
25. Levy, R., Roux, P., Wolff, S.: An analysis of science–industry collaborative patterns in a large
European University. J. Technol. Transf. 34(1), 1–23 (2009)
26. Petruzzelli, A.M.: The impact of technological relatedness, prior ties, and geographical distance
on university–industry collaborations: a joint-patent analysis. Technovation 31(7), 309–319
(2011)
27. Veugelers, R., Cassiman, B.: R&D cooperation between firms and universities. Some empirical
evidence from Belgian manufacturing. International. J. Ind. Org. 23(5–6), 355–379 (2005)
28. Baba, Y., Shichijo, N., Sedita, S.R.: How do collaborations with universities affect firms’
innovative performance? The role of “Pasteur scientists” in the advanced materials field. Res.
Policy 38(5), 756–764 (2009)
29. Kodama, T.: The role of intermediation and absorptive capacity in facilitating university–
industry linkages—an empirical study of TAMA in Japan. Res. Policy 37(8), 1224–1240 (2008)
30. Apifarma. https://www.apifarma.pt/knowledge/indicadores/industria-farmaceutica-em-por
tugal/. Accessed 25 Jan 2022
31. Tagliazucchi, G., Marchi, G., Gherardini, F., Leali, F.: The multiple roles of universities in UI
collaborations: the case of Emilia-Romagna motor vehicle industry. J. Eng. Tech. Manage. 62,
101645 (2021)
32. Bean, M.: Review of university-industry collaboration in teaching and learning (2021)
33. Mendoza, P., Öcal, S.D.: Faculty engagement in university–industry Linkages in Turkey and
the United States: national technocenters versus ecosystems of knowledge. Higher Educ. 1–18
(2022)
34. Sim, T.S.: Exploratory research into intellectual property commercialisation: the role of poly-
technics in facilitating small and medium enterprise development in Singapore (Doctoral
dissertation) (2021)
35. Asheim, B.T., Herstad, S.J.: Regional innovation strategy for resilience and transformative
industrial path development: evolutionary theoretical perspectives on innovation policy. East.
J. Eur. Stud. 12 (2021)
36. Amaral, M., Ferreira, A., Teodoro, P.: Building an entrepreneurial university in Brazil: the role
and potential of university–industry linkages in promoting regional economic development.
Ind. High. Educ. 25(5), 383–395 (2011)
37. Coenen, L.: The role of universities in the regional innovation systems of the North East of
England and Scania, Sweden: providing missing links? Eviron. Plann. C. Gov. Policy 25(6),
803–821 (2007)
38. Thorn, K., & Soo, M.: Latin American universities and the third mission: trends, challenges
and policy options, vol. 4002. World Bank Publications (2006)
39. Asheim, B.T., Moodysson, J., Tödtling, F.: Constructing regional advantage: towards state-
of-the-art regional innovation system policies in Europe? Eur. Plan. Stud. 19(7), 1133–1139
(2011)
40. Ranga, L.M., Miedema, J., Jorna, R.: Enhancing the innovative capacity of small firms through
triple helix interactions: challenges and opportunities. Technol. Anal. Strat. Manage. 20(6),
697–716 (2008)
41. Santos, E.A.C.: Externalties from foreign direct investment: evidence from manufacturing firms
in Portugal (Doctoral dissertation, 00500: Universidade de Coimbra) (2018)
42. Peneder, M.: The problem of private under-investment in innovation: a policy mind map.
Technovation 28(8), 518–530 (2008)
43. Hall, B.H., Lerner, J.: The financing of R&D and innovation. In: Handbook of the Economics
of Innovation, vol. 1, pp. 609–639. North-Holland (2010)
44. Scellato, G., Ughetto, E.: The Basel II reform and the provision of finance for R & D activities
in SMEs: an analysis of a sample of Italian companies. Int. Small Bus. J. 28(1), 65–89 (2010)
45. Kina, L.I.N.S.U.: National System of Industrial Innovation: Dynamics of Capability Building
in Korea, pp. 357–383. Oxford University Press, New York (1993)
46. Debackere, K., Veugelers, R.: The role of academic technology transfer organizations in
improving industry science links. Res. Policy 34(3), 321–342 (2005)
47. Schut, M., Klerkx, L., Sartas, M., Lamers, D., Mc Campbell, M., Ogbonna, I., Leeuwis, C.:
Innovation platforms: experiences with their institutional embedding in agricultural research
for development. Exp. Agric. 52(4), 537–561 (2016)
48. Stezano, F.: The role of technology centers as intermediary organizations facilitating links for
innovation: four cases of federal technology centers in Mexico. Rev. Policy Res. 35(4), 642–666
(2018)
49. Gelijns, A.C., Thier, S.O.: Medical innovation and institutional interdependence: rethinking
university-industry connections. JAMA 287(1), 72–77 (2002)
50. Roux, D.J., Rogers, K.H., Biggs, H.C., Ashton, P.J., Sergeant, A.: Bridging the science–manage-
ment divide: moving from unidirectional knowledge transfer to knowledge interfacing and
sharing. Ecol. Soc. 11(1) (2006)
51. Dell’Anno, D., Del Giudice, M.: Absorptive and desorptive capacity of actors within university-
industry relations: does technology transfer matter? J. Innov. Entrepr. 4(1), 1–20 (2015)
52. Iammarino, S., McCann, P.: The structure and evolution of industrial clusters: transactions,
technology and knowledge spillovers. Res. Policy 35(7), 1018–1036 (2006)
Ethics and Marketing of Social
Integration in Cultural, Heritage
and Educational Contexts
Zilpa Lovisi Abreu , Bruno Barbosa Sousa ,
and Deibe Fernández-Simo
Abstract In the current situation, Covid-19 has highlighted inequalities in all parts
of the planet, demarcating a gap between the pandemic framework and social rela-
tionships, which require ethics and care in the distance scenario. In this sense, there
is an urgent need to proceed with the ethics of care, both in terms of knowledge and
action, and it is opportune to reflect on the link between health and education, in a
systematic way. Therefore, in this article, the objective is to analyze the systems of
acquisition of peace, education and health, aiming to highlight a culture based on
the stimulation of conscience, in favour of integration and peaceful transposition of
life in society. It is believed that the ethics of care is an element of social integra-
tion, based on moral feelings and the human ability to responsibly care for others.
From this perspective, it appears that adequate support guarantees the continuity of
learning and helps to reduce socio-educational gaps. In this way, it is necessary to
defend a social experience in which differences can be recognized, valued and used,
in line with the fulfillment of human rights, and the equality of conditions for all,
especially those that allude to the containment of the recent pandemic.
Keywords Ethics · Education · Peace · Covid-19 · Social integration · Cultural

marketing · Heritage
1 Introduction
With the growing concern of companies, forums dedicated to the promotion of ethical
practices and models, studies on the subject, the introduction of disciplines in various
courses have emerged around the world, which naturally led to the development of
the area of business ethics [1–3]. For various reasons, business ethics has decisively
Z. L. Abreu · D. Fernández-Simo
Universidad de Vigo, Vigo, Spain
e-mail: jesfernandez@uvigo.es
B. B. Sousa (B)
Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave (IPCA), CiTUR and UNIAG, Barcelos, Portugal
e-mail: bsousa@ipca.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_3
30 Z. L. Abreu et al.
influenced companies’ behavior and respective communication actions, particularly

marketing campaigns [3].
Ethics and care require, in the current conjuncture, distancing, that is, there is
a gap between the pandemic situation and social relationships. This situation has
hampered the work of health agents, in addition to replacing face-to-face education
with remote education, that is, at a distance.
In addition, these and other changes, as a result of Covid-19, have highlighted
social inequalities in all parts of the planet, with emphasis on the current global health
crisis. In this significantly chaotic context, there is an urgent need to proceed with
the ethics of care, both in terms of knowledge and action. And it is in this sphere that
inclusive education systems fit in, in order to combat the pressure imposed by the
pandemic, thus building the due resilience to the great challenges presented.
Human ethics is based on moral feelings and the human ability to care for others
in a responsible way, so that it is narrowed in the relationship arising from the
link between health and education in a systematized way. According to the Global
Education Monitoring Report, Covid-19 makes several structural problems latent,
culminating in a discriminatory impact on different population groups, compromising
the ability to respond to the pandemic disease [4].
That said, it is attested that this scenario presents significant challenges for educa-
tional systems, without forgetting the social lessons about what really matters for
people’s training and lifelong learning. From this perspective, it is essential to learn
from this crisis, so that education systems are prepared to react quickly, offering
support to those most in need, in addition to ensuring the continuity of learning,
helping to reduce socio-educational gaps.
As the focus of this article, the objective is to analyze the systems for the protection
of peace, education and health, from the perspective of the regulations of the United
Nations (UN) and the World Health Organization (WHO), considering the need to
highlight a culture based on stimulating awareness, in favor of integration and the
peaceful transposition of life in society.
Thus, the development of this study is justified, it aims to highlight the importance
of defending social cohesion, because, although there are no equal opportunities for
different social groups, it is necessary to defend a common social experience in which
differences can be recognized, valued and taken advantage of.
According to [5], peace, education and health are goods inherent to human beings
since ancient times, having received greater prominence and greater scientific dedi-
cation in the last two centuries. In this sense, it is intended to address the elements
that stimulate reflection on the importance and propagation of peace in the context
of social development, in line with the fulfillment of human rights, and the equality
of conditions for all, especially those that allude to the containment of the recent
pandemic.
Ethics and Marketing of Social Integration in Cultural, Heritage … 31
2 Ethics, Social Integration and Cultural Marketing
According to [6], ethics is a set of moral principles or values of society, which

indicates what is right or wrong, good or bad, influencing the way individuals act. [7]
makes the link between ethics and business ethics by stating that ethics constitutes the
set of moral values or principles that define what is right or wrong for a person, group
or organisation. According to [3] business ethics are all ethical principles identified
and implemented in business activity to ensure that the interests of all stakeholders
are respected. Business ethics affect the decision making process, constituting a
regulatory method of ethical values and principles in accordance with the social
and cultural values in which the company is involved, contributing to the reputation
and organizational results and thus favoring all stakeholders of the organization [8].
Although in literature prior to the current pandemic context, it is understood that the
relationship in the social context is permeated by differences and obstacles that even
require institutional interventions for conflicts and difficulties to be resolved [9].
Education systems are directly influenced and shaped by the social, cultural,
economic and political structures in which they are embedded. In this sense, it is
important to reflect on the learning gaps that are and were noticeable mainly by
younger students, as they face greater difficulty in continuing their distance studies,
in the current context of the Covid-19 pandemic. Regarding educational systems,
which have always had significant inclusion deficits, the pandemic made it difficult
to guarantee continuity as a result of disease control measures (social distancing)
which, in turn, made them stop attending schools in person., and this increased the
risk of school dropout, parallel to the economic crisis that affected family income,
in addition to compromising nutrition, as many eat basic food at school [10].
In order to combat Covid-19, and to put into practice the prevention and control
measures of diseases of international interest, an International Health Organization
was created, through the International Conference of Health Experts, with the purpose
of tacking the structure and discuss the serious problem presented [5].
Thus, several coordinated measures were taken, with the establishment of collec-
tive vaccination programs, medical and hospital treatments, sanitary cordons, among
other common protocols.
In this sense, as has happened at other times, the current pandemic is living as
declared by the WHO in early 2020, allowing for various approaches, including legal
ones. In this study, we also focus on the pursuit of perpetual international peace, in
order to reflect on the relationship of the culture of peace, in positive and propositional
discourse, in the current pandemic scenario.
Therefore, and with a cultural and educational marketing perspective, for
marketers, addressing the consumer’s mind and making their products part of the
customer-evoked mix becomes crucial, so building a strong brand and positioning
it accurately [11], the same applies to the cultural and creative sector. The process
begins with the search for relationships or brand attachments, measuring the strength
of the connection between the brand and consumer self-concept [12]. In recent
years, several researchers have devoted special attention to the study of the cultural
brand, “as it is something that, in addition to facilitating recognition, favors loyalty

and increased awareness” [13]. Studies on consumption have also intensified, high-
lighting two main approaches: the first considers clients as rational and goal-oriented
individuals; the second, from an experiential perspective, emphasizes pleasure orien-
tation and states that clients continually seek fantasies, feelings, and fun [14].
For instance, and according to [3] the firms should promote efforts to ensure full
equality of opportunity among all employees and with all stakeholders by persis-
tently combating any form of discrimination and prmoting diversity and inclusion
and spreading freedom of opportunity and treatment between men and women. To
this end, it must recruit and select its employees according to technical criteria and
ethical principles.
The education and cultural areas are as complex and diverse as its own concept,
encompassing various areas of science and knowledge, so finding a definition of
culture seems difficult and with very different definitions. Sousa et al. [13] state
that culture is nothing more than the social itself, represented by the totality of the
relationships that the groups maintain among themselves, within their own culture,
and with other cultures; adding that it is the result of social invention, being learned
and transmitted through learning and communication. With integration, SMEs must
disseminate and promote their identity, which defines their organisational culture, to
the employees of the organisation and at all educational or organisational levels, in
order to involve and boost strategic policies and in accordance with business ethics
[3]. Still, it is pertinent to explain some mechanisms foreseen in the Charter to achieve
its purposes, such as the exercise of tolerance; peaceful coexistence inspired by the
practice of good neighborliness; peacekeeping strategies; search for international
security; recognition of the conscientious and limited use of the armed forces; and
promoting the economic and social progress of all peoples.
3 Methodology
The manuscript presents a theoretical reflection on the ethics of care in the context of
Covid 19 for the rescue of peace and minimization of the critical health situation as
elements of social integration. Specifically, a literature review on the research topic is
presented. The next stages of investigation will consist in the elaboration of in-depth
interviews with specialists in the subject. The objective of the in-depth interviews will
be to delimit the object of study and understand the phenomenon studied in the post-
pandemic context. Thus, 8 in-depth interviews will be conducted with experts on the
topic in the Brazilian context. Subsequently, a focus group with 8–12 participants will
be developed in order to discuss the main topics of study (interview guide) among
participants from different generations. Considering the objectives of the present
research, the selected methodology was the case study, using primary and secondary
sources. The case study methodology is often used in explanatory and exploratory
research, being a useful strategy to answer the questions “why”, “what” and “how”
for knowledge development detailed and intensive information about a case or a small
number of related cases. In this sense, the present research uses an exploratory and
bibliographical research, with quantitative approach (Brazilian context) with data
collection, analysis and interpretation of results.
4 Preliminary Analysis
In order to establish a state of peace, it is necessary to count on the voluntary coop-

eration of society, with the aim of coercing any violence, including anything that
may threaten the state of economic and social security. It also focuses on the reduc-
tion of military force, based on international disarmament policies conceived in the
general security system. It is noted that this approach to peace, of course, is not
directly aligned with the war context, although the context of the pandemic compro-
mising international relations of purchase and sale, of coming and going, can generate
unusual situations that compromise peace and well-being. be among the nations.
Regarding the preparation of societies to live in peace, the following principles
are highlighted: (a) all human beings have the immanent right to live in peace,
regardless of their particularities (art. 1); (b) constitute crimes against peace and
are prohibited by international law any planning, preparation or attempted war of
aggression (art. 2 c/c art. 5, 2 of Resolution nº 29/3314); (c) States must abstain from
apologies for wars of aggression, in accordance with the purposes and principles of
the United Nations (art. 3); (d) every State must promote beneficial and equitable
cooperation, inspired by friendship and good neighborly practices, regardless of their
socioeconomic status, in the political, economic, social and cultural spheres (art. 4);
(e) the right to self-determination, independence, equality, sovereignty and territorial
integrity of States must be respected, including the inviolability of their borders (art.
5); (f) it is necessary to eliminate the threat of the arms race, in addition to promoting
efforts towards general disarmament, under international control (art. 6); (g) every
State must prevent manifestations of colonialism, racism, racial discrimination and
Apartheid (art. 7); and, (h) every State must mitigate the promotion of hatred and
prejudice against other peoples (art. 8) [15].
Regarding the general ceasefire appeal, while a substantial number of parties to the
conflict expressed their acceptance, armed groups continued to be active in several
countries such as Afghanistan, Darfur/Sudan, Yemen, Libya, Mali, Central African
Republic (CAR), DRC and South Sudan, among others.. In Africa, in the countries
where the main UN peacekeeping missions are deployed, there have been cases of
armed violence, mostly carried out by armed groups and some attacks related to
intercommunal violence [16].
It should be noted that the dimension of the impacts on peace operations in the
context of the pandemic changed the posture adopted by armed groups, although a
deeper analysis of the crisis is still in progress. Reis Gonzaga et al. [17] reinforce
the search for equity, social justice and a culture of peace, supporting the importance
of implementing the 2030 Agenda to minimize social vulnerabilities, with respect
to the social isolation guidelines defined by the WHO. In the context of Covid-19,
the collapse of the health system cannot be forgotten, when observing the absence
of hospital beds and the number of deaths from the disease. To face the chaos of
public health, viable sustainability criteria must be considered, putting into practice
the main measures of the combat and prevention protocol.
Aguilar et al. [16] confirm that international crises are an opportunity for Interna-
tional Organizations (IO) to be more active, thus increasing their legitimacy in the
system. To this end, it is necessary to seek collective solutions, establishing norms,
information and advice to deal with international health issues, such as those arising
from programs related to combating and preventing Covid-19. The authors add that
“in addition to health issues, the maintenance of peace and global security is among
the challenges that require multilateral actions by the United Nations (UN)”.
The mobilization of actors in national and international networks to contain the
Pandemic has intensified even today, in the first months of 2022, involving private
and ministerial institutions for a fight that will establish peace and return to life
without contingencies and remote work.
In Brazil, among other highlights, the performance of the Ebserh Network was
evidenced, in the face of the Covid-19 pandemic, which implemented the Special
Operations Committee (COE) to establish effective strategies and actions at the
national level. Since the first announcements about Covid-19, which instigated
the search for solutions, the Ebserh Network has been working together with the
Ministries of Health and Education, in direct partnership, with the guidelines of
monitoring the situation in the country and in 40 hospital units. In the same sense,
several other organizations have mobilized to join forces and competences between
education and health, to contain the Pandemic and restore tranquility and peace.
From this perspective, the culture of peace constitutes a set of values, attitudes,
traditions, behaviors and lifestyles based on respect for life, based on the fight against
violence, promoting education, dialogue and cooperation, according to principles of
sovereignty, of territorial integrity, of the political independence of States. Thus, the
unrestricted respect and dissemination of human rights and fundamental freedom
are defended, with a commitment to peacefully resolving any conflict, satisfying
the needs of social development and equal rights and opportunities. Education is
considered a vital instrument to promote this end.
5 Final Considerations and Next Steps
As for business ethics, although it also depends on the employee’s commitment, it is

influenced by several internal and external factors, and it is essential for the company
to foster an environment that promotes ethical behavior and concrete practices [3].
The code of ethical conduct proves to be a crucial tool for the company to define the
expected behaviors of its employees and internal rules that meet its objectives and
organizational culture in accordance with ethics. In marketing, we can understand
its enormous evolution and the growing importance in the organization’s strategy,
particularly in the relationship with the client, as well as the enormous complexity and
constant innovation. In social and education marketing campaigns one understands

the various constraints that influence their action, the fundamental principles that
must be fulfilled in the campaigns and the primary role of marketers.
For the establishment and maintenance of international peace and security, the
need for close and continuous collaboration of the whole society is reinforced, with
the aim of promoting an environment of trust that respects fundamental human rights,
encouraging equality, dignity and the broad and unrestricted value among all, always
centered on the human being, regardless of their nation. It should be noted that
unequal and intolerant societies can generate unfair and discriminatory education
systems, making it difficult to form more integral and inclusive societies. To make
matters worse, the pandemic has had a particularly devastating effect on education
systems.
Ethics and education, undoubtedly, in the context of the pandemic, are essential
elements to promote health and, of course, peace. Future studies should continue
this work using, for example, quantitative methodology, in addition to address the
cultural marketing initiative. Places impact human lives in form of memories of
the past, present experiences, stories we will forge into the future [18]. Attachment
individuals feel about such places though is not unique to those who reside within a
particular locale, but also tourists might be attached to a place and visit it regularly
[18, 19]. Among various types of tourism destinations, Cultural World Heritage
Sites attract much attention as these sites have outstanding universal values [20].
Destinations with the World Heritage Site (WHS) status have been recognized as
major tourist attractions globally in the last few decades [21, 22].
Acknowledgements This work is financed by national funds through FCT—Foundation for

Science and Technology, IP, within the scope of the reference project UIDB/04470/2020.
References
1. da Costa, R.L., Dias, Á.L., Pereira, L., Santos, J., Miguel, I.: The basis for a constructive
relationship between management consultants and clients (SMEs). Bus. Theory Pract. 21(2),
666–674 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3846/btp.2020.11872
2. Robertson, D.C., Voegtlin, C., Maak, T.: Business ethics: the promise of neuroscience. J. Bus.
Ethics 144(4), 679–697 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-016-3312-6
3. Santos, V.R., Vitorino, T.F., Dias, Á.L., Martinho, D., Sousa, B.B.: Developing a commercial
ethics framework for analysing marketing campaigns. Int. J. Serv. Sci. Manage. Eng. Technol.
(IJSSMET) 13(1), 1–16 (2022). https://doi.org/10.4018/IJSSMET.290336
4. Abreu, Z., Machado, A., Sousa, B.: Educação para a paz e a pedagogia social: uma interface.
In: Oliveira, A.C., Silva, A. (Eds.) Educação: atualidade e capacidade de transformação do
conhecimento gerado, pp. 125–138. Atena Editora (2020). https://doi.org/10.22533/at.ed.814
20130811
5. Pires, A.S.X.: Fluxos migratórios forçados e cultura de paz: um contributo hipotético baseado
na educação como pilar da democracia e na solução alternativa à crise do estado assistencialista.
Galileu-Revista de Economia e Direito 19, 64–85 (2018)
6. Vickers, M.: Business ethics and the HR role: past, present and future. Hum. Resour. Plan.
28(1), 26–32 (2005)
7. Chiavenato, I.: Introduction to general theory of administration, 7th edn. Editora Campus (2003)
8. Keller-Krawczyk, L.: Is business ethics possible and necessary? Economia e Sociologia 3(1),
133–142 (2010)
9. Andrade, E.O.D., Givigi, L.R.P., Abrahão, A.L.: The ethics of self-care as a way of creating
potential tools for work in Health. Interf. Comunicação, Saúde, Educação 22(64), 67–76 (2018)
10. Sousa, B.B., Magalhães, F.S.: Social and strategic partnership in marketing contexts: the case
study of Help2kids. In: Thomas, U. (Ed.) Cases on Strategic Partnerships for Resilient Commu-
nities and Schools, pp. 122–145. IGI Global (2020). https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-3285-
0.ch008.
11. Vivek, S.D., Beatty, S.E., Morgan, R.M.: Customer Engagement: exploring customer relation-
ships beyond purchase. J. Market. Theory Pract. 20(2), 122–146 (2010)
12. Alvarez, C., Fournier, S.: Consumers’ relationships with brands. Curr. Opin. Psychol. 10,
129–135 (2016)
13. Sousa, B., Silva, A., Malheiro, A.: Differentiation and Market Loyalty: An Approach to Cultural
Tourism in Northern Portugal. In: Rocha Á., Abreu A., de Carvalho J., Liberato D., González
E., Liberato P. (eds) Advances in Tourism, Technology and Smart Systems. Smart Innovation,
Systems and Technologies, vol 171. pp. 681–690, Springer, Singapore (2020). https://doi.org/
10.1007/978-981-15-2024-2_58
14. Shobeiri, S., Laroche, M., Mazaheri, E.: Shaping e-retailer’s website personality: the impor-
tance of experiential marketing. J. Retail. Consum. Serv. 20(1), 102–110 (2013)
15. ONU—Organização das Nações Unidas. A/RES/33/73 (versão em espanhol). Disponível em:
https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/367/12/IMG/NR036712.
pdf?OpenElement. Acesso em 09 de janeiro de 2022.
16. Aguilar, S.L.C., Aparecido, J.M.: Covid-19 e as operações de paz da ONU: algumas
considerações. Janus 2020–2021-As relações internacionais em contexto de pandemia (2021)
17. Reis Gonzaga, E.A., do Carmo Lacerda, I., Tachikawa de Jesus, T., do Carmo Lima, S.:
Equidade, justiça social e cultura de paz em tempos de pandemia: um olhar sobre a vulnera-
bilidade municipal e a covid-19. Hygeia: Revista Brasileira de Geografia Médica e da Saúde
16 (2020)
18. Woosnam, K.M., Aleshinloye, K.D., Ribeiro, M.A., Stylidis, D., Jiang, J., Erul, E.: Social
determinants of place attachment at a World Heritage Site. Tour. Manage. 67, 139–146 (2018).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2018.01.012
19. Sousa, B., Rocha, A.T.: The role of attachment in public management and place marketing
contexts: a case study applied to Vila de Montalegre (Portugal). Int. J. Publ. Sector Perform.
Manage. 5(2), 189–205 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1504/IJPSPM.2019.099094
20. Ng, S.L., Feng, X.: Residents’ sense of place, involvement, attitude, and support for tourism:
a case study of Daming palace, a cultural world heritage site. Asian Geogr. 37(2), 189–207
(2020). https://doi.org/10.1080/10225706.2020.1729212
21. Hassan, A., Rahman, M.: World Heritage site as a label in branding a place. J. Cult. Herit.
Manage. Sustain. Dev. 6197–6197 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30018-0_1243
22. Tan, S.K., Tan, S.H.: Clan/geographical association heritage as a place-based approach for
nurturing the sense of place for locals at a world heritage site. J. Hosp. Tour. Manage. 45(March),
592–603 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2020.10.017
The Scarcity of Information Technologies
in Accounting Graduation
Helena Costa Oliveira and Susana Bastos
Abstract Accounting remains a very important discipline for management however,

the roles and relevance of the accountant are questioned by the development of tech-
nologies. These technologies gave rise to new accounting mechanisms that substan-
tially changed the role of the accountant in the company. Accounting education
should reflect these changes and promote changes in curriculum to train accoun-
tants whose individual importance continues to be felt in management. Accounting
students must improve the knowledge and practice of Information Technologies (IT).
This is an important asset in the labour market, a path of continuous and adapted
training that makes students autonomous from mere legal and bureaucratic compli-
ance with the rules. This paper reflects on the plans of the curricular courses, to
assess the integration of computer courses in Accounting Education in Portugal. The
study is based on the information available on the website of accounting schools. The
fundamentals of accounting (cost measurement and classification; understanding of
accounting standards and legislation; clear provision of information) must be taught
but the courses should be reinforced with technology education following the new
digital era.
Keywords Accounting education · Technology · Computing · Informatics
1 Introduction
The accounting practice impacts many social life experiences. When we consider
the prices of items in a supermarket, we forgot that their calculation comes primarily
from an accounting exercise that measures the associated costs; the payment of
taxes comes from an accounting system that allows the State to know the income
and expenses to be considered; wage processing requires a good accounting system
that guarantees compliance with legal obligations and their calculation. For financial,
fiscal or operational reasons, accounting provides an important service as a discipline
H. C. Oliveira (B) · S. Bastos

Rua Jaime Lopes Amorim, S/N, 4465-004, S. Mamede de Infesta, Portugal
e-mail: helena@iscap.ipp.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_4
38 H. C. Oliveira and S. Bastos
that aggregates and classifies relevant information. Based on data, its counting and
organization can have the risk of being considered as focused on the past and being
discredited as a control mechanism without creative faculty. After all, the concern
is to make information available, not to invent it, ideally communicating relevant
information in real-time—one of the concerns of corporate accounting systems. It
turns out that good accounting is crucial to the availability of a range of information
that allows the creation of a strategic idea, a plausible idea of the future, so its
importance should not be underestimated by management. For example, the concept
of big data, in which the access and control of the most varied information and
the ability to handle it discretionally, is a reason for economic dominance and the
origin of possible malevolent consequences of social control. This great interest in
the access, creation and intensive treatment of data is a refinement of the nature of
accounting as a discipline that aggregates and classifies information. The importance
of accounting remains unquestionable; as technological evolution raises questions
about the role of the accountant.
Accounting education should continue to be concerned with the ability to know
and classify costs, recognizing different interpretation alternatives; it must also
include a solid tax training that allows monitoring and adjusting to the various and
variable tax regimes. This is no longer enough, it is also necessary to assume the
need for other competencies. Signaling the relevance for the accountant of skills
more focused on consulting and management: resizing and valuing the importance
of the accountant in budgeting, performance evaluation, control, decision-making,
customer support, preparation of cooperative reports, the inclusion of concerns social,
environmental or even cultural. The education of the accountant must also be a
defense and enhancement of their role in an organizational environment in which
technological means increasingly automate the mere calculation processes.
This paper reflects on accounting in digital era and on the inclusion of IT in
accounting graduation curricula.
2 Future Accountant
The Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA) highlights three chal-

lenges for the future accounting professional: the evolution of smart and digital
technology, the continued globalization of reporting standards, and new forms of
regulation. Likewise, organizational social and environmental issues gained impor-
tance that will have to be internalized by accounting. Aware of these challenges, large
accounting firms already carry out preparatory investigations on cloud computing,
big data, technological changes, new forms of fraud and corruption, and corporate
sustainability [1]. The fundamentals of accounting remain, continue to be based
on the periodic review and analysis of financial information, but stakeholders now
expect comprehensive real-time reporting—continuous accounting. Accounting will
continue to inform stakeholders—management, shareholders, state…; the way in
which this information is generated and communicated has been changing with
The Scarcity of Information Technologies in Accounting Graduation 39
new technologies. This transition from traditional accounting—periodic and focused

on financial information—to a more comprehensive view of accounting reports,
naturally means a displacement and interruption of current functions [2].
Jobs and tasks that require critical thinking, creativity and relationship skills,
usually associated with refined training, are the most defended against automation.
Routine tasks that do not require great knowledge or communicative talent are very
vulnerable to automation [3]. The accountant profession incurs this vulnerability,
as accounting tends to become digital, automating many of the accountant’s tasks
[4]. Some authors argue, however, that this automation will increase the value of the
accountant’s services; that basic services will be delivered more efficiently, freeing
accountants to discuss the current situation and future needs of their clients [5].
Basically, the accounting profession defends its relevance if adapted to technological
circumstances: accounting continues to be very relevant, whereas the accountant has
to adapt so as not to lose its importance. Typing processes and automation eliminate
or minimize jobs in routine and repetitive tasks, such as those until recently associated
with the accountant in the alpaca mango image. To say that accountants can focus
on more creative, non-routine, and unstructured tasks that require more thinking and
additional skills [6] goes without saying. It is necessary to recognize and point out
new ways in accounting, starting with its teaching, knowing that the fields that the
accountant will tend to occupy are not new, he will dispute the importance with other
elements. Thus, the accounting will have to truly develop new skills that give prestige
and distinguish the accountant in the exercise of his/her duties, which is important
for security in a company and the creation of value.
The emergence of big data is only relevant due to the ability to work with it,
which depends on properly qualified professionals in the interpretation and analysis
of the huge mass of data. This is a valence to cultivate in the training of manage-
ment accounting, as it is an opportunity for accountants to value themselves in the
integrated management of large and small organizations, assuming consulting roles.
Technology will do the work of records and conferences and accountants will analyze,
interpret and communicate information to various stakeholders. In addition to tech-
nical competence, accountants will have to focus on soft skills, such as the ability to
communicate and interact with people, cultivating flexibility adapted to technolog-
ical and legislative inconsistency; it is necessary to learn continuously [7]. For the
successful career of future accountants, it is also important to know how to assume
responsibility for financial analysis and professional judgment [8].
The education system has to follow up and help shape the new requirements in an
accountant. If for accountants to play a significant role in conducting and executing
the company’s business, it is necessary that they understand the possibilities of IT
and that they know how to collaborate with employees in other functions [5], this
must be reflected in the teaching programs. Teaching has to anticipate the possible
redesign of the accounting profession in the light of technological developments, in
the field of typing and artificial intelligence, of the Fifth Industrial Revolution. Any
accounting training program has to mirror the almost certain application of artifi-
cial intelligence in the most structured, programmable and repetitive tasks, where
bringing together human knowledge and experience is not extremely difficult and
demanding [9]. Thus, it should provoke the training of accountants different from
those of the past, transforming education programs for bookkeepers and accountants
into training programs for accounting analysts, consultants and engineers.
3 Accounting Graduation Schools in Portugal
This analysis focuses on the curriculum plans available on the website of public
accounting schools in Portugal. The schools were selected based on the data published
by the General- Directorate for Education and Science Statistics, and referred to the
academic year of 2020/2021. There were identified 18 schools, two belonging to
university education and the others to polytechnic education. Table 1 presents the
list of schools of the first cycle of studies—undergraduate degree, their courses
designation and associated IT courses.
The total number of students enrolled (in the academic year 2020/2021) was
6063 students, 58% of which were female. Figure 1 presents the enrolled students by
school. The vast majority of students enrolled in Polytechnic Schools (92%), in these
schools the education tends to be more practical and professional. The schools with
the highest number of students are in the two largest cities in the country, Porto (Poly-
technic Institute of Porto) and Lisbon (Polytechnic Institute of Lisbon). The course,
with the largest number of students, is Accounting and Administration at the Poly-
technic Institute of Porto-Porto Accounting and Business School with 933 students
enrolled. The school with the greatest diversity of courses is Polytechnic Institute
of Coimbra with courses in Finance and Accounting, Accounting and Auditing,
Accounting and Public Management, and Accounting and Administration.
4 Conclusion
Accounting for the future must be included in present curriculum plans[10]. 1,85%
of the students who joined public higher education in the academic year 2020/2021
chose accounting graduation. This significance, along with the evolution of technolo-
gies and the 5th industrial revolution, demanded a reflection on current accounting
graduation and the future of accountants. Issues such as artificial intelligence,
automation, robotics and human-machine relationships have to be integrated into
courses in order to prepare future professionals for an ever-changing world.
Accounting education should reflect changes in IT and promote changes in its
programs to train accountants whose individual importance continues to be felt in
management. Courses cannot include IT curricular units in a reduced and superficial
way.
We suggest for future research analyses the contents of the curriculum sheets,
which are not available online on for the vast majority of schools. Other curricular
Table 1 Accounting graduation public high schools in portugal

Hight Education schools Graduation IT Courses
Aveiro Institute of Accounting Accounting (e-learning) Organizational Computing (1st
and Administration (ISCAA) Accounting year), Organizational
Computing Complements (2nd
Accounting (nocturne) year)
Polytechnic Institute of Cávado Accounting Practices in Accounting and
and Ave (IPCA) Accounting (nocturne) Tax Information Systems I (1st
year), Practices in Accounting
and Tax Information Systems II
(2nd year), Practices in
Accounting and Tax
Information Systems III (2nd
Year)
Polytechnic Institute Bragança Accounting Informatics (1st year)
(IPB)
Polytechnic Institute Castelo Accounting and Financial Discontinued
Branco (IPVC) Management
Polytechnic Institute of Finance and Accounting Management Information
Coimbra (Coimbra) ISCAC Systems (1st year)
Accounting and Auditing Computer Applications I (1st
Accounting and Public year), Computer Applications
Management II (1st year)
Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra Accounting and Information Technologies (1st
(Oliveira do Hospital) ISCAC Administration year), Management
Information Systems (2nd year)
Polytechnic Institute of Guarda Accounting There is no mandatory
(IPG) Computer Course
Polytechnic Institute of Leiria Accounting and Finance Information and
(IPL) Accounting and Finance Communication Technologies
(nocturne) (1st year)
Polytechnic Institute of Lisbon Accounting and Accounting Branch—IT and
(ISCAL) Administration Systems (2nd year),
Accounting and Taxation Branch—IT and
Administration (nocturne) Systems (2nd year),
Management and Public
Administration Branch—IT
and Systems (2nd year)
Polytechnic Institute of Porto Accounting and IT and Systems for
(ISCAP) Administration Management (1st year)
Accounting and
Administration (nocturne)
Polytechnic Institute of Accounting and Taxation IT for Management (1st year)
Santarém (IPS)
Accounting and Taxation
(nocturne)
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Hight Education schools Graduation IT Courses
Polytechnic Institute of Setúbal Accounting and Finance IT for Finance (3rd year)
(IPSetúbal)
Accounting and Finance
(nocturne)
Polytechnic Institute of Viana Accounting and Taxation IT and Communication (1st
do Castelo (IPVC) year), Advanced Applications
Accounting and Taxation of Organizational Computing
(nocturne) (1st year), Sectorial
Applications of Accounting
(3rd year), Decision Support
Systems (3rd year)
Polytechnic Institute of Viseu Accounting Accounting Information
(Viseu) (IPV) Systems (3rd year)
Polytechnic Institute of Viseu Accounting and Auditing Computing Applied to
(Lamego) (IPV) Accounting (3rd year)
Polytechnic Institute of Tomar Accounting Management Informatics (1st
(IPT) year)
University of Minho (UM) Accounting (nocturne) Information Systems for
Accounting (2nd year)
University Institute of Lisbon Finance and Accounting Management Informatics (1st
(ISCTE) year)
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Fig. 1 Number of students enrolled in accounting graduation schools in Portugal
units should also be analyzed which, although not directly related to IT, can integrate
IT context such as management simulation courses.
References
1. Haque, S., Islam, M.A.: Future of accounting profession: Three major changes and implications
for teaching and research. Int. Fed. Account. (2015)
2. Smith, S.S.: Digitization and financial reporting—how technology innovation may drive the
shift toward continuous accounting. Account. Financ. Res. 7, 240–250 (2018)
3. Kim, Y.J., Kim, K., Lee, S.: The rise of technological unemployment and its implications on
the future macroeconomic landscape. Futures 87, 1–9 (2017)
4. Frey, C.B., Osborne, M.A.: The future of employment: how susceptible are jobs to computer-
isation? Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change 114, 254–280 (2017)
5. Gulin, D., Hladika, M., Valenta, I.: Digitalization and the challenges for the accounting profes-
sion. In: Proceedings of the ENTRENOVA - ENTerprise REsearch InNOVAtion Conference
(ed. Economy, I.-S. for A. I. and R. in) 502–511 (2019)
6. Herbert, I., Dhayalan, A., Scott, A.: The future of professional work: will you be replaced, or
will you be sitting next to a robot? Manage. Serv. J. Summer 22–27 (2016)
7. Marcello, S., Ray, T., Carmichael, D., Peterson, J., Ramamoorti, S.: The future of auditing: a
roundtable discussion. CPA J. 39–57 (2017)
8. Parham, A.G., Noland, T.G., Kelly, J.A.: Accounting majors’ perceptions of future career skills:
an exploratory analysis. Am. J. Bus. Educ. 5, 29–35 (2012)
9. Moudud-Ul-Huq, S.: The role of artificial intelligence in the development of accounting
systems: a review. UIP J. Account. Audit Pract. 12, 7–19 (2014)
10. Costa Oliveira, H.: Reflexões sobre o ensino da contabilidade e a valorização do contabilista. In:
Mora Aliseda, J., Alexandre Castanho, R., Vidal Carvalho, J., Abreu, A. (Eds.) Transformación
digital e innovación tecnológica en la educación. Thomson Reuters (2022)
Development of a Web-Based System
to Measure, Monitor and Promote School
Engagement Strategies
Mahia Saracostti, Ximena de Toro, Andrea Rossi, Sara Salum,

Belen Sotomayor, and Laura Lara
Abstract This article presents an intervention model to promote positive educational

trajectories based on technology and available evidence on educational engagement’s
predictive capacity to influence students’ educational trajectories in schools with high
social vulnerability both in Chile and Latin America. The software-based model
was developed through collaborative work between the university, IT team, educa-
tional communities, and stakeholders (governmental institutions). It is a web-based
system composed of six steps whose axis centers on a decision-making space between
teachers-students-parents (School Engagement Board) tasked with applying online
and scientifically validated school engagement measurement instruments, checking
specific report results for each actor involved into the system (teacher, school engage-
ment board coordinator, school) as well as reviewing advocacy strategies that are
pertinent to school context and manage strategy implementation supported by the
management sheets that the model offers to schools.
Keywords Based web system · School engagement · Evaluation platform
M. Saracostti (B) · A. Rossi · S. Salum

Escuela de Trabajo Social, Universidad de Valparaíso, 08544 Valparaíso, CP, Chile
e-mail: mahia.saracostti@uv.cl
X. de Toro
Escuela de Trabajo Social, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, 7820436 Santiago, CP, Chile
M. Saracostti · B. Sotomayor
Núcleo científico tecnológico en ciencias sociales y humanidades, Universidad de La Frontera,
CP. 4811230 Temuco, Chile
L. Lara
Departamento de Psicología Evolutiva y de la Educación, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, CP.
41008, España
Facultad de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, Carrera de Psicología, Universidad Autónoma de
Chile, Talca, Chile
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_5
46 M. Saracostti et al.
1 Background
1.1 School Engagement and Positive Trajectory Promotion
In Latin America for many years, especially in the current pandemic context, school
dropout indicators point to an important problem that must be tackled. In this context,
measuring School Engagement (SE) is an early predictor of educational trajectories
[1]. SE is considered a key concept to promote school retention of children and
adolescents [2] and thereby favor educational trajectory protection. In this article,
SE will be defined as active student participation in the educational process, from
home and/or school [3, 4]. Engaged students consider learning as meaningful to them
and are motivated and committed to their learning and future.
A body of research [2, 5–10] has found that SE is a multidimensional construct
that integrates an affective, a behavioral and a cognitive dimension. Moreover, it
would be a statistically significant predictor for variables which are involved in the
achievement of positive educational trajectories reflected in results such as perfor-
mance, attendance, promotion between levels and educational cycles, school gradu-
ation and/or transition to higher education, among others, by having a real value in
themselves throughout the school stage.
Moreover, evidence shows how promotion of positive educational trajectories is
linked to higher incomes, lower risk factors and better lifetime projections for people
[11, 12]. However, due to the pandemic, the education system, particularly in Latin
America, has experienced complex circumstances and long-lasting consequences. As
a result, there are major challenges in order to sustain all students’ socio-educational
processes, and it is useful for schools to have timely information and relevant instru-
ments on SE, a variable that is considered key to promoting positive educational
trajectories and facilitating school retention for all students [1].
On the other hand, SE as a variable is highly influenced by Contextual Factors [CF]
and if these are known, it is possible to intervene in favor of SE [9]. In accordance
with studies in the literature, there are three Contextual Factors] that can influence
SE trajectories of children and adolescents, and which acquire greater relevance
to sustain socio-educational processes: (1) Family support; (2) Peer support; and
(3) Teacher support [5, 9, 13, 14]. Meanwhile, CF linked to SE have also been
affected, as peer and/or teacher support is difficult due to physical distance during
the pandemic, and family support is affected by high stress at home. In this way,
opportune detection of factors that have an impact on socio-educational processes,
such as SE and its contextual and relational factors, become very valuable variables
given that they constitute earlier indicators than school attendance, lag or others, as
well as encouraging guidance and promotion of actions from a systemic, preventive,
and universal approach (not only for those who are most at risk of dropping out),
including all students.
Development of a Web-Based System to Measure, Monitor and Promote … 47
1.2 Importance of Having Integrated Systems to Measure,

Monitor, and Promote School Engagement Strategies
in Latin America.
One of many challenges for Latin America and Caribbean is to move towards devel-
oping “Educational Trajectory Protection Systems” [15]. Furthermore, international
studies agree that monitoring each student’s engagement to their studies helps to
prevent school dropout and promote educational trajectories with positive potential
rather than focusing only on classic risk factors such as non-attendance or school
lag. Hence, international, and national organizations suggest creating an integrated
system that can assess and monitor all students’ engagement and involve public and
private sector actors interested in improving their educational trajectories through
strategies that promote SE and CF [16, 17].
Research available on SE promotion strategies [6] reveals a clear pattern towards a
clear shift from student-centered strategies with actions focused on a single compo-
nent of SE (e.g. cognitive or behavioral), to more systemic approaches involving
different levels and involving all students in the class group. There is general agree-
ment in literature on classifying three levels of support [18], where a first level of
universal character assumes more promotional and preventive strategies aimed at
all students, a second level of strategies selected for groups of students with more
specific needs and, finally, a third level where components are more focused on
individual and intensive support needs.
While concern about SE is starting to take root in Ibero-America, as well as a
need for SE diagnosis, monitoring and evaluation systems [19], there is still incipient
progress towards intervention strategies in this area. Consistently, in Chile, there has
been progress in implementing a web-based system for evaluation, monitoring, and
strategies to promote school engagement and contextual factors, called SIESE [20],
which is presented below.
2 Methodology
This article aims to describe a Web-based intervention model to measure, monitor and
promote School Engagement (SIESE) that arises from a scientific-technological work
developed gradually in Chile which has been pilot-tested in other Latin American
countries [21]. This model based on the early warning system developed by the
National High School Center at American Institute for Research [22].
Initially, instruments were developed to measure school engagement and contex-
tual factors for children and adolescents from 7th grade of primary education to 1st
year of secondary education in Chile [8, 23]. Computer-based reports were also devel-
oped to facilitate analysis and interpretation of results generated by SC measurement
application and contextual factors [24]. In order to develop reports, a ranking process
was conducted, followed by calculation algorithms to report student, grade, school

and public institution level results.
In parallel, a web-based technology platform was developed to host instruments
and computer-based reports, along with educational and training materials [4, 24].
Later, this platform was strengthened to host a six-step sequential intervention model,
using SCRUM methodology for agile software development in order to facilitate
collaborative work [20]. This methodology considered 9 educational institutions who
applied SIESE methodology in their establishment and subsequently participated in
qualitative interviews to learn about their experience throughout the implementation
process, whereby SIESE’s information and instruments were adjusted.
SIESE consisted of development of a strategy finder, by reviewing specialized
books on school engagement [25], evidence-based school engagement intervention
programs [26], good practices in retention highlighted by the Ministerio de Educación
de Chile [27], and good practices in pandemics. This led to the initial identifica-
tion of 60 strategies, grouped according to their similarity and/or relevance. Finally,
there was a validation process of the strategies with teachers and education profes-
sionals to promote School Engagement and Contextual Factors, who participated in
20 individual interviews where they reviewed all strategies and identified elements
to be adapted and incorporated [24]. As a result of this validation process, all strate-
gies underwent modifications based on specific contexts of educational communi-
ties involved, developing a set of 23 strategies to promote School Engagement and
Contextual Factors classified according to the following criteria: “Sub dimension of
School Engagement”, “Contextual Factors”, “Type” or “Tier”.
3 Results
3.1 About SIESE Platform
SIESE is a comprehensive system that involves assessment and monitoring of

students’ SE and CF, as well as planning and implementation of early interven-
tion strategies associated by results reports. It is a useful and complementary tool
for school management based on associative and coordinated work. It can be imple-
mented in face-to-face, distance or virtual education, as all the associated resources
are available on a technological platform hosted at: http://www.compromisoescolar.
com (See Fig. 1). It is designed on a six-step basis to be developed sequentially, as
described below:
Step 1: School Engagement Board
SIESE implementation begins with the creation of a School Engagement Board
within educational institutions or by strengthening an existing participatory structure
in the school (e.g. School Coexistence Committee, School Council, or other), whose
representatives from the entire educational community (teachers, management and
Fig. 1 SIESE Phases based on De Toro et al. [20]. Source Own elaboration
psychosocial teams, principals, parents and/or families and students) will be in charge
of decision-making in the execution of each step of SIESE implementation. Using
monthly meetings, proposed in a SIESE calendar, it is hoped that this committee will
be able to organize and follow up implemented actions. It is proposed as an initial
objective to designate a Coordinator of this School Engagement Table, who will lead
the process and will have access to different resources of SIESE, especially sensitive
information about students, so it is recommended that he/she be a member of the
teaching, psychosocial and/or management team. This leadership should be realized
in SIESE management, given that decision making should be participatory in terms
of the school Engagement Board.
Step 2: School Engagement Measurement
This step is determined by applying School Engagement and Contextual Factors
measurement instruments, which consist of online self-report questionnaires to be
applied to students (see Fig. 2 translated instrument). The SE instrument consists
of 29 items that integrate affective, behavioral, and cognitive aspects assessment
[8] (Lara et al. 2021), while CF assessment instrument is composed of 18 items,
associated with teacher, family, and peer bonding [23]. Due to pandemic context, the
original instruments (in Spanish) were adapted for this circumstance, maintaining
same items with slight adaptations to consider on-line teaching context, as well as
confirming same factor structure. Time estimated average for students to complete
this survey is about 30–40 min.
Annual measurement makes it possible to observe, compare and follow up on SE
and CF diagnostics. This makes it possible to detect early warnings and strengths
in order to select and implement universal and targeted strategies at school, class
and student level. It is suggested to implement these instruments in a coordinated
approach with courses at the same level and during a limited period (two to three
weeks). It is intended that, in a face-to-face context, students can have a moment in
Fig. 2 Measuring instrument translated from https://compromisoescolar.com/. Source Own elab-

oration
class to answer together all the questions on the platform. This requires that each
student has access to a computer individually and privately, so the computer room
can be a good place. A code must be activated by the coordinator so that the students
can answer the instrument according to the instructions in the User Manual.
Since students can answer the questions from any device, in a non-face-to-face
context, it is proposed to coordinate with students that in a zoom class they can
answer it synchronously. If this option is not possible, alternatives can be sought
that adjust to the reality of each establishment and student. In such a context, it
is important to monitor how many students are responding so that no one is left
without completing these instruments online, so the school Engagement Committee
can determine additional strategies to encourage all students.
Step 3: Review and analysis of the information
This step involves downloading and reviewing the results reports by course provided
by this platform. These results may correspond to annual or follow-up evaluations
that consider implementation of all previous years [24] (examples of the latter are
shown in Fig. 3).
There are reports for different profiles [20]. For management profiles there are
reports per establishment. For coordinator and head teacher profiles there are reports
per course and per student. Individual reports are reserved for use by teachers and/or
the Psychosocial Team only and not for the school Engagement Board due to their
sensitive information, while course-level reports are available for this context. It is
hoped the Board will be able to complement this analysis and interpretation of course-
level data with quantitative information provided by families, students, and teachers,
which will allow us to understand these results in a better way. This diagnosis is vitally
Fig. 3 Examples of longitudinal “Course” monitoring reports
important as an initial baseline for decision-making regarding strategy selection and

implementation.
Step 4: School Engagement promotion strategies selection and implementation
Based on the information provided by School Engagement measurement, it is
proposed that in this step School Engagement Board can identify the most rele-
vant intervention strategies for each class and school. This analysis will be recorded
in the first management sheet of the platform, which is Action Plan Sheet. For this
purpose, it is possible to enter SIESE’s strategy search engine, where there are strate-
gies selected and validated in the Chilean context and which are available on the plat-
form to be reviewed in web format and/or downloaded. To select in the search engine,
it is necessary to mark an interest criterion (sub-dimension of SE and/or CF) that
seeks to enhance, considering alerts and strengths provided by this platform. Table
1 shows each of the associated criteria. For each file, it is also indicated whether it
is applicable or not in a distance learning context, and whether its implementation is
personalized (with one student), focused (with a group of students) or universal (with
the whole course or school), following the logic of the tiers (Horner et al., 2005).
This step also suggests promoting other interventions that schools already imple-
ment but that do not necessarily apply to a particular class. An inventory of good
practices that already exist in schools can be created together with teachers. A final
objective is to respond to students’ needs through specific interventions directed at
potential causes connected to warnings reported by the system, as well as to analyze
Table 1 School engagement promotion strategies and/or contextual factors

Affective Cognitive Behavioral Peer Teacher Family
engagement engagement engagement support support support
Emotional X X X
connection
Promoting repair X X X X
practices
Improving school X X X
climate
Promoting family X X
involvement
Strengthening X X
social-emotional
skills to reduce
bullying
Regular contact X X
with parents and
guardians
Promoting X X X
empathy
Peer-to-peer X X
collaborative
learning
strategies
Recognizing X X
student voice
Parental X X X X
counselling
Strengthening X X
student
investment in
their learning
Pedagogical X X X
Coaching
Promoting a X X
growth mindset
Joint goal setting X X X X X
Project-based X
learning
Linking into job X
futures
Identifying X X X
learning needs in
a collaborative
context
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Affective Cognitive Behavioral Peer Teacher Family
engagement engagement engagement support support support
Connecting X X X
learning to real
life
Informed X
feedback
Strengthening X X X
student class
participation
Problem-solving X X X X
technique
Student-led X X X
family interview
Reviewing X X
extra-curricular
activities
strategies to further promote resources and interventions that can be effectively imple-
mented in school. Once interventions have been identified, it should be considered
how they will be implemented, and which other actors should be involved in their
implementation (e.g., other teachers).
Once the analysis has been completed, it is suggested to define and record an
Action Plan agreed upon at the school Engagement Board. This Action Plan, acting
as a roadmap in the kind of intervention to be implemented. The Action Plan Sheet
is course level and is part of a set of four online record sheets of the SE and CF
strategies, whose content is described below (see Table 2).
All sheets are at class level except for the Individual Sheet which allows to record a
targeted plan in case results show that it is necessary to complement general strategies
with more personalized individual strategies for those students who present alerts
revealed in the report.
Step 5: Follow-up of students and School Engagement promotion strategies
In this step there is a focus on ensuring that School Engagement Board members
monitor strategies implemented on a regular basis, in order to review any need to
make adjustments. This can be done by complementing any analysis with feedback
from other parties who are implementing this strategy through a review of other
relevant retention indicators such as performance and attendance [9].
It is suggested at least one monthly meeting of the school Engagement Board
to monitor and adjust the intervention strategy(ies). For each meeting, it is recom-
mended to complete a Follow-up and Monitoring Form, which is a management tool
used to assess if any adjustments need to be made and to record what changes are
observed in classroom, such as changes in performance, attendance, or behavior. To
Table 2 SIESE online management sheets contents

Action plan sheet Follow-up and Closing sheet Individual sheet
monitoring sheet
– Registration of – Assessment of each – Recording of – Student data
needs from the strategy listed teachers’, students’, (attendance,
platform – Recording of and parents’ performance)
– Selection of associated changes opinions on the – Record of specific
strategies identified in the classroom strategies’ support
by the platform – Recording of implementation – Needs in school
and/or other teachers’, students’, – Recording of engagement line
strategies available and parents’ learning, inputs and – Implementation of
in the school opinions implementation strategies
– Steps to be – Changes in selected results – Results of strategies
followed for its strategies and – Recording of implemented
implementation and adjustment learnings from – Observations in
those responsible agreements implementation; relation to students’
problems or school engagement
obstacles
– SIESE Annual
evaluation
make an analysis of strategies, it is recommended to monitor students participating

in interventions as well as implementation effectiveness, identify needs that are not
being met and review whether new interventions should be implemented in order to
meet their needs.
Step 6: SIESE implementation evaluation and adjustment
At the end of the school year, it is suggested to make an analysis of the process, i.e.,
to reflect on learning, difficulties, and hindrances, in order to complete the Closing
Sheet. All this information will be relevant to adjust SIESE implementation for the
next year, after SE instruments have been re-applied. For this purpose, this platform
will deliver a SE level report for this new measurement, but also a follow-up report
to assess year-to-year changes in SE and CF levels for each course. In this way, it
is expected that the School Engagement Board will be able to make knowledgeable
decisions to further promote positive educational trajectories.
4 Discussion
Implementation of a web-based system to measure, monitor and promote school

engagement strategies such as SIESE has several benefits. First, it highlights a free,
fast, and massive online application of measurement instruments, search for available
action strategies as well as registration and monitoring of an action plan to promote
school engagement [20]. Second, digital, and user-friendly recording systems provide
timely information, allowing for anticipation in terms of educational management
and monitoring at different educational levels, by reducing gaps in the use of available
information in schools [21] to make relevant and effective decisions.
Third, programs supported by an eco-systemic perspective recognize the impor-
tance of positive and fluid interactions between different areas of a student’s life.
There is sufficient scientific evidence regarding psychosocial interventions within
schools and their impacts on a wide range of areas, including student behavior, school
engagement, academic performance, and school retention. These experiences provide
a contextualized and collaborative decision-making framework that engages multiple
interventions within schools in order to achieve better alignment and integration of
educational policies and programs, as well as to incorporate family and community
participation, from a holistic and co-construction approach [21]. Given these expe-
riences and considering the need to move towards construction of “school trajectory
protection systems” in Latin America, there is a special relevance in the develop-
ment of web-based and integrated systems for the promotion of school engagement.
It is necessary to protect these systems’ effectiveness by developing an information
management model that favors appropriation by the users involved, integrating inter-
mediate leadership, capacities installed in school teams and educational community,
and their pedagogical roles in relation to the implementation of the different actions.
SIESE web system, whose axis is the consolidation of a decision-making area
between teachers-students-parents, seek to advance in pursuit of proposed line. To
comply with this, it includes application of scientifically validated online school
engagement measurement instruments, the review of computerized and specific
results reports for each actor involved in the system (teacher, coordinator of the
school engagement Board, school) and the promotion strategies relevant to the school
context. It also supports management of implementation of strategies to promote
school engagement and their registration in management files model makes available
to schools.
Acknowledgement ANID/FONDECYT 1210172 and ANID/FONDEF IT19I0012. To access

these strategies, you can click to: https://compromisoescolar.com/estrategias/descargar-compendio.
References
1. Zhao, Y., Watterston, J.: The changes we need: education post COVID-19. J Educ Change 22,
3–12 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-021-09417-3
2. Christenson, S.L., Reschly, A.L., Appleton, J.J., Berman, S., Spangers, D., Varro, P.: Best prac-
tices in fostering student engagement. In: Thomas, A., Grimes, J. (Eds.) Best Practices in School
Psychology, pp. 1099–1120. National Association of School Psychologists, Washington, DC
(2008)
3. Saracostti, M., Lara, I., Rabanal N., Sotomayor, B., de Toro, X.: Estrategias de promoción
del compromiso escolar. Proyecto FONDEF IT19I0012: “Sistema Integrado de Evaluación,
Seguimiento y Estrategias de Promoción del Compromiso Escolar Estudiantil y Factores
Contextuales (SIESE) para facilitar la retención y prevenir la deserción escolar”. (2019). https://
doi.org/10.32457/97895661097092021123
4. Saracostti, M., Lara, L., Miranda-Zapata, E.: Technological platform for online assessment and
report generation of school engagement and contextual factors: Brief technical report. Electron.
J. Res. Educ. Psychol. 17(1), 193–212 (2019). https://doi.org/10.25115/ejrep.v17i47.2049
5. Fernández-Zabala, A., Goñi, E., Camino, I., Zulaika, L.M.: Family and school context in school
engagement. Eur. J. Educ. Psychol. 9(2), 47–55 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejeps.2015.
09.001
6. Fredricks, J.A., Filsecker, M., Lawson, M.A.: Student engagement, context, and adjustment:
addressing definitional, measurement, and methodological issues. Learn. Instr. 43, 1–4 (2016).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.02.002
7. Jimerson, S.R., Renshaw, T.L., Stewart, K., Hart, S., O’Malley, M.: Promoting school comple-
tion through understanding school failure: A multi-factorial model of dropping out as a
developmental process. Roman. J. School Psychol. 1(9), 7–29 (2009)
8. Lara, L., Saracostti, M., Navarro, J.-J., de-Toro, X., Miranda-Zapata, E., Trigger, J.M., Fuster,
J.: Compromiso escolar: desarrollo y validación de un instrumento. Revista Mexicana de
Psicología 35(1), 52–62 (2018)
9. Miranda-Zapata, E., Lara, L., Navarro, J.J., Saracostti, M., De-Toro, X.: Modelling the effect of
school engagement on attendance to classes and school performance. Revista de Psicodidáctica
(English ed.) 23(2), 102–109 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psicoe.2018.03.001
10. Shernoff, D.: Optimal learning environments to promote student engagement. Springer, New
York (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7089-2
11. Agasisti, T., Cordero, J.M.: The determinants of repetition rates in Europe: early skills or
subsequent parents’ help? J. Policy Model. 39(1), 129–146 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jpolmod.2016.07.002
12. Terigi, F.: La inclusión como problema de las políticas educativas. In: Feijoó, M., Poggi,
M. (Eds.). Educación y políticas sociales: Sinergias para la inclusión. Buenos aires: IIPE-
UNESCO, pp. 217–234 (2014). https://siteal.iiep.unesco.org/investigacion/1525/educacion-
politicas-sociales-sinergias-inclusion. Accessed 01 Feb 2022.
13. Ansong, D., Okumu, M., Bowen, G.L., Walker, A.M., Eisensmith, S.R.: The role of parent,
classmate, and teacher support in student engagement: evidence from Ghana. Int. J. Educ. Dev.
54, 51–58 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2017.03.010
14. Ramos-Díaz, E., Rodríguez-Fernández, A., Fernández-Zabala, A., Revuelta, L., Zuazagoitia,
A.: Apoyo social percibido, autoconcepto e implicación escolar de estudiantes adolescentes.
Revista de Psicodidáctica 21(2), 339–356 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1387/RevPsicodidact.
14848
15. Blog IADB. COVID-19 y educación: Regresaremos, pero ¿regresaremos todos?, https://blogs.
iadb.org/educacion/es/covid19regreso/#_ftn4. Accessed 01 Feb 2022
16. Comisión Europea Tackling early school leaving: A key contribution to the Europe 2020
Agenda. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the
European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, Brussels (2011)
17. Lyche, C.: Taking on the completion challenge: literature review on policies to prevent dropout
and early school leaving. OECD Education Working Papers, No. 53 (2010). https://doi.org/10.
1787/5km4m2t59cmr-en
18. Hofkens, T., Rozek, E.: Measuring student engagement to inform effective interventions in
schools. In: Fredricks, J., Reschly, A., Christenson, S. (Eds.) Handbook of Student Engagement
Interventions: Working with Disengaged Students, chap. 21, pp. 309–324 (2019)
19. Saracostti, M., Lozano-Lozano, J.A., Miranda, H., Lara, L., Martella, D., Reininger, T.: An
ecological, participatory, integral and contextualized model (EPIC Model) of family-school
connection: a preliminary analysis. Front. Psychol. 11 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.
2020.563506
20. De Toro, X., Sotomayor Barros, B., Saracostti Schwartzman, M., Rossi Cordero, A., Lara,
L.: Plataforma Online de Evaluación de Compromiso Escolar, Versión 3.0: avance hacia un
sistema de protección de las trayectorias educativas. Eur. J. Educ. Psychol. 14(2), 1–29 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.32457/ejep.v14i2.1739
21. Santana, A., Reininger, T., Saracostti, M.: Generation and use of data as management tools
for school social intervention programs: non transferred resources. Leadership Policy Schools
20(3) 0:3, 457–471 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/15700763.2019.1695851
22. American Institute for Research—AIR. Early Warning Intervention and Monitoring
System Implementation Guide. https://www.air.org/sites/default/files/EWIMS-Implement
ation-Guide-FINAL-July-2020.pdf. Accessed 01 Feb 2022
23. Navarro, J.J., de-Toro, X., Lara, L., Saracostti, S.: Validación de un Instrumento de Medición de
Factores Contextuales Relacionados con el Compromiso Escolar. Revista Iberoamericana de
Diagnóstico y Evaluación – e Avaliação Psicológica. RIDEP N 59 2, 109–124 (2021). https://
doi.org/10.21865/RIDEP59.2.09
24. Saracostti, M., Lara. L., Miranda-Zapata, E.: Evaluación y Promoción del Compromiso Escolar
en Iberoamérica. Revista Iberoamericana de Diagnóstico y Evaluación. e Avaliação Psicológica
59(2), 77–79 (2021). https://doi.org/10.21865/RIDEP59.2.06
25. Fredricks, J., Reschly, A., Christenson, S.: Handbook of Student Engagement Interventions.
Elsevier Science & Technology, San Diego (2019). ISBN: 9780128134146
26. Leyton, C., Mella, C, Salum, S., Saracostti, M., Sotomayor, B., de Toro, X., Labrín, L.:
Estrategias de Intervención Socioeducativas para Promover el Compromiso Escolar. Revista
Iberoamericana de Diagnóstico y Evaluación—e Avaliação Psicológica. RIDEP 59(2), 191–205
(2021). https://doi.org/10.21865/RIDEP59.2.15
27. Ministerio de Educación de Chile, Centro de Estudios: Videos de estrategias en tiempos de
pandemia desde el Canal de YouTube del MINEDUC. https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCJ
3zYHd_fRSxH8nEn49r_ow. Accessed 01 Feb 2022
Digital Competencies in Teachers
of Regular Basic Education
in Tacna-Peru
Kevin Mario Laura-De La Cruz, Inés Reyna Injante-Córdova,

Marisol Isabel Flores-Arocutipa, Ricardo Jiménez-Palacios,
and Stefany Juliana Noa-Copaja
Abstract For some years, teachers’ digital skills have been critical to the educa-
tional process; nevertheless, with the health catastrophe released by Covid-19, they
have become critical. So, the purpose of this study was to examine and quantify
the degree of digital literacy among instructors of Regular Basic Education at UGEL
Tacna. The study used a hybrid quantitative-qualitative methodology and was mostly
descriptive in nature. There were 1,329 teachers in the population and sample. The
questionnaire and the interview were employed as instruments. The findings suggest
that 49.89% teachers had a high degree of digital competence, while 12.19% have
a basic level, which includes instructors at the elementary, primary, and secondary
levels. Instructors get knowledge about web 2.0 technologies and their utility and
application via interviews; it is advised that teachers enhance cognitive digital abili-
ties. That is, the investigative skills geared toward the virtual environment and their
development in pupils. It concludes by identifying the most critical training needs
associated with the cognitive digital domain’s medium-low level, establishing the
necessity of developing a strengthening plan for cognitive digital skills that have
not been developed satisfactorily, particularly in the creation of digital educational
materials and related educational projects.
K. M. Laura-De La Cruz (B) · I. R. Injante-Córdova · M. I. Flores-Arocutipa ·

R. Jiménez-Palacios
Universidad Privada de Tacna, Tacna, Peru
e-mail: kevlaura@upt.pe
I. R. Injante-Córdova
e-mail: ineinjante@upt.pe
M. I. Flores-Arocutipa
e-mail: isafloresa@upt.pe
R. Jiménez-Palacios
e-mail: rjimenezp@virtual.upt.pe
S. J. Noa-Copaja
Universidad Nacional Jorge Basadre Grohmann, Tacna, Peru
e-mail: snoac@unjbg.edu.pe
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_6
60 K. M. Laura-De La Cruz et al.
Keywords Instrumental digital skills · Didactic-methodological digital skills ·

Cognitive digital skills · Teachers · Virtual environments · Virtual teaching
1 Introduction
In the Peruvian context, digital competence is geared toward the development of

abilities in students who will assume the role of future citizens. Thus, there is no
single state document that controls teacher capabilities; rather, it is expected that
teachers develop this capability via training and legal requirements that include such
a need for the progress of digital intelligence in Peru.
As Chi et al. [1] argue, due to the health crisis, the use of digital tools has increased
significantly in the education sector alone; however, there is growing concern about
the difficulties faced by teachers at various levels in accessing, mastering, and
applying them in their pedagogical actions. Additionally, these competences are
emerging as a critical component of continuity and growth in a variety of fields of
human activity, including medical, engineering, finance, and education [2].
As a result, digital competence is associated with both the management of digital
resources and technologies and the capacity to display positive, successful, and inno-
vative activities via their use in a variety of circumstances. The terms cooperation and
teamwork stand out the most because they convey the critical nature of mutual assis-
tance in the digital age for achieving desired objectives, particularly those developed
in the educational environment.
Despite the fact that Latin America has a sizable digital gap amongst its member
nations, there is an urgent need for instructors to possess digital capabilities in order
to assure educational quality. Particularly, the position of digital resource manager
[3]. Similarly, as mentioned by UNESCO [4], several nations are conducting trials
of digital education initiatives, while others are unable to do so owing to connection
issues for students and instructors.
Distance education was introduced at the national level, highlighting the limits
of teachers’ use of technology resources [5]. On the other hand, the Ministry of
Education (MINEDU) has placed a premium on student competencies while leaving
instructors without a defined policy. Only documents such as the Good Performance
Under the Teacher and the National Basic Education Curriculum (CNEB) are consid-
ered, as these documents serve as general guidelines for the use of technological
resources; thus, reorganizing teacher and student training in Peru digitally would
take several years [6].
Several free trainings are offered to teachers from various public educational
institutions in Tacna region, but there is no clear statistical or quantitative support for
teachers’ digital abilities, owing to a dearth of study on the issue in the region. Certain
obstacles are considered, including unstable internet connections, academic overload,
stress, prolonged time spent in front of the computer, indifference in attending the
courses, and a lack of forceful development of the planned training.
Digital Competencies in Teachers of Regular Basic Education … 61
The significance of this study is in the development of methods and tools to

address issues linked to teachers’ digital competences in order to better understand
the variables that contribute to them and to seek better alternative solutions for the
benefit of students in Tacna region.
In this regard, the purpose of this study is to ascertain the degree of digital compe-
tence of teachers at the elementary, primary, and secondary levels at Tacna’s Local
Education Management Unit and to dive further into the variables influencing these
outcomes in 2021.
2 Method
2.1 Design
The study used a hybrid methodology. Quantitative issues were addressed via the
survey, which was used to quantify the degree of digital competence. The qualita-
tive component was accomplished via interviews, which provided up-to-date and
complete information. The study was descriptive and exploratory in nature, in accor-
dance with Hernández et al. [7], who state that descriptive studies serve as the foun-
dation for explanatory investigations that provide a feeling of knowledge and are
highly organized.
2.2 Sample
The sample consisted of 1329 instructors from all levels, including elementary,
secondary, and regular basic education, at the “Unidad de Gestión Educativa Local”
Tacna-Peru, using a convenience sampling method.
2.3 Instruments
The questionnaire was utilized to conduct the study, which was supplemented with
an interview and a survey. The structured interview, which included twenty ques-
tions about the subject, was used as an instrument, as were surveys via a 30-item
questionnaire addressed to teachers with a high degree of reliability, which were
administered via Google Forms; and, in the case of the interview, the Focus Group,
which included 15 participants from various schools and ages, facilitated the collec-
tion of information about the variables under investigation. The statistical approach
was utilized to analyze the data in order to arrive at the study’s findings.
3 Results
Table 1 shows the sociodemographic characteristics of the teachers polled. The most
startling findings indicate that 43% of instructors are between the ages of 50 and
60, while 3% are between the ages of 21 and 30. Similarly, 326 professors have
30 years or more of experience. 52% of educator are at the secondary level, with 112
mathematics teachers receiving the most responses. On the other side, 1053 teachers
work in urban area, while 150 work in rural. Finally, 67% of them are permanent
and 33% are contracted teachers.
According to Table 2, the majority of teachers (50%) claim to possess a high
degree of digital competence. Similarly, few (13%) believe they have a low level.
Thus, educators demonstrate more acceptance and control of the instrumental digital
competence component compared to the cognitive digital competence dimension,
where teachers exhibit challenges and limits.
As seen in Fig. 1, teachers are able and willing to do Internet searches. Addi-
tionally, they are capable of using and recognizing its fundamental functions. On
the other hand, there is considerable difficulty in identifying and efficiently using
instructional software at various levels of study.
As seen in Fig. 2, teachers demonstrate a strong mastery of Microsoft Office prod-
ucts. Similarly, they manage their classes’ communication tools and create engaging
activities. On the other hand, educators struggle to guide students in developing
learning possibilities via virtual environments, and they do not utilize educational
platforms since the majority of them use WhatsApp.
As illustrated in Fig. 3, teachers provide feedback making use of technological
tools to monitor and ensure learning. On the other hand, instructors have challenges
in developing digital academic materials, lack of understanding on the proper use of
bibliographic citations (research skills), and a lack of tools to assist in assessing the
manuscript’s similarity. Additionally, there is a dearth of proposals for educational
programs that include the use of digital resources and address regional issues.
4 Discussion
The primary findings indicate that roughly half of the sample 49.89% has a good level
of digital competence, followed by 36.87% who have a very excellent level. Thus,
the majority of instructors in the research successfully demonstrate digital abilities.
This finding is comparable to that of Osco et al. [8], who achieved better scores in
these abilities prior to the pandemic in Lima, city which is more advanced in terms
of training than Tacna. On the other hand, the interview revealed that the majority
of instructors saw digital competences as acceptable use of ICT, highlighting its
relevance in the production of instructional materials for their students.
Table 1 Teachers’ sociodemographic aspects in Regular Basic Education in region of Tacna

Region—2021
Sociodemographic aspects Teachers in regular basic education
n Percentage
Age
21 to 30 33 2.48
31 to 40 216 16.25
41 to 50 442 33.26
50 to 60 565 42.51
61 or more 73 5.49
Time in service
0–5 years 114 8.58
6–10 years 138 10.38
11–15 years 189 14.22
16–20 years 164 12.34
21–25 years 211 15.88
26–30 years 187 14.07
30- or more years 326 24.53
Sex
Male 315 23.70
Female 1014 76.30
Level
Kindergarten 247 18.59
Elementary 397 29.87
High School 685 51.54
Specialty
Mathematics 112 8.43
Language 98 7.37
Education for Work 79 5.94
Science and Technology 77 5.79
Social Science 77 5.79
Personal Development, Citizenship and Civics 57 4.29
English as a Foreign Language 57 4.29
Arts and Culture 45 3.39
Physical Education 43 3.24
Religious Education 38 2.86
Pedagogical Innovation Classroom 2 0.15
Educational institution of origin
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Sociodemographic aspects Teachers in regular basic education
n Percentage
Urban area 1053 79.23
Rural 150 11.29
Marginal urban 126 9.48
Location of the work center
Urban area 1053 79.23
Rural 150 11.29
Marginal urban 126 9.48
Employment status
Permanent 893 67.19
Hired 436 32.81
In case of being designed Magisterial Scale
No answer 436 32.81
Scale 1 176 13.24
Scale 2 205 15.43
Scale 3 217 16.33
Scale 4 136 10.23
Scale 5 112 8.43
Scale 6 43 3.24
Scale 7 4 0.30
Scale 8 0 0.00
Mother tongue
Spanish 1267 95.33
Aymara 46 3.46
Quechua 15 1.13
Other 1 0.08
Total 1329 100.00
X2 = 763.427 GL = 3 P value = 0.000 good level predominates
Table 2 Teachers’
Level of digital competence Teachers
perception of the level of
digital competence in Regular n Percentage
Basic Education in the region Bad 14 1.05
of Tacna—2021
Neither Good nor Bad 162 12.19
Good 663 49.89
Very Good 490 36.87
Total 1329 100.00
Never Rarely Sometimes Usually Always

10. Easily manage the functions of the cell phone,
M P 3 , M P 4 , a n d t h e i m a g e p r o j e c t o r i n t h e i r v a r i o u s …0,68 1,73 14,30 35,82 47,48
9 .Handle with ease the fu nctio ns o f the TV, radio ,
DVD, camera, vi deo camera in their v a r i o u s …0,45
1,8110,84 34,24 52,67
8.Easily manage t he functions of the computer, laptop,
t a b l e t , S D c a r d , U S B , e x t e r n a l h a r d d r i v e i n t h e i r …0,30 1,3511,74 36,72 49,89
7.Recognize and use free educational software for
their curricular area (Geogebra, JClic, Hot potatoes,… 12,64 19,71 38,45 21,14 8,05
6.Recognize and uses free educational software for the
creation of educational activities ( C i c o t e r , … 10,16 19,11 40,33 22,65 7,75
5. Recognize and uses free use platforms to perform
v a r i o u s e d u c a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s ( M o o d l e , C l a s s r o o m , … 2,93 7,45 28,67 36,72 24,23
4 .Search fo r info rmatio n and co nte nt o n the Inter net
in different formats (text, audio, video, etc.). 0,08
0,45
4,82 26,71 67,95
3.Use basic browser functions (back, forward, refres h
page, add favorites or bookmarks, among others). 0,15
0,759,71 35,21 54,18
2 . Reco gnize different pro grams t o su rf the Inter net
(Google Chrome, Firefox, Opera, among others). 0,23
0,8313,62 37,85 47,48
1. Recognize the most common words when surfing the
Int e r ne t ( U R L, hype r l i nk, l i nk, a m o ng o t he r s ) . 0,15
0,459,10 37,92 52,37
Fig. 1 Instrumental digital competence dimension

1. Use te chnological tools such as the Microsoft Office
p a c k a g e ( W o r d , E x c e l a n d P o w e r P o i n t ) i n t h e i r d a i l y …0,23 0,83
5,72 27,99 65,24
2. Use technological tools such as videos and audios in
his daily educational activities. 0,38
0,68
6,02 31,68 61,25
3. Use in t heir dail y educational activities the free
access techno lo gical to o ls o ffered by the Internet . 0,98
2,11 12,87 37,92 46,12
4. Complement the virtual classes with online
c o l l a b o r a t i v e w o r k t h r o u g h I n t e r n e t s o c i a l n e t w o r k s , … 3,917,37 23,25 37,92 27,54
5. Complement the virtual classes with others developed
through virtual games, videos and audios. 1,96
5,12 23,18 40,33 29,42
6. Complement the virtual classes with other classes
develope d i n a virtual platform (Moodle or Classroom)… 11,44 14,22 22,95 29,87 21,52
7 . Te ach stu dents ho w to bu ild their o wn n etwo rks a nd
take ad va ntage o f learni ng o ppo rtu nities thro u gh Web … 13,32 17,23 30,10 27,54 11,81
8. Encourage students to build their own learning
through online collaboration. 6,17 10,38 21,52 36,12 25,81
9. Communicate with colleagues and students via chat,
F a c e b o o k , v i d e o c o n f e r e n c i n g , W h a t s A p p o r d i g i t a l …0,30 1,13
5,34 28,07 65,16
1 0 . Co mmu nicates with co lleagu es and stu de nts via
emai l , bl o g, di scu ssi o n f o r u m, What sApp o r Tel egr am. 0,30
1,35
6,09 28,82 63,43
Fig. 2 Didactic-methodological digital competence dimension

1.Prepare essays, r esearch or academi c materials of
o wn cr eat i o n and o r i gi nal i t y. 5,57 12,64 36,57 31,60 13,62
2. Produce a digital or printed material with t he
c o m p i l a t i o n o f t h e b e s t w o r k s e l a b o r a t e d b y t h e … 6,92 16,48 34,61 28,74 13,24
3 . Perfo rm co llabo rative wo rk with stu dents in cla ss,
m a k i n g t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n t h a t i t s h o u l d n o t b e … 6,85 7,52 22,27 35,14 28,22
4. In academi c works, respect c o p yr i g ht , citing
sources. 2,56
4,59 17,53 33,78 41,53
5 . P r o mo t e i n s t u de nt s t he m a i n r u l e s o f c o p yr i ght
law, digital signatures and others derived from… 6,47 7,60 21,44 33,71 30,78
6. Develop matrices and evaluation rubric of a session
using the technological resource in the classroom. 3,845,87 23,85 40,63 25,81
7 . Mo tivate stu de nts to carr y o u t Te ch no lo gy fo r
Achi evement Day pr o j ect s . 7,15 11,74 29,50 32,43 19,19
8. Give support with support materials and res pect t he
rules of coexistence in the classroom. 0,45
1,357,15 30,93 60,12
9. Perform feedback after the evaluation moment has
taken place, respecting the time of the session. 0,60
0,75
6,02 36,19 56,43
10. Use technology to correctl y dose time in
meaningful activities according to the student's … 0,68
1,359,18 41,61 47,18
Fig. 3 Cognitive digital competence dimension
Regarding the study’s first dimension, instrumental digital competence, high

percentages were obtained in the use of electronic devices and the search for infor-
mation and content on the Internet with the Google search engine being the most
frequently used search tool. These findings were predicted, since a survey conducted
in Chile and Peru discovered that the majority of teachers had a computer or a
mobile phone, implying that they are proficient in its usage [9]. Additionally, several
studies indicate that teachers perform well in terms of Internet search, classifica-
tion, and identification [10–12], as this is considered a necessary skill for obtaining
information that enriches the curricular area taught.
The survey indicated concerning numbers in the indication of identifying and
using educational software for curricular purposes. In addition to these findings, other
researchers found that teachers of older age groups struggle with creating, editing, and
innovating digital content due to a digital gap that prevents them from effectively
learning and applying technology [13, 14]. However, the interview revealed that
while most teachers are familiar with Facebook, WhatsApp, Classroom, TikTok,
Youtube, Kahoot, Canva, Jamboard, and Zoom, they rarely use software aligned with
specialized educational practice such as Hot potatoes, Geogebra, JClic, Exelearning,
etc., despite the benefits they provide in the educational field according to various
research [15–22].
In the second dimension, didactic-methodological competence, high percentages
were observed in the use of technological tools such as the Microsoft Office package,
indicating such tools are required in the daily educational field, as supported by
various research [10, 23, 24]. Similarly, audiovisual materials such as audio and
video files are used in 92.93% of cases as they are considered fundamental materials
for motivating and retaining students’ attention, as well as educational, as long as
they are aligned with the subject being taught [25]. This conclusion of the use of
audiovisual resources is bolstered by study conducted by Ayala [23] and Espino [11],
who both discovered high levels of audio and video use. The following is an extract
of the interview:
Nowadays, I supplement my lessons with motivating films, music, and tales included
in regular tasks. I also use audios for socializing questions through “Aprendo en Casa”
Educational Platform. (Interviewee 1)
On the other hand, teachers’ communicative competence with their students and
colleagues via video call platforms, e-mails, forums, or social networks was found
to be high, similar to Martínez-Garcés & Garcés-Fuenmayor’s study [12]. Thus,
teachers believe that contact with their colleagues benefits the exchange of ideas,
instructional methodologies, and problem resolution [12, 26]. In terms of commu-
nication with students, it promotes interpersonal ties and the practice of under-
standing and flexibility [9, 26]. Additionally, the interview revealed that instructors
mostly utilized WhatsApp, an app widely used due to its advantages and accessibility
[26–28].
However, educating students how to construct their own learning networks and
take use of the learning possibilities provided by web 2.0 did not provide posi-
tive outcomes. Similarly, Centurión’s [26] discovered a low proclivity for critical
exploration of new tools and networks for the purpose of enhancing their pupils’
independent learning. Nevertheless, it was demonstrated teachers are aware of the
benefits that students can gain from technology use, but that unstable connection to
the Internet and the use of inappropriate devices by students are some barriers as
mentioned in the next extract:
It was difficult for me to conduct my classes due to the insufficient Internet access from my
students and I. Besides, I feel impotence at not being able to assist some students who only
had a very basic cell phone. (Interviewee 2)
Another unfavorable finding was the usage of virtual platforms that require
students to provide practical work on an obligatory basis. Although 100% of teachers
in the sample indicated that they preferred the social network WhatsApp for assign-
ment delivery; there are other platforms that facilitate the collection of assignments
from students, such as Google Classroom, Edmodo, and Moodle, among others, that
teachers do not use, most likely due to the students’ limited internet connection and
devices.
I collaborated with my students using WhatsApp, and they submitted proof in diverse formats.
It has been an enormous help, but also a challenge to arrange the material owing to the volume
of information received. (Interviewee 3)
In the third dimension, high frequency percentages were discovered while deliv-
ering feedback after the assessment moment in virtual settings, contradicting the find-
ings of Centurión [26] who discovered limits in this sector. Thus, a 66.44% positive
frequency was also discovered in the usage and construction of matrices and rubrics
using accessible technical resources and interviewees characterized them as facili-
tators for more effective feedback. Contradictorily, Mateus and Quiroz [25] contend
that instructors report difficulties evaluating and providing feedback to students as a
consequence of the range of forms available, considering this element as a negative.
Equally significant, favorable findings were observed for items relating to ethics in
virtual settings, indicating that instructors respect copyright laws and encourage them
to pupils. These findings corroborate those of Centurión [26], who also discovered
good outcomes and emphasizes the teacher’s impact as an example of ethical conduct
for students. Hence, it was noted in the interview that professors were aware that the
majority of their students plagiarized and were asked to mention the author in such
instances manually or via the use of a source manager such as Google Scholar [25].
However, percentages with a negative trend were found while composing essays,
research papers, or other academic works of their own conception and originality.
When teachers were asked about this result, they stated that they possessed the ability
to conduct research but were constrained by their limited knowledge of research
methodology and the writing of research products. Similarly, Ayala [23] demonstrates
that teachers often ask themselves research-level questions regarding their teaching
practice but lack the skills necessary to articulate them in research. Interestingly, one
of the educators notes the following in the interview compilation.
As educators we must hone our research skills and make the most of the digital environment.
Personally, it is one of my weaknesses, but I intend to seek out video tutorials and learning
communities in order to strengthen this competency and thus better guide my students.
(Interviewee 4)
On the other hand, teachers achieved percentages with a negative trend in the
validation and publishing of students’ research work. This might be because even
instructors believe they lack the essential expertise to undertake such actions, and
although critical thinking is encouraged in students, teacher assistance is important

for successful outcomes. Resultantly, Paz [29] notes that there is a strong correlation
between instructors’ investigative skills and those of their students, and Espino’s [11]
findings indicate that there are instances when instructors develop research materials
with the assistance of students’ work, indicating a deficiency in these dimensions
among Tacna teachers. Moreover, one of the participants stated the following to
reaffirm the above:
I know some teachers have advanced technological and research skills but it’s critical to
encourage the sharing of these experiences in order to learn more about them and replicate
them whit students. (Interviewee 5)
Finally, it was noticeable that instructors got training through the UGEL, corre-
lating these findings with those of Minedu [30] which suggest that 83.03% of Peru-
vian teachers participated in virtual training courses in 2020, with 67% attending
those connected to ICT management. The trainings were perceived to be extremely
beneficial in adapting the tools and resources to their students’ realities [31]; however,
the trainings needed to be tailored to their learning pace in order to maximize their
benefit as the majority of teachers struggle to understand digital systems.
5 Conclusions
Without a question, teachers’ acquisition of digital capabilities has become a crit-

ical component of effective educational performance in the modern day. Thus, the
current research demonstrates that teachers in Tacna have a favorable perception of
digital competences in terms of instrumental, didactic-methodological, and cognitive
aspects. However, overcoming technological constraints and providing investigative
formation for teachers are essential to achieve the long-awaited educational quality.
Moreover, an additional study that elucidates and analyzes teachers’ performance in
the area of digital competences is important to contrast teachers’ perceptions with
their actions.
References
1. Phan, T., Ngo, T., Phan, T.: Assessment of information technology use competence for teachers:
identifying and applying the information technology competence framework in online teaching.
J. Tech. Educ. Train. 12(1) (2020). https://penerbit.uthm.edu.my/ojs/index.php/JTET/article/
view/5239
2. Díaz-Arce, D., Loyola-Illescas, E.: Competencias digitales en el context COVID 19: Una
mirada desde la educación. Rev. Innova Educ. 3(1), 120–150, (2020). https://doi.org/10.35622/
j.rie.2021.01.006
3. ECLAC: Statistical Yearbook for Latin America and the Caribbean. United Nations publication,
Santiago (2020).
4. UNESCO. https://en.unesco.org/COVID19/educationresponse. Accessed 21 Aug 2021
5. Benavente, S., Flores, M., Guizado, F., Núñez, L.: Desarrollo de las competencias digitales
de docentes a través de programas de intervención 2020. Propósitos y Representaciones 9(1)
(2021). https://doi.org/10.20511/pyr2021.v9n1.1034
6. Trahtemberg. https://www.trahtemberg.com/articulos/3780-2021-05-30-12-10-31.html.
Accessed 08 Sep 2021
7. Hernández, R., Fernández, C., Baptista, P.: Metodología de la Investigación, 2nd edn. McGraw
Hill Education, Mexico (2014)
8. Osco, F., Vargas, L., Melgar, A.: Competencia digital y desarrollo profesional de los docentes
de dos instituciones de educación básica regular del distrito de Los Olivos, Lima-Perú.
HAMUT’AY 6(1), 54–70 (2019). https://doi.org/10.21503/HAMU.V6I1.1574
9. Mateus, J.: Docentes frente al covid-19: cambios percibidos en Chile y Perú. Magis. Revista
Internacional de Investigación En Educación 14, 1–25 (2021). https://doi.org/10.11144/JAV
ERIANA.M14.DFCC
10. Diaz, L.: Uso de tecnologías de la información y comunicación en los docentes del nivel
secundaria del distrito de Rioja, 2018 [Thesis]. Peru: UCV (2019). https://repositorio.ucv.edu.
pe/handle/20.500.12692/39508
11. Espino, J.: Competencias digitales de los docentes y desempeño pedagógico en el aula [Thesis].
Peru: USMP (2018). https://repositorio.usmp.edu.pe/handle/20.500.12727/4525
12. Martínez-Garcés, J., Garcés-Fuenmayor, J.: Competencias digitales docentes y el reto de la
educación virtual derivado de la covid-19. Educación y Humanismo 22(39), 1–16 (2020).
https://doi.org/10.17081/EDUHUM.22.39.4114
13. Martínez, N., Rodríguez-García, A.: Alfabetización y competencia digital en personas mayores:
el caso del aula permanente de formación abierta de la Universidad de Granada (España).
Espacios 39(10), 1–16 (2017). https://www.revistaespacios.com/a18v39n10/a18v39n10p37.
pdf
14. Reyes, I., Flores, H., Poma, S., Sanchez, P., Ciriaco, N.: Las competencias de los docentes en
el manejo de las herramientas digitales en los tiempos de pandemia en la Universidad Nacional
de Educación (UNE). Dilemas Contemporáneos: Educación, Política y Valores 9(1) (2021).
https://doi.org/10.46377/DILEMAS.V9I1.2867
15. Anggoro, S., Arif, M.: The effect of using Hot Potatoes application in teaching descriptive text.
MOTORIC 2(1), 25–33 (2018). https://doi.org/10.31090/PAUDMOTORIC.V2I1.713
16. Diaz-Nunja, L., Rodríguez-Sosa, J., Lingán, S.: Enseñanza de la geometría con el software
GeoGebra en estudiantes secundarios de una institución educativa en Lima. Propósitos y
Representaciones 6(2), 217–234 (2018). https://doi.org/10.20511/PYR2018.V6N2.251
17. Laura, K., Velarde, J.: La Aplicación de un Software en Comprensión de Textos en Inglés para
Estudiantes en Perú. Neumann Bus. Rev. 5(2), 108–121 (2019). https://doi.org/10.22451/3002.
NBR2019.VOL5.2.10042
18. Pittman, J.: Uso del exelearning, aplicación de contenidos digitales y su relación con el proceso
de aprendizaje en la Universidad Nacional José Faustino Sánchez Carrión 2017. Revista
Científica EPigmalión 1(2) (2019). https://doi.org/10.51431/EPIGMALION.V1I2.540
19. Robles, H., Salamanca, R., Laura, K.: Quizizz y su aplicación en el aprendizaje de los estudi-
antes de la carrera profesional de idioma extranjero. PURIQ 4(1), 97–115 (2021). https://doi.
org/10.37073/puriq.4.1.239
20. Laura, K., Morales, K., Clavitea, M., Aza, P.: Aplicación Quizizz y comprensión de textos
en inglés con el contenido de la plataforma educativa “Aprendo en Casa”. Revista Innova
Educación 3(1), 151–159 (2021). https://doi.org/10.35622/j.rie.2021.01.007
21. De La Cruz, K., Gebera, O., Copaja, S.: Application of gamification in higher education in the
teaching of English as a foreign language. IOT Smart Syst. 323–341 (2022). https://doi.org/
10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_27
22. Laura, K., Franco, L., Luza, K.: Gamification for understanding English texts for students in a
public school in Peru. Int. J. Dev. Res. 10(10), 41787–41791 (2020). https://doi.org/10.37118/
ijdr.20319.10.2020
23. Ayala, V.: Competencias investigativas y las estrategias de enseñanza en los docentes del nivel
secundario de la Unión Peruana del Norte [Thesis]. Chile: Universidad Adventista de Chile,
2019. https://renati.sunedu.gob.pe/handle/sunedu/2244450
24. Nauca, E., Barón, M.: Propuesta de optimización de uso de las Tic en el docente del nivel secun-
daria para mejorar el proceso de enseñanza en la I.E.P “Javier Heraud”- Tumán [Thesis]. Peru:
Universidad de Lambayeque (2019). https://repositorio.udl.edu.pe/jspui/handle/UDL/245
25. Mateus, J., Quiroz, M.: La “Competencia TIC” desde la mirada de docentes de secundaria: más
que habilidades digitales. Revista Peruana de Investigación Educativa 13(14) (2021). https://
doi.org/10.34236/RPIE.V13I14.266
26. Centurión, A.: Competencias digitales docentes en época de emergencia sanitaria: necesidades
y oportunidades para estudiantes de educación secundaria en Lambayeque. Revista Peruana
de Investigación Educativa 13(14) (2021). https://doi.org/10.34236/RPIE.V13I14.296
27. Cervantes, C., Alvites-Huamaní, C.: WhatsApp como recurso educativo y tecnológico en la
educación. Hamutáy 8(2), 69–78 (2021). https://doi.org/10.21503/hamu.v8i2.2294
28. Diaz, F.: El WhatsApp como alternativa para la educación a distancia en la I.E.P. N° 17833,
Bagua Grande Amazonas, 2021 [Thesis]. Peru: UCV (2021). https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.
12692/71174
29. Paz, L.: Competencias investigativas en los docentes beneficiados por la estrategia de formación
y acceso para la apropiación pedagógica de las TIC. Tendencias 16(1), 175–194 (2015). https://
doi.org/10.22267/RTEND.151601.39
30. MINEDU.: Encuesta Nacional: Perfil Docente Valorización de la profesión docente (Respuestas
múltiples). ENDO REMOTA, Peru (2020)
31. Laura-De La Cruz, K.M., Roque-Coronel, L.-M., Noa-Copaja, S.J., Rejas-Junes, L.R.: Flipped
classroom methodology in English language learning in higher education. Imitation Market
Modeling in Digital Economy: Game Theoretic Approaches, Imitation Market Modeling in
Digital Economy: Game Theoretic Approaches, pp. 448–59 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/
978-3-030-96293-7_37
Study of the Visual Variables
of the Elliptic Paraboloid and Their
Representations Through Digital
Technology
Tito Nelson Peñaloza Vara, Jesus Victoria Flores Salazar,

and Jorge Luis Vivas-Pachas
Abstract This paper aims at studying the visual variables of the elliptic paraboloid
oriented at teachers training, a subsequent study based on one research done with
architecture undergraduates as subjects. We are interested in reflecting on cognitive
and perceptive aspects when treatments and conversions are done in graphic and alge-
braic representations of such surface by recognizing and interpreting elements from
its own graphic representation, which are its visual variables. For this reason, we use
an environment of dynamic representations such as GeoGebra, to show the represen-
tations of the elliptic paraboloid in different registers of semiotic representation, its
visual variables and significant units, in order to finally reflect on the development of
the apprehension of the graphic register when teachers training take on a task related
to the paraboloid in a representational medium such as GeoGebra for their teaching
work.
Keywords Paraboloid · Visual variables · Digital technology
1 Introduction
Representations of mathematical objects and their transformations have been thor-

oughly researched by Duval [1]. Silva and Moretti [2], studied the global interpreta-
tion, from the point of view of Duval [1], in the process of teaching and learning non-
cylindrical and non-degenerate quadric surfaces. In that sense, Silva [3], proposes
an untraditional study of conics and quadrics in high school by means of a series
of activities mediated by the GeoGebra 3D software which allowed students to do
T. N. P. Vara (B) · J. V. F. Salazar · J. L. Vivas-Pachas

Pontifical Catholic University of Peru, San Miguel, 15088 Lima, Peru
e-mail: npenalozav@pucp.pe
J. V. F. Salazar
e-mail: jvflores@pucp.pe
J. L. Vivas-Pachas
e-mail: jorge.vivas@pucp.edu.pe
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_7
72 T. N. P. Vara et al.
conjectures about their properties. Peñaloza and Salazar [4] presented a study of
the graphic representations and modifications of the dynamic graphic register of the
elliptic paraboloid, surface used in several fields of architecture and arts in general.
Also, Salazar [5], indicates that the environments of dynamic representations such
as GeoGebra, favor a different position on mathematics teaching and learning.
According to Peñaloza [6], the visualization process of the paraboloid with archi-
tecture undergraduates, based on theory of registers of semiotic representation by
Duval [1]. The study of the dimensional deconstruction of the paraboloid oriented
towards teachers in continuing professional development, is qualitative in nature due
to its exploratory and observable nature in the sense of Taylor and Bogdan [7]. It was
carried out through a workshop on representations of quadric surfaces in GeoGebra,
and the information was obtained by means of worksheets with questions on the
topic and GeoGebra files made by the participating teachers. Among the results, we
highlight that GeoGebra plays a key role in the dimensional deconstruction of the
paraboloid, since it has tools to perform treatments in its graphical representation,
which is not feasible to be done by traditional means.
We think that the fields of application of situations that allow students to develop
their ability to visualize mathematical objects represented in 3D have not been very
explored. We intend to awaken the interest in designing situations that allow students
to turn to previous knowledge to build new knowledge. For this purpose, the study
(without loss of generality) is focused to the elliptic paraboloid, represented by the
Cartesian shape
y−k (x − h)2 (z − w)2

S: = 2
+ , wherex, y, z, h, k, w ∈ R; a, b, c ∈ R + − {0}
c a b2
With all this in mind, our paper presents a brief representation of the elliptic
paraboloid, represented in different registers of semiotic representation; then, it
will analyze its visual variables and, finally, a reflection will be made on the work
of teachers in continuous professional development when using a representation
medium such as GeoGebra for the teaching of the paraboloid.
2 The Elliptic Paraboloid in Different Registers of Semiotic

Representation
In Fig. 1, based on Duval [1], presents the paraboloid’s algebraic, graphic and natural
language representations.
In Fig. 1, the represented object is an elliptic paraboloid and, according to the
information included in its representation in natural language, the general form of
its equation is given by
x −h (z − w)2 (y − k)2
S: = +
c a2 b2
Study of the Visual Variables of the Elliptic Paraboloid and Their … 73
Fig. 1 Registers of semiotic representation of the elliptic paraboloid
When substituting the coordinates of vertex V (1; 2; −1) in the equation, one gets
x −1 (z + 1)2 (y − 2)2
S: = +
c a2 b2
When cutting surface S with plane x = 3 and equaling it to the equation of the
elliptic curve.
E : x = 3; (z+1) + (y−2)
2 2
16 9
= 1, one gets a = 4; b = 3; c = 2,
which corresponds to treatments in the algebraic register, so the algebraic
representation of the mentioned object is:
x −1 (z + 1)2 (y − 2)2
S: = +
2 16 9
The graph of the elliptic paraboloid can be done through traditional methods, such
as drafting with paper and pencil and the technique to graphically draft surfaces in
sections, or by means of a software of dynamic-graphic representation. This action,
according to Duval [1] is a conversion from the algebraic register to the graphic
register.
On the other hand, if the information of the paraboloid is given as a graphic
representation and the question is to determine its algebraic representation, it is
necessary to do treatments in the graphic register that can be done in a means of
dynamic representation, such as the 3D graphics view of GeoGebra, which according
to Peñaloza [6] and Peñaloza and Salazar [4], would belong to the dynamic-graphic
register of the paraboloid.
3 Visual Variables of the Elliptic Paraboloid
According to Duval [8], visual variables are iconic representations that may be figural
or graphic, according to the type of register of semiotic representation in which they
are expressed. The author identified the visual variables of the line in the graphic
register, which are: the slope, the point of intersection with the axis of ordinates,
passing points and their corresponding significant units as numeric values, coordi-
nates, algebraic expressions, etc. In that sense, was identified the visual variables
of the paraboloid. Figure 2 presents our classification of the visual variables of the
elliptic paraboloid done according to its dimension.
For example, in Fig. 2 we see that the visual variable Plane π (dimension 2) may
be decomposed in infinite points, curves and lines contained in it, but passing point P
(dimension 0) and a line perpendicular to the mentioned plane (dimension 1), repre-
sented by the X axis, are enough to graphically represent it, so the decomposition has
been done in 2 objects of smaller dimensions. The visual variable L Axis (dimension
Fig. 2 Classification of the visual variables of the elliptic paraboloid

1) may be represented by the V vertex of the paraboloid (dimension 0) and the X axis
parallel to the line (dimension 1). In this case, the decomposition has been done by
an object of smaller dimension (the vertex) and another object of the same dimension
(the X axis). Therefore, we can state that the visual variable Paraboloid (dimension
2) may be decomposed or represented by means of all the visual variables of smaller
dimensions.
Thus, creating lines by traditional means or others, allows us to represent points,
segments, distances, other symmetries, among others, in the plane in order to repre-
sent objects comprised of infinite points, which cannot be done with instruments
such as parabolas, ellipses and the surface of the paraboloid.
The visual variable of the paraboloid also constitutes the visual variable of another
paraboloid if there are treatments shown between them in the graphic register, such
as symmetries/reflections, homothecy, rotation, etc. This is true whether the trans-
formations are pure or compound. Figure 3 shows the dimensional deconstruction
of the shape of the S paraboloid to represent the S ' paraboloid. The S ' paraboloid
in Fig. 3b is represented with the visual variables of the S paraboloid in Fig. 3a,
which only shows the V vertex common to both surfaces and the T2 ellipse, which in
transformation terms consists of the translation of the center J = (1, 10, −1) of the
'
T2 ellipse to the point J = (9, 2, −1), and then through a first rotation around the
V vertex and a second rotation around the new J ' center to be able to represent T ' 2 .
Vertexes P, O, Q, R of the T ' 2 ellipse, as well as the V vertex are passing points of
T ' 3 and T ' 4 parabolas, with which the S ' paraboloid is represented.
With the information presented in Fig. 3, it is deduced that if the algebraic
representation of the first paraboloid is
y−k (x − h)2 (z − w)2

S: = +
c a2 b2
then the equation of the second paraboloid is:
Fig. 3 Representation of the paraboloid by dimensional deconstruction

x −h (z − w)2 (y − k)2
S' : = +
c a2 b2
The values of constants a, b and c are the same in both equations. The significant
units of the parabola visual variable correspond to coordinates of centers, vertexes
and passing points, as well as its Cartesian equation, expressed by the intersection
of two surfaces: a parabolic cylinder and a π plane perpendicular to the generatrix
of such cylinder, which contains the parabola.
Table 1, shows the significant units corresponding to visual variables of the
parabola. The significant unit corresponds to the T3' parabola visual variable given
by:
T3' : {(y − k)2 = 4 p(x − h); z = w
In Fig. 4, the T3' parabola is represented by its visual variables, whose significant
units are obtained by simple inspection in this case. The π plane, to^{\prime} which
the T3' parabola belongs, has the following equation: z = −1.
Considering vertex V = (h; k; w) = (1; 2; −1) and R = (9; 8; −1) as a passing
point, the value of the p parameter of T3' can be determined in the equation of the
parabolic cylinder:
(8 − 2)2 = 4 p(9 − 1)
where p = 9
8
> 0. Therefore, the significant unit of T3' is:

9
T3' : (y − 2)2 = (x − 1); z = −1
2
Similarly, the significant unit of the T2' ellipse variable can be obtained:

(z + 1)2 (y − 2)2
T2' : + = 1; x = 9
64 36
The equation of T3' can be rewritten as:

(y − 2)2 (x − 1)
T3' : = ; z = −1
36 8
With the resulting equations of both T2' and T3' curves, the significant unit of the
'
S paraboloid can be obtained, having the following algebraic representation:
x −1 (z + 1)2 (y − 2)2
S' : = +
8 64 36
Table 1 Visual variables and significant units of the parabola
Visual Variables Significant Units
Dimension 1: Parabola V Vertex V = (H, K, W ) Three real numbers
P = (H 1 , K 1 , W 1 )
Hi, Ki, W i ∈ R
P Passing point
π Plane parallel to the coordinate π : X = H Cartesian equation of the π

planes to which the parabola π: Y = K plane
belongs π: Z = W
(continued)
Study of the Visual Variables of the Elliptic Paraboloid and Their …
77
Table 1 (continued)
78
Visual Variables Significant Units

(y − k)2 = 4 p(x − h)
Dimension 1: Parabola P parameter indicating towards T : Sign of the P parameter in the
which direction of the coordinate z=w cartesian equation of the T
axes the parabola opens parabola
(x − h)2 = 4 p(z − w)
T :
y=k

(y − k)2 = 4 p(z − w)
T :
x=h
T. N. P. Vara et al.
Fig. 4 Representation of the

paraboloid by dimensional
deconstruction
Therefore, the algebraic representation of the first S paraboloid, shown in Fig. 4,

is:
y−2 (x − 1)2 (z + 1)2

S: = +
8 64 36
Recognizing the significant units of the visual variables of a lower order than the
S ' paraboloid has allowed us to have its algebraic representation through treatments
and conversions between the graphic and algebraic registers (not necessarily in one
direction only); and with the algebraic representation of the S ' paraboloid and through
treatments in the algebraic register we got the algebraic representation of the S
paraboloid, since S is the visual variable of S ' and vice versa, which is shown in
Table 2.
Table 2, shows the significant units of the paraboloid, which allows us to recognize
other elements and properties that are not explicitly indicated in the posed situation,
according to the form of its equation. For the S ' paraboloid, represented by S ' : x−1
8
=
(z+1)2
+ (y−2)
2
64 36
, the x variable is restricted to x ≥ 1, since c = 8 > 0. This analysis
can be proven with properties of real numbers. Therefore, there is not a surface for
values x < 1, which can be seen in the graphic representation of the visual variables.
In Peñaloza [6], the visualization of the circular and elliptical paraboloid was
studied in architecture undergraduates. Focusing on the sense of conversion from the
algebraic register to the graphic register because it corresponds to the contents of
the topic quadric surfaces in the mathematics course taken by the research subjects.
The study considers a subsequent study aimed at teachers in continuous professional
development which focuses on the other sense of conversion, from the graphic register
Table 2 Significant units of the paraboloid

Significant units
(x−h)2 (y−k)2
+ (z−w) + (z−w)
y−k 2 2
Form of the equation z−w
c = c = a2 b2
x−h
c = a2 b2
(x−h)2 (y−k)2
a2
+ b2
Coordinate axis to Z axis Y axis X axis
which the axis of the
paraboloid is parallel
Orientation of the If c > 0, it opens If c > 0, it opens If c > 0, it opens
surface towards the positive towards the positive towards the positive
semi-axis of the z axis semi-axis of the y axis semi-axis of the x axis
If c < 0, it opens If c < 0, it opens If c < 0, it opens
towards the negative towards the negative towards the negative
semi-axis of the z axis semi-axis of the y axis semi-axis of the x axis
Type of paraboloid If a
b /= 1, it is an elliptic paraboloid
If a
b = 1, it is a circular paraboloid
Restriction for some I f c > 0, z ≥ w I f c > 0, y ≥ k I f c > 0, x ≥ h
of the cartesian I f c < 0, z ≤ w I f c < 0, y ≤ k I f c < 0, x ≤ h
variables
into the algebraic register. For this purpose, a preliminary workshop was devel-
oped to study graphic representations of quadric surfaces in GeoGebra software, in
which emphasis was given to the elliptic and parabolic forms of the ellipsoid, elliptic
paraboloid, and elliptic hyperboloid of a sheet.
In one of the workshop activities related to the dimensional deconstruction of
the paraboloid, shown in Fig. 5, we present both the algebraic and graphic views of
the GeoGebra software. We observe that the algebraic representations of the visual
variables of the paraboloid are given in parametric form. This is a limitation of the
software since the ones studied by the subjects are given in Cartesian form, but with
the values of their significant units (also shown in the algebraic view) treatments could
be considered in the algebraic register to obtain such algebraic representations.
In Fig. 6, we see the process followed by two teachers in continuous training to
obtain the algebraic representations of the visual variables of the paraboloid (parabola
and ellipse), only one of each type to choose from. One of them (subject a) shows a
correct relationship between the coordinates of each necessary point and the plane
to which the curve belongs. Subject (a) obtains, without difficulty, the equation of
each curve as the intersection of a plane (which contains it) with a cylinder whose
generatrix is perpendicular to the plane. The other teacher (subject b) had difficulties
obtaining the equations of the elliptic curves when considering that the center of
each one of them is not in the origin of coordinates. What subject (b) expressed were
equations of elliptic cylinders. This subject did not build the form of the parabolic
equations.
Fig. 5 Answers of one of the teachers
Fig. 6 Teachers’ answers
We have proven that, from recognizing the significant units of the paraboloid, it is
possible to get one of the shapes of its equation, and vice versa, without losing infor-
mation. This happens because, to determine the “c” significant unit of its equation
(shown in the Table 2), it was necessary to identify the significant unit corresponding
to a visual variable that represents it. In this case, it was the major axis of the elliptic
base. Therefore, there are more possibilities to solve the situation.
4 Discussion and Conclusion
According to the examples shown, we have confirmed that, to graphically represent

an elliptic paraboloid, we need at least the algebraic representations of two curves
located in mutually perpendicular planes. Using the cross-section technique (applied
backwards), we can get its equation through treatment in the algebraic register.
The conversion from the graphic register to the algebraic register requires a great
cognitive demand. For that reason, we believe that the use of technology (GeoGebra
or GeoGebra 3D) helps students build knowledge and meaning, favoring the job
of the teacher by providing lessons with dynamism by changing representations
in real time. Just as supported by Lehmann [9], in the analogy between quadratic
surfaces and conic sections, we could also present situations that mobilize students’
previous knowledge about such topics, that is, facilitate the development of their
apprehensions. To do that, it is necessary to understand the process of visualization.
It is here where the role of visual variables and significant units of the paraboloid are
key. These issues have been addressed in this paper.
We have posed some situations related to the notion of an elliptic paraboloid and
a system of XYZ Cartesian coordinates. We frequently see objects in the real world,
whose shapes are, for example, that of an elliptic paraboloid (parabolic antenna,
church cupolas, dams, domes, etc.), and the following question arises: Where are
the Cartesian axes of such objects? Is it possible to talk about the figural register
of the paraboloid, that is, the one without Cartesian axes? We live in a world of
representations and, for example, to build a church cupola, beams and pillars are
required. Beams are curve elements, whose shape is similar to the representation of
a parabola. To represent or design them, we need to know the location of its supports
on the ground and its maximum height. That is, two passing points and its vertex,
which are the visual variables of this open curve in dimension 1.
Having said that, we state that, visual variables are present in every type of graphic
representation, whether material or tangible. It is also important to identify them and
connect them with each other as functional pieces of a larger system. It is even
more complex and infinite, having the possibility to expand this practice to other
mathematical objects.
In conclusion, the results of the present research show the pertinence of the
GeoGebra software in teaching and learning mathematics, particularly, the Elliptic
Paraboloid, as well as the need to use these advances in mathematics classes.
Acknowledgements We acknowledge the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru, PUCP, the Insti-
tute for Research in Mathematics Education, IREM-PUCP and the Ibero-American Network for
Research in Mathematical Work, RIITMA for their contributions to the study which allowed us to
write this paper.
References
1. Duval, R.: Semiosis and Human Thinking. Semiotic registers and intellectual learnings.
University of Del Valle, Colombia (1995)
2. Silva, S., Moretti, A.: Abordagem de interpretação global no ensino e na aprendizagem das
superfícies quádricas. Educação Matemática Pesquisa 20(2), 61–83 (2018)
3. Silva, A.: Cônicas e Quádricas para o Ensino Médio. Tesis de Maestría. Universidade Federal
do Piauí, Brasil (2017)
4. Peñaloza-Vara, T.N., Salazar, J.V.F.: Apprehensions and modifications in the graphic-dynamic

register of the elliptic paraboloid. Educação Matemática Pesquisa 20(1), 283–308 (2018)
5. Salazar, J.V.F.: Semiotic representations: a study of dynamic figural register. In: Signs of Signi-
fication. Semiotics in Mathematics Education Research, pp. 217–233. Springer International
Publishing, Berlin (2018)
6. Peñaloza-Vara, T.N.: Visualization Process of the Paraboloid in Students of Architecture
Mediated by GeoGebra. Pontifical Catholic University of Peru, Peru (2016)
7. Taylor, S., Bogdan, R.: Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods (1987)
8. Duval, R.: Representation, vision and visualization: cognitive functions in mathematical
thinking. basic issues for learning. Université du Littoral Côté-d’Opale, Boulogne, et Centre
IUFM Nord Pas-de Calais, Lille, France (1999)
9. Lehmann, C.: Analytical Geometry, pp. 425–428. Unión Tipográfica Editorial Hispano Ameri-
cana, Mexico (1953)
Mental State Equalization
for Neuroeducation: Methodology
and Protocol for Applying
Electroencephalogram in Educational
Instruments
Lucas P. Prestes, Milton A. Zaro, Patrícia F. da Silva,

Fernanda R. de Aguiar, and Graziele Halmenschlager
Abstract This study aims to verify the correlation of change in the emotional state
through music with changes in the EEG prior to the application of neuroeduca-
tion tests. A brief analysis of the EEG equipment available on the market is also
presented. The verification of the emotional state provoked and modulated through
music offers indications for the necessity of carrying out an equalization of the brain
signals that precede educational tests with the use of the EEG. Results from tests
of seven volunteer individuals indicate that exposure to the specific soundtrack has
changed emotional state, and therefore resulted in brain waves homogeneously to
all individuals, confirming the need for and importance of using a pre-experiment
methodology when using EEG for educational analysis to avoid results of data not
coming from the proposed experiment. This research is the first stage of research
that proposes the development of a protocol for using the EEG in neuroeducation.
The second stage, under development, will provide a brain mathematical model with
a focus to compare different educational instruments e their effectivity during to
student learning process.
Keywords Education · Electroencephalogram · Emotiv · Emotional state ·

Protocol neuroeducation research
L. P. Prestes (B) · M. A. Zaro · P. F. da Silva · F. R. de Aguiar

Federal University of Rio Grande Do Sul, Rio Grande Do Sul, Brazil
e-mail: lucas.plautz.prestes@gmail.com
M. A. Zaro
e-mail: zaro@ufrgs.br
G. Halmenschlager
La Salle University, Rio Grande Do Sul, Brazil
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_8
86 L. P. Prestes et al.
1 Introduction
Research related to neuroscience applied to neuroeducation has highlighted the

importance of capturing and monitoring brain waves and their emotional and mental
states related to students, aiming to achieve better results in learning processes. In
this sense, the research development potential in this area describes the importance of
recognizing the emotional/mental states present in controlled situations, associating
certain stimuli to the type of brain wave presented, as well as the evaluation of neural
activity, it is relation with the emotional state and the possibility of modelling the
desired emotional and mental state [1, 4, 6, 11].
Identification of emotional states and association of brain waves verified by an
Electroencephalogram (EEG) can assist in the implementation of higher performance
learning and teaching processes for individuals [6; Longhi 2007].
According to Harrison [5], the use of the EEG can verify and record elec-
trical activity in an individual’s emotional state. In this sense, identifying the
mental/emotional states of the individuals studied involves research within BCIs
(Brain-Computer Interfaces) and requires the creation of protocols, which do not
interfere with the calibration of the equipment itself, but rather in the calibration of
the mental state in preparation for any experiment activity, especially in spontaneous
activity (Admos 1; Morals 2016).
In studies of brain-computer interfaces, EEG acts as a psychophysiological
measure, evoked potential, used to obtain mental metrics from sensors located in
different brain lobes in order to perform an analysis of the subject’s neural process
during the learning process. Brain wave analysis, despite being in an advanced state
in health care, is, unfortunately, underexploited in the analysis of educational envi-
ronments, whether in the traditional classroom or the testing of new educational
research instruments such as gamification. Studies have already indicated the need
to assess the accuracy of sensors in detecting emotions in individuals studied [5].
The use of music in experiments as a means of inducing a particular
emotional/mental state, as well as its perception and mapping, can be verified through
the EEG. Different areas of the brain are activated, and reward mechanisms are
mobilized during this process of exposure to music [1, 3, 6].
One study demonstrated induction to different emotional states, correlating to
the corresponding brain waves, and also based on the self-reporting of the individ-
uals studied. It also described the methodology for calibrating emotional responses
correlated to the brain frequencies involved, depending on the type of music the
individual listened to. In addition to the demonstration of induction of different
emotional states observed in the study, a selection of songs was established to deter-
mine different responses from emotional states, as well as related brain waves. The
experiment included 12 songs that were related to different emotional states: fatigue,
sadness, impotence, frustration, anger, fear, relaxation, calm, gratitude, satisfaction,
and happiness [3].
According to Eaton [3], a soundtrack was made available for the studied individ-
uals. Each individual chose the songs to be played and reported an emotional state
Mental State Equalization for Neuroeducation: Methodology … 87
Fig. 1 Russell’s circumplex model of affection [8, 9]
change. The changes were detected and related to changes in EEG during music
playback.
Music mobilizes three types of response: humour, affection, and emotion, which
can be parametrized using Russell’s Circumplex Model of Affection, aiming to
understand the emotions better suited to the learning process. The model has four
quarters, and each quarter corresponds to the relationship between the horizontal
(unpleasant/pleasant) and vertical (activation/deactivation) axes of the affect model.
as shown in Fig. 1.
Studies highlight the importance of modulating the emotional state and the possi-
bility of this modulation impacting educational processes and monitoring learning
systems with the ability to evoke meanings to students to stimulate a desired
emotional state for learning activities to take place [4].
Individuals’ learning ability may be related to their emotional states at the moment,
and one of the objectives of this research is to verify the correlation of change in
the emotional state through music with changes in the EEG prior to the application
of neuroeducation tests. It is important to evaluate studies of new methodologies
that may help students in learning processes and in the development of friendly
environments with the capacity for adapting individual emotional states [11].
This study presents the results obtained with the use of EEG equipment. It analyzes
the emotional state and modulated by music, aiming to develop a previous protocol
for using the equipment in neuroeducation. Initially, it brings an induction on related
research developed in the area. Section 2 describes EEG equipment and its possible
uses. Section 3 presents the research methods, the preparation protocol developed
to use the equipment, and the execution process with the research subjects. The
results are discussed and analyzed in Sect. 4, evidencing the neural state of the
subjects before and after playing the music, being later proven through the statistical
calculation of the EEG. Finally, the conclusions are brought, highlighting the need
to apply a methodology for equalization or state of neural homogenization, aiming

for the analyzed data to offer safe results.
2 The Eeg and How It Works
2.1 Available Commercial Equipment
Currently, there are few commercially available electroencephalograms on the

market, among which are NeuroSky and Emotiv. NeuroSky has a single sensor
capable of informing the attention levels of the individual, with low precision, and is
mainly used qualitatively, since its use is limited to this sensor, without the possibility
of comparison with other sensors in order to reduce the noise, consequently not being
used for diagnosing medical pathologies. Emotiv has several variations between its
products related to the electroencephalogram, which go beyond simple qualitative
equipment, because it has a greater number of sensors than NeuroSky and allows the
analysis of the raw and individual data of each sensor, and also the interpretation of
these through its development library (API).
Emotiv Epoc+ and NeuroSky headsets differ in resolution and application.
NeuroSky is used predominantly in recreational, educational or experimental natures
because it makes available only one sensor with a focus on attention. Emotiv can
be used for research by providing headsets with 5, 14 and 32 channels, according
to the user’s needs. Emotiv PRO+ of 14 and 32 channels is recommended for the
area of quantitative and eventually medical research, having validation in the area of
medical diagnosis for some pathologies. From clinical trials, it has been established
that the data on the Emotiv Pro+ equipment and its library may replace the EEG used
in hospitals for certain pathologies [2] (Fig. 2 and Table 1).
Fig. 2 Comparison of different EEG devices. Author

Table 1 Technical comparation between neurosky and Emotiv Pro+. Author

Characteristics Device comparison
Equipment NeuroSky Emotiv Epoc Plus
Sensors 1 Channel 14 Channel (gold connection)
Sample rate 128 times a second, or 2048 internal, filtered and
approximately once every downsampled to 128 or 256 per
7.8 ms sec per channel
Frequency response 3–100 Hz 0.16–43 Hz, digital notch filters
at 50 Hz and 60 Hz
Resolution Communication framework 14 bits with 1 LSB = 0.51 µV
protocol: 12 and 8 bits raw (16 bit ADC, 2 bits instrumental
wave value noise floor discarded), or 16 bits
(user configured)
Lsb (least significant bit) 1 mV 0.51 µV @ 14 bit / 0.13 uV @ 16
resolution bit
Dynamic range n/d ±4.17 mV
Price $99,00 $799,00 + Pro License
2.2 Emotiv EEG Sensor
Understanding the functioning of the brain and the use of Emotiv as a tool for
analyzing brain intensity requires the identification of each one of the sensors’ posi-
tions and the relationship with human physiology. The brain is subdivided into several
sections, and each area is responsible for controlling the functioning and emotions
of the human body. Each brain lobe is responsible for a given task that has a direct
or indirect effect on underlying areas, according to short and long-term development
and learning over the life of the individual (Fig. 3 and Table 2).
The use of Emotiv in quantifying neural signals, with a focus on education, is
due to the fact that it can be used non-invasively in a non-hospital environment.
Thus, the medium will not be a factor in influencing the analyzed data. According
to Badcock and Sweller [2], the use of Emotiv EEG in comparison to the traditional
Neuroscan for detection of sounds among children aged 6–11 years old becomes
possible, as they portray the respective tests similarly, despite being products with
different purposes: Neuroscan for medical diagnostic purposes and Emotiv for enter-
tainment. Both studies describe neural responses in the proposed research in an
equivalent way. According to Wang [10], it is possible to analyze the workload on
memory access from the EEG Emotiv devices, thereby demonstrating the possibility
of performing data analysis using real-time recognition techniques for monitoring
and identifying levels of mental load in a wide variety of cognitive activities in
modern society.
From technical analysis and use of the Emotiv Pro+, it is possible to claim this to
be the best choice in quality and accuracy among the devices available on the market,
Fig. 3 Adapted image from Emotiv pro+ software. Author
Table 2 Emotiv pro+.

Brain lobe Function Sensor
Emotiv pro+ corresponding to
each brain lobe. Author Parietal lobe Movement control F7, F8, FC5 FC6
Touch perception
Body orientation
Temporal lobe Language understanding T7, CMS, T8, DRL
(Wernicke’s area)
Hearing
Information hearing
Occipital lobe Visual memory P7, P8, 01, 02
Shape perception
Visual reception
Local orientation
Frontal lobe Attention AF3, AF4, F3, F4
Reasoning
Cognition
Eye movement
as it does not require a hostile hospital environment, which could influence student
data, as it falls short of the school environment.
3 Materials and Methods
The use of EEG equipment in educational academic research is a new area and needs
integration between researchers in different areas to understand all stages of learning
processes. Therefore, it currently does not have a protocol to be followed for the use
of EEG in the neuroeducation research, consequently, not providing the possibility
to do compare quantitatively the observed data between different articles.
This research is the first stage of research that proposes the development of a
protocol for using the EEG in neuroeducation. The second stage, under develop-
ment, will provide a brain mathematical model with a focus to compare differents
educational instruments e their effectivity during to student learning process.
The study variables are restricted to evaluating brain waves in a relaxed state,
which should precede the evaluation of any educational activity monitored by the
EEG. The target audience consists of a random sample of seven adults aged 30–75,
who are part of the post-graduate course at a federal university in Brazil, who have
agreed to participate in the study. All of them signed the written informed consent.
The study does not offer any kind of risk to volunteers, nor does it require prior
preparation or medication. The study protocol was approved by our local Institutional
Ethics Committee.
3.1 Preparation Process of Emotiv Pro+
EEG (Electroencephalogram) has a preparation protocol that precedes its use. Each
type of equipment, according to its respective sensors, has the need for preparation as
defined in advance by the manufacturer. The preparation of Emotiv Pro+ equipment
consists of two stages prior to its use in research.
The first stage involves the preparation of the sensors, which must be carried out
at least 6 h before use. The sensors should undergo a process of moistening in saline
solution, as directed by the manufacturer. This process can be performed on the eve
of the experiment, when battery loading should also be carried out for 4–6 h prior to
the test, depending on the previously detected load level.
The second stage aims to identify the level of salinity and reception of the sensors
when they are attached to the individual and should be carried out approximately
30 min before their use in the research. During this process, the reception level of each
of the 14 sensors is verified through the software made available by the manufacturer.
Receive levels are: null, low, medium and high, identified respectively by the colours
gray, red, yellow and green, as shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4 Sensor location and

status. Author
The use of the equipment will not necessarily be possible for all volunteers due
to design limitations and sensor characteristics. Fitting the equipment to the subject
requires some special handling and pressure care in the pre-defined areas. The process
of identifying the sensor on the scalp may be obstructed if the hair is wet or has some
chemical, has a high capillary density at the reception site, or swells in the skull that
makes it impossible for the sensors to apply pressure to the predetermined locations.
3.2 Pre-Experiment Process
1. Determining the target audience and joining volunteers to the study;

2. Preparing the computer to play the music without any visual induction that could
lead to a change in the proposed relaxation state;
3. Preparing a second computer for experiment recording;
4. Emotiv Pro+ pre-preparation.
3.3 Experiment Process
1. Assembly of equipment on volunteer;

2. Recording approximately 60 s before music playback;
3. Music playback for inducing the low neural activation stage (relaxation);
4. Equipment Removal.
3.4 Volunteer Orientation
Volunteer orientation information is intended to avoid sensor reception problems, as

well as variation of brain signals in the event of drug use.
1. The experiment’s volunteer should be advised to present himself/herself on data

collection day with clean and dry hair, without the use of any kind of product.
2. The volunteer should not perform any exercises or physical effort a few minutes
before the tests.
3. The volunteer cannot have taken any type of medicine. If he/she has done so,
shall be informed that the test cannot be carried out.
3.5 Data Collection Room Preparation
The process of welcoming the volunteer minutes before the test will be of paramount
importance since any stimulus, whether visual, auditory or of simple discomfort,
may bring difficulty in arriving at the mental state proposed. Therefore, the following
precautions should be taken in the testing room:
1. No movement or direct observers;
2. No external noise.
3. Comfortable sitting place for the volunteer.
4. Temperature controlled environment.
5. The volunteer should be seated next to the music playback device.
For this study, the music used was the one indicated by Eaton [3] as a reference to
induction of a state of relaxation, corresponding to track number 7 (I”ll take the road,
by Dave Reachill).
3.6 Test Execution Process
The headset should be positioned on the volunteer’s head, observing that the sensors
have the best possible contact with clean, dry scalp skin. When positioning the
headset, it may be necessary to adjust sensors contact according to their respective
signal quality check. After the completion of the EEG installation and suitability
process, an intra-ear source shall be made available for the purpose of suppressing
or excluding any external audible signals. Then, the volunteers’ brain waves will be
recorded for 60 s before listening to the music, and then during the music playback for
induction of mental state, as proposed by Eaton (2017). When the music is over, the
headset and headphones shall be removed from the volunteer, and the data collection
ends. According to Fig. 5 is possible to observe all stages of the test.
4 Results and Discussion
The results of this test are qualitatively measured with the observation of the indi-
vidual and his/her real-time neural response. During the tests, it was possible to
Fig. 5 Procedure protocol diagram. Author

observe that any muscle movement of the individual, even a simple blink, will be
recorded in the form of a brainwave, as shown in Fig. 6.
The recording for the period before the music playback shows the active and non-
homogenous brain waves of the individuals according to their emotional state or
movements, despite all the precautions that preceded the testing. These states cannot
be quantified in educational tests because they will be different for all subjects and
not inherent to the research. In Fig. 7, it is possible to observe the non-homogenous
neural state before starting a test.
As soon as music playback starts, the subject quickly begins the process of
equalization of the brain to a state of low neural activity.
The time of arrival at the homogenization state of the brain waves will not be
linear, as it depends on non-quantifiable aspects of the individual, such as his previous
emotional state, relaxation time from music playback, or even his ability to reach
Fig. 6 Brainwave blink, called artifact. Author
Fig. 7 Brainwave State before the music playback. Author

Fig. 8 Neural state of homogenization. Author
this relaxation state through the proposed process. In Fig. 8, it is possible to observe
the neural state of the subjects in the homogenization period.
From all the data analysis, it was possible to observe that the seven individuals
reached the proposed state before 30 s of music playback and remained like this until
its end. The neural states preceding the music playback were heterogeneous among
the participants, as expected, but from the stabilization period with the use of music,
all individuals obtained similar responses.
4.1 EEG Data Analysis
The equipment, Emotiv Pro+, provides 14 channels and a CSV file with 128 raw
data per channel per second recorded. During the test, it was possible to analyze and
calculate the signal variation, maximum and minimum values, before and after the
equalization process. The calculation of the signal variation, the percentage between
the maximum and minimum value of the signal, was performed in two ways described
below:
Case 1: Analysis of the signal variation between the maximum-minimum value from
the raw data provided by the equipment before and after equalization.
Case 2: Analysis of the signal variation between the maximum-minimum value from
the average of the raw data per channel per second calculated by the author from
data provided by the equipment before and after equalization (Table 3).
Table 3 The mean of the

Case Signal variation not Signal variation equalized
mean variation of the signal
equalized (%) (%)
among all participants.
Author Case 1 27 12
Case 2 13 5
4.2 EEG Statistical Calculation
Generally, in neuroeducation researches, the calculation of the simple average is used

in the data obtained from the EEG as a reference to the central tendency. However,
this method of calculation for obtaining a central trend should not be applied in this
study with EEG equipment because due to spikes caused by involuntary movements,
the average will be biased to the response of involuntary movement rather than
to the educational experiment being analyzed. in the future, new variables will be
considered such as power spectral density, neural networks, wavelets and others.
From this analysis, it is recommended to use the median with data previously
sorted in ascending order, rather than average, in order to perform a filter known in
engineering as a band-pass. This filter will remove extremely high and low signals in
calculating EEG sensors, thereby ensuring data accuracy. High signals, represented
by spikes in the graph, can be caused by the subject’s muscular movements, and
extremely low signals are caused by sensors failing. In both cases, applying the
band-pass filter from the median use will attenuate such effects in data analysis.
5 Findings and Conclusion
Based on published research studies involving the use of EEG (Electroencephalo-

gram) in education, it was observed that there were no concerns about the quality of
the equipment used or whether the data presented in the experiment directly reflected
the individual’s neural response, as there were no procedures prior to tests.
From the results of this study, it is possible to affirm that the process of equalizing
brain waves is of paramount importance before carrying out any tests with the EEG,
since alterations in the individual’s emotional and physical states are reflected directly
in the experiment, however minor they may be. If the equalization of brain signals
is not performed, there is no way to assure the reliability of the information for
the proposed experiment using EEG, especially in the early minutes. It is important
to stress out that EEG tests results for individuals who fail to arrive in the brain
homogeneous states should not be analyzed, as the data acquired in those tests will
probably not provide reliable information. We can assume that the success of all
proposed calibration tests is due to prerequisites and care related to individuals, but
this premise may vary according to the desired scenario.
Therefore, from this study, it is possible to state that the previous equalization of the
individual’s neural states is of paramount importance for the correct analysis of EEG
data, as well as the use of an equalization methodology or neural homogenization

state. Applying a methodology for the subject’s initial neural states equalization and
correctly analyzing the data based on digital signal filters and statistics tailored to
the instrument used becomes essential for accurate data analysis and reliable results.
References
1. Adamos, D. A., Dimitriadis, S. D., Laskaris, N.: Towards the bio-personalization of music
recommendation systems: A single-sensor EEG biomarker of subjective music preference. Inf.
Sci. 94–108 (2016)
2. Badcock, N., Preece, K., Wit, B., Glenn, K., Fieder, N., Thie, J., McArthur, G.: Validation of the
Emotiv EPOC EEG System for research quality auditory event-related potentials in children
(2015). https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.907
3. Eaton, J., Williams, D., Miranda, E.: Affective jukebox: a confirmatory study of eeg emotional
correlates in response to musical stimuli. In: ICMC. Interdisciplinary Centre for Computer
Music research, Greece (2014)
4. Ehrlich, S. K., Agres, K. R., Guan, C., Cheng, G.: A closed-loop, music-based brain-computer
interface for emotion mediation. PLOS ONE 14(3), e0213516 (2019)
5. Harrison, T.: The Emotiv mind: investigating the accuracy of the Emotiv EPOC, in identi-
fying emotions and its use in an Intelligent Tutoring System. Honours report, University of
Canterbury, New Zealand (2013)
6. Langroudi, G., Jordanous, A., Li, L.: Music Emotion Capture: sonifying emotions in EEG
data. In: Emotion Modelling and Detection in Social Media and Online Interaction Symposium
Convention, Liverpool, UK (2018)
7. Lebed, A. A.: Emotiv Gitbook. https://emotiv.gitbook.io/emotivpro/data_streams/perfor
mance-metrics. Emotiv Company. Last accessed 29 Nov 2018
8. Nogueira, K.: Estudo de respostas emocionais às cores no contexto de cartazes de cinema.
Design e Tecnologia 8, 1 (2018). https://doi.org/10.23972/det2018iss15pp1-11
9. Russell, J., Lemay, G.: “Emotion concepts”. In: Lewis, M. & Haviland-Jones, M. (Eds.)
Handbook of Emotion. Guilford Press, New York (2000)
10. Wang, Q., Sourina, O.: Real-time mental arithmetic task recognition from EEG signals. IEEE
Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng. 21(2), 225–232. (2013)
11. Wegemer, C.: Brain-computer interfaces and education: the state of technology and imperatives
for the future. Int. J. Learn. Technol. 14(2), 141–161 (2019)
The Impact of an Online Course
on Upcycling for Sustainable
Development and the Circular Economy
Sara Calvo , Andrés Morales , and Rui Alexandre Castanho
Abstract The Circular Economy is a new paradigm that has brought together
different contributions from various fields of knowledge, including sustainability.
Upcycling is a concept that falls into this category. The term ‘upcycling’ (also known
as creative reuse) can be defined as the process of transforming by-products, waste
materials, useless or unwanted products into new materials or products perceived
to be of higher quality (which can be of an artistic or environmental value). Online
learning, and in particular MOOCs have the potential to generate free knowledge and
create a huge impact at an international level. Moreover, those online courses that
offer solutions to the challenges and difficulties we are facing (for example, sustain-
ability, poverty and health) can contribute significantly to the world. Yet, there are not
many studies that explore the impact of a MOOC in relation to the topic of upcycling.
Therefore, this study examines the case of the FutureLearn Upcycling course with
more than 3,500 registered students, of which 26% become active learners, partic-
ipating in exercises, discussions, and online conversations. Mixed methods were
employed for the data collection indicating that the course has not only stimulated
the creation of upcycling projects but also has promoted the promotion of upcycling
ideas in their daily activities. Our research demonstrates how digital education and
online courses contribute to sustainable development and the circular economy.
Keywords Upcycling · Circular economy · Online course · Sustainable

development
S. Calvo (B) · A. Morales · R. A. Castanho

UNIR, Avenida de La Paz, Logroño, Spain
e-mail: sara.calvo@unir.net
R. A. Castanho
WSB University, 41-300 D˛abrowa Górnicza, Poland
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_9
100 S. Calvo et al.
1 Introduction
The current problems we experience with the climate change and the damage to
ecosystems requires major changes of the world population including individuals,
communities, governments, and companies [1]. The linear economy has been the
trend of the last decade following the ‘take-make-dispose’ approach and based on
principles of intensive production and consumption. However, in recent years there
has been an interest in highlighting the circular economy to reduce, reuse and recycle
or what is known as the 3R. This approach to reduce waste is in line with the 2030
Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), particularly number 12, that
highlights the importance of sustainable consumption and production modalities [2].
There is more waste generate every day. It is estimate that more than 44 million
tons of waste are generated a year according to the report of the United Nations
University, ‘The Global E-Waste Monitor: Quantities, Flows and Resources’. Of
this total, only 20% is recovered and recycled worldwide. Looking at the world
map, the data indicates that Asia is the continent that generate the highest volume
of waste (18%), followed by Europe (12%). One way to address the problem of
waste is by applying ‘creative reuse’ or what is known as upcycling. The concept of
upcycling refers to the use of waste materials to create new products of a better quality.
Upcycling is different from recycling as the second term refers to the tendency to
degrade or decompose the material to be recycled, while upcycling refers to the idea
of giving a second chance to objects that will be in the garbage but in a different way
[3, 4].
The concept ‘Sustainable Education’ first emerged in “Our Common Future”,
also known as the Brundtland Report, issued by the United Nations World Commis-
sion on Environment and Development (WCED) in 1987 [5] and since then, it has
been used regularly to refer to that education that incorporates the social, environ-
mental considerations with the economic ones. Research about Sustainable Educa-
tion and MOOCs have been limited, particularly the ones that focus on upcycling
and the circular economy. There has also been reduced the number of studies that
analyse the impact on online courses on actual practice. Therefore, this paper explores
how a university-based online course (MOOC) provides the impetus for widespread
education on upcycling and sustainable development.
This paper raises a series of research questions:
RQ1 How can a MOOC encourage upcycling initiatives?
RQ2 How does a MOOC contribute to the impact that can have on learners and
their existing and new projects?
RQ3 How can learners use online courses for sharing knowledge on sustainable
development and upcycling?
The structure of this paper is as it follows. After the introduction, we present the
literature review of this study, specifically we discuss about education for sustainable
development, upcycling and MOOCs. Second, we discuss about the methodology
used for this study. Third, we illustrate the findings obtained from this study. Finally,
The Impact of an Online Course on Upcycling for Sustainable … 101
in the final section, we present the discussion and conclusions making suggestions
for future research.
2 Literature Review
The great challenges linked to global warming, social inequalities and the damage
caused to ecosystems require changes in the way of consuming, producing, and
even in legislation [1, 6]. One of the strategies linked to these changes comes from
practices that seek to extend the useful life of products and reduce waste generation
[7]. In this context, the concept of upcycling was born as part of the circular economy,
which is defined as the “reuse of discarded objects or materials in such a way that
a product of higher quality or value than the original is created” [8]. This activity
involves the reuse of objects that are given a different function from the original [9].
Therefore, unlike other practices, lower-value raw materials are not generated, and
energy, materials, and water consumption are lower [8, 9].
The circular economy, a set of practices including upcycling, consists of actions
that allow the life of products to be extended through recovering, reusing, and recy-
cling of the products. Therefore, the circular economy seeks to promote a more
sustainable development/consumption model and thereby preserve the environment.
The implementation of a production and consumption model based on the princi-
ples of the circular economy implies considering aspects related to the design of the
production process, the materials used, the way to reduce the waste generated, etc.
This transition requires research initiatives focused on commercial, technological,
and social domains. Even though the acceptance and implementation of approaches
that are near the circular economy is increasing, there is a need for more government
support at an international level, as well as cooperation between governments and
academics, businesses, NGOs, and the general public [9].
Recent studies indicate that more than 50% of the global population is online and
more and more people are learning information in a digitalised world [10]. MOOCs
can be a way for those people to learn about something and determine when and
how they want to do that. MOOCs allow us to have many learners from different
contexts and places building relationships between them even if there is physical
distance. MOOCs have recently been the interest of some academics and students,
particularly those who cannot engage in formal education [11]. However, there has
been some criticisms of MOOCs. For example, research conducted by Margaryan
et al. [12] highlighted that the quality of MOOCs design can be low. Another research
conducted by Rabin et al. [13] stated that most MOOCs have very high dropout rates,
making difficult for educators to monitor and evaluate the learning outcomes of those
online courses.
The increase in the number of MOOCs related to sustainability have created a new
paradigm in which to present the topics of ecology, social and environmental manage-
ment, saving energy and resources [14]. As Matten and Moon [15] and Wu et al. [16]
suggest, this is representing a new paradigm where ethics play a fundamental role in
102 S. Calvo et al.
society. A study conducted by Beltrán et al. [17] confirmed that the impact of MOOCs
is greater if educators include entrepreneurship issues in the content and encourage
activities that promote networking among participants. Although these studies indi-
cate the relevance of sustainability-related MOOCs, there has been very little research
on exploring the impact of MOOCs on learners’ knowledge of sustainability and their
ability to turn this knowledge into action.
3 Methodology
In 2018, a partnership created by Minca Ventures Ltd and Hands of Honour funded
by the British Council was done to develop an online course on upcycling with the
purpose of supporting disadvantaged unemployed people in South Africa to learn
about the circular economy, sustainability and how to start an upcycling business
[18]. As described in Table 1, the course entitled ‘Upcycling: from green ideas to
starting a business’ was divided in three learning weeks with their objectives. Each
week represented 4 learning hours and contained a set of activities including discus-
sions, social-media-related activities, video case studies, articles, quizzes, practical
exercises, peer review and problem-based activities.
Several methods were used for data collection. First, an analysis of the existing
attendee data was used to assess the scale and location of the learners. A total of 3,500
registered students completed the course between January 2019 and July 2019 that
came from 170 countries. Of this total number, 26% were ‘active learners’, which
means that they will watch the content but not always participate in discussions.
Second, an analysis of feedback was done looking at a satisfaction survey of the
participants conducted immediately in July 2019. The results indicate that learners
were generally happy with the experience of the course and 75% of the respondents
would recommend it. Third, interviews were conducted with 12 learners to explore
the impacts of the course via Skype or telephone. The details of the participants can
Table 1 Content of the upcycling online course

Course title Week 1 Week 2 Week 3
Upcycling: from green Addressing the Hands of upcycling Turning ideas into
ideas to starting a world’s environmental This week you will action
business challenges learn how to create – Idea validation
Description: explore – Let’s get started things – Marketing and
the concept of – Environmental – Sustainable fashion funding sources
upcycling, its link to challenges and design – Conclusions
sustainable realities – Industrial design
development and the – Understanding – Creating ideas
circular economy, and upcycling
how you can start your
own upcycling
business
Table 2 Description of the interviewees

Learners Gender Nationality Job position Age Duration of interviews
1 Female British Shop 45 40
2 Female South Africa Housewife 33 60
3 Male Kenya Manager 48 42
4 Female Uganda Employee 55 55
5 Male American Entrepreneur 36 58
6 Male Australian Unemployed 64 60
7 Male South Africa Retail 54 55
8 Female British Housewife 37 52
9 Male Spanish Unemployed 49 45
10 Female Colombian Housewife 57 45
11 Male South Africa Fashion 44 55
12 Male British Industrial design 37 60
be seen in Table 2. The analysis of the survey was done using SPSS. The analysis of
the interviews was made by using thematic analysis as an analytical tool to identify
key findings from the data collected, where we became familiar with the data sets,
and then collectively interrogated them for patterns. Then, we identified patterns and
themes in common within and across data sets and coded the data, assessed, and
agreed on a final set of themes and findings.
4 Findings
The themes that emerged from the findings were as it follows; experience with
the upcycling course, benefits after the completion of the course and networking
opportunities.
Experience with the Upcycling Online Course
The results obtained from the survey indicate that 75% of respondents were happy
with the experience of the course. Learners were asked to provide their views on the
course. These are some of the quotes from learners that were interviewed:
This course has been extremely positive for me. It has helped to think of ways to be more
sustainable, to create new products and be conscious about the environment and the resources
we have [Learner 1].
It has been such a fantastic experience for us. The course has helped me to realize of ways
to be creative and use our resources in a responsible way. I am very happy with the content
of the course, engaging and practical with examples from all over the world [Learner 8]
Generally, learners felt that the course has responded to different global contexts.
As one of the learners stated:
104 S. Calvo et al.
This program has brought an international angle! The course has helped learners to realise
that no matter where you are, there are always things that can be done. Examples from all
over the globe that has inspired us to create services or products in our context (Learner 5)
Learners highlighted four main reasons for completing this Upcycling course:
learning about the subject (42%), starting an upcycling business (20%), be more
aware and environmentally responsible (21%) and getting job opportunities (17%).
Moreover, the findings reveal an increase in motivation and confidence among
learners about upcycling and sustainability related activities.
I have improved my knowledge about upcycling, the circular economy and sustainable
development. This gives me the confidence that I know about the importance of this and I
have to apply in my current context [Learner 3].
Benefits After the Completion the Course

All the 12 interviewees talked of the benefits they have had since they completed the
course and how this has opened new opportunities for them. Here are some examples
of this:
Since I completed the course, I have explored other opportunities in my business. For
example, we are considering of creating a new product out of waste that I didn’t consider
before [Learner 8].
Some of the learners mentioned changes in their behavior since they completed
the courses:
I am doing things different since I did the course, for example, the way I deal with my staff,
with my suppliers is completely different. The way I use our waste as well as been crucial
to consider [Learner 7].
Another feature that emerged was the notion of sharing information and not feeling
isolated. Learners commented that the upcycling online course not only provided a
sense of confidence and an increase in their motivation but also feelings of being part
of a bigger community. As one of the learners commented:
I felt a sense of being part of a bigger community. I felt I was not alone, that people in
different parts were thinking the same and were doing things to save the planet. This has
been an incredible feeling that I didn’t have in other face to face and online courses (Learner
11)
Learners also mentioned the importance of sharing experiences and hear of other
people’s experiences:
It is good to hear other people talking about how they do things, it has been inspiring to
learn from other and to feel people are listening to you and your interests, projects, ideas...
(Learner 6)
Moreover, some learners spoke of the benefits of contributing to other people’s

projects and being able to help others:
That is one of the things I got most out of the course, … the opportunity to help other people
that want to create a project, give them feedback, connect them with other people that I think
can be of help. This is a privilege! [Learner 4]
Networking Opportunities
Networking opportunities were also highlighted as important for learners, in partic-
ular, the establishment of social ties. Some learners highlighted how the online course
helped them to develop new collaborations. As one of the learners stated:
During the course, I met with some other learners in zoom to look for further opportunities
to develop an upcycling business. We have decided to create additional meetings to pursue
these opportunities [Learner 11]
We have made very good relationships on this course. Even with one of the learners, we are
collaborating with our business [Learner 3]
There was also a strong feeling among most of the learners that these courses
helped them to not only increase their knowledge, but also sharing information with
other learners, and contributing to their ideas and projects to set up an upcycling
business. As some of the learners expressed:
My knowledge has increased significantly, how to create formal structures, use better our
resources, I have also used this knowledge to share it with a group of women that were
interested in creating a project. [Learner 4]
I have learned a lot with this course. This learning I am currently using to inspire others in
my neighborhood to create upcycling projects [Learner 1]
5 Discussion and Conclusions
Upcycling is often presented as an opportunity to contribute to the evolution of

the current obsolete production and consumption model. However, even when its
potential is recognized, research on the impact of an online course about upcycling
and the circular economy was scarce and remained fragmented. This research has
been based on a study to increase knowledge about the impact of digital education
by examining the case of a MOOC on upcycling.
This study has presented a research project conducted about the impact on an
online course on Upcycling created on the FutureLearn platform funded by the British
Council and done in collaboration with Minca Ventures and Hands of Honour. A
mixed-methods approach that included a survey and semi-structured interviews was
used for the study.
The findings demonstrated positive learners’ experiences as learners were gener-
ally happy with the experience, a wide range of benefits that the course brought to
learners and the importance of networking. Lessons can be learnt about the nature of
this form of support (online course). Firstly, the design of an online course on upcy-
cling that has involved participation and international practical case study examples.
106 S. Calvo et al.
The assessment of the impact of the course shows the range of ways that a course
can help grow the circular economy and the upcycling movement.
This study has limitations in terms of accessing learners and having a bigger
sample of learners responding to the interviews and survey several months or even
years after they have finished the course. Moreover, there are some concerns regarding
the low number of learners participating in the interviews. In addition, the lack of
contact details of learners was also a limitation (ethical aspects and confidentiality of
participants from the FutureLearn platform). Further research is needed on how the
learning from courses is cascaded down to others as well as the longer-term impacts
of such courses.
References
1. Bell, R., Khan, M., Romeo-Velilla, M., Stegeman, I., Godfrey, A., Taylor, T., Morris, G.,
Staatsen, B., van der Vliet, N., Kruize, H., et al.: Ten Lessons for good practice for the INHERIT
triple win: health, equity, and environmental sustainability. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health
16, 4546 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16224546
2. Rodic, L., Wilson, D.: Resolving governance issues to achieve priority sustainable development
goals related to solid waste management in developing countries. Sustainability 9, 404 (2017).
https://doi.org/10.3390/su9030404
3. Cagno, E., Neri, A., Trianni, A.: Broadening to sustainability the perspective of industrial
decision-makers on the energy efficiency measures adoption: some empirical evidence. Energy
Effic. 11, 1193–1210 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12053-018-9621-0
4. Gibson, R.B.: Beyond the pillars: sustainability assessment as a framework for effective inte-
gration of social, economic and ecological considerations in significant decision-making. J.
Environ. Assess. Policy Manage. 8, 259–280 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1142/S14643332060
02517
5. Li, C., Zhou, H.: Enhancing the efficiency of massive online learning by integrating intelligent
analysis into MOOCs with an application to education of sustainability. Sustainability 10, 468
(2018). https://doi.org/10.3390/su10020468
6. Calvo, S., Morales, A.: The Social and Solidarity Economy: The World’s Economy with a
Social Face. Routledge, London (2017)
7. Singh, J., Sung, K., Cooper, T., West, K., Mont, O.: Challenges and opportunities for scaling up
upcycling businesses—the case of textile and wood upcycling businesses in the UK. Resour.
Conserv. Recycl. 150 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.104439
8. Oxford dictionary: Upcycle. Oxford University Press (2019). https://en.oxforddictionaries.
com/definition/upcycle. Accessed 7 Mar 2022
9. Wilson, D.C., Webster, M.: Building capacity for community waste management in low- and
middle-income countries. Waste Manage Res 36(1), 1–2 (2018)
10. Carrera, J., Ramírez-Hernández, D.: Innovation education in MOOC for sustainability:
learnings and motivations. Sustainability 10, 2990 (2018)
11. Brahimi, T., Sarirete, A.: Learning outside the classroom through MOOCs. Comput. Hum.
Behav. 51, 604–609 (2015)
12. Margaryan, A., Bianco, M., Littlejohn, A.: Instructional quality of massive open online courses
(MOOCs). Comput. Educ. 80, 77–83 (2015)
13. Rabin, E., Kalman, Y.M., Kalz, M.: An empirical investigation of the antecedents of learner-
centered outcome measures in MOOCs. Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ. 16, 14 (2019)
14. Zhan, Z., Fong Patrick, S.W., Mei, H., Chang, X., Liang, T., Ma, Z.: Sustainability education in
massive open online courses: a content analysis approach. Sustainability 7, 2274–2300 (2015)
15. Matten, D., Moon, J.: Corporate social responsibility education in Europe. J. Bus. Ethics 54,
323–337 (2004)
16. Wu, Y.C.J., Huang, S., Kuo, L., Wu, W.H.: Management education for sustainability: a web-
based content analysis. Acad. Manag. Learn. Educ. 9, 520–531 (2010)
17. Beltrán, M., Rodriguez, L., Montoya, M.S.: Entrepreneurship competencies in energy
sustainability MOOCs. J. Entrep. Emerg. Econ. 11, 598–616 (2019)
18. British Council: Upcycling for change: transforming lives through entrepreneurship in South
Africa (2018). https://www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/hands_of_honor_and_minca_
ventures_project.pdf
Promoting Social Innovation Projects
with an Online Course: Creating Global
Solutions for Sustainability
Sara Calvo , Andrés Morales , Rui Alexandre Castanho ,

and Eleonora Santos
Abstract Social innovation is the process by which new ways of doing things are
created to respond to the needs of society. This can be technological, for example
embracing online or open-source technology, or it can be social, fostering local
entrepreneurship. The objective of this chapter is to explore social innovation initia-
tives that have been carried out because of an online course created in FutureLearn.
This study aims to provide the reader with an idea of the relevance of social inno-
vation to create global solutions. This study included a mixed methods approach; a
FutureLearn dataset, a feedback questionnaire, and semi-structured interviews with
learners. The MOOC was reported to provide confidence for those starting Social
Innovation related initiatives. The findings confirmed that some learners have used
the course to grow or scale their existing projects. It also confirmed that learners had
been sharing the learning with a wide range of other projects and individuals. This
demonstrates a way of scaling up social innovation knowledge, ideas and projects
that would never be possible with other face to face or online conventional courses.
This research offers insight into the development of sustainable social innovation
initiatives and how educational technology facilitates and enhance these processes.
This study will be of interest to researchers, academics, and students in the fields of
social innovation, education, and sustainability.
Keywords Social innovation · Online course · Latin America · Sustainability
S. Calvo (B) · A. Morales · R. A. Castanho

UNIR, Avenida de La Paz, Logroño, Spain
e-mail: sara.calvo@unir.net
R. A. Castanho
WSB University, 41-300 D˛abrowa Górnicza, Poland
E. Santos
Centre of Applied Research in Management and Economics, Polytechnic Institute of Leiria,
Leiria, Portugal
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_10
110 S. Calvo et al.
1 Introduction
Social innovation encompasses new social practices that drive social change. It is a
reaction to societal problems that governments have failed to tackle, such as poverty,
poor health care and education [1]. It provides the chance for beneficiaries to be active
participants in their development, as opposed to passive citizens that rely on top-down
paternalistic strategies of developers. Whilst social innovation is growing, barriers
are also expanding, for example, resources, technical assistance and government
assistance are often lacking. In order for social innovation to advance further, social
innovation ecosystems need to be facilitated by involving individuals from civil
society, academia, the economy and the government.
Over the last few years, we have seen how the education system has been signifi-
cantly impacted by the introduction of learning tools to deliver effective, just-in-time
and personalized learning processes. An example of this is the massive open online
courses (MOOCs) that are creating new opportunities for learning [2, 3]. More-
over, there has been an increment in the number of MOOCs related to sustainability
related issues including social innovation (SI) [4, 5]. However, little studies explore
the impact of an online course in promoting and supporting social innovation projects.
This article therefore seeks to contribute to the current literature by reporting on a
study that evaluates the impact of the FutureLearn (FL) Social Innovation Course
designed by Minca Ventures Ltd. The research questions are as it follows:
Research Question 1: how can a MOOC encourage Social Innovation initiatives to
start up?
Research Question 2: how does a MOOC contribute to the impact on the existing
Social Innovation projects?
Research Question 3: how can learners use the MOOC for sharing knowledge on
Social Innovation?
The paper is structured as it is indicated. In the following section, the authors
present the literature review and theoretical framework used for the study. In Sect. 3,
we discuss the research design and methodology used (data collection and analysis)
to illustrate the conceptual framework. In Sect. 4 we present the findings. Finally, we
conclude this paper with a discussion and conclusions as well as we make suggestions
for further research.
2 Literature Review
The global scope for education is creating a new demand for the design of and exper-
imentation with MOOC platforms [2]. The term ‘MOOC’ was first used in 2008 by
Dave Cormier of the University of Prince Edward Island, to refer to online-based
courses created to reach a large number of users online throughout a website [3].
Promoting Social Innovation Projects with an Online Course: Creating … 111
MOOCs can be defined by their free accessibility to all users, scalability, inclusive-
ness and openness [6–10]. Examples of MOOCS include FutureLearn, Coursera,
EdX, HOME, ECO, OpenupEd and Udacity. These platforms operate in alliance
with educational institutions and organizations from all over the world, offering
multiple categories for their learners on subjects such as business and languages to
professional training that includes management, leadership, sales, customer care and
coaching, health, IT and engineering. These platforms have been defined as disruptive
ones that resource knowledge and learning resources for a vast number of people [2].
MOOCs can be run by different institutions, organizations, and e-communities,
and all have different financial streams to reach financial sustainability [10–13].
MOOCs enable learners to acquire knowledge with online discussions, debates, and
peer to peer review assessments. MOOCs have interactive user forums to support
community interactions among learners [3]. A study conducted by Liyana Gunawar-
dena et al. [8] exploring the impact of MOOCs in developing countries indicates that
these platforms are not a viable solution for education as they have a complicated
set of conditions (including ‘access’ language, computer literacy among others).
Another research conducted by Scanlon et al. [14] suggested that it is necessary to
consider several factors relevant to the outcomes of instruction with MOOCs: the
unpredictable motivations of learners, the trajectories they take through courses and
the indicators for success in formal and informal learning, in terms of both pedagogy
and technology.
Social innovation offers an alternative to the dominant neoliberal development
model through its promotion of citizen participation and the engagement of both
private and public sectors. As Carrasco et al. [4] argued, social innovation offers a
potential sustainable resolution for societal problems. In their view, success of social
innovation is determined by the engagement of the communities involved, and as a
possibility to restore and maintain social and natural capital. Social capital can be
defined as trust, participation, reciprocity, civic and volunteering activities, essential
for sustaining peace in post-conflict settings [5]. According to Emmelin et al. [15],
social capital is a “public non-exclusive good.” They establish that the benefits can
overflow to reach those who socially participate less or not at all and those at the
lower end of the social chain. They find that social capital can have a moderating
impact on the correlation between socioeconomic status and health—for example,
increased social capital tends to decrease stress levels regardless of socioeconomic
position. They also highlight that social capital can have structural impacts, such as
enhancing democracy and social inclusion. Contreras et al. [16] highlight the links
between social capital and labour circumstances, such as job satisfaction, prestige
and income. They find that social capital tends to facilitate better outcomes in Chile
and that network heterogeneity is positively linked to status attainment. By contrast,
Puga and Soto [17] establish that social capital is not an accurate predictor of whether
women engage in paid work in Chile. From their perspective, promoting social capital
to empower women is flawed as there are more significant factors, such as family
roles, wage inequality, childcare, etc., which need to be addressed first. They find that
focusing on social capital diverts attention from more important factors and places
responsibility for their exclusion with individuals.
112 S. Calvo et al.
Rubio [18] identifies that social capital is key in providing support for citizens of
developing countries in adverse circumstances as state support tends to be limited.
Her research demonstrates that social capital is correlated with better provision of
communal goods and an enhanced fiscal, governance and entrepreneurship perfor-
mance. Natural capital is a way of thinking about nature as a stock that provides a
flow of benefits to people and the economy. Guerry et al. [19] find that including
natural capital is essential in governance systems to achieve sustainable consumption
levels, maintain life-support systems and end poverty—current systems are not up
to the challenge. Gaiger et al. [20] highlight the abundance of natural resources in
the Global South (Africa, Latin America and parts of Asia). They suggest that the
divergence between the wealth of natural resources and the lack of diversification
of production signals that the region’s productive potential has not been met. From
their perspective, the availability of natural capital represents the potential to progress
towards social justice and sustainable development. They believe social enterprises
are key to achieving this progress.
Several studies have suggested that Social Innovation in higher education institu-
tions (HEIs) stimulate and sustain diversity, social inclusion, citizenship and partner-
ships, which are central to economic growth and regeneration, and that it is therefore
important to re-connect the social dimension of education with the economic [21–
24]. Research conducted by Brennan et al. [25] in universities within 25 countries
across the globe showed that there are more universities nowadays that are seeking
to embed their institutions more securely within the local policy and economy incor-
porating diverse programs, courses and initiatives [26]. A book chapter by Calvo
[22] showed examples of Social Innovation projects that have been developed in the
United Kingdom by students and staff at universities, demonstrating their creativity.
Yet, there are fewer Social Innovation courses and programs available [22, 27].
3 Methodology
As seen in Table 1, we use the Freeth/Kirkpatrick Model as a framework to eval-

uate the Social Innovation MOOC course—a generic didactical teaching model for
Entrepreneurship Education [28–30].
The course entitled ‘Social Innovation: Global Solutions for a Sustainable Future’
has been divided into three weeks (see Table 2 for more details about the learning
objectives of each of the weeks). Each of these 3 weeks contained a set of activities
that included videos, articles, discussions and quizzes.
For designing the course, the authors decided to balance between theory and prac-
tice by inviting collaborators from the industry (social innovators) to give feedback
on the course as well as write articles and participate in the discussion steps as well
as to provide a retrospective outsider-view offering further insights at the course
content [31].
This study included a mixed methods approach; a FutureLearn dataset, a feed-
back questionnaire, and semi-structured interviews with learners for over 12 months
Table 1 Summary of the 4 levels of the Freeth/Kirkpatrick model

Summary
ReactionThis level of evaluation takes into account how learners reacted to the intervention (for
example, how they reacted to the online course)
LearningThis level of evaluation measures how learners acquired the intended knowledge, skills
or attitudes based on their participation in the intervention
BehaviorThis level of evaluation considers the degree to which learners altered their behaviour
in other context after participating in the intervention
ResultsThis level of evaluation considers the return on expectations as an organisational level
Table 2 Content of the social innovation online course (both, in Spanish and English)
Course title Week 1 Week 2 Week 3
Social innovation: Social innovation for Developing social Leading social
global solutions for a sustainable innovation innovation
sustainable future development – Ideation process – Moving to the next
Description: explore – Let’s get started – Idea validation level
the concept of Social – Understanding – Personal – Essentials for social
Innovation and how social innovation development innovation
you can create – Becoming a – Conclusions
sustainable solutions changemaker
from 2019 to 2020 to evaluate the impact of the SI MOOC course. This included a
FutureLearn dataset, a feedback questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. An
analysis of a dataset provided by the FutureLearn team on the number of learners that
registered and participated in the course and their countries of origin was conducted.
The feedback survey was completed only by 6% of the total learners registered on
the course. The questions were about learners’ learning experiences, perceptions
and attitudes to the different activities they had while completing the course (videos,
articles, discussions, peer-review activities and quizzes) and were related to Levels
1 and 2 from the Freeth/Kirkpatrick model. Later, an email was sent to learners
that participated on the feedback questionnaire where they were invited to be inter-
viewed. The feedback questionnaire included questions about their opinion about
completing the MOOC and its impact on learners. The interviews were conducted to
gain a deeper understanding of the experience of learners as well as the outcomes of
the online course. Ten in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted via Skype
or telephone with some of the learners that accepted the invitation. A description of
their demographic characteristics is shown in Table 3. The schedule of interviews
consisted of two sections; the first involved questions about individual demographic
characteristics (e.g. gender, age, occupation, etc.), and the second consisted of open-
ended questions related to learners’ impressions and experiences taking the course
(Level 1: reaction), the knowledge they have acquired from the course/s (Level 2:
learning), their changes in behavior after taking the course/s (Level 3: behavior) and
114 S. Calvo et al.
Table 3 Description of the interviewees

Interviewee Gender Country Job position Age Duration of interviews
1 Female Angola Entrepreneur 25 45
2 Female South Africa Retail 46 45
3 Male Kenya Entrepreneur 39 54
4 Female Uganda Unemployed 35 60
5 Male Vietnam NGO 50 55
6 Male Colombia Unemployed 42 50
7 Male South Africa Shop 57 45
8 Female Brazil Teacher 52 56
9 Female Nigeria Unemployed 49 53
10 Female Colombia NGO 27 45
outcomes (Level 4: results). This was done considering the framework developed by
the Freeth/Kirkpatrick model.
4 Findings and Discussion
To understand the higher-level impact of the Social Innovation Course, the authors
used a range of impact indicators: (1) starting new Social Innovation initiatives, (2)
growing an existing Social Innovation related project and (3) sharing knowledge of
Social Innovation with others. These themes emerged from the data analysis of the
findings conducted with NVIVO11.
Starting New Social Innovation Initiatives
The course was initially designed to encourage more people to start up SI initiatives.
The course introduces the concept of social innovation as well as gave examples of
social innovation projects across the globe. When asked whether the course have
helped them to start an initiative, most people agree with 33% (of a total of 253
people that participated on the survey). Moreover, 29% neither agree nor disagree,
and 27% disagree. Of the 33% of learners that claimed the course helped them to
start a new SI project, the vast majority (87%) stated that they will not have started
without the online course. Here are some quotes from the learners:
We have launched a project to support single mothers in Nigeria. This course has been
fundamental to develop such project [Learner 9]
We have created a company to support refugees from Venezuela. This course has helped us
to learn how we could create this initiative and where we could receive support [Learner 6]
This course has inspired us to create a nice project in Caldas, Colombia. We could not have
been able to do that without this course [Learner 10]
A focus of the course was to bring international examples of different case studies
from across the globe. Here is an example of a quote from one of the learners:
The course gave me exposure to Social Innovation projects from different countries that
helped me to expand my horizon. It raised my understanding of the importance of creating
social and environmental impact. The case studies that were illustrated on the course were
fascinated [Learner 4]
Growing an Existing Social Innovation Project

Some of the learners were in leadership roles in Existing Social Innovation projects.
The findings from the survey indicate that 43% of all survey respondents stated that
the course helped them to grow their existing project, 38% neither agree nor disagree,
and 19% disagree. Here are some quotes from the learners:
This course has helped me grow my project. Until I completed this course, I didn’t know
what to do to scale up. This course has provided me with the tools to do so [Learner 7]
The course has helped me generate more income and open new possibilities [Learner 2]
The findings from the interview also demonstrated how the course helped one
social innovation project get a deeper understanding of a hybrid project.
The course raised my understanding of the balancing act between sustainable impact and the
pure profit motive of normal business. This course and the case studies helped me understand
the importance of hybridity [Learner 8]
Sharing knowledge of Social Innovation with others

An important theme that arose from the qualitative data was the sharing knowledge of
social innovation with others. While growth was an important variable for the perfor-
mance of projects, sharing knowledge were seen as fundamental for the emergence
of new and the growth of existing Social Innovation projects. For some learners,
sharing knowledge was done through informal relationships, while for others it was
more formalized mentoring or part of their job to support other social innovation
projects. As some respondents commented:
Sharing information with other learners has helped me significantly. Having the possibility
to exchange information with other learners that are interested in similar areas, or they are
working in similar projects is a privilege, this was done in an informal way, but has been
very effective [Learner 2]
This course has helped me significantly as it has given me the opportunity to learn from
others as well as share and exchange information that can be relevant for other people. There
has been a lot of learning, we have been acting as mentors in some of the activities [Learner 1]
116 S. Calvo et al.
5 Conclusions
This paper has explored the impact of MOOCs by examining the case of a Future-
Learn online course on Social Innovation. To do so, this research has drawn on
the Freeth/Kirkpatrick model (FKM) that consider four levels of analysis (reaction,
learning, behaviour and results) to look not only at the experiences and learning
processes but also at the changes in behaviour and the results at an organizational
level. Responding the first research question: how can a MOOC encourage Social
Innovation to start up?, this paper demonstrates how a MOOC does lead to new
start-ups. The MOOC was reported to provide confidence for those starting Social
Innovation related initiatives.
Responding the second research question: ‘how does a MOOC contribute to the
impact on existing Social Innovation projects?’, the findings confirmed that some
learners have used the course to grow or scale their existing projects. The third
research question was ‘how have learners used the MOOC for sharing knowledge
on Social Innovation?’ This research confirmed that learners had been sharing the
learning with a wide range of other projects and individuals. This demonstrates a
way of scaling up social innovation knowledge, ideas and projects that would never
be possible with other face to face or online conventional courses.
This study has contributed significantly to the study of MOOCs and sustainable
related courses, in particular the ones related to social innovation. However, there
are some limitations of the study such as the limited number of interviewees or the
short-term period that learners had to complete the surveys. Therefore, it would be
worthy to conduct an additional study after 12 months to explore in more detail the
impact of this FutureLearn SI online course in learners, and particularly, Levels 3
and 4 (Behaviour and Results) of the Freeth/Kirkpatrick Model.
Funding This research was financed by the program of the Minister of Science and Higher Educa-
tion titled “Regional Initiative of Excellence” in 2019–2022, project number 018/RID/2018/19, the
amount of funding PLN 10 788 423,16”.
References
1. Domanski, D., Howaldt, J., Schroder, A.: Social innovation in Latin America. J. Hum. Dev.
Capabilities 18(2), 307–312 (2017)
2. Cirulli, F., Elia, G., Lorenzo, G., Marguerita, A., Solazzo, G.: The use of MOOCs to support
personalized learning, an application in the technology entrepreneurship field. Knowl. Manage.
E-Learn. 8(1), 109–123 (2016)
3. Morales, A., Calvo, S.: Digital technology as a tool for social regeneration: web 2.0’s. In:
Sachetti, S., Christoforou, A., Mosca, M. (Eds.) Social Regeneration and Local Development
Cooperation, Social Economy and Public Participation, pp. 229–253. Routledge, London
4. Carrasco, G., Ferreira Dias, M., Galego, D., Marlene, A., Waldo, S.: Embedding social inno-
vation in Latin America academic curriculum. In: 4th International Conference on Higher
Education Advances. Valencia, Universitat Politecnica de Valencia (2018)
5. Agudelo, D.M., Gomez, Y., Lopez, M.A., Martinez, G., Quinones, N.: Dance movement strate-
gies training to help rebuild social capital in Colombia. J. Mental Health Psychosoc. Support
Confl. Affect. Areas 16(2), 110–118 (2018)
6. Jacoby, J.: The disruptive potential of the massive open online course: a literature review. J.
Open Flex. Dist. Learn. 18(1), 73–85 (2014)
7. Karlsson, N., Godhe, A.L.: Creating a community rather than a course—possibilities and
dilemmas in an MOOC. Educ. Sci. 6(2), 18–33 (2016)
8. Liyanagunawardena, T.R., Williams, S., Adams, A.A.: The impact and reach of MOOCs: a
developing countries’ perspective. E-Learn. Papers 1, 38–46 (2014)
9. Margaryan, A., Bianco, M., Littlejohn, A.: Instructional quality of massive open online courses
(MOOCs). Comput. Educ. 80(1), 77–83 (2015)
10. Rabanal, N.: Cursos MOOC: Un Enfoque Desde la Econom´ıa. Revista Iberoamericana de
Educacioń a Distancia 20(1), 145–160 (2017)
11. Bibikas, D., Vorley, T., Wapshott, R.: Pan-European entrepreneurial summer academies with
impact: the case of STARTIFY7. In: Jones, P., Maas, G., Pittaway, L. (eds.) Entrepreneurship
Education: New Perspectives on Research, Policy and Practice, pp. 261–281. Emerald, London
(2017)
12. Kirschner, F., Paas, F., Kirschner, P.A.: A cognitive load approach to collaborative learning:
united brains for complex tasks. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 21, 31–42 (2009)
13. Zhang, J., Hamilton, E.: Entrepreneurship education for owner-managers: the process of trust
building for an effective learning community. J. Small Bus. Entrepr. 23(2), 249–270 (2010)
14. Scanlon, E., McAndrew, P., O’Shea, T.: Designing for educational technology to enhance the
experience of learners in distance education: how open educational resources, learning design
and moocs are influencing learning. J. Interact. Media Educ. 6(1), 1–9 (2015)
15. Emmelin, M., Stafstrom, M., Vincens, N.: Social capital, income inequality and the social
gradient in self-rated health in Latin America: a fixed effects analysis. Soc. Sci. Med. 196(1),
115–122 (2018)
16. Contreras, D., Diaz, J.D., Otero, G., Suarez, N.: Inequality in social capital in Chile: assessing
the importance of network size and contacts’ occupational prestige on status attainment. Soc.
Netw. 58(1), 59–77 (2019)
17. Puga, I., Soto, D.: Social capital and women’s labor force participation in Chile. Fem. Econ.
24(4), 131–158 (2018)
18. Rubio, M.: The Effect of Violence on Social Capital: Evidence from an Exogenous Variation
in an Illegal Market. University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg (2018)
19. Guerry, et al.: Natural capital and ecosystem services informing decisions: from promise to
practice. PNAS 112(24), 7348–7355 (2015)
20. Gaiger, L.I., Nyssens, M., Wanderley, F.: Social Enterprise in Latin America. Routledge, New
York (2019)
21. Council, B.: Social Enterprise in a Global Context, the Role of Higher Education Institu- tions.
British Council, London (2016)
22. Calvo, S.: Connecting social enterprise and higher education: universities as drivers in the
support of social enterprises in the United Kingdom. In: Carvalho, L. (ed.) Handbook Research
on Entrepre- neurial Success and Its Impact on Regional Development, pp. 600–630. IGI Global,
USA (2015)
23. Elliot, G.: Character and impact of social innovation in higher education. Int. J. Contin. Educ.
Lifelong Learn. 5(2), 72–84 (2012)
24. Andre, I., Carmo, A., Abreu, A., Estevens, A., Malheiros, J.: Learning for and From the City:
The Role of Education in Urban Cohesion. Belgeo, Belgium (2009). https://belgeo.revues.org/
25. Brennan, J., King, R., Yann, L.: The role of universities in the transformation of societies. an
international research project. Association of Commonwealth Universities & Centre for Higher
Education Research and Information, London (2004). https://www.open.ac.uk/cheri/docume
nts/transf-final-report.pdf
26. Frost, C.: Creating Social Enterprises, a Guide to Social Enterprise for University Staff. Anglia
Ruskin University, Cam- bridge, UK (2009)
118 S. Calvo et al.
27. Kirby, D.A., Ibrahim, N.: The case for (social) entrepreneurship education in Egyptian
universities. Educ. Train. 53(5), 403–415 (2011)
28. Fayolle, A., Gailly, B.: From crafts to science: teaching models and learning processes in
entrepreneurship education. J. Eur. Ind. Train. 32(7), 569–593 (2008)
29. Fayolle, A.: Personal views on the future of entrepreneurship education. Entrep. Reg. Dev.
25(7–8), 692–701 (2013)
30. Paull, M., Whitsed, C., Girardi, A.: Applying the Kirkpatrick model: evaluating interaction for
learning framework curriculum interventions. Issues Educ. Res. 26(3), 490–507 (2016)
31. Sunar, A.S., White, S., Abdullah, N.A., Davis, H.C.: How learners’ interactions sustain
engagement, a MOOC case study. IEEE Trans. Learn. Technol. 10(4), 475–487 (2017)
Universities as Spaces of Knowledge
Creation—Going Through the Test
of the Pandemic
Artieres Estevão Romeiro and Ingrid Weingartner Reis
Abstract Generating knowledge and ensuring that it is presented in an adequate

and timely manner is the main challenge of knowledge management in organiza-
tions. Learning organizations are formed by collaborators who learn and can share,
develop co-knowledge, promote improvements, generate changes and innovation
in the processes and results of institutions. Universities are spaces of knowledge
creation, but the Covid-19 pandemic has put to the test the processes of knowledge
management, both for the resolution of the health crisis and for the new pedagog-
ical organization in the digital context. Based on a speculative philosophical and
dialectical critical approach, the article aims to analyze the application of knowl-
edge management categories in universities. The results show the rapid adaptation
of institutions to the new reality of the pandemic. It is concluded that the internal
communication mechanisms, traditionally applied in the organization of universities,
have contributed to a better adaptation to the pandemic scenario.
Keywords Higher education · Pandemic · Knowledge management · University

management
1 Introduction
On January 30, 2020, the World Health Organization officially declared COVID-19
a public health emergency [16]. In an accelerated manner, the disease reached all
the countries on the planet in a few months, which forced governments to imple-
ment measures to prevent the spread of the virus, including border closures, national
and international travel restrictions, and mainly the imposition of curfews and quar-
antines. Social distancing has been consolidated by the most effective mandatory
A. E. Romeiro (B)
Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja, Ecuador
e-mail: aeromeiro@utpl.edu.ec
I. W. Reis
Department of Business Sciences, Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja, Ecuador
e-mail: iwreis@utpl.edu.ec
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_11
120 A. E. Romeiro and I. W. Reis
strategy [6, 8]. In this context, classrooms and spaces of educational institutions repre-
sented a high risk of contagion and, therefore, should be temporarily closed. It has
tested the capacity of educational institutions worldwide, particularly higher educa-
tion, which quickly had to migrate to an online educational system [25], impacting
teachers, students, and administrative teams [2, 3]. The pandemic demanded the
scientific effort of the Universities for the development of health and technological
solutions, including the vaccine, and at the same time, required social distancing.
As distances and physical barriers decreased in the context of the globalized orga-
nizations of the knowledge society, it was possible to observe a considerable increase
in the ways of relating, networking, exchanging information, carrying out transac-
tions or having access to certain highly specialized knowledge, which in pre-internet
contexts was something very delayed or even impossible for most organizations. The
labor-based economy is moving towards a knowledge-based economy [1, 21, 33].
The hyper connection and digitalization of the world of work, entertainment and
all productive dimensions of life pointed to a situation of hyper connection and at
the same time a supposed capacity of knowledge generation by digital means. This
phenomenon, which was observed to be very powerful in academic discourses, did
not presume the capacity of universities to adjust their study systems to the new
reality of social isolation, teleworking and remote teaching.
In this new social scenario, knowledge management has become part of the global
context of a world without borders. With the pandemic, organizations were forced to
put into practice innovative discourses and implement educational models coherent
with the technology and health conditions of the present time. More than ever,
organizations must compete in the market based on their knowledge and intellec-
tual assets [18, 24, 34], highlighting the importance of knowledge management to
improve organizational performance [12, 13, 19, 21–23, 38]. Thus, the pandemic has
evidenced that, the indispensable patrimony for companies today is not the machines
and equipment, but the knowledge accumulated by people [36].
There is still no doubt that the discourse on digital transformation and knowledge
management is easier than the practical application. Many universities, considered
examples of innovation, have failed to provide timely responses, and adapt to the
context of the pandemic, exceeding one hundred days without classes. The statements
and researches pointing to the ‘need for the creation of a culture that values learning’
and even the ‘knowledge-based economy’ do not necessarily reflect the processes
and human behaviors in universities for knowledge management, such as actions for
creative reflection, conversation, judgment creation, teaching and learning, among
others [12, 13, 17]. We are immersed in an ocean of data and information supported
and enhanced by the trends of digital transformation, such as the concepts of big
data, artificial intelligence, data mining, machine learning, internet of things, and
others. These technological elements were surely used in the scientific field to find
solutions against COVID-19, but they do not appear in the day-to-day life of the
classrooms. Obtaining, managing, and generating knowledge are key activities for
decision-making processes and innovation. Without new knowledge, organizations
are condemned to the repetition of processes and crystallized reality that can mean
the death of the university in times of pandemic and constant innovation.
Universities as Spaces of Knowledge Creation—Going Through … 121
The situation of improvisation in the face of the pandemic has impacted academic
management, curriculum, didactic strategies, and evaluation processes. The migra-
tion towards a contingency remote education in a virtual context has shown itself to
be very diverse in the institutions. The question arises: what elements of the univer-
sity organization have allowed a successful development of knowledge management
in the context of the pandemic? Surely elements related to knowledge management.
Knowledge management is not the same as information management, and under
this awareness organizations must return to the base and to the real need, which is
to create knowledge that transforms the world and responds to real problems [7,
28]. Knowledge management necessarily involves the transformation of individuals
and then of the organizational environment where they are inserted, generating new
knowledge and innovation [28]. Thus, organizations are entities that create knowl-
edge through the relationship and the action they foster among the people who act
in them. These elements will be the object of analysis of this article.
The present study is based on a speculative philosophical model, of a dialectical-

critical, qualitative nature, which seeks to highlight social phenomena and university
organizations. The analyses consider conceptual categories of knowledge manage-
ment [28] and the critical theory of society in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic.
The aim is to highlight the contradictions and tensions between theoretical concepts
and the social context.
This article identifies theoretical and conceptual aspects existing in knowl-
edge spaces in universities, seeking analogies and similarities between knowledge
management theories and the practices and phenomena of new knowledge generation
in university environments.
The qualitative study contributes to the identification and analysis of knowledge
management practices institutionally consolidated in university organizations and no
evidenced in studies related to knowledge management.
The interpretative approach based on social criticism makes it possible to analyze
the empirical and pragmatic aspects identified in the general reality of university
environments without the need to expose particular cases, which in no way diminishes
the objectivity, clarity and precision of the study.
3 Results
3.1 Knowledge Management and Oriented Creation
Knowledge management is understood as all efforts to organize an organization’s

knowledge in such a way that new knowledge is generated, and pre-existing knowl-
edge is enhanced. Since the end of the twentieth century, the world has experienced
an explosion of knowledge, with access to data, information and knowledge as never
seen before. With such democratization of access to knowledge, detaining it is no
longer considered synonymous with power [4].
In the context of the Covid-19 pandemic, organizations were forced to accel-
erate their knowledge management processes to make in-tense transformations in
the context of contingency activities. Knowledge adaptation for value generation
was a matter of life or death for organizations. This phenomenon deserves attention.
According to [36], in the organizational sphere, knowledge management can be
understood as the process of identifying and leveraging collective knowledge in orga-
nizations to help them stay alive and competitive in the market. For [29], knowledge
management as a concept has evolved naturally from information science, organiza-
tional science, and other social sciences, in an attempt to improve existing models
such as those related to quality management and reengineering. There are approaches
to knowledge management considering or privileging technological aspects [20, 34]
and there are approaches that refer more to environmental aspects of organizations,
with emphasis on human factors, such as people’s trust, learning capacity, information
sharing, and others [12, 13, 17].
In the field of knowledge management, based on the concept oriented to the
management of organizations, knowledge is defined as a justified belief about a truth
[13, 17, 28]. Knowledge differs from information and data since the former has the
’value’ of interpretation and contextualization of its content [28]. In this way, the
human being is the one who will be able to effectively create knowledge, giving the
appropriate context(s) according to his or her perspective of the world.
Considering this last aspect, the separation into two types of knowledge, defined
by Polanyi [31] as tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge, is presented. Tacit knowl-
edge is that which is not easily visible and not so easy to explain. It comes from the
individual and, being highly personal, it is not available to everyone. Its communi-
cation is often complex and difficult to achieve. Examples of this type of knowledge
are glimpses, intuitions, subjective palpitations, ideas, values, emotions, feelings and
perception of the world [14, 31, 37]. Tacit knowledge is strongly related to personal
experiences. It is embedded in the actions performed by each person, but one cannot
necessarily have the control to make it tangible [31]. In the words of [28], it is an
’analogical process’ that needs simultaneous processing to perform actions. It is not
discourse or instruction about something, but acting, expressing words, the intensity
about this something that reveals tacit knowledge. At the other extreme is explicit
knowledge, which can be more easily perceived through words, numbers, sounds and
is available through data, reports, process documents, plans, audio-visuals, social

networks, etc. [28, 37].
It is possibly more common in organizations to deal with explicit knowledge,
since it can be felt and reached. But explicit knowledge is the tip of the iceberg of
the knowledge base, which is implicit knowledge [7, 21, 28, 31].
For explicit knowledge to be real and effective, it must first be implicit knowledge,
stored in the mind of the individual who digests, creates, formulates, and reformu-
lates it. This dialogue between tacit and explicit knowledge is what generates new
knowledge, therefore, a process of knowledge conversion is necessary, which is
characterized by a dialogic and dialectical movement in the creation of knowledge.
3.2 University as a Space for Knowledge Generation
Organizations in general are considered as environments conducive to the generation

of knowledge in a dynamic and continuous way [1, 12, 28, 38], but among the great
diversity and types of organizations, universities are historically the oldest institutions
in the generation and management of knowledge [5], with a large repository [12, 13].
The history of universities dates to the eleventh century, with the University of
Bologna (1088), followed by the universities of Oxford, Salamanca, and Paris, linked
to the environments of the monasteries and cathedrals of the Middle Ages. They had
the organization of knowledge based on the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and logic)
and quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy). This knowledge was
the basis for philosophy and for the principal of all sciences, theology.
The main medieval universities have witnessed the Black Death, which wiped
out almost half of the population of Europe, something much more damaging and
severe than the Covid-19 pandemic. The longevity of universities as organizations
systematizing knowledge is undeniable, but there is no lack of critics today of the
University model, which is considered by some as an anachronistic, slow and too
bureaucratic space. The COVID-19 pandemic has shown the University’s capacity
to adapt as an environment for knowledge management and innovation nowadays.
By their nature, universities are knowledge-generating entities [4, 5, 11, 18, 38].
They exist to transform the regions where they are located through research, teaching
and community outreach. Thus, knowledge generation is not only a means, it is also
their main purpose.
This section identifies some characteristics of knowledge management in univer-
sities, gathered under the following characteristics:
Renewal: internally, universities undergo changes and adjustments represented
in their plans and objectives. Organizational restructuring or improvement in the
attention to students, creation of new careers or implementation of postgraduate
programs are examples of actions commonly carried out in universities to improve
or change their internal dynamics [1, 5, 9, 18, 34, 38].
Multiculturalism and multidisciplinarity: Universities are made up of heteroge-
neous groups, with people with different interests and objectives, which creates an
open and motivating environment for the creation of diverse products and results.
University academics are responsible for the development of new knowledge and the
synergy between people is the main fuel for association and production of common
results and products [4]. Disciplinary diversity favors the exchange of knowledge
and stimulates the creation of new knowledge.
Academic freedom: as a possibility of free thought, is an engine for overcoming
the tendencies of domination derived from political power or dominant ideologies
[5]. This category, initiated in the Middle Ages, guaranteed teachers the right to
think beyond the established religious, political, and social conditioning. Academic
freedom anticipates the freedom of expression of modern Western societies.
The relationship between research, teaching and linkage: the university has a
threefold mission—research, teaching, and liaison with society. Research allows
scientific updating and creation; teaching allows the transmission of knowledge to
new generations of professionals and liaison with society to know its demands and
at the same time transfer knowledge to real problems of the environment. The most
important thing in this triad is the interrelation between the elements. Perhaps this
is the most successful model of knowledge management in modern society, but it
is essential to know a little more in depth how university managers interpret this
phenomenon [9, 12, 15, 38].
The culture of written communication and the use of the method as a suitable
mechanism for systematization and documentation of knowledge: this is a central
point in knowledge management. The production of the University in the classrooms,
or in the laboratories and in the linkage, activities generate literary products based on
the application of methodologies. By methodologies we refer to the different means of
epistemological systematization based on the scientific method, but not restricted to
it. It is the application of mental and epistemological models recognized by academic
peers and not restricted to a positivist and merely pragmatic vision of knowledge.
The University has guaranteed space for speculative, ideal, political, technical, and
scientific elements. This multidiverse ecosystem is essential to university knowledge
management [4, 17, 21, 33].
Internationalization and validation of knowledge by external peers: this mecha-
nism favors the dissemination of knowledge through validations. This ecosystem can
be characterized by its openness and capacity to encounter differences [10]. Inter-
nationalization is constituted as the fourth mission of universities, as a transversal
element to the functions of teaching, research, and extension.
University autonomy as an instrument of self-management not subordinated to
the political interests of the moment, which allows the creation of new careers and
programs, research on various topics and internationalization in accordance with
institutional interests [15].
These elements characterize the general organization of universities and are
covered by abundant literature.
In their day-to-day operation, it is important to consider that universities are like
the functioning of organizations of any other nature [1, 17, 18]. All the strategic
mobility of universities obeys to the changes in their external environment, trends,
preferences, search for students, need for new and systematized knowledge, regional
development, attention to political problems, assistance to health problems, etc. In

a university, the discussion on products or services refers to the trans-formation it
carries out in different dimensions. From providing technical training to generating
new and important knowledge in various fields of knowledge [4, 5, 18]. There is no
doubt that universities generate knowledge, but it is necessary to clarify that research
on knowledge management in relation to the role of universities is still timid and
needs to be deepened [12, 13].
4 Discussion and Conclusion
In the context prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, studies and theoretical proposals on
knowledge management appeared quite abundantly and strengthened as a recurrent
academic theme in the consolidation of the knowledge society.
Knowledge management established a strong relationship with quality manage-
ment and process reengineering [29], but in the context of deep pedagogical impro-
visation derived from the pandemic, Universities simply implemented contingency
actions, without space or time for systematic work on process design, process
adjustments and definition of indicators. The adaptation of pedagogical models,
management structures and the general organization of teaching, research and liaison
activities were adjusted to virtual environments and teleworking without prior testing.
Knowledge management has historically privileged technological aspects [20,
34], and the pandemic has forced the adoption of technological tools, which in some
situations existed in universities, but in many cases were underutilized or ignored by
teachers and university managers. The technological aspects [20, 34], required in the
context of the pandemic have demanded a digital leadership, with flexible structures
and hybrid modalities, online and distance.
The adaptation beyond the technological aspects presents an emphasis on human
factors, such as people’s trust, learning capacity, information sharing, and others [12,
13, 17], under this aspect there is evidence of transversal transformation strategies
[35], of high impact in successful organizations. The creation of synergies and knowl-
edge sharing processes was an essential aspect for the reduction of digital divides in
the use of technologies or in the adaptation of models to different audiences.
Pandemic adaptations have been imposed and the need to adjust models or stop
institutional activities and operations was imposed with justified actions on a truth
[17, 28, 30]. The pandemic situation collapses the traditional methodological strate-
gies and modalities and imposes virtual reality as the only possible form of teaching
[32].
The fundamental elements of knowledge management and its co- communica-
tional aspects of transforming tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge will generate
inventive situations, simulation, piloting, and improvisation [26, 27]. This scenario
may favor the existence of errors in the execution of the various projects and activities,
but at the same time it is very favorable to creativity and innovation.
The institutional aspects common to universities, identified in Sect. 3.2 of this

paper allow some hypotheses to be put forward.
Renewal. The evaluation processes are the basis for the renovation of processes,
careers, programs, among others. Renewal in the context of COVID-19 was eminently
methodological and didactic, based on the use of information and communication
technologies. Innovation has been eminently in the form of dialogue and interaction
between the different actors in the university context, but there is no evidence of
curricular innovation.
Multiculturalism and multidisciplinarity. The concept of culture in the university
should be understood in a broader sense than that of cultural groups; it is about
diversity of worldviews, which constitutes an environment of multidisciplinarity
that points to the complementary nature of knowledge. In the face of COVID-19,
the complementarity of analysis was a fundamental factor in overcoming the crisis.
Universities were strongly demanded by society for the construction of proposals
and solutions.
Academic freedom is an essential imperative for the development of thought,
which avoids the imposition of political influences on academic and scientific aspects
in the University. This category is one of the most developed during the pandemic
through online events, which have been replicated in the dissemination of knowledge.
The relationship between research, teaching and liaison constitutes an integrating
triad of the substantive functions of the Universities. To a great extent, the fecundity
and relevance of universities is directly related to the capacity of the institutions
to integrate these functions in adding value and responding to the problems of the
environment. In the context of the pandemic, teaching has migrated to digital envi-
ronments. Applied research in health has gained new relevance, as has research on
technological-educational issues.
The culture of written communication and the use of method. The transformation
of tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge is a critical factor for knowledge manage-
ment [21, 28, 31]. The University for centuries has managed to develop knowledge
management through scientific production and publication in peer-reviewed jour-
nals. It is observed that the editorial processes of indexed scientific journals have
improved their article reply and validation deadlines, which allows the availability
of research in a more immediate way.
Internationalization and validation of knowledge by external peers. The pan-demic
nature of COVID-19 as a health phenomenon with global impact has intensified
collaboration between researchers and internationalization. The need to share knowl-
edge derived from research in the search for a solution to the crisis has strengthened
work networks, the immediate dissemination of partial results, and projects with
researchers from different countries and continents. The diversity of personnel has
made it possible to consolidate research results and public policy feedback.
University autonomy. Unequivocally, university autonomy is an essential factor in
university organization and knowledge management. The implementation of contin-
gency measures, the application of resources in projects and emergency actions has
allowed the creation of new strategies in response to the changes and needs of the
external environment.
Knowledge management is an essential factor in the organization of universi-

ties, which can apply its categories consciously and explicitly, or unconsciously
and implicitly. It is true that some universities work knowledge management as a
discipline or epistemological area of administration with defined and systematized
processes, but even the institutions that do not master this knowledge apply it uncon-
sciously, once they are implicit in the 7 characteristics of the university organization
based on the present study. Knowledge management in universities after the COVID-
19 pandemic must become a new element of quality and institutional maturity in order
to face the challenges arising from global crises and circumstantial factors, but also
from the consolidation of the knowledge society and digital transformation.
This qualitative study, with a speculative philosophical approach, presents cate-
gories that should be contrasted in future empirical-descriptive studies under
quantitative or qualitative approaches of the social sciences.
References
1. Adeinat, I.M., Abdulfatah, F.H.: Organizational culture and knowledge management processes:
case study in a public university. J. Inf. Knowl. Manag. 49, 35–53 (2019). https://doi.org/10.
1108/VJIKMS-05-2018-0041
2. Adnan, M.: Online learning amid the COVID-19 pandemic: students perspectives. J. Pedagog.
Sociol. Psychol. 1(2), 45–51 (2020). https://doi.org/10.33902/jpsp.2020261309
3. Arias Velásquez, R.M., Mejía Lara, J.V.: Knowledge management in two universities before
and during the COVID-19 effect in Peru. Technol. Soc. 64 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
techsoc.2020.101479
4. Arntzen, A.A.B., Worasinchai, L., Ribière, V.M.: An insight into knowledge management
practices at Bangkok University. J. Knowl. Manag. 13, 127–144 (2009). https://doi.org/10.
1108/13673270910942745
5. Asiedu, M.A., Anyigba, H., Ofori, K.S., Ampong, G.O.A., Adde, J.A.: Factors influencing
innovation performance in higher education institutions. Learn. Organ. 27, 365–378 (2020).
https://doi.org/10.1108/TLO-12-2018-0205
6. Bahasoan, A., Ayuandiani, W., Mukhram, M., Rahmat, A.: Effectiveness of online learning
in pandemic Covid-19. Int. J. Sci. Technol. Manag. 1(2), 100–106 (2020). https://doi.org/10.
46729/ijstm.v1i2.30
7. Bartolacci, C., Cristalli, C., Isidori, D., Niccolini, F.: Ba virtual and inter-organizational evolu-
tion: a case study from a EU research project. J. Knowl. Manag. 20, 793–811 (2016). https://
doi.org/10.1108/JKM-09-2015-0342
8. Basilaia, G., Kvavadze, D.: Transition to online education in schools during a SARS-CoV-2
coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic in Georgia. Pedagog. Res. 5(4) (2020). https://doi.org/10.
29333/pr/7937
9. Blackman, D., Kennedy, M.: Knowledge management and effective university governance. J.
Knowl. Manag. 13, 547–563 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1108/13673270910997187
10. Boyle, B., MacDonnel, A., Mitchell, R., Nicholas, S.: Managing knowledge in internation-
alizing universities through foreign assignments. Int. J. Emerg. Med. 26(3), 302–312 (2012).
https://doi.org/10.1108/09513541211213363
11. Esposito, V., De Nito, E., Pezzillo, M., Silvestri, L.: Dealing with knowledge in the Italian public
universities the role of performance management systems. J. Intellect. Capital 14, 431–450
(2013). https://doi.org/10.1108/JIC-03-2013-0035
12. Fullwood, R., Rowley, J., Delbridge, R.: Knowledge sharing amongst academics in UK
universities. J. Knowl. Manag. 17, 123–136 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1108/136732713113
00831
13. Fullwood, R., Rowley, J.: An investigation of factors affecting knowledge sharing amongst UK
academics. J. Knowl. Manag. 21, 1254–1271 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1108/JKM-07-2016-
0274
14. Ganguly, A., Talukdar, A., Chatterjee, D.: Evaluating the role of social capital, tacit knowl-
edge sharing, knowledge quality and reciprocity in determining innovation capability of an
organization. J. Knowl. Manag. 23, 1105–1135 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1108/JKM-03-2018-
0190
15. Guerrero, M., Herrera, F., Urbano, D.: Strategic knowledge management within subsidised
entrepreneurial university-industry partnerships. Manag. Decis. 57, 3280–3300 (2019). https://
doi.org/10.1108/MD-10-2018-1126
16. Guo, Y.R., Cao, Q.D., Hong, Z.S., et al.: The origin, transmission and clinical therapies on
coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak–an update on the status. Mil. Med. Res. 7(11),
(2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40779-020-00240-0
17. Hendriks, P.H.J., Sousa, C.A.A.: Practices of management knowing in university research
management. J. Organ. Change Manag. 26, 611–628 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1108/095348
11311328605
18. Iqbal, A., Latif, F., Marimon, F., Sahibza, U.F., Hussain, S.: From knowledge management to
organizational performance: modelling the mediating role of innovation and intellectual capital
in higher education. J. Enterpr. Inf. Manag. 32, 36–59 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1108/JEIM-
04-2018-0083
19. Koronis, E., Ponis, S.: Better than before: the resilient organization in crisis mode. J. Bus.
Strategy 39, 32–42 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1108/JBS-10-2016-0124
20. Krogh, G.V., Ichijo, K., Nonaka, I.: Enabling Knowledge Creation. Oxford University Press,
New York (2000)
21. Lopez, S.F., Rodeiro-Pazos, D., Calvo, N., Rodríguez-Gulías, M.J.: The effect of strategic
knowledge management on the universities’ performance: an empirical approach. J. Knowl.
Manag. 22, 567–586 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1108/JKM-08-2017-0376
22. Ma, Z., Xiao, L., Yin, J.: Toward a dynamic model of organizational resilience. Nankai Bus.
Rev. Int. 9, 246–263 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1108/NBRI-07-2017-0041
23. Mafabi, S., Munene, J., Ntayi, J.: Knowledge management and organizational resilience Orga-
nizational innovation as a mediator in Uganda parastatals. J. Serv. Market. 5(1), 57–80 (2012).
https://doi.org/10.1108/17554251211200455
24. Massaro, M., Pitts, M., Zanin, F., Bardy, R.: Knowlwdgw sharing, control mechanisms and a
intellectual liabilities in knowledge-intensive firms. Electron. J. Knowl. Manag. 12, 117–127
(2014)
25. Mukhtar, K., Javed, K., Arooj, M., Sethi, A.: Advantages, limitations and recommendations for
online learning during COVID-19 pandemic era. Pak. J. Med. Sci. 36(COVID19-S4) (2020).
https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.36.covid19-s4.2785
26. Müller, F.M., Souza, M.V.: The role of knowledge media in network education. Int. J. Innov.
Educ. Res. 8, 76–93 (2020). https://doi.org/10.31686/ijier.vol8.iss7.2457
27. Muqada, U.A., Aslam, U., Imran, M.K., Saboor, A.: Emerging organizational parameters and
their roles in implementation of organizational change. J. Organ. Change Health Manag. 31,
1084–1104 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-08-2017-0300
28. Nonaka, I., Toyama, R., Konno, N.: SECI, Ba and leadership: a unified model of dynamic
knowledge creation. Long Range Plan. 33, 5–34 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0024-630
1(99)00115-6
29. Orzano, J.A., Mclnerney, C.R., Scharf, D., Tallia, A.F., Crabtree, B.F.: A knowledge manage-
ment model: implications for enhancing quality in health care. J. Assoc. Inf. Sci. Technol. 12,
489–500 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.20763
30. Pee, L.G., Kankanhalli, A.: A model of organizational knowledge management maturity based
on people, process, and technology. J. Inf. Knowl. Manag. B 8, 1–21 (2009). https://doi.org/
10.1142/S0219649209002270
31. Polanyi, M.: The Tacit Dimension. Routledge e Kegan Paul, London (1966)
32. Romeiro, A., Riofrío, V., Pérez, D., Torres, P., Brizuela, N., Andrade, L., Iriarte, M.: Ser maestro
en tiempos de pandemia. Pearson, Lima, Peru (2021)
33. Saide, S., Indrajit, R.J., Trialih, R., Ramadhani, S., Najamuddin, N.: A theoretical and empir-
ical validation of information technology and path-goal leadership on knowledge creation in
university: leaders support and social media trend. J. Sci. Technol. Policy Manag. 10, 551–568
(2019). https://doi.org/10.1108/JSTPM-06-2018-0067
34. Simao, L., Franco, M.: External knowledge sources as antecedents of organizational innovation
in firm workplaces: a knowledge-based perspective. J. Knowl. Manag. 22, 237–256 (2018).
https://doi.org/10.1108/JKM-01-2017-0002
35. Snyman, R., Kruger, C.J.: The interdependency between strategic management and strategic
knowledge management. J. Knowl. Manag. 8, 5–19 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1108/136732704
10523871
36. Takeuchi, H., Nonaka, I.: The Knowledge—Creating Company: How Japanese Companies
Create the Dynamics of Innovation. Oxford University Press, New York (1995)
37. Takeuchi, H., Nonaka, I.: Gestão do Conhecimento. Bookman. Porto Alegre. Brasil (2008)
38. Thani, F., Mirkamali, S.: Factors that enable knowledge creation in higher education: a structural
model. Data Technol. Appl. 52, 424–444 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1108/DTA-10-2016-0068
Developing Computational Thinking
in Basic School: Resources
from Mathematics Teachers in Portugal
José Manuel Dos Santos Dos Santos ,

Celina Aparecida Almeida Pereira Abar , Marcio Vieira de Almeida ,
and Zsolt Lavicza
Abstract In the context of the development of the project “Computational Thinking

in Elementary Schools in the Age of Artificial Intelligence: Where is the Teacher”
a group of teachers from Portuguese-speaking countries in Brazil, Portugal, Cape
Verde and Angola, joined to coordinate researchers to reflect on the topic. Accord-
ingly, this paper outlines some of the results obtained from Portuguese participation in
this project and reflect the possibility of developments of Computational Thinking in
elementary schools. Results, which are the resources developed by the participants,
include the use of different software to work mathematical content and computa-
tional thinking in the curriculum with students of different levels of education. In the
research associated with teacher education, was important to understand the stages
of the training process, analyse the data under the lens of Everett Rogers’ innovation-
decision process theory, also was considered the Progressive Technological Peda-
gogical Content Knowledge -TPACK model by Niess. Considering the teaching
experiment methodology, the possibilities of educational improvement were studied,
through the creation of resources in the context of the project, subject to reassess-
ments and adjustments in its progress. Results show that participants went through
different stages, improving their knowledge of the contents, didactics, technology,
J. M. D. S. Dos Santos
Research and Innovation Center in Education (inED), Polytechnic do Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto
Frias, 712, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
e-mail: santosdossantos@ese.ipp.pt
C. A. A. Pereira Abar (B)
Faculty of Exact Sciences, Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo, R. Marquês de Paranaguá,
111 Consolação, São Paulo, Brazil
e-mail: abarcaap@pucsp.br
M. V. de Almeida
São Paulo GeoGebra Institute, R. Marquês de Paranaguá, 111 Consolação, São Paulo, Brazil
Z. Lavicza
Department of STEM Education, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Altemberger St. 69, 4040
Linz, Austria
e-mail: zsolt.lavicza@jku.at
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_12
132 J. M. D. S. Dos Santos et al.
and curriculum, influencing their teaching practice, and showing the possibility of
learning carried out by their students.
Keywords Computational thinking · Mathematics education · Diffusion of

innovations · TPACK · Teaching experiment
1 Introduction
The project “Computational Thinking in Elementary School in the Age of Artifi-

cial Intelligence: Where is the Teacher?” coordinated by two of the authors of these
works, aims to offer participants continuous training in the context of the Computa-
tional Thinking (CT) and assess the impact of these teachers’ understanding of their
respective concepts and practices. The eleven participating teachers, originating in
Brazil, Portugal, Cape Verde and Angola, through collaboration and reflection on
the development of computational thinking, developed in groups and in a remote
context, through the platform Teams, resources, which designates everything that
contributes to the practice of teachers and their pedagogical improvement. This paper
outlines some of the resources developed by the Portuguese participated obtained in
this project and reflect on possibility developments of Computational Thinking in
elementary schools. The research aspect of the project was supported by a qualita-
tive approach, considering the teaching experiment (TE) [6] and involving specific
dynamics of action research, the design of the pedagogical experience with the elab-
oration of resources, used as a teaching hypothesis, subject to reassessments and
readjustments [5]. Participants accepted the invitations due to the interest that the
CT assumes in the curriculum today. In Portugal and in Brazil, the CT is now consid-
ered in the official curricula as content, a pedagogical strategy and as a capacity to
be developed in students. For the research team of this project, there is an interest
in understanding how teachers’ appropriate concepts are associated with the CT and
putting them into practice in the resources that they conceive for their students and
apply in the classroom. The development of the project gave substantial indications
of how these participants position themselves in relation to the development of the
CT and integrate it into their teaching practice. Thus, in the following sections we will
present part of this study that results from the development of the presented project:
the theoretical framework, which allows the interpretation of the results obtained; the
methodologies used, privileging the TE and interpretative and qualitative paradigm;
the characterization of the study participants and their resources for the development
of CT in their practices. The process experienced involves characteristics of inno-
vation and is inserted in the progressive TPACK model. We end with an analysis
and discussion of the results obtained and in the continuation of this study, other
resources will be implemented and will be the object of analysis by the authors of
this text.
Developing Computational Thinking in Basic School: Resources … 133
2 Theoretical Framework
Computational Thinking in the educational context could be considered as a

strategy for structuring reasoning for solving problems and can be observed in the
processes of reading, writing and mathematics, thus, the CT can be an integral part
of the analytical capacity of the students, children from the first years of schooling
[14]. However, in one of the first formal definitions of CT for K-12 Education [8],
in lato sensu, and for basic education in Portugal and Brazil, CT was described as
a problem-solving process. Some authors reflect that the CT includes a broad set of
thinking strategies, is oriented towards problem-solving, including concepts such as
abstraction, decomposition, evaluation, pattern recognition, the use of logic and algo-
rithm design [7, p. 19]. Brennan and Resnick [4] consider three dimensions for the
development of computational thinking: concepts used in programming; problem-
solving practices that occur in the programming process and perspectives on working
in computing.
Innovation according to Everett Rogers, considering the perception of innovation
by teachers, in the educational context, can be identified with the idea of change one
practice to another, in the sense of a context that changes to become an innovative
environment, a space for the emergence of new pedagogical mediations, discoveries
and acquisition of skills for the teacher. However, innovation may not necessarily
be a sudden change of practices, because when faced with, for example, the use of
technology, seen as an innovation, teachers may react by seeking to adapt to it based
on their own knowledge, skills, worldview, and pedagogical beliefs, establishing
new relationships with innovative elements and adding different knowledge to them.
Therefore, it does not mean a change in teachers’ teaching practices in its essence, but
a composition, an integration between what he has of knowledge and professional
experiences and what is necessary to work with a new situation, in the case of
this study, with the concepts and practices of computational thinking. Innovation,
therefore, is established in a continuum of pedagogical activities [1] and [2].
TPACK is the model proposed by Niess et al. [10, p. 9] and strongly inspired by
the Progressive Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge innovation-decision
process model introduced by Rogers [14], it exposes the progression of the teacher’s
knowledge of Mathematics as they integrate technology into the teaching and learning
process of the subject.
According to the Progressive TPACK model presented by Niess, teachers must
go through a five-step process to make the final decision to accept or reject an
innovation. Specifically for the teaching of Mathematics with technologies, the
steps are: Recognition (knowledge), Acceptance (persuasion), Adaptation (decision),
Exploration (execution), Advance (confirmation). The Association of Mathematics
Teachers Educators (AMTE) committee created a visual description (Fig. 1) to think
about the various levels of the TPACK model inspired by Rogers’ innovation process
[13]. This TPACK development process is not linear, as the transition from one level
to the next does not show a regular progression.
Fig. 1 Visual description of TPACK development levels by teachers. Source In [10, p.10]
Learning theories. The work developed during the project and the resources
presented by the participants assume Papert’s constructivist learning framework
that helps students develop social interaction, cognition, high-level thinking, and
CT development [11]. Teaching practices that develop computational thinking, in
the discipline of mathematics, imply changes in practices, resources and teacher
knowledge, so we will now present the way in which we observe this change.
3 Methods
In the research associated with this project, of a qualitative nature and based on the
action research methodology [3, pp. 280–281], it is interesting to analyze how the
teacher builds in his practice the changes necessary for the development of CT in his
class. In the case of the study presented here, we analyzed the work of four of the
eleven participants in the project, who were mathematics teachers in Portugal. The
data sources for this study were the participation in project meetings, the didactic
resources produced, and the Teaching Experiment under development. The partic-
ipants’ interventions were recorded on video, the resources were presented orally
at the project’s plenary meetings and in various documents. On the other hand, the
Teaching Experiment under development provided other sources of data, documented
by photographic records, video and texts produced by the participants. In the next
section we analyze the resources produced by Portuguese mathematics teachers,
relating them to the other sources of data collected.
4 The Analysis of Resources Created
All three resources here was created by the Portuguese participants. These resources
were conceived for use in the classroom, and they will only be implemented in
Basic Education (BE) from the 2022/2023 school year. One of these resources was
applied with students of the 1st cycle of BE, a second is for the 3rd cycle of BE, and
the second one is a resource for the 3rd cycle of BE. The third corresponds to the
exploration of a conjecture that can be applied in the three BE cycles or in subsequent
years. In the three resources presented, the participating teachers complemented them
considering the concepts and practices of computational thinking and according to
the teaching method experiment, which suggests the creation of a sequence of tasks in
the context of the project, used as a teaching hypothesis, and subject to reassessments
and adjustments [6]. The respective solutions were inserted, characterizing the phases
of innovation theory, and showing the necessary knowledge of the TPACK already
presented in this text. All the resources proposed by the participants aim to make
students deal with the CT, using problem solving strategies in mathematics and
starting from concepts of computer science, such as abstraction and decomposition
[9].
4.1 1st Resource: Build Fixed Perimeter Rectangles

with GeoGebra
Using tools from the 2D view and the GeoGebra (GG) turtle command, participants
A and B proposed a task conducted in the 2nd and 3rd year of the 1st cycle of BE in
Portugal. With tablets available to work with students in the classroom and before
starting the tasks, the teachers recalled or indicated the GG tools that the students
could use, then introducing the problem to the students: “the students were challenged
to build several quadrilaterals with an 8 cm perimeter.”, referring to the participating
teachers, who “It was noted that each side of the checkerboard is 1 cm on a side.” As
a result of this action, there was a work between pairs of students, in which several
images of quadrilaterals were presented in the indicated conditions, without being
constructions of the same, since they exceeded the curricular objectives expressed
for these years of schooling. In fact, the students used the point tools and used the
screen mesh as a support for visual verification of the metric properties they needed,
as shown in the images in Fig. 2.
In the second part of the task, for the introduction of the use of the turtle command
of the GG, the teachers performed a short dramatization together with the students
asking that and the students gradually improved the instructions given in dialogue
between them and the teacher to the point that they managed to establish a synthesis,
as the teachers refer:
Fig. 2 Images of student productions in the 1st part of the task in GG. Source In a Word document
describing the resource of participants A and B
Table 1 Anticipation of students’ responses to the task

Length Side Measurements: perimeter/area 2*Comments
2 2 2×2+2×2=8 2×2=4 Expected, satisfies the problem
1,5 2,5 1,5 × 2 + 2,5 × 2 = 8 1,5 × 2,5 = 3,75 Not expected, partially satisfies
the problem
Source Document supporting the task proposed by participants A and B
Automatically, the students showed great enthusiasm and orders began to emerge: “2 forward,
¼ turn to the left, 2 to the front, ¼ turn to the left, 2 to the front, ¼ turn to the left, 2 forward
and ¼ to the left.”
Participants presented in their resources a script to implement the task, some

possible answers to the task in a table, see Table 1, in the sense of facilitating the
orchestration process in the classroom and trying to anticipate a possible learning
trajectory.
This anticipation of answers, with the possible parameters to be chosen by the
students in the GG applications, would correspond to rectangles with a perimeter
of 8 cm, the participants predicting that it might be necessary to analyze solutions
that involved measures of sides represented by non-integer numbers, which did not
occur.
4.2 2nd Resource—Draw Regular Polygons With Scratch
This resource, use Scratch to draw regular polygons, was the task of participant C, to
develop the content related to the properties of regular polygons. The teacher suggests
that the students develop a program for the drawing of several regular polygons in
which they should first think about the “Instructions” and only then register the
“Scratch Commands”, using their own recording sheets.
The teacher’s explicit intention was that the student:
Write succinctly, and by topic, all the instructions used in the construction of these polygons
in Scratch.
After the constructions of regular polygons between 3 and 6 sides, he asks students
to use “the constructions” made in the previous items and fill a table, where they indi-
cate the designation of the polygon, the number of sides, the amplitude of the interior
angles and the magnitude of the exterior angles. At this point, the participant intends
for students to establish relationships and properties of the polygons performed and
from these findings to establish relationships, inducing students’ attention to the
situation where they can establish fundamental relationships for generalization by
questioning of the resource.
Observe the table and compare the values in the columns for the number of sides of each
polygon and the amplitude of its interior angles. What do you observe?
Participant B and other participants in the project group pointed out the novelty
and attractiveness effect of using Scratch and we can deduce that the participant
considers it relevant to reanalyze the technological option she took for the proposed
task, namely by critically analyzing the option made, in view of the use of another
technology.
The third resource to be presented involves not very common mathematical
concepts in the curriculum used.
4.3 3rd Resource—Collatz’s Conjecture.
It is the work with Collatz’s conjecture that excited participant D to present this
resource. The author intends to contribute, with the task, to the development of
mathematical skills such as problem-solving, mathematical reasoning and computa-
tional thinking, explaining that: “In relation to computational thinking, the main focus
of the proposed task could be considered in the implementation of a mathematical
algorithm.”
The participant presents his resource to develop in different years of schooling
and using different approaches, in his words:
This is a task that can be implemented in years of schooling as different as the 5th and 10th
years, whose difference in implementation should focus on the type of platform/programming
language that the student should use for its resolution, that is, the implementation of the
intended algorithm. Regarding the 5th year, it is intended that the algorithm will be imple-
mented in Scratch (programming by blocks) and in relation to the 10th year, the algorithm
must be presented in the Python programming language.
The author refers to the procedure that gives rise to Collatz’s conjecture:
... that given any natural number, if it is even, its half must be calculated, but if it is odd, its
triple is calculated and added by 1 and so on, and this process will always end in the number
1.
Fig. 3 Resources in Scratch and pseudo-code, prior to implementation in Python. Source PDF
document of the task proposed by participant D
The Scratch approach suggested in the task is detailed and explained, as can be
seen in Fig. 3 on the left, pseudo-code on the right, prior to the implementation of
the algorithm in Python that the participant presents in detail in his resource.
All resources are to be published and made available online, to contribute to
teacher education in the context of computational thinking, thus reflecting on their
teaching practice.
5 The Importance of GeoGebra for the Resources Created
The use of the GeoGebra, in the resources presented, was a recurring subject during
the online sessions for the presentation and analysis of the work developed by the
participants in the project.
From the resources of participants, A and B, there is a clear interest in using
the GG, at first using the tools by building students’ images of quadrilaterals to
illustrate examples that meet the teachers’ request. These first actions of the students
end up conditioning the creation of the necessary structures for the use of capacities
“similar” to the language that already exists in the GG. The development of the
classroom experience also leads the teachers to propose changes in the syntax of
the “turtle” command. In this way, the number of characters to be introduced by
the students was small, surpassing the difficulties initially detected, although it is
expected that a new cycle of the ongoing teaching experience will verify possible
improvements [6] in the use of the command and the encoding that is inherent to it,
with younger students and using mobile devices with touch functions.
Regarding participant C’s resource, the use of Scratch is also proselytized in view
of the use of dynamic geometry of the GG. In this task, the turtle command of the GG
could also have been used, inserting the necessary code in a button, thus developing
the written programming competence, unlike the block programming characteristic
of Scratch [5].
Fig. 4 Code to test conjecture in GG, when updating a natural value selector. Source Authors of
this article
In relation to the resource of participant C with the use of GG, or would have
to use the sequence command, existing the impasse of the construction of cycles in
GeoGebra Script. However, we could use in the GG a button with programming in
JavaScript as described in Fig. 4.
In the Final Considerations are evidenced the phases of innovation according to
Rogers [12] in the context of the creation of resources by the participants.
6 Final Considerations
The teachers got involved with the concepts and practices of computational thinking,
from the online meetings and the elaboration of the material and the implementation
of resources, which triggers the process of perceiving the characteristics of innova-
tion (relative advantage, compatibility, and complexity) the which form some of the
main features of the second stage, that of Persuasion, of Rogers’ innovation-decision
process model.
According to Rogers, relative advantage is the strongest indicator of the rate of
adoption of an innovation [12, p. 221]. The characteristic of relative advantage is
associated with convenience, satisfaction, and social prestige, that is, it is “the level
at which an innovation is perceived as being better than the idea that precedes it”
[12, p. 229]. The more the relative advantage is perceived, the faster the innovation
is adopted.
Compatibility is the level of perception consistent with the personal values, past
experiences and needs of potential adopters. An innovation may be compatible or
incompatible with sociocultural values and beliefs, previously introduced ideas and
with the needs related to people’s adoption of the innovation. If an innovation is
compatible with an individual’s needs, then uncertainty will decrease, and the adop-
tion rate will increase. Rogers says that “any new idea is evaluated against existing
practice. Thus, compatibility, not surprisingly, is related to the rate of adoption of an
innovation” [12, p. 249].
Complexity is understood as the degree of perceived difficulty in understanding

and using the innovation. “Any new idea can be classified into a continuous
complexity-simplicity. Some innovations are clear in their meaning to potential
adopters, while others are not” [12, p. 257]. The excessive complexity of an inno-
vation is a major obstacle to its adoption. Unlike other attributes, complexity is
negatively correlated with adoption rate.
The characteristics exposed above were evidenced in the participation of teachers
and in the respective resources elaborated in relation to the work of the CT. The
development of concepts associated with sequences, cycles and the use of conditional
expressions stands out.
The work of participants A and B is characterized by being a collaborative work,
integrating a resource that is part of the mathematics curriculum of the first cycle of
BE in Portugal, in which geometric and pre-algebraic reasoning is worked simulta-
neously with the CT. Note that the proposed task is a real problem for the students,
despite working with two different classes in two different years. This task had not
been proposed before, highlighting that the students had only used GG previously
as dynamic geometry software and with the software tools without having used
commands.
Regarding the phases of CT development, the participants’ resource allowed the
students to go through the Abstraction process, a small pseudo-algorithm is described
that could support the Automation process and eventual debugging. Considering
that the participants, despite having some experience in the use of GG, before the
beginning of this project, had some difficulty in developing the CT, and their trajectory
can be analyzed by the progressive TPACK model, there is evidence to position
themselves in the fifth stage of the model of progressive TPACK.
In the work of the four participants analyzed here, throughout the online sessions
of the project, the resources they built, and the questions and discussions established,
it appears that the participation of all allowed the implementation of resources, which
triggered the process of perception of the characteristics of innovation inserted in the
progressive TPACK model.
Analyzing the resources presented, the relationships with Rogers’ innovation-
decision process were identified in each of them in the progressive context of Niess’
model. In the interpretations of the collected information, elements that emerged
were identified, facilitating the relationship of teachers in their work activities that
evolved, as indicated by the methodology TE, and with the process of knowledge of
concepts and practices related to computational thinking.
This relationship took place in the search for the continuity of the process, that
is, for everyone to follow together, as a team, in order to elaborate the resources
entrusted to them, referring to the development of computational thinking.
Acknowledgements His work was financed by funds from the state Portuguese through FCT—
Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P., under the Project UIDB/05198/2020 (Center for
Research and Innovation in Education, in ED). We also appreciate the support of the OEI Lisbon
Office and by the Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo, Brazil, through the PIPRINT-PG
project 2021.
AuthorContribution Ethical Issues

Author Contributions: CAAP, JMSS and MVA participated in all phases of project develop-
ment: preparation, participation in remote meetings, creation of activities, and data collection;
ZL contributes with supervision. All authors actively participated in the discussions and reviewed
and approved the final version of this work.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted following the ethical guidelines
of Research Ethics Committee of the Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo, Brazil, and
international guidelines.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the
study. The study was conducted according to the university’s ethical guidelines.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
1. Abar, C.A.A.P: Model of innovation: Process of integrating technology in mathematics

education. Acta Scientiae 18(3) (2016)
2. Abar, C.A.A.P., Lavicza, Z.: Underlying Theories for use of digital technologies in mathematics
education. Acta Scientiae 12(1) (2019)
3. Abar, C.A.A.P., Dos Santos, J.M.D.S., de Almeida, M.V.: Computational thinking in elementary
school in the age of artificial intelligence: where is the teacher? Acta Scientiae 23(6) (2021)
4. Brennan, K., Resnick, M.: New frameworks for studying and assessing the development
of computational thinking. In: Proceedings of the 2012 Annual Meeting of the American
Educational Research Association, Vancouver, Canada. vol. 1, p. 25 (2012)
5. Cobb, P., Confrey, J., DiSessa, A., Lehrer, R., Schauble, L.: Design experiments in educational
research. Educ. Res. 32(1), 9–13 (2003)
6. Council, N.R., et al.: Report of a Workshop on the Scope and Nature of Computational Thinking.
National Academies Press (2010)
7. Grover, S., Pea, R.: Computational thinking: a competency whose time has come. Comput.
Sci. Educ.: Perspect. Teach. Learn. School 19, 1257–1258 (2018)
8. ISTE, I., CSTA, C.: Operational Definition of Computational Thinking for k–12 Education.
National Science Foundation (2011)
9. Lye, S.Y., Koh, J.H.L.: Review on teaching and learning of computational thinking through
programming: what is next for k-12? Comput. Hum. Behav. 41, 51–61 (2014)
10. Niess, M.L., Ronau, R.N., Shafer, K.G., Driskell, S.O., Harper, S.R., Johnston, C., Browning,
C., Özgün Koca, S.A., Kersaint, G.: Mathematics teacher tpack standards and development
model. Contemp. Issues Technol. Teach. Educ. 9(1), 4–24 (2009)
11. Papert, S.: Children, computers and powerful ideas. New York: Basic Books 10, 1095592
(1990)
12. Rogers, E.M.: Diffusion of Innovations. Simon and Schuster (2010)
13. Rogers, E.M., Singhal, A., M., Q.M.: Diffusion of innovations. In: Stacks, D.W., Salwen,
M.B., Eichhorn, K.C. (eds.) An Integrated Approach to Communication Theory and Research,
pp. 415–433. Routledge (2019)
14. Wing, J.: Computational Thinking Communications of the ACM 49(3), 33–35 (2006)
Lyrics Training: An E-learning
Approach to Improve Listening Skills
Veronica E. Martinez, Diego H. Rubio, Paulo C. Torres , Gladys I. Tituanã,

M. Xavier Lopez , and Jose E. Naranjo
Abstract Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, educational agents have been forced
to apply strategies and methodologies and use new technological tools that allow
them to continue with the teaching–learning processes. Because of this, the present
research implements an innovative methodology to analyze the contribution of the
Lyrics Training method in the development of listening skills for English language
improvement. The experiment was carried out with high school seniors from an
academic unit in the city of Ambato. A sample of 62 students was divided into
two groups, an experimental group and a control group, each of 31 learners. When
comparing both groups through a t-student test for independent samples, the results
showed a p-value lower than 0.05 and a Cohen’s d coefficient higher than 0.8, estab-
lishing that the teaching process through the Lyrics Training methodology is efficient.
Finally, to verify if the Lyrics Training method is suitable for the selected experi-
mental group, the usability scale (SUS) was applied, in which an average acceptance
of more than 70 points was obtained, indicating that, in general terms, the Lyrics
Training method through a web page is efficient for teaching the English language.
V. E. Martinez
Universidad Tecnologica Indoamerica, Ambato, Ecuador
e-mail: vmartinez5@indoamerica.edu.ec
D. H. Rubio
Unidad Educativa Sagrada Familia, Ambato, Ecuador
e-mail: diego.rubiourvina@safa.edu.ec
P. C. Torres · G. I. Tituanã · M. X. Lopez · J. E. Naranjo (B)
Universidad Tecnica de Ambato, Ambato 180207, Ecuador
e-mail: je.naranjor@uta.edu.ec
P. C. Torres
e-mail: pc.torres@uta.edu.ec
G. I. Tituanã
e-mail: gi.tituana@uta.edu.ec
M. X. Lopez
e-mail: mx.lopez@uta.edu.ec
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_13
144 V. E. Martinez et al.
Keywords Lyrics training · SUS · Listening skills · Education
1 Introduction
In Latin America, the teaching of a foreign language, specifically English, has under-
gone significant changes [5]. Ecuador has not been left behind in this aspect. In fact,
in 2011, an update of the curricular reform was carried out to improve the system
of teaching English as a foreign language. A 5-h teaching load was implemented
starting in the first year of school, while in 2016, it was made compulsory for all
educational institutions in the country to teach English. In the last two years, most
high schools in Ecuador have changed their teaching modality from a face-to-face
model to a virtual one due to the health crisis caused by COVID-19 [11]. For this
reason, the use of digital applications became a common practice; however, finding
suitable material for English language teaching became a difficult task for the teacher
[15].
Fortunately, several open online resources allow teachers to create their activities
perfectly adapted to the objectives of their classes and subject. According to [2], it
is stated that technology provides teacher-student interaction, as well as comprehen-
sible input and output, which helps learners develop thinking skills, makes learning
and teaching more learner-centered, promotes learner autonomy, helps them feel
confident, and increases learner motivation to learn a foreign language effectively.
On the other hand, [6], intends to defend the necessity of using songs in language
teaching based on the fundamental role played by motivation, the psychosocial engine
of language learning. It was concluded that the research objective was achieved,
justifying the importance of music in allowing the student to develop his learning
style and intelligence while knowing to value his peers.
In the research developed by [13], it is mentioned that the current development of
mobile learning has experienced an unprecedented increase in the last decade and,
in addition, the process of implementation of e-learning has now accelerated, i.e.,
the use of language through mobile technology should be recognized as something
significantly different and exciting for students.
With the background presented in previous paragraphs, this research focuses on
implementing the Lyrics Training method in a high school in Ambato-Ecuador. The
objective is to compare conventional English language teaching with digital and
innovative methodologies to verify if this tool helps to improve listening skills as
well as to determine if it is appropriate for the educational-social context in which
the selected sample is located.
This article is divided into six sections, including the introduction. Section 2
develops the case study, while Sect. 3 explains, in detail, what the Lyrics training
method is based on. Section 4 sets out how the experiment was conducted. Section 5
delivers the results, and finally, Sect. 6 presents the conclusions and future work.
Lyrics Training: An E-learning Approach to Improve Listening Skills 145
2 Study Case
The high school in which the study was carried out is a private institution that provides
comprehensive educational services at the preschool, elementary, junior high, and
high school levels under the guidelines set forth by the Ministry of Education.
The high school seniors show an evident lack of interest and inspiration toward
learning a foreign language. Applying traditional methodologies has demotivated
them since learning a foreign language interactively is vital for their professional
training. In the same context, there is no teacher updating focused on using new
technological and didactic tools and active methodologies, such as the use of new
apps and websites.
Because of this, low academic performance in the development of listening skills
was generated; since the English language is a fundamental educational subject
within the students’ academic performance, the lack of knowledge of the new educa-
tional methodologies limits them to learn creatively. A sample of 62 students was
taken to implement the lyrics training method. They were divided into two groups,
each of 31 learners. The control group (A) was trained in the development of listening
in the English language through conventional teaching techniques, and the exper-
imental group (B) was taught through the tools provided by the Lyrics Training
method. See Fig. 1. The groups, previously evaluated, have a general average knowl-
edge of the English language. The characteristics of both groups are presented in
Table 1. In addition, the following hypotheses were put forward:
Fig. 1 Conventional and lyrics training education

Table 1 Students
Group Men (%) Women (%) Age
demographic data
A 64.52 35.48 16–18
B 61.30 38.70
H1: There is a significant difference between the mean scores of the group trained
with conventional methodologies and those acquainted with the Lyrics Training
methodology.
H0: There is not a significant difference between the mean scores of the group
trained with conventional methodologies and those acquainted with the Lyrics
Training methodology.
3 Lyrics Training
Lyrics Training is a technological resource based on the methodology of the same

name. It is an easy and fun method to learn and improve foreign language skills
through music videos and lyrics of learners’ favorite songs. It is interactive and
allows students to practice, deepen and consolidate vocabulary, phrases, grammar,
pronunciation, and listening comprehension through music video texts [1].
It is a free language learning service based on the combination of YouTube music
videos and the lyrics of those songs. Thanks to this technological resource, which
is like a game, students can unconsciously improve the skills related to language
learning: it sharpens the ear, allows to recognize different accents, familiarizes them
with expressions, phrases that are used in everyday life, and, above all, expands the
vocabulary so that each student can inherently express themselves [3].
As for the contributions generated by the application of this tool, it can be
mentioned that it improves pronunciation, which is one of the most challenging
aspects to take care in foreign language classes. To improve this skill, teachers must
plan correctly and see what resources to use in their class, in which oral skills such
as fluency and pronunciation of students can be developed [8].
4 Experimental Setting
In order to fulfill the purpose of this research, an experiment was designed in three
stages. The first phase concentrated on teaching and applying the Lyrics training
method. The second phase focused on evaluating whether the chosen teaching
method fits the Ecuadorian context and the needs of high school seniors. Finally,
the third phase consisted of developing a proposal for the efficient application of
Lyrics training.
The Preliminary English Test (PET), the listening exam, was used in both the
control and experimental groups to carry out the first stage. The test is divided into
four parts and has 25 questions to be answered in 30 min. Each audio will be played
twice.
In the first and second parts, the student will listen to several short audios and will
have to answer a multiple-choice question for each audio. In the first part, learners
will choose among three images the one that answers the question. In the second
part, they have to choose the phrase that best describes the situation in the audio.
In the third part, single audio of a more extended situation is presented, and the
pupil will have to fill in the blanks with one or more words that complete a statement.
In the last part, long audio and several questions are presented. The correct answer
must be chosen from the three statements presented in the audio. The order of the
questions matches the order in which the information first appeared in the audio [9].
As in other studies, [10, 12, 14], the acceptance evaluation was carried out through
a survey based on the System Usability Scale (SUS) guidelines for the second stage
[7]. The following items were included in the survey:
– I think that I would like to use Lyrics Training frequently.
– I found Lyrics Training unnecessarily complex.
– I thought Lyrics Training was easy to use.
– I think that I would need the support of a technical person to be able to use Lyrics
Training.
– I found the various functions in Lyrics Training were well integrated.
– I thought there was too much inconsistency in Lyrics Training.
– I would imagine that most people would learn to use Lyrics Training very quickly.
– I found Lyrics Training very cumbersome to use.
– I felt very confident using Lyrics Training.
– I needed to learn a lot of things before I could get going with Lyrics Training.
Finally, for the third stage, a simple flow chart was used to document, study, plan,
improve and communicate the steps that any foreign language teacher can follow to
apply the Lyrics Training method.
5 Results
5.1 First Stage
Once both the control and experimental groups completed the learning process, they
proceeded to be evaluated. The average grade obtained by the control group was 7.37
out of 10 points, while the average grade of the experimental group was 7.86. It can
be seen that there is an essential numerical difference. However, this was evaluated
statistically by employing the T-student statistical test. The selected confidence level
corresponds to alpha = 5% = 0.05.
Because the sample is more significant than 30 individuals, Kolmogorov–Smirnov

was used. The significance for both samples, control and experimental groups, is
higher than the alpha level of 0.05; 0.076, and 0.200, respectively. Therefore, it
can be affirmed that the data come from a normal distribution. After this, Levene’s
test was performed to check the assumption of variances homogeneity between the
proposed groups; the significance level of this test was 0.091; that is, greater than the
alpha level of 0.05, thus concluding that to perform the t-student test, equal variances
are assumed.
Finally, the p-value obtained is compared to make a decision on the hypotheses
raised. By obtaining a p-value lower than the alpha level (0.000001), H1 is accepted,
i.e., there is a significant difference between the mean scores of the group trained
with conventional methodology and the mean scores of the group trained with Lyrics
Training methodology.
In Fig. 2, it can be seen that, for the conventional methodology, 50% of the
data are concentrated from 7.4 points upwards, in addition to 6 outliers. On the
other hand, 50% of the scores obtained are grouped from 8.1 points upwards in the
Lyrics Training methodology. Thus, it is established that Lyrics Training method-
ology training is more efficient than conventional training in terms of acquiring and
retaining knowledge of the English language.
On the other hand, a statistically significant result does not always show an essen-
tial or substantial practical effect. For this reason, Cohen’s D statistic, which is a
measure of the effect size of standardized means, should be used. It establishes the
number of standard deviations of difference between the results (means) of a control
group and an experimental group.
If the value of this coefficient is between 0 and 0.19, it can be established that the
effect size is negligible. If it is between 0.20 and 0.49, it represents a small effect. On
the other hand, if the value ranges between 0.50 and 0.79, there is a medium effect,
Fig. 2 Conventional and lyrics training scores

and, finally, if this value is more significant than 0.79, it can be concluded that the
effect size is considerable [4].
For this research, the calculated value was 1.37. With this, it is established that
91.5% of the experimental group is above the mean of the control group, 49.3%
of the two groups overlap, and there is an 83.4% probability that a person chosen
at random from the experimental group has a higher score than a person chosen at
random from the control group. With this, it can be concluded that the difference
between the two groups is statistically significant and has a substantial effect, so the
proposed methodology is efficient, and the experiment can be replicated in any high
school in the city of Ambato-Ecuador.
5.2 Second Stage
In order to verify whether the Lyrics Training web page is suitable for the selected
experimental group, the SUS was applied, in which the following results were
obtained: 18 students rated the system with a score above 70, while the remaining 13
students evaluated it with scores below 70. However, the average score was 72.74,
which indicates that in general terms, the Lyrics Training method through a web page
is efficient for English language teaching.
Each score range has been given an adjective. For the range 0 to 25: “Inadequate”,
25 to 50: “Poor”, 50 to 70: “Good”, 70 to 80: “Very good”, 80 to 90: “Excellent”,
and 90 to 100: “Unequaled”.
No students rated the system used as inadequate. Two students rated the use of
Lyric Training as Poor, while eleven participants rated it as Good. On the other hand,
ten students rated this web tool as Very Good, five users rated it as Excellent, and
three people rated it as Unequaled.
5.3 Third Stage
Figure 3 shows the proposal to be carried out to implement the Lyrics Training
methodology in the English language correctly. This proposal consists of 3 phases:
(i) The Problem Analysis is necessary to determine the current situation regarding
the development of auditory skills. It is essential to consider that there are two
ways, whether the problem can be developed to an efficient degree using the
Lyrics Training method, or in the possible case that it cannot be solved through
this method, other alternative solutions must be sought. Finally, the population
and the sample with which the method will be developed must be selected.
(ii) Training is given to the teaching staff in the foreign language area to become
familiar with the method and know the correct way to work with the students.
After this, the students are trained on the benefits of using the method and how
Fig. 3 Proposal
to improve their listening skills. If there are any problems with the know-how
of the educational tool, another teaching alternative should be searched.
(iii) In the final phase, the teacher must create the activities so that the students
can work on them and develop their listening skills as required. Teachers can
develop the activities according to their needs or those the website has already
predetermined. The results will be sent to the teacher to generate a record of
grades or students’ improvement.
6 Conclusions and Future Work
Information has been gathered on the Lyrics Training teaching methodology and its
influence on the students’ listening skills. There was an increase in the retention of
knowledge and the grades obtained, demonstrating that the application of the method-
ology is valid and helps improve the students’ language skills. It has been observed
that, despite this skill being of utmost importance when acquiring knowledge of a
new language, it is not so developed.
In future work, it is proposed to repeat this experiment with a larger sample to
avoid biases in the research and corroborate in a tangible way that the present study
indicates encouraging results.
References
1. LyricsTraining (2022). https://es.lyricstraining.com/

2. Ahmadi, D.M.R.: The use of technology in english language learning: a literature review. Int.
J. Res. English Educ. 3(2), 115–125 (Jun 2018). https://doi.org/10.29252/ijree.3.2.115. http://
ijreeonline.com/article-1-120-en.html
3. Augusto, C., Garc´ıa, B.: The use of the LyricsTraining website to improve listening
comprehension 39(3), 1–53 (2012)
4. Ben-Shachar, M., Lu¨decke, D., Makowski, D.: Effectsize: estimation of effect size indices
and standardized parameters. J. Open Source Softw. 5(56), 2815 (Dec 2020). https://doi.org/
10.21105/joss.02815. https://joss.theoj.org/papers/10.21105/joss.02815
5. Cechinel, C., Ochoa, X., Lemos dos Santos, H., Carvalho Nunes, J.B., Rodés, V., Marques
Queiroga, E.: Mapping learning analytics initiatives in Latin America. Br. J. Educ. Technol.
51(4), 892–914 (Jul 2020). https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12941. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/
doi/10.1111/bjet.12941
6. Dˇzanić, N.D., Pejić, A.: The effect of using songs on young learners and their motivation
for learning English. NETSOL: New Trends Soc. Lib. Sci. 1(2), 40–54 (Oct 2016). https://
doi.org/10.24819/netsol2016.8. http://www.ntscience.net/dergi/the-effect-of-using-songs-on-
young-learners-and-their-motivation-for-learning-english201705.pdf
7. Lewis, J.R.: The system usability scale: past, present, and future. Int. Hum. Comput. Interact.
34(7), 577–590 (Jul 2018). https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2018.1455307. https://www.tan
dfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10447318.2018.1455307
8. Mendoza Batista, A.M.: Quizlet, Quizizz, Kahoot Lyricstraining: aprendizaje lu´dico digital
de una segunda lengua. Revista Lengua y Cultura 1(2), 72–76 (May 2020). https://doi.org/10.
29057/lc.v1i2.5438, https://repository.uaeh.edu.mx/revistas/index.php/lc/article/view/5438
9. Namaziandost, E., Abedi, P., Nasri, M.: The role of gender in the accuracy and fluency of
Iranian upper-intermediate EFL learners’ L2 oral productions. J. Appl. Linguist. Lang. Res.
6(3), 1–14 (2019). https://www.jallr.com/index.php/JALLR
10. Naranjo, J., Urrutia Urrutia, F., Garcia, M., Gallardo-Cardenas, F., Franklin, T., Lozada-
Martinez, E.: User experience evaluation of an interactive virtual reality-based system for upper
limb rehabilitation. In: 2019 6th International Conference on eDemocracy and eGovernment,
ICEDEG 2019 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1109/ICEDEG.2019.8734389
11. Naranjo, J.E., Robalino-Lo´pez, A., Alarcon-Ortiz, A., Peralvo, A.E., Romero, R.E., Garc´ıa,
M.V.: Sistema de realidad aumentada para la ensenãnza de matema´tica en tiempos de COVID-
19. RISTI - Revista Iberica de Sistemas e Tecnologias de Informacao E42(02), 530–541
(2020), https://www.proquest.com/openview/447edae31d1463bb7765bda3c5fa7e7a/1?pq-ori
gsite=gscholarcbl=1006393
12. Pal, D., Vanijja, V.: Perceived usability evaluation of Microsoft Teams as an online learning
platform during COVID-19 using system usability scale and technology acceptance model in
India. Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 119, 105535 (Dec 2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.
2020.105535, https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0190740920313992
13. Pikhart, M.: Human-computer interaction in foreign language learning applications: applied
linguistics viewpoint of mobile learning. Proc. Comput. Sci. 184, 92–98 (2021). https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2021.03.123, https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S18770509
21007729
14. Riofrio-Morales, M., Garcia, M.V.: Training virtual reality-based system for detection
and simulation of motors failures. J. Phys.: Conf. Series 1983(1), 012099 (Jul 2021).
https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1983/1/012099. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/
1742-6596/1983/1/012099
15. Sayer, P.: Does English really open doors? Social class and English teaching in public
primary schools in Mexico. System 73, 58–70 (Apr 2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.
2017.11.006. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0346251X17301276
Entrepreneurship Learning: Applying
a Revised Experiential Learning Model
to Cultural and Creative Industries
Marilia Durão , Sónia Nogueira , Sandra Fernandes ,

and Augusto Neves
Abstract This article discusses entrepreneurship and innovation in the context of

the Cultural and Creative Industries (CCIs) through interdisciplinary education.
Contributions focus on the outcomes of the Erasmus + project FENICE: ‘Fostering
Entrepreneurship and Innovation in Cultural and Creative Industries through Inter-
disciplinary Education’, a project aimed at meeting the current and prospective skills’
needs of the CCIs, both from students and professionals/adult learners. The aim of this
article is to propose the application of a revised experiential learning model (ELM)
to the development of CCIs, by applying this learning approach to the development
of an entrepreneurship education training program. It focuses on various forms of
practical teaching, according to different training objectives, aiming at enhancing the
quality and relevance of business education for the CCIs, while also fostering their
innovative potential and social impact. The outcomes of the project suggest that expe-
riential learning approaches can have an important contribution to entrepreneurial
and managerial skills development for the CCIs, providing the sector with profes-
sionals who can contribute to the sustainable functioning and development of the
creative economy.
Keywords Entrepreneurship education · Experiential learning model · Cultural

and creative industries
This work was supported by the UIDB/05105/2020 Program Contract, funded by national funds
through the FCT I.P.
M. Durão (B) · S. Nogueira · S. Fernandes

Universidade Portucalense, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: mariliadurao@upt.pt
S. Nogueira
e-mail: snogueira@upt.pt
S. Fernandes
e-mail: sandraf@upt.pt
A. Neves
Universidade de Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
e-mail: augustojw@ua.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_14
154 M. Durão et al.
1 Introduction
Over the last 20 years, in an attempt to tackle the consequences of the 2008’s
global economic crisis, the European Union has been actively working to reignite
Europe’s entrepreneurial potential. Even though hardly hitting some of the most
entrepreneurial sectors, the COVID-19 pandemic underpinned some forms of inno-
vation and entrepreneurship, namely by accelerating digital transformation of SMEs
[1]. As a key competence within the European framework, entrepreneurship plays
an important role in improving employability levels, competitiveness, and economic
growth. It is also a driving force to promote social inclusion and equal opportunities,
contributing to build solutions that add value to society [2].
Despite the growth of entrepreneurship incentives at EU level, only 37% of the
population desires to become self-employed [3], a share which has fallen from 45%
in 2009 [4]. In the second quarter of 2021, only 13% of employed people aged
between 20–64 years in the EU were self-employed; this share was of 17% among
people aged 55–64 [5]. Yet, the 2021 OECD/EC study on the Missing Entrepreneur
[6] shows that there could be an additional 9 million people engaged in early-stage
entrepreneurship in the European Union, which would equate to 50% more people, if
more inclusive entrepreneurship policies and programs were designed. This could be
done not only by supporting new entrepreneurs and SMEs (small and medium-sized
enterprises), but also by supporting under-represented and disadvantaged groups.
Extant literature claims the introduction of experiential learning as a subject in
the community, but references are still made to the scarce literature pertaining expe-
riential learning, particularly when applied to program levels [7, 8]. Despite the
existing models on experiential learning [9, 10] there is still limited research on the
gap between course/program level teaching using experiential learning activities in
individual subjects [8] and entrepreneurship [11]. Sudarmiatin et al. [11] refer to
the importance of entrepreneurship education and the need for more studies under-
pinning entrepreneurship experiential learning. Evidence is found in the literature
supporting that entrepreneurship education is possible [12, 13] and it can include busi-
ness creating process, creativity in opportunity seeking, risk management, resilience,
and business ideas implementation. Through entrepreneurship learning, students and
professionals will develop high-skilled and high-quality applied talents, experience
the practical application of theoretical knowledge in the implementation of new
businesses and exercise the ability to apply theory and professional knowledge to
practical and real problem solving.
The aim of this article is to propose the application of a revised experiential
learning model (ELM) to the development of Cultural and Creative Industries (CCIs),
based on Kolb’s [9] four-stage cycle revised by Matsuo and Nagata [10]. Case-based
experiential learning was integrated to develop a teaching program in entrepreneur-
ship and innovation, integrated within an Erasmus + Project with the following
objectives:
(a) to support research and best practices exchange in management and
entrepreneurship for the CCIs;
Entrepreneurship Learning: Applying a Revised Experiential Learning … 155
(b) to adapt education to the creative economy’s skills needs, innovation and
sustainability value;
(c) to model university-driven solutions to promote incubation, start-ups, and
entrepreneurship in CCIs, including career counseling/professional pathways
for traditional and non-traditional students.
‘Fostering Entrepreneurship and Innovation in Cultural and Creative Industries
through Interdisciplinary Education’ (FENICE) is a project developed within the
scope of the Erasmus + Program of the European Union. This academic initiative
aims to enhance the quality and relevance of business and art education for the CCIs
in five program countries: Bulgaria, Romania, Portugal, Greece, and Serbia.
The primary target groups of this project are faculty and students; senior managers;
deans of faculties of business, economics, tourism and professional fields related to
CCIs and heads of relevant departments; prospective students; affiliated researchers;
project managers; faculty and trainees in the post-graduate qualifications and Life-
long Learning programs. The secondary target groups are CCI businesses and their
associations/networks; researchers and research institutes; public authorities and
policymakers; NGOs and community organizations; business support providers;
followers, program and project managers dealing with similar issues, and the media.
This article is structured as follows. Following the Introduction, which provides an
overview of scope of topic and of the Erasmus + Project in which this study is under-
pinned on, the Literature Review briefly addresses the relevance of entrepreneur-
ship education today and the role that experiential learning can play in boosting
an entrepreneurial mindset. Section 3 is devoted to describing the application of a
revised ELM to the CCIs development within the scope of the FENICE project. The
final section is dedicated to drawing some brief conclusions.
2 Literature Review
Entrepreneurship brings important contributions to the economies and also plays

a crucial role in innovation, technological change and productivity growth [13].
Koontz and Fulmer [14] connect the definition of entrepreneurship with the ability
to see a business opportunity and getting the capital needed to take advantage of
that opportunity to start a new venture. The authors consider that there is an inherent
risk of failure but also a chance of being rewarded with success. If entrepreneurship
is the process of setting up a business, then an entrepreneur is someone who takes
the initiative to start a business. An individual with vision, clear ideas, who pursuits
for solutions, bearing most of the risks and mostly driven by intrinsic motivations.
This article refers to the concept of entrepreneurship as consisting of the process of
starting a new venture, which is hereby posited as an ability that can be taught.
New companies, especially SMEs and fast-growing firms, play a significant role
in the creation of new employment in Europe. SMEs are deemed responsible for the
creation of more than 4 million new jobs every year [4]. However, if the survival rate
of new companies is considered—with 50% of companies failing in their first five

years—initiatives that create an environment in which entrepreneurship is encour-
aged and new businesses can thrive, are needed. The promotion of entrepreneurship
and an entrepreneurial culture was therefore one of the main objectives of COSME
2014–2020, Europe’s program for SMEs [15].
When it comes to Cultural and Creative Industries, not only SMEs are predominant
in most of the EU’s cultural activities (except for programming and broadcasting),
as the proportion of people who were self-employed in the field of culture across the
EU, in 2020 (33%), more than doubled the average for the whole economy (14%)
[16].
Several Member States have been introducing national strategies for entrepreneur-
ship education or made entrepreneurial learning a mandatory part of the curricula
[4], but further investment is still required to support would-be entrepreneurs. In
early 2013, the EU established the Entrepreneurship 2020 Action Plan, setting out
entrepreneurship education and training to support growth and business creation
as Action Pillar 1 [4]. Entrepreneurship education and training importance is also
evident from the series of initiatives designed to develop an entrepreneurial culture
across Europe, such as the Lifelong Learning Program 2007–2013, the Erasmus +
program 2014–2020, or the new Erasmus + program 2021–2027.
Entrepreneurship learning is only 20% based on new information and 80% based
on former experience [17]. New information can be gathered by listening and reading,
but experience requires an active role from the learner so as to develop practical
exercises, thinking, talking, etc. It also requires reflection about the challenges and
outcomes. This is when teachers become mentors, striving to help learners—their
mentees—to develop their own skills and find their own ways [18].
Kolb [9] proposed an experiential learning model that considers the following
steps: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and
active experimentation. However, this model has been the target of criticism, with
some authors considering its implementation in real life quite difficult [10].
Matsuo and Nagata [10] then proposed a revised model that considers:
1. Expected and unexpected experiences—it is important to consider not only
expected experiences (action plans), but also unexpected experiences (not
everything can be predicted).
2. The management of emotions—managing an individual’s feelings and emotions
that can stimulate or inhibit learning.
3. Reflective analysis—implies reviewing and analyzing expected and unexpected
events describing facts, identifying failures and successes points and their causes.
4. Abstract conceptualization—drawing conclusions, identifying causes and solu-
tions to problems and alternative methods of action.
5. Unlearning—individuals choose to give up obsolete knowledge and disrupt
habitual thinking.
6. Active experimentation—solutions, alternative methods of action, or remedial
action plans that are extracted from ‘abstract conceptualization’ are implemented.
Matsuo and Nagata [10] have also created a checklist for debriefing experience-
based training programs. Their model takes into account that individuals involve
themselves in the learning process at both technical and critical levels.
Considering the target groups of the FENICE project, namely traditional and non-
traditional students, it is important to address some issues about the characteristics
of learning environments and approaches to teaching and learning, bearing in mind
the different profiles of these target groups.
In the context of Higher Education, experiential learning approaches that focus on
student centered-learning and the development of lifelong learning skills have been
a great concern by European Higher Education Institutions, mostly after the Bologna
process [19, 20]. A report by the European University Association draws attention to
how the implementation of learning outcomes and student-centered learning—which
were key reform goals of the Bologna Process—have contributed to the enhance-
ment of learning and teaching, and how, therefore, this has impacted institutional
strategies that support learning and teaching [21]. According to this report, some
examples of useful approaches to enhancing student learning are, just to name a few:
teaching in small groups, problem-based learning, peer learning (students learning
with each other), community projects, and flipped classrooms. These approaches
share a common feature which is ‘learning by doing’. This concept is aligned with the
principles of experiential learning, which is also known as being a form of hands-on
learning or active learning [22–24].
Active learning is defined by Felder and Brent [23] as anything course-related
that all students in a class session are called upon to do other than simply watching,
listening and taking notes. Based on literature review, active learning activities focus
on four important principles: the context, student engagement, relevance of learning,
and reflection on learning [23, 25]. These characteristics can be found in approaches
such as project and problem-based learning (PBL), challenge-based learning, flipped
classroom, and service-learning [26–29].
Experiential learning is also crucial to support students to enhance employa-
bility skills. Therefore, universities must ensure that their study programs reflect
the dynamic demands of society and the labor market, and address skills demands
throughout the student experience at university [30]. One way to achieve this goal
is to engage students in classroom and extra-curricular activities that empower
students, making learning visible, self-reflective and part of a lifelong perspective—
thus contributing to educating students who are aware of, and agile about, their
own skills and employability [31]. Although the literature shows that active learning
increases student learning, engagement and interest, the translation of this research
to classrooms has been slow and students tend to show resistance to active learning
strategies [32, 33]. The literature has also identified several barriers to instructors’
use of active learning, with fear of negative student responses being one of the most
frequently cited barriers [23, 34].
Experiential learning is also an effective approach for adult education and, there-
fore, for non-traditional students. The literature refers that learning by doing is a
powerful tool for adult learners because they gain concrete experiences and reflect
on them by comparing the new experiences with their prior learning [35]. The active
participation of adult learners, either as students or employers, creates a unique

opportunity for the development and growth of both learners and community partners.
3 The FENICE Project—Application of an Experiential

Learning Model (ELM) to Cultural and Creative
Industries
The FENICE project is a joint initiative seeking to enhance the quality and relevance
of business and art education for the CCIs of the participating countries and regions.
This is to be achieved by outlining innovative courses of study, as by providing
open access to course materials related to the CCIs designed both for adult learners
(who have graduated vocational and/or higher education) and BA/MA students in
the fields of Arts & Humanities (A&H) and Business & Economic studies (B&E),
who want to pursue self-employment or manage creative teams within their careers.
Furthermore, the overall aim is to build the main skills that are needed for career
success and creative impact. Therefore, this interdisciplinary project presents the
theory and practice of entrepreneurship and management combining guided and
experiential learning activities based on Kolb’s model.
CCIs are content, knowledge and technology-driven enterprises and as such, they
are, by definition, a subject to interdisciplinary research and education. CCIs combine
the creation (often by artists or designers), production (often by companies) and
distribution (often by multinationals) of goods and services that are cultural and
usually protected by intellectual property rights.
Developing the entrepreneurial and managerial skills of adult learners and BA/MA
students in the fields of A&H and B&E, will provide the CCIs with thoughtful,
innovative, and self-sustainable professionals that can lead and contribute to the
viable and sustainable functioning of the creative economy.
This paper refers to an understanding of Cultural Creative Industries consisting
of production and/or distribution of goods or services with attributes connected to
cultural expressions. Creative industries also use culture as an input and incorporate
a cultural dimension, but mainly with functional outputs [36].
Additionally, and considering the scope of the FENICE project, the CCIs are
understood as the ones referred to in the Green Paper on the Potential of CCIs of
the European Commission [36] and refer in particular to performing arts; visual
arts; cultural heritage; film, DVD and video; television and radio; video games; new
media; music; books and press; architecture and design (including graphic design,
fashion design, and advertising).
As mentioned, experiential learning is the key strategy in this course when
it comes to teaching–learning strategies and methodologies. As a result, several
teaching, learning, and assessment approaches are used, depending on the needs of
the students and the learning objectives. The teaching approaches are established to
encourage independent work while also respecting the individuality and requirements
of students, allowing for a variety of learning paths.
Hence, the course materials created within the FENICE initiative seek to provide
an active learning environment that has been shown to help students build higher-
order cognitive skills. Students participate actively in the development of knowledge
by questioning and co-creating it through an active and participatory learning process
facilitated by the integration of digital technology. In comparison to conventional
approaches, which are typically passive and unidirectional, students become the
center of the learning process and the trainer/teacher assumes the role of mediator.
When applying Matsuo and Nagata’s [10] model, some intersections may be
established with FENICE’s aims and contents. Consider the following suggestion
for the organization of experiential class activities.
A brief motivational video tale may be used to start a lesson, followed by a few
topic-related questions or an immersive gaming activity. This lesson may be finalized
with an aesthetically visualized lecture, stimulating reflective observation. An addi-
tional individual reading task can be associated with a specific research question to
encourage abstract conceptualization, followed by a group discussion of individual
results or a subjective quiz (used to summarize key main points). Autonomous,
asynchronous work, such an individual report, a reflective essay, or a creative group
project presentation (as part of an active experimentation stage) may also be foreseen.
Finally, as a new form of tangible experience, learners can offer their findings in a
class presentation or take an objective test. Feedback from self or peer-evaluation
will lead to introspective observation, which can then be used as a lead-in to the next
course topic.
The expected and unexpected experiences dimension, the first step, presents itself
in the unpredictability of the discussions that can be originated throughout the
suggested activities, and in the unpredictability of the success/failure of the planned
learning path. The second step, the management of emotions, is a dimension that is
transversal from beginning to end of the lesson/class, and could be more evidenced
in discussion, evaluation and/or feedback moments, by allowing the expression of
emotions which both stimulate and inhibit learning. The reflective analysis (step
three) can be activated not only by learners—by evaluating their improvements and
participation throughout the learning process—, but also by teachers—by identifying
strengths and weaknesses to be addressed in forthcoming apprenticeship opportuni-
ties. Step four, abstract conceptualization stems from actions such as presentations to
the class, objective tests, or feedback initiatives, specifically aimed at drawing conclu-
sions, analyzing lessons learned and consolidating knowledge. As for the manage-
ment of emotions, unlearning (step five) could happen at any stage of a learning
experience like the one suggested, but it could be, as well, consolidated in its final
stages. Considering the broad range of application of the CCIs and multiplicity of
business contexts in which entrepreneurial skills may be applied to in this field, the
analysis of the up-to-dateness and functionality of approaches, both at critical and
technical levels, is key. The final step, active experimentation can be perceived in
students’ behaviors/reactions regarding the expected learning outcomes (solutions),
and the innovations that they may suggest that are different from the ones expected
(alternative methods of action).
4 Conclusion
Entrepreneurship education focuses on assisting students from all socioeconomic

and educational backgrounds to develop real-world skills which not only inspire
them to be innovative and adaptable, but also prepares them for the challenges of for
becoming successful entrepreneurs. Therefore, further effective actions for improve-
ment in entrepreneurship learning are needed. To promote general and deep learning,
new approaches should be applied both at technical and critical levels. This article
contributes to this effort by proposing a practical application for CCIs, through the
use of actions and ideas developed and promoted within the scope of the FENICE
Erasmus + Project. This scenario is supported not only by FENICE’s approach to
experiential learning, but also by its applicability to higher and adult education.
The outcomes of the FENICE project were built upon the principles of experiential
learning and considered the different stages of Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model
[9], as revised by Matsuo and Nagata [10]. Expected and unexpected experiences
are considered at the beginning of the syllabuses with debates, group activities and
class discussion and a positive learning environment is fostered to help individuals
manage their feelings and emotions, so learning can be facilitated. Students are
encouraged to review and analyze expected and unexpected events by taking part
of demonstration initiatives, pilot training, or by using the pilot e-learning platform
for training in management and entrepreneurship for the CCIs, specifically designed
for the FENICE project. The development of innovative syllabuses that integrate
the subjects of innovation and change management, cross-sectoral collaboration,
cultural co-creation, creative technologies in the teaching/training materials allow
the students to develop skills related to identifying causes and solutions to problems
and alternative methods of action, thus leading them to promote incubation, start-ups,
and entrepreneurship in CCIs.
The FENICE project is intended to provide a targeted insight into the opera-
tion of CCI enterprises by developing practical and relevant issues for creative and
cultural professionals and entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurial education for the CCIs
is particularly missing in Eastern and Southern Europe, reason why the consor-
tium of partners of project includes countries such as Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia,
Greece, and Portugal, in which the opportunities for entrepreneurial success are
somewhat constrained by language barriers and underdeveloped markets for cultural
and creative products and services. As per the industries considered by the European
Commission [36] as CCIs, the outputs of the FENICE project may be of interest to
the most diverse industries, from performing arts to visual arts, new media, music or
architecture and design.
The project outcomes are based on an interdisciplinary approach and an Experi-
ential Learning Model which are pertinent to CCIs to highlight how creativity and
culture can be innovatively and sustainably commercialized. It is possible to conclude

that this project can have an important contribution to entrepreneurial and managerial
skills development, particularly for the CCIs, and helps building of trainees’ capacity
in forming and working in cultural and creative teams.
Accordingly, the FENICE project makes use of different teaching, learning
and assessment methods, considering the needs of the students and the learning
objectives. Teaching methodologies were designed to develop autonomous work
while respecting students’ diversity and needs, allowing for flexible learning paths.
FENICE’s courses of study aim at fostering an active learning environment, proven
effective in developing higher-order cognitive skills. By being involved in an active
and participatory learning process, enhanced by the integration of digital technolo-
gies, students—placed at the center of the learning process—intervene directly in
the construction of knowledge, questioning and co-creating it.
Further research should empirically examine the learning process following
Matsuo and Nagata’s [10] Experiential Learning Model, for which the FENICE
project’s learning programs are presented as a valuable opportunity. The main limi-
tation of this article is that it was not possible at this point of the FENICE project,
which is still ongoing, to include in this article firsthand testimonies from students
involved in the FENICE’s pilot courses regarding the strengths of experiential
learning approaches.
References
1. OECD: The Digital Transformation of SMEs, OECD Studies on SMEs and Entrepreneurship.
OECD Publishing, Paris (2021)
2. European Commission: Evaluation of Support Services for Would-be Entrepreneurs and
Newly Established Businesses: Final Report. Executive Agency for Small and Medium-sized
Enterprises, Publications Office (2019)
3. European Commission: Flash Eurobarometer 354—Entrepreneurship in the EU and beyond.
Directorate-General for Communication (2015)
4. Commission, E.: Entrepreneurship 2020 Action Plan: Reigniting the Entrepreneurial Spirit in
Europe. European Commission, Brussels (2013)
5. Eurostat Employment in detail—quarterly statistics. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-
explained/index.php?title=Employment_in_detail_-_quarterly_statistics#Developments_by_
type_of_activity. Last assessed 05 Feb 2022 (2021).
6. OECD/European Commission: The Missing Entrepreneurs 2021: Policies for Inclusive
Entrepreneurship and Self-Employment. OECD Publishing, Paris (2021)
7. Gray, M., Gibbons, J.: Experience based learning and its relevance to social work practice.
Aust. Soc. Work 55(4), 279–291 (2002)
8. Patil, T., Hunt, M., Cooper, K., Townsend, R.: Developing a case-based experiential learning
model at a program level in a regional university: reflections on the developmental process.
Aust. J. Adult Learn. 60(2), 225–244 (2020)
9. Kolb, D.A.: Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development.
Prentice Hall, New Jersey (1984)
10. Matsuo, M., Nagata, M.: A revised model of experiential learning with a debriefing checklist.
Int. J. Train. Dev. 24(2), 144–153 (2020)
11. Sudarmiatin, S., Soetjipto, B.E., Handayati, P., Hidayat, R.P.: Experiential learning: an alter-
native model of entrepreneurship learning in higher education. Int. J. Appl. Bus. Econ. Res.
15(19), 243–252 (2017)
12. Drucker, P.F.: Innovation and Entrepreneurship. Harper and Row, New York (1985)
13. Kuratko, D.F.: The emergence of entrepreneurship education: development, trends, and
challenges. Entrep. Theory Pract. 29(5), 577–597 (2005)
14. Koontz, O.H., Fulmer, R.M.: Practical Introduction to Business. Irwin Professional Publishing
(2000)
15. European Commission: Programme for the Competitiveness of Enterprises and small and
medium-sized enterprises (COSME) (2013)
16. Eurostat: Culture statistics—cultural employment, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-exp
lained/index.php?title=Culture_statistics_-_cultural_employment. Last assessed 05 Feb 2022
(2021)
17. Parker, S.: Learning about the unknown: how fast do entrepreneurs adjust their beliefs? J. Bus.
Ventur. 21(1), 1–26 (2005)
18. Sivan, A., Leung, R.W., Woon, C., Kember, D.: An implementation of active learning and its
effect on the quality of student learning. Innov. Educ. Train. Int. 37(4), 381–389 (2000)
19. Bologna Declaration: Bologna Declaration. Joint Declaration of the European Ministers of
Education Convened in Bologna on the 19th of June 1999 (1999)
20. ESG.: Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Higher Education Area
(ESG). Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Higher Education
Area. EURASHE, Brussels (2015)
21. Gaebel, B.M., Zhang, T., Bunescu, L.: Trends 2018: Learning and Teaching in the European
Higher Education Area. European University Association, Brussels (2018)
22. Bonwell, C.C., Eison, J.A.: Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom. ASHE-
ERIC Higher Education Report (1991)
23. Felder, R.M., Brent, R.: Active Learning. University of West Florida, Florida (2006)
24. Prince, M.: Does active learning work? A review of the research. J. Eng. Educ. 93(3), 223–231
(2004)
25. Cattaneo, K.H.: Telling active learning pedagogies apart: from theory to practice. J. New
Approach. Educ. Res. (NAER Journal) 6(2), 144–152 (2017)
26. Fernandes, S., Mesquita, D., Flores, M.A., Lima, R.M.: Engaging students in learning: findings
from a study of project-led education. Eur. J. Eng. Educ. 39(1), 55–67 (2014)
27. Folgueiras, P., Aramburuzabala, P., Opazo, H., Mugarra, A., Ruiz, A.: Service-learning: A
survey of experiences in Spain. Educ., Citiz. Soc. Justice 15(2), 162–180 (2018)
28. Rådberg, K.K., Lundqvist, U., Malmqvist, J., Svensson, O.H.: From CDIO to challenge-based
learning experiences—Expanding student learning as well as societal impact? Eur. J. Eng.
Educ. 45(1), 22–37 (2020)
29. Lima, R.M., Dinis-Carvalho, J., Sousa, R.M., Alves, A.C., Moreira, F., Fernandes, S., Mesquita,
D.: Ten years of project-based learning (PBL) in industrial engineering and management at
the university of Minho. In: Guerra, A., Ulseth, R., Kolmos, A. (eds.), PBL in Engineering
Education, pp. 33–51 (2017)
30. Abelha, M., Fernandes, S., Mesquita, D., Seabra, F., Ferreira-Oliveira, A.T.: Graduate employ-
ability and competence development in higher education—A systematic literature review using
PRISMA. Sustainability 12(15), 5900 (2020)
31. McSweeney, P., Zhang, T.: Meeting Skills and Employability Demands: Thematic Peer Group
Report. European University Association, Brussels (2021)
32. Andrews, M., Prince, M., Finelli, C., Graham, M., Borrego, M. Husman, J.: Explanation and
facilitation strategies reduce student resistance to active learning. College Teach. 1–11 (2020)
33. Børte, K., Nesje, K. Lillejord, S.: Barriers to student active learning in higher education. Teach.
Higher Educ. 1–19 (2020)
34. Finelli, C. J., DeMonbron, M., Shekhar, P., Borrego, M., Henderson, C., Prince, M., Waters, C.
K.: A classroom observation instrument to assess student response to active learning. In: 2014
IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) Proceedings, IEEE, Madrid, Spain (2014)
35. Candy, P.C.: Experiential learning in adult education. Stud. Contin. Educ. 3(5), 59–72 (1980)
36. European Commission: Green paper Unlocking the potential of cultural and creative industries.
COM (2010) 183 final. European Commission, Brussels (2010)
Assessment of the Evaluation
of Technical and Soft Skills
in a Professional Training Course: Pilot
Study to Analyze the Efficiency
of the Instruments and Results
Helder Rodrigo Pinto, Luís Borges Gouveia, and Miguel Trigo
Abstract Soft skills are competences relevant to many professions. These compe-
tences may be inherent, acquired by values and beliefs developed throughout life.
Technical competences are related to the knowledge of a specific area to the fulfilling
of functions in a certain job. It’s expected that, during a professional training course,
the technical competences would evolve, but should this path provide an equal devel-
opment for soft skills? This study proposes an investigation model that addresses this
question, using as a sample, participants in courses of Technological Specialization
in Computer Sciences, within the scope of a PhD that is currently taking place. The
aim of this paper is to document and analyze the application of questionnaires as a
pilot study of a model that builds upon recruitment and selection procedures used in
professional training and suggests the use of instruments that allow the competences
assessment, such as technical tests and group dynamics; the stages of application of
those instruments; the description of the analysis and processing of data as well as
the discussion of results.
Keywords Skills assessment · Professional training
1 Introduction
Over the last few years, it has been verified that technical skills are not enough for
professionals, from any area, to be able to guarantee success and permanence in the
job market, and soft skills are of great importance in the Human Resources (HR)
management [4].
Competences are defined by skills, knowledge, capabilities, behavioral char-
acteristics and other attributes that in the right match and within the right set of
circumstances, achieve the desired results [7].
Dutra [3], advocates the difference between skills, abilities and knowledge. He
considers as aptitude something for which a person has a nature talent, but which he
H. R. Pinto (B) · L. B. Gouveia · M. Trigo

Universidade Frenando Pessoa, Praça de 9 de Abril 349, 4249-0004 Porto, Portugal
e-mail: helderpinto@ufp.edu.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_15
166 H. R. Pinto et al.
can also improve. Soft skills are related to technical skills and the way they are put
into practice. Knowledge is necessary to perform certain tasks.
Technical competences, or hard skills, associated with know-how and considered
as technical knowledge on a specific domain for the performance of functions of the
professional scope, are acquired through academic and professional training. They
differ from transversal skills, or soft skills, associated with knowing how to be and
the perception that everyone has of his/her “self” as a leader or a member of a group
(behaviours) considered interpersonal qualities, goals, preferences and motives for
action, which can be acquired through training and developed throughout life [1].
Lopes et al. [5], in a study on a technical skill and soft skills valued and sought by
Portuguese companies, found that the two types of skills are not mutually exclusive
but rather complement each other.
During a training course, in academic and professional training, participants are
expected to acquire and develop technical and soft skills, through the attendance and
completion of subjects and extracurricular activities.
The main goal of this study is to assess whether, during a professional training
Course of Technological Specialization (CTS) in area 481—Computer Sciences, soft
skills evolve proportionally with technical competences.
With the intention of reaching of main goal, the following specific objectives
are identified: (i) to propose an assessment model of transversal competences based
on the Recruitment and Selection process used at ATEC—Academia de Formação;
(ii) develop technical questionnaires and assessment tools by direct observation to
assess de level of competence of participants in a training course; (iii) apply the
competences assessment model in case studies; (iv) measure the evolution of the
competences of a group of participants in training courses equivalent to CTS in area
481—Computer Sciences through instruments such as questionnaires and assess-
ment by direct observation; (v) to compare the employability results, after Practical
Training in Work Context (PTWC), with the analysis of the competences of the
participants in the study; (vi) measure the acceptance of the computerized methods
and collaborative tools for the assessment of competences by HR technicians.
Thus, not only recruiters/companies, but also the professionals themselves, are
aware of the importance of soft skills in employability and career development.
Robles [6], identifies the soft skills most valued by companies when hiring new
employees, as well as lists a set of soft skills, which candidates identify as being
the most appropriate to mention in their CV and during an interview. Some of
these skills pointed out by professionals are positive attitude, oral communica-
tion skills, self-motivation and self-direction, and problem-solving skills. On the
other hand, employers identify 10 (ten) key competences they expect new graduates
to possess: integrity, communication skills, courtesy, responsibility, social skills,
positive attitude, professionalism, flexibility, teamwork skills and work ethic.
Competences are therefore a set of professional qualities or behaviours that mobi-
lize technical knowledge and allow action to be taken in solving problems, stimulating
superior professional performance in line with the company’s strategy.
The assessment of competences is made in an observable way in relation to the
behaviour shown according to the levels of demand defined for each function [2].
Assessment of the Evaluation of Technical and Soft Skills … 167
This can admit the application of tests, questionnaires, group dynamics, or interviews
with a filling in of observation grids and this must be oriented towards the intention
and profile to be analyzed.
In the case of technical competences, these can be assessed through the application
of theoretical-practical tests on the topics to be assessed. Regarding soft skills, their
assessment presupposes the creation of a candidate profile through the definition of
a set of key competences and their expected behaviour [2].
Each company can build its competence model based on (i) the set of competences
that integrate the profile of all the functions existing in an organization, so that it can
achieve its business objectives; and (ii) the degree to which the respective holder must
have each of these competences. This constitutes the ideal profile of the equivalent
function that an excellent professional should be able to achieve [2].
This profile is necessary either in a Recruitment and Selection process to identify
the best candidates, or in the performance evaluation or career management process
to detect skills gaps and create development plans to minimize or solve them [2].
For this research study the measurement of the evaluation of competences
comprises two types of assessment, which are adapted from an existing method, used
in Recruitment and Selection process applied at ATEC—Academia de Formação.
This process involves: (i) technical tests; (ii) direct observation and analysis of group
dynamics.
These assessment tools are applied in three phases: (i) initial phase: start of the
course; (ii) intermediate phase: roughly in the middle of the course; (iii) final phase:
before the PTWC period begins.
2 Pilot Experience Protocol
To guarantee the best experience of this skills assessment model, a pilot test is
implemented to (i) analyze the efficiency of the instruments; (ii) test the application
of the questionaries, and (iii) predict the possibility of failures.
In this pilot experiment, 7 (seven) students from de 1st year of the Computer
Engineering course at University Fernando Pessoa (UFP) are considered to have
similar characteristics to those of potential participants in this study.
The sample associated to this exploratory study is considered non-probabilistic
(convenience) as it only includes individuals enrolled in the same Computer Engi-
neering class at UFP, 1st year, and all students have a qualification equivalent to high
school (12th year).
The exploratory study is guided by the researcher himself and by professor Luís
Borges Gouveia, who carries out the introduction, follow-up, monitoring and control,
as well as the application of the observation assessment of the soft skills.
To guarantee obtaining free and informed consent, an exposition of the theme,
objectives and hypothesis under study is made, as well as a brief contextualiza-
tion regarding the needed motivation of the investigation and of the preliminary
study. A request for assent and consent to provide data voluntarily is also made
and ensuring participation in the measurement moments: (i) technical tests and (ii)
group dynamics, is free and that nothing influences their path. An informed consent
is adopted, complying with all legal rules relating to the General Data Protection
Regulation (GDPR).
The expected return is related to (i) the structured of the model; (ii) the general
presentation of the assessment instruments; (iii) clarity of questions; (iv) missing
information; (v) others.
3 Methodology
To analyze the evolution of technical and soft skills of trainees from CTS
classes, this study will use qualitative and quantitative methodologies, to achieve
complementarity between both and a better understanding of the studied scenario.
The Recruitment and Selection process is composed, at ATEC—Academia de
Formação, by a set of phases, namely: psychotechnical tests, technical assessment
tests and individual interview with the course coordinator or area coordinator and
group dynamics mediated by the psychologist responsible for the process.
To assess the efficiency of the proposed model, this exploratory study uses the
same qualitative and quantitative methodologies, to be used in the final model. The
analysis instruments are also maintained, therefore, the measurement of the evolution
of competences, in this case, involves: (i) a technical test and (ii) a group dynamic,
both related to the first identified phase: start of the course.
3.1 Technical Tests
As for the technical assessment tests, the participants answer through Microsoft
Teams, by filling in a Microsoft Forms questionnaire, that returns a percentage
between 0 (zero) and 100 (one hundred) stored in an ordinal variable. For this purpose,
it is needed access to the internet, although the test has a presential format. The export
is automatic to the Microsoft Forms platform and it is possible to manually export
to Microsoft Excel.
The application of the assessments is controlled: without consultation and within
the maximum predicted duration—10 min and it is organized with 20 closed,
multiple-choice questions that address general and introductory aspects of topics
related to Computer Sciences area.
Technical tests make it possible to collect and process data from many individuals
simultaneously.
3.2 Group Dynamics
As the soft skills assessment is made in an observable way in relation to the behavior
shown in accordance with the levels of requirement defined for each function [2], in
the case of group dynamics, this assessment is made by direct observation, carried
out by a group of technicians (course coordinator, trainers and psychologists), to a
set of skills identified for the profile of a CTS candidate in Computer Sciences area.
It is considered a process with qualitative results. These skills are defined according
to a preliminary study of the soft skills with the highest incidence in job vacancies
consulted on the platforms: LinkedIn and itJobs, between 2020 and 2021, reflected
in Fig. 1.
Next, a dictionary of these competences is defined for the expected behavior.
Participants will be guided to interact according to the proposed group dynamics,
in an organized way and within the maximum duration. During this dynamic, the
assessors take notes in a grid of direct observation, that will allow, in the end, the
evaluation of each of the defined competences for each student. This assessment
assumes qualitative results (Table 1).
These group dynamics are adapted from a large library of existing dynamics, by a
group of technicians/psychologists from ATEC—Academia de Formação. A direct
observation guide based on the defined skills dictionary is suggested, so that, at the
end, the observers can debate in a meeting and carry out an assessment of skills also
developed in the Microsoft Forms tool, with the possibility of exporting results to a
Microsoft Excel document.
It is also considered that there may exist the influence of external stimuli, moti-
vations and reasons that may lead to certain behaviors and obscure the assessors’
point of view. Personal situations, specific health conditions, states of mind or even
weather conditions can also be considered as influential factors.
Fig. 1 Measurement of soft skills mentioned in job ads

Table 1 Example of assessment parameters of one of the competences that integrates the dictionary
Competency Quantitative assessment parameter Qualitative level
Pro-activity Total lack of initiative. Unable to anticipate situations and 1
detect opportunities
Identifies windows of opportunity, but with limited 2
intervention. He/She is attentive to change
Acts upon opportunities and obstacles. In crises situations, 3
shows prudence
Anticipates situations, opportunities and obstacles, acting fast. 4
He/She is determined in crises situations
Anticipates situations, opportunities and obstacles that are often 5
not obvious to others, acting fast and effectively. He/She is
determined in crises situations, showing clarity of thought.
Takes initiative to involve others and encourages innovative
ideas
In the first phase, the group dynamics includes a script divided into three parts:
1. Individual dynamics—Elevator pitch;
2. Group dynamics—The conference
3. Assessment of competences by analyzing the behaviour direct observation grids.
4 Results
4.1 Technical Tests
For these technical tests, it is used a quantitative analysis of the closed answers, of
the questionnaires, being carried out a statistical analysis of a permanent descriptive
nature, with the intention to evaluate and measure the technical level of each partic-
ipant. This analysis is done using tables and graphs created in Microsoft Office 365
tools, namely Microsoft Forms and Microsoft Excel, as they are tools available to
the entire research community, in addition to allowing the analysis of simple and
complex data.
The results of the technical tests are analyzed based on the final grade of each
student, comparing it with the global average of the sample, as exemplified in the
following graph in Fig. 2.
4.2 Group Dynamics
As for the group dynamics, it is used a qualitative methodology of a subjective

and exploratory nature, to understand the profile and behavior, referring to the data
Fig. 2 Results of the application of the technical tests
obtained by the direct observation of the instruments of evaluation of soft skills,

inferring conclusions resulting from the behavior, posture and communication of
each participant. Subsequently, it is applied a survey for each one of the participants,
also in the collaborative tool Microsoft Forms of Office 365, which provides us with
quantitative data, being transformed into quantitative data.
The results of direct observation during the group dynamics are analyzed one by
one for each student and also based on the average of the assessment of the total
competence, comparing it with the global average of the sample, as exemplified in
the following graph in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3 Results of the direct observation during group dynamics

Fig. 4 Comparative results of the technical tests and group dynamics
4.3 Comparative Analysis
A comparative analysis of the technical tests results and of the direct observation
grids of the group dynamics for each student and in each phase is performed, as
exemplified in the following graph in Fig. 4.
At the end of this study, it is expected to be obtained a comparative analysis of the
evolution of competences for the application of tests throughout the three phases.
5 Conclusion
The experimental application of the assessment instruments, as well as the extraction

and analysis of data, makes it possible to identify gaps that can be corrected or adapted
before the final application, since any subsequent changes can be difficult to manage
or make the study unfeasible.
From the collected feedback, it can be concluded that the questions are clear and
have a good structure. However, small details are highlighted as points for improve-
ment, such as: (i) mentioning, during the explanation of the group dynamics, that
participants can take notes and that they can interact with the group orally, in writing,
or in any other creative way; (ii) the role of the assessor should be explained at the
outset, so that the participants understand the fact that there are people outside the
group taking notes while they interact, without conditioning their performance. It is
understood that in addition to mentioning that each participant will be evaluated, a
relaxed atmosphere should also be provided, as if it were an informal conversation,
in an attempt to reduce the weight and responsibility associated with the activity and
minimize this aspect as an influencing factor.
Since the participants all belong to the same class, the personal presentation, which
is part of the group dynamics, carried out by the first element, conditions the presen-
tations of the other colleagues. Many present themselves in the same way, showing
a lack of originality even regarding personal characteristics. Being “sociable” and
“resilient” are among the most mentioned features. Thus, it is understood that the
moments of personal presentation must be introduced in a way that each participant
can reveal something personal, hoping to reduce the cloning attempt.
It is also concluded that the performance evaluation is smoother if each participant
is identified with a visible number.
References
1. Cardoso, C., Estevão, C., Silva, P.: As Competências Transversais dos Diplomados do Ensino
Superior: Perspectiva dos Empregadores e Diplomados. Guimarães, TecMinho (2006)
2. Cambra, P.: Dicionário de Competências. rH Editora (2017)
3. Dutra, J.: Competências: Conceitos e instrumentos para a gestão de pessoas na empresa moderna.
Atlas, São Paulo, SP (2004)
4. Lopes, C.: Re(pensar) a empregabilidade: a importância das soft skills. http://hdl.handle.net/
10400.26/37281 (2021)
5. Lopes, H., et al.: Estratégias empresariais e competências-chave. Lisboa, Observatório do
Emprego e Formação Profissional (2000)
6. Robles, M.: Executive perceptions of the top 10 soft skills needed in today’s workplace. Bus.
Prof. Commun. Q. 75(4), 453–465 (2012)
7. Wecker, A., Froehlich, C.: Recrutamento e Seleção por Competências: Uma Análise do Processo
Seletivo de uma Instituição de Ensino Superior. Perspectivas Contemporâneas 12(3), 75–
96. Recuperado de https://revista2.grupointegrado.br/revista/index.php/perspectivascontempor
aneas/article/view/2404 (2017)
Web Page to Promote the Values
of School Coexistence in Basic Education
Students
Eulalia Becerra and Lucía Escobar
Abstract The incorporation of technologies in educational settings has led to

changes that have affected the behavior of people, in education it is due to a current
need to address this issue of significant relevance such as the lack of practice of
ethical values in educational institutions, where it is perceived that students do not
apply values. The main objective of this work was with 57 students whose age fluc-
tuates between 10 and 14 years, for which an observation sheet was applied To know
if the students apply or not values in the institution, the analysis of the results showed
that there are problems of coexistence in the classroom, and in some cases acts of
violence among the students are included, conflict situations that in many occasions
last longer. Beyond class hours, almost all students show undesirable behaviors in
some period of their development, this pattern varies according to the teacher, parent,
situation or period. For this reason, the need arises to create web pages as an instruc-
tional and pedagogical resource to improve communication in the teaching–learning
process of basic education students.
Keywords Websites · Values · School coexistence
1 Introduction
The use of information and communication technologies has motivated studies for
their implementation in different fields to multiply. In this sense, the use of WEB
E. Becerra (B)
Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, Facultad de Ciencias de la Educación, Bolìvar y
Guayaquil, Ambato 180150, Ecuador
e-mail: eulaliabecerra@uti.edu.ec
Universidad Tecnològica Indoamerica Unidad de Posgrado, Manuela Saenz, 093, Ambato,
Ecuador
L. Escobar
Estudiante, Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, Facultad de Ciencias de la Educación, Bolìvar
y Guayaquil, Ambato 180150, Ecuador
e-mail: luciaescobar@uti.edu.ec
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_16
176 E. Becerra and L. Escobar
pages to promote the values of school coexistence, considering that the educational
process must be in constant innovation, with the aim of rescuing values and improving
the relationship of students inside the classroom and outside of it; allowing learning
to be meaningful.
This section has compiled some articles related to this topic, its objectives,
methodologies and results obtained.
According to Ferrer [1], he considers that improving learning should be one of
the transcendental functions in formal education, considering the Web as a didactic
resource, which can be used directly or indirectly, directly as long as it is used as
a tool. Classroom complement, through cooperative work, to take advantage of the
possibilities of collaborative learning, correctly using external hyperlinks that include
activities or self-assessments related to the contents covered in the classroom, which
allows the student to participate actively and in a harmonious way (p. 206.) [1],
according to Fernández [2] he mentions that the web makes it easy for people to
motivate themselves through interactive activities [2], for Gallego [3] he affirms that
the impact of technology on personal performance allows remarkable achievements
in changing behavior in times of stress or despair through innovative activities [3].
According to surveys applied to 1297 subjects, and of the interview conducted
with 37 people, the results showed that the use of digital tools is necessary media skills
of a generic type and virtual specialization, depending on the device or application.
The competences of a communicative, social and attitudinal nature are the most
demanded by the participants and with less preponderance they refer to the capacity
for own initiative.
For Licoy [4], it stands out regarding the promotion of coexistence in the family
context, as an apprenticeship to build a culture of peace, where it was evidenced that
coexistence was understood by the participating families from concrete actions, not
from the dynamics of interacting in which it is built, so that most of the dimensions
of living together were made visible by the family group of the study, it did not self-
perceive as a social instance that is the protagonist of learning about coexistence, nor
a builder of a culture of peace [4].
A study carried out by Aviles [5] mentions that the massification of ICTs and
the various uses that are offered to them, whether for the development of web pages
or multivariate computer programs, both in theory and in practice, must be tools
friendly, familiar and useful for users, clients, students, teachers, to promote values,
therefore, it is necessary to facilitate their use, “appropriation” and “apprehension”.
This means that the creators of web pages find greater demand for the development
and design of these media, because they must meet the objective of promoting values
in everyday life [5].
In a work carried out by Rivera et al. [6] they mention that education is a process
of personal formation that begins in the family, here children adopt behaviors that
can contribute positively or negatively in their learning process, it is for this the
importance of helping and promoting values that contribute to a good development of
their learning. Technological resources are of great importance because they provide
the teacher with the necessary tools for planning and developing learning processes
[6].
Web Page to Promote the Values of School Coexistence in Basic … 177
2 Methodology
The present investigation has a quantitative methodological approach, based on a

type of action- research, because the techniques used by teachers to promote values
for school coexistence were analyzed and, in this way, detect the problem and address
it through the creation of WEB pages. The work is supported in the scientific method,
according to Castillo [7] indicates that “The methodology describes, validates and in
a way prescribes a set of rules that the researcher must consider to build and validate
scientific knowledge” [7] Hernández [8], states that “The quantitative method uses
data collection to test hypotheses, based on numerical measurement and statistical
analysis, to establish behavior patterns and test theories” [8]. The methodological
process of data collection and analysis It was developed in the city of Ambato,
province of Tungurahua, thanks to the active participation of the students of the
Quisapincha Educational Institution.
As a first stage of the investigation, a quantitative diagnosis was made through the
application of field research techniques, for the collection of information, observation
sheets were used, addressed to 57 basic education students, in order to obtain reliable
opinions on a certain problem. Social; in this case it was the need to promote the values
of school coexistence, considering that currently the internet and technology are part
of the most used media, and it is considered important to use these technologies to
motivate children
For web page design
According to Aviles [9] they mention that to create web pages it is necessary to use
different types of tools that facilitate the work and that it can be created in phases
according to the needs of the context [9], according to the issues related to the
creation of a web application. a web application, it is necessary to carry out a study
to understand the needs of the context and the difficulties presented by the students
[10], in the same way Martínez [11] mentions that the design of a web is an activity
linked to the creation of websites for interactivity, these activities include planning,
design, and implementation [11].
Next, the phases for the design of the web pages are presented:
Phase 1
Development of the web page looks at the need to develop a web page, in which
basic general education students can access to carry out more interactive activities,
therefore, their learning will be more significant, in this way they can reinforce their
knowledge obtained in class and apply these activities as an academic reinforcement
through the use of ICTs and even more tools within the web.
Phase 2
Procedure of the Educaplay tool is a tool for the creation of duly planned educa-
tional activities for academic reinforcement and strengthening knowledge and the
development of skills and competencies necessary for comprehensive development,

an online platform that allows you to create and share activities, very Easy to use.
Phase 3
You can see the title of the activity and then a description of it, these parameters are
configured before developing the activities, in addition the time limit to carry them
out is displayed and finally click on START.
3 Results
With the results obtained from the observation sheets, it was possible to establish that
the children with the greatest difficulty in promoting the values of school coexistence
are between the ages of 10 and 14, for which the majority of the students recommend
developing a web page, in which they can access and carry out more interactive
activities and thus stimulate the development of certain intellectual abilities, such as
reasoning, problem solving, creativity, autonomy and the ability to learn to learn and
relate to others.
A web page was designed following the following steps:
The first thing is to enter the platform http://www.safemarketcards.com/ we put
this in the address bar of any web browser, later we go to the ENTER option and it
will ask us for a USERNAME and PASSWORD and we will click on ENTER NOW
and We will enter the administrator of the web page something similar when we enter
Facebook and it asks us for a username and password, as figure shows (Fig. 1).
This platform is an information content manager of a PWA progressive and intel-
ligent web page since with the advancement of technology it fulfills the function of
a web page, app for cell phones or Smartphone and digital card, which allows the
website administrator to be able to changes as many times as it deems necessary,
Fig. 1 Information for access to the platform http://www.safemarketcards.com/. Note The figure
shows access to the platform. Prepared by: Becerra, Eulalia and Escobar Lucía, 2022
these changes can be in images, text and information on the web page. Something
important to keep in mind is that YOU CANNOT MODIFY THE APPEARANCE
AND LOCATION OF THE BUTTONS OR MENUS.
For the design of this web page, a tool called Educaplay was used, it is a platform
that allows creating and sharing multimedia activities and educational games, it also
encourages the interaction and participation of students, through this tool you can
create contents of graphic representation such as concept maps, crosswords, puzzles,
memory games, puzzles and much more, with the possibility of adding images, texts,
sounds to stimulate the concentration and attention of students and even teachers. The
following figure shows how to design the educaplay page (Fig. 2).
Once inside, we proceed to click on Create activity and choose an option from any
activity and fill in the requested fields, the figure shows the creation of activities for
student participation (Fig. 3):
Once inside the tool used, we click on the activities and choose to start playing the
values of a fun wood, we have a certain time to develop the game. The first activity
Fig. 2 Design of the Educaplay page. Note The figure shows Design of the Educaplay page.
Prepared by: Becerra, Eulalia and Escobar Lucía, 2022
Fig. 3 Creation of activities. Note The figure shows the creation of activities. Prepared by: Becerra,
Eulalia and Escobar Lucía, 2022
is a Quiz about the value of companionship, below are some activities created on the
page, first assessment activity (Fig. 4).
The second activity is a crossword puzzle where all the values must be found.
The creating a crossword puzzle another example (Fig. 5).
The following activity an interactive map in the same way to find several values
established within the classroom (Fig. 6).
The following activity is a riddle based on several clues to find the value (Fig. 7).
Then we will find the following activity, a soup of letters, of the different values
(Fig. 8).
Fig. 4 Creation of the first activity in quiz. Note The figure shows the creation of the first activity
in quiz. Prepared by: Becerra, Eulalia and Escobar Lucía, 2022
Fig. 5 Creating a crossword puzzle. Note The figure shows creating a crossword puzzle. Prepared
by: Becerra, Eulalia and Escobar Lucía, 2022
Fig. 6 Create an interactive map. Note The figure shows create an interactive map. Prepared by:
Becerra, Eulalia and Escobar Lucía, 2022
Fig. 7 Creating a riddle. Note The figure shows creating a riddlemap. Prepared by: Becerra, Eulalia
and Escobar Lucía, 2022
Fig. 8 Creating an alphabet soup. Note The figure shows creating an alphabet soup. Prepared by:
Becerra, Eulalia and Escobar Lucía, 2022
In this last activity the student is going to do and is to match the values with each
meaning (Fig. 9).
At the end of the activities, a screen will be displayed with the results obtained
(Fig. 10).
Check
For the verification process of the activities, an observation sheet was applied in
which 57 children of basic education participated, with ages in the range of 10–
14 years, presenting a general average of 10 years, these children correspond to
the total number of children who regularly attend the DECE (Student Counseling
Department), due to school coexistence problems. A comparison of the children by
age before applying the activities to improve school coexistence confirmed that the
Fig. 9 Search for values. Note The figure shows Search for values. Prepared by: Becerra, Eulalia
Fig. 10 Results of the

activity. Note The figure
shows Results of the activity.
Prepared by: Becerra, Eulalia
Fig. 11 Application of interactive activities. Note The figure shows Application of interactive
activities. Prepared by: Becerra, Eulalia and Escobar Lucía, 2022
level of behavior in this group was low and that there were no significant differences
between them. We worked with 2 groups of 10 boys and girls, and in each activity,
we evaluated the behavior of the children. In the first group A, we worked with the
traditional methodology in which values were verbally instructed. In the second group
B, the activities of the web pages with interactive games and multimedia material
were applied to instill in the children the values of school coexistence (Fig. 11).
The results of the observation sheet on the application of the activities of the
web pages are presented considering an analysis in the activities applied for the
traditional teaching method to Group A, and the use of web pages to Group B. It
was determined that in group B the change in attitude was very noticeable, finding
significant differences in each group
4 Conclusions
The present investigative work promotes the interest of exhaustively investigating

the school coexistence that occurs in the classroom, in the face of this need, it is
pertinent to make changes that contribute to strengthening values that strengthen
school coexistence.
The study shows that basic education students have shortcomings in values, there
are problems of school coexistence, for which it is proposed to apply a web page
with interactive activities.
A strategy was developed that will improve the teaching of values to achieve a
comprehensive transformation process in basic education students.
Acknowledgements To the Technological University Indoamerica for the help and openness to
carry out this research. To the Educational Unit “Quisapincha” for the openness to collect the
necessary information for the development of this work
References
1. Ferrer, R.: Diseño de páginas web en educación. Tendencias pedagógicas 10(3), 200–220
(2005)
2. Fernández, C.: Usabilidad. de Usabilidad web: teoría y uso, p. 23. RA-MA, Madrid (2018)
3. Gallego, A.: La web 2.0, perspectiva tecnosocial, de Tic y WEB 2.0 para la inclusión social y
el desarrollo sostenible. Madrid, Dikynson, p. 27 (2022)
4. Licoy, M.: Competencias para la utilización de las herramientas digitales en la sociedad de
información. Redalyc 13(1), 219–220 (2010)
5. Aviles, A.: Usabilidad:páginas web, entornos y educación virtual. Revista semestral de
divulgación científica 3(1), 45 (2018)
6. Rivera, M.: Convivencia en el contexto escolar,un aprendizaje para construir una cultura de
paz. Actitudes investigativas en educación 14(1), 1–10 (2014)
7. Castillo, C.: Las relaciones y problemas del conocimiento, de Metodología de la investigación,
México, Patria, p. 30 (2014)
8. Hernández, S.: Planteaminto cuantitativo del problema, de Metodología de la investigación,
vol. 2, pp. 155–159. México, McGRAW-HILL (2014)
9. Alviles, A.: Usabilidad:páginas WEB, entornos y educación virtual. Revista semestral de
divulgación científica 3(1) (2016)
10. Ferre, J.: Características de seguridad en la publicación de las páginas web, de Publicación d
epáginas web, pp. 14–20. RA-MA, Madrid (2014)
11. Martinez, R.: Creación de sitios web, de Diseño de páginas web:worpress para todos los
públicos, pp. 29–35. UOC, Barcelona (2019)
Cognitive Biases in the Investment
Decision Process
Patrick Silva, Jorge Mendonça , Luís M. P. Gomes , and Lurdes Babo
Abstract Behavioral finance aims to understand the reasoning patterns of investors,

constrained by emotional processes, and how they influence the decision-making
process. The main purpose of this work is to evaluate individuals’ decision-making
behavior under risk/uncertainty. The methodological procedure adopted exploratory
research with data collection through a questionnaire grounded by the prospect theory
with 329 valid responses from individuals in Portugal. The results are aligned with
those obtained in Kahneman and Tversky’s study on the effects of prospect theory.
Moreover, they support different behaviors between non-investors (more risk-averse)
and investors (more risk-prone), and consistency is observed between those familiar
or not with the concept of behavioral finance. Overall, individuals’ decision-making
behavior seems to be influenced by cognitive biases and the intuitive system. The
findings are important because they highlight the importance of strategic financial
literacy plans.
Keywords Behavioral finance · Decision making · Prospect theory · Risk
P. Silva
ISCAP, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: patricksilva@granidense.com
J. Mendonça
SIIS, ISEP, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: jpm@isep.ipp.pt
L. M. P. Gomes (B) · L. Babo
CEOS.PP, ISCAP, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: pgomes@iscap.ipp.pt
L. Babo
e-mail: lbabo@iscap.ipp.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_17
186 P. Silva et al.
1 Introduction
The way financial decision-making has been studied has evolved over the past few
years. This evolution was driven by behavioral finance, which proposes a more real-
istic view of investor decisions. This perspective studies “how” and “why” economic
agents behave effectively, unlike traditional finance, which adopts an ideal view of
reality [1].
Behavioral finance received an important contribution from prospect theory,
developed by Kahneman and Tversky [2], which explores the behavior of individuals
when making decisions in an environment of risk and uncertainty [3].
The field of behavioral finance has been expanding because recognizing the exis-
tence of gaps, it seeks to explain decisions not supported by traditional finance
by combining behavioral and cognitive psychology with traditional economics and
finance [4, 5]. Since it is a somewhat new area of knowledge, the challenges posed
to traditional finance are not yet fully explored. This fact constitutes a motivation
for this paper which the main objective is to figure out individuals’ decision-making
behavior under risk and uncertainty and determine the influence of cognitive biases,
contributing to scientific knowledge in the field of behavioral finance. The method-
ological procedure is based on exploratory research for data collection through a
survey led by the prospect theory to which a sample consisting of 329 individuals
in Portugal responded. The critical analysis of the data allows combining different
characteristics of the respondents to enrich the conclusions.
Besides this introductory chapter, the present paper is structured in three sections.
The second section presents behavioral finance, addressing the expected utility theory
and developing the prospect theory. The following section details the objectives
of the empirical study and the methodological procedures and then compares the
expected results with those obtained on the effects of the prospect theory. In addition
to the comparison with the original study, the results also allow distinguishing the
non/investor and non/knowledgeable behavioral finance profiles. The fourth section
emphasizes the main conclusions.
2 Behavioral Finance
Kahneman and Tversky [2] pioneer researchers in the field of behavioral finance
pointing out that this area’s main objective is to identify and understand the cognitive
illusions that lead investors to make continuous errors in the evaluation of values,
probabilities, and risks. The authors argue that most individuals do not act for a
reason because they are predisposed to the effect of these cognitive illusions.
We conclude that the man of behavioral finance is a normal being with weak-
nesses. This normality implies that humans often act irrationally making decisions
supported by emotions and cognitive errors and the same problem may be under-
stood in different ways, depending on the analysis perspective. Behavioral finance
Cognitive Biases in the Investment Decision Process 187
identifies how these emotions and cognitive errors can influence investors’ decision-
making process and how these behavioral patterns can lead to market anomalies [6,
7]. Researchers in the psychology field have complemented economic theories by
arguing that individuals systematically deviate from sound judgment in decision-
making [8]. Several studies recognize cognitive and emotional biases explaining the
deviation from rationality principles [7, 9, 10].
2.1 Prospect Theory
Prospect theory was developed by Kahneman and Tversky [2] as a critic of the
boundless rationality advocated by expected utility theory. This theory was first
proposed by Bernoulli [11] and later, von Neumann and Morgenstern [12] defined
the basis for its derivation. The theory was first developed as a normative model of
choice describing the idealized behavior of a rational individual [13]. The investor
is considered a rational being who knows and logically organizes his convictions,
striving to maximize the utility of his choices. To this purpose, he assigns probabilities
to future events that are conditioned by alternatives involving risk and uncertainty
[14].
The equations of prospect theory maintain the general bilinear form underlying
expected utility theory while assuming that values are associated with changes (rather
than final states) and that decision weights do not coincide with defined probabilities.
As pointed out by Bortoli [15] and Pan [16], individuals consider the changes in their
wealth or welfare at the time of decision making rather than the end state of the gains
and losses from the decisions. Therefore, Tversky and Kahneman [17] argued that
decisions should be analyzed independently, contrary to the expected utility theory.
According to Kahneman and Tversky [2, p. 277], deviations from expected utility
theory must lead to normatively unacceptable consequences, such as “inconsisten-
cies, intransitivities, and dominance violations.” Usually, the decision-maker corrects
such anomalies when he realizes the consequences of his preferences. Choices
between risky perspectives exhibit several effects inconsistent with the basic tenets of
expected utility theory. Thus, the authors presented the current as a theoretical basis
for analyzing the behavior of individuals when making decisions in an environ-
ment of risk and uncertainty. In this context, individuals are influenced by cognitive
biases in decision making, i.e., in complex situations, they tend to simplify prob-
lems through mental shortcuts [18]. Instead of weighing the probability, individuals
sum the possible future value function through the decision weighting function, thus
obtaining the final decision value [16].
Prospect theory distinguishes two phases in the process of choice under risk
[2]. The editing phase consists of a preliminary analysis of the perspectives offered,
based on a simpler representation of these options. The subsequent stage involves the
principles of judgment governing the valuation of gains and losses and the weighting
of uncertain outcomes.
188 P. Silva et al.
The frequencies of responses to the survey reported by [2] identified the following
phenomena (effects) that were not predicted by expected utility theory.
Certainty Effect
The individual prefers an event considered certain over an only probable event.
But when faced with two uncertain events, the individual tends to change behavior,
preferring the risk. Still, the degree of certainty has more importance in decision-
making. The above suggests that both loss aversion and the desire for gains increase
with the certainty of the event [2].
Reflection Effect
The individual prefers not to take risks when faced with a situation where he can win.
But when faced with a situation where he can lose, he tends to change his behavior,
preferring the risk. The above suggests the existence of risk aversion for gain and
risk propensity for loss [19]. According to the authors [2, 20], losing money causes
greater dissatisfaction than the satisfaction of gaining the same amount.
Probabilistic Insurance
Probabilistic insurance represents various forms of protection through a cost to reduce
the probability of an undesirable event occurring.
Isolation Effect
To simplify the choice between alternatives, the individual usually does not
consider the common components between the alternatives, focusing instead on the
components that distinguish them [2].
The author Michaelson [21] refers that Kahneman and Tversky [2] present the
isolation effect as a two-stage game. When a consequence is common and is encoun-
tered in the first stage it will be ignored, thereby isolating the probability of occurrence
in the second stage. If the choices are similar in terms of risk and distribution, to
move to the second stage, individuals will ignore the outcomes that do not depend
on the choice and focus on the outcomes that vary according to the choices (second
stage).
Value Function
The past and present context of an experience define a reference point for response to
an attribute. According to [22], after a favorable result (gain) the individual tends to
take more risk than usual, but after an unfavorable result (loss) the individual tends
to take less risk. Therefore, the value should be treated as a two-way function: the
asset position that serves as a reference point and the magnitude of the change from
that reference point [2].
Weighting Function
In prospect theory, the value of each choice is multiplied by a decision weight, which
is inferred from choices between perspectives. Decision weights measure the impact
of events on the desirability of perspectives, not just the perceived probability of

those events [2].
3 Empirical Study
3.1 Aims of the Empirical Study and Methodological

Procedure
The central objective of this research is to understand the behavior of individuals when
facing decision-making, namely by identifying the influence of cognitive biases.
More specifically, the research intends to:
1. investigate whether the respondents’ answers are underpinned by the effects of
the prospect theory;
2. investigate whether investors’ answers diverge from non-investors’ answers
regarding the effects of the prospect theory;
3. investigate whether the responses of those familiar with the concept of behavioral
finance diverge from those not familiar with the effects of the prospect theory.
Data collection used exploratory research, based on a questionnaire survey
conducted between June 1 and August 31, 2019, through which 329 valid responses
were obtained from 618 respondents in Portugal. The exclusion criterion was age
under 18 years. The methodological procedure was based on the replication of
the prospect theory problems according to [2] survey. In addition, the survey was
supplemented with an initial group of questions to characterize the respondents.
The empirical study used both the LimeSurvey platform for questionnaire design
and online data collection and IBM SPSS 24 software for statistical treatment. The
Chi-square test was applied to assess any significant differences between the two
types of respondent choice.
3.2 Expectable Results on the Effects of the Prospect Theory
Next, we present the expected results for the questions associated with the effects
that we intend to study according to the theory of perspective.
Certainty Effect
The respondents’ choices are expected to follow the answers with 100% certainty,
even though they may present a lower expected utility function. Thus, for questions
1 and 3 the choice of option B is expected. In questions 2 and 4, the expected gain is
higher, and the difference in percentages is not significant, predicting the choice of
option A. Questions 5 and 6 analyze the effect for non-monetary data. In question 5
190 P. Silva et al.
the choice of option B is expected with 100% certainty, and in question 6 the choice of
option A is expected with a non-significant percentage difference and higher utility.
A subgroup called the “possibility effect” is represented in questions 7 and 8.
Although having the same expected utility, in question 7 it is expected that option
B will be chosen (with no certain gains but with a higher possibility of occurring).
When the possibilities are reduced (question 8) it is expected to choose option A
(higher gain).
Reflection Effect
The questions presented change the values from gains to losses, expecting symmet-
rical answers. In question 9, which involves the certainty of loss, risk-seeking is
expected through option A. In questions 10 and 11 it is expected to choose B and A,
respectively, which have a lower probability of loss. In question 12 the values should
be considered, and the probabilities ignored, which are reduced, being expected the
option for B.
Probabilistic Insurance
In question 13 the choice of option B is expected, rejecting probabilistic insurance,
which is an unusual option, and demonstrating aversion to change.
Isolation Effect
Questions 14 and 4 have the same expected utility value, but question 14 adds two
probability steps. It is expected that the first stage will be ignored by the respondents,
and they will focus on the second stage by choosing option B (yielding an opposite
choice to the one expected in question 4). In questions 15 and 16, respondents are
given additional resources to see if they change their choices. In the expectation
that they will ignore these additional resources and keep their choices, respondents
should choose B for question 15 and A for question 16.
Value Function
To verify if the value function is concave for gains and convex for losses, the questions
are only distinguished by the sign. In question 17 it is expected that option B (the
alternative with the highest probability of gain) is chosen and in question 18 it is
expected that option A (the alternative with the lowest probability of loss) is chosen.
Weighting Function
In questions 19 and 20 the expected utility value is the same but faced with low
probabilities for a high value it is expected that respondents will choose according
to the value. In question 19 they are expected to ignore the certain gain, because it
is low, and choose A, with low probability but high gain. In question 20 they are
expected to choose B, with a certain loss of low value.
3.3 Results and Discussion
As mentioned before, the study received 329 valid questionnaires. In terms of overall
characterization, most respondents are female (64.1%), aged up to 29 years (90.6%),
and have a university degree (53.8%). Their professional activity is diversified, with
education (45.9%) and management (24.3%) prevailing. In addition, most respon-
dents are not investors (76.3%) and do not know the concept of behavioral finance
(67.2%).
Results Obtained on the Effects of the Prospect Theory
Table 1 compares the survey’s results from the original study of Kahneman and
Tversky [2] and this empirical study for the purposes of the prospect theory.
Regarding the certainty effect, what was expected is confirmed. The frequency
of responses converges with the original study, except for the lack of statistical
significance of response 4. The results suggest that respondents value the certainty
of gain (1B and 3B). Faced with alternatives with similar probability, respondents
value the higher gain (2A). These approaches also underlay the choices in questions
5 (B) and 6 (A). Faced with alternatives with different gains, respondents valued the
higher probability (7B) but faced with low probabilities they valued the higher gain
(8A).
In the reflection effect, responses 10 and 12 converge with the original study
and confirm what was expected, despite the lack of significance of response 10.
Faced with alternatives with low probability, respondents preferred the smaller loss
(12B). In addition to diverging from the original study, answers 9 and 11 have lost
significance due to the balance of respondents’ choices.
The option chosen in question 13 converges with the original study and confirms
what was expected, i.e., that respondents do not value the probabilistic insurance
option.
Regarding the isolation effect, what was expected is also confirmed. The frequency
of responses converges with the original study, except for the lack of significance
of response 16. The results suggest that respondents ignore the first phase of the
game and value the certainty of winning (14B). In addition, respondents ignore the
additional resources and value the certainty of the win (15B).
Concerning the value function, responses 17 and 18 converge with the orig-
inal study and confirm what was expected. The results suggest that faced with
gains, respondents value the higher probability (17B); and that, faced with losses,
respondents value the lower probability and ignore values (18A).
Concerning the weighting function, the expected is confirmed. The frequency of
responses converges with the original study, except for the lack of significance of
response 19. Despite the same expected utility in both questions (5000 × 0.1% = 5
× 100%), the results suggest that respondents prefer the certainty of a low loss (20B)
over the weak probability of a high loss (20A).
192 P. Silva et al.
Table 1 Effects of the prospect theory

Original study Empirical study
Effect Question Option N Result Sig N Result Sig
Certainty 1 A 13 18% 91 28%
B 59 82% * 238 72% *
2 A 60 83% * 211 64% *
B 12 17% 118 36%
3 A 19 20% 73 22%
B 76 80% * 256 78% *
4 A 62 65% * 174 53%
B 33 35% 155 47%
5 A 16 22% 74 22%
B 56 78% * 255 78% *
6 A 48 67% * 189 57% *
B 24 33% 140 43%
7 A 9 14% 63 19%
B 57 86% * 266 81% *
8 A 48 73% * 231 70% *
B 18 27% 98 30%
Reflection 9 A 87 92% * 162 49%
B 8 8% 167 51%
10 A 40 42% 152 46%
B 55 58% 177 54%
11 A 61 92% * 148 45%
B 5 8% 181 55%
12 A 20 30% 109 33%
B 46 70% * 220 67% *
Probabilistic insurance 13 A 19 20% 106 32%
B 76 80% * 223 68% *
Isolation 14 A 31 22% 76 23%
B 110 78% * 253 77% *
15 A 11 16% 110 33%
B 59 84% * 219 67% *
16 A 47 69% * 173 53%
B 21 31% 156 47%
Value function 17 A 12 18% 112 34%
B 56 82% * 217 66% *
18 A 45 70% * 206 63% *
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Original study Empirical study
Effect Question Option N Result Sig N Result Sig
B 19 30% 123 37%
Weighting function 19 A 52 72% * 184 56%
B 20 28% 145 44%
20 A 12 17% 130 40%
B 60 83% * 199 60% *
“*” p-value observed is less than 0.01
Table 2 presents the results of this empirical study for the effects of the
prospect theory regarding the non-investor/investor profile and familiarity or not
(knowledgeable/non-knowledgeable) with the concept of behavioral finance.
Regarding the certainty effect, the investors’ responses converge with the
responses of the overall sample (cf. Table 1) of the empirical study and with the
responses of the original study, except for the lack of statistical significance of
response 4. In the case of non-investors, answers 2 and 6 loose significance, although
they maintain the same preference of choices.
In the reflection effect, question 9 stands out, where non-investors and investors
choose significantly different options. The investors’ answers converge with the orig-
inal study and confirm the reflection effect. In addition to the loss of significance,
the frequency of responses to question 11 diverges from the original study.
Probabilistic insurance remains unattractive for these two groups of respondents,
as it did for the overall sample of the empirical study and the original study.
In the isolation effect, we highlight the loss of significance of the investors’
responses to question 15 and the change in frequencies between the non-investors
and investors’ responses to question 16.
Regarding the value function, the answers of the two groups of respondents
converge with the answers of the global sample of the empirical study and with
the answers of the original study.
Considering the weight function, question 20 stands out, in which the investors’
answers lose statistical significance.
The changes in the frequency of responses to questions 4, 9, and 16 suggest that
non-investors are more risk-averse and that investors are more risk-prone.
About the certainty effect, the responses of the non-knowledgeable converge with
the responses of those knowledgeable about the concept of behavioral finance. In
question 2, the significance of the answers of these two groups of respondents coin-
cides with the investors, and in question 6, the lack of significance of the answers of
these two groups of respondents coincides with the non-investors.
In the reflection effect, question 9 stands out, where the frequencies of choices
change but without significance between those not familiar (non-knowledgeable) and
those familiar (knowledgeable) with the concept of behavioral finance.
Probabilistic insurance remains unattractive for these two groups of respondents.
Table 2 Effects of the prospect theory regarding the investor profile and knowledge of behaveoral finance
194
Non-investor Investor Non-knowledgeable Knowledgeable

Effect Question Option Result Sig Result Sig Result Sig Result Sig
Certainty 1 A 28% 27% 27% 30%
B 72% * 73% * 73% * 70% *
2 A 58% 85% * 62% * 68% *
B 42% 15% 38% 32%
3 A 24% 17% 19% 28%
B 76% * 83% * 81% * 72% *
4 A 50% 62% 52% 56%
B 50% 38% 48% 44%
5 A 23% 21% 20% 27%
B 77% * 79% * 80% * 73% *
6 A 53% 71% * 57% 59%
B 47% 29% 43% 41%
7 A 22% 10% 19% 19%
B 78% * 90% * 81% * 81% *
8 A 67% * 79% * 71% * 69% *
B 33% 21% 29% 31%
Reflection 9 A 46% 65% * 48% 53%
B 54% 35% 52% 47%
10 A 47% 44% 45% 49%
B 53% 56% 55% 51%
(continued)
P. Silva et al.
Table 2 (continued)
Non-investor Investor Non-knowledgeable Knowledgeable
Effect Question Option Result Sig Result Sig Result Sig Result Sig
11 A 44% 47% 43% 48%
B 56% 53% 57% 52%
12 A 36% 23% 33% 34%
B 64% * 77% * 67% * 66% *
Probabilistic 13 A 35% 23% 31% 35%
insurance B 65% * 77% * 69% * 65% *
Isolation 14 A 24% 21% 20% 29%
B 76% * 79% * 80% * 71% *
15 A 30% 45% 29% 44%
B 70% * 55% 71% * 56%
Cognitive Biases in the Investment Decision Process
16 A 49% 63% 50% 57%

B 51% 37% 50% 43%
Value function 17 A 35% 31% 35% 31%
B 65% * 69% * 65% * 69% *
18 A 60% * 72% * 61% * 66% *
B 40% 28% 39% 34%
Weighting 19 A 55% 60% 56% 56%
function B 45% 40% 44% 44%
20 A 38% 44% 36% 46%
B 62% * 56% 64% * 54%
“*” p-value observed is less than 0.01
195
196 P. Silva et al.
In the isolation effect, question 15 stands out, in which the answers of those
familiar with the concept of behavioral finance lose statistical significance, as in the
case of investors.
Regarding the value function, the answers of the two groups of respondents
converge with the answers of the overall sample of the empirical study, with the
answers of the groups of investors and with the answers of the original study.
Concerning the weight function, question 20 stands out, in which the responses
of those familiar with the concept of behavioral finance lose statistical significance,
as in the case of investors.
Overall, the answers are consistent between the group of non-knowledgeable and
the group of knowledgeable of the concept of behavioral finance.
4 Conclusion
The study of human behavior in decision-making in markets that involve risk is of

great importance since understanding biases and heuristics that affect these decisions
can help improve judgments and reduce losses resulting from irrational choices [23].
The results of the present study show that respondents’ behavior is affected by
effects (certainty, reflection, probabilistic insurance, isolation, value function, and
weighting function), grounded by prospect theory, that influence decision making.
On the other hand, it is possible to conclude that the behavior of the respondents
is different depending on their profile. Differences were observed in the responses
between non-investors and investors, but consistency in the responses were found
between those not familiar and those familiar with the concept of behavioral finance.
The frequency changes in some responses denote that non-investors are more risk-
averse and that investors are more risk-prone.
The findings of this study are important for risk profilers as they might contribute
to the definition and improvement of financial literacy strategic plans.
For future research, we suggest deepening the study of cognitive reflection in the
investor profile and looking for the existence of groups with higher/lower cognitive
aptitude.
Acknowledgements This work is financed by Portuguese national funds through FCT—Fundação

para a Ciência e Tecnologia, under the project UIDB/05422/2020.
References
1. Lobão, J.: Finanças Comportamentais; Almedina (2012)

2. Kahneman, D., Tversky, A.: Prospect thoery. Econometrica 47(2), 263–292 (1979)
3. Ruggeri, K., Alí, S., Berge, M.L., Bertoldo, G., Bjørndal, L.D., Cortijos-Bernabeu, A., Gibson,
S.P.: Replicating patterns of prospect theory for decision under risk. Nat. Hum. Behav. 4,
622–633 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-0886-x
4. Baker, H.K., Nofsinger, J.R.: Behavioral Finance: Investors, Corporations, and Markets. Wiley
(2010)
5. Kaizer, D.L., Rodrigues, E.L., Ferreira, A.R.: Decisões Financeiras à Luz Da Economia
Comportamental: Estudo Comparativo Dos Alunos Dos Cursos de Economia e Administração
de Uma Universidade Federal Brasileira. Rev. Fac. Ciencias Econ. 29 (2), 225–248 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.18359/rfce.5551.
6. Carneiro, P.E.A.: Limites Na Racionalidade Das Análises de Risco Soberano: Testes
Econométricos, Erros, Finanças Comportamentais e Noise Rater Risk, Universidade de Brasília
(2006)
7. Silva, W.V., Del Corso, J.M., da Silva, S.M., de Oliveira, E.: Finanças Comportamentais:
Análise Do Perfil Comportamental Do Investidor e Do Propenso Investidor. Rev. Eletrônica
Ciência Adm. 7(2), 1–14 (2008)
8. Oliveira, J.N., Montibeler, E.E.: Finanças Comportamentais: Um Estudo Sobre a Aversão a
Perda Na Tomada De Decisão. Rev. Eletrônica Estácio Pap. 4(2), 147–162 (2017)
9. Barros, D.S., Felipe, S., José, I.: Teoria Do Prospecto: Evidências Aplicadas Em Finanças
Comportamentais. Rev. Adm. FACES J. 14(4), 86–105 (2015)
10. Singh, R.: Behavioural finance—The basic foundations. ASBM J. Manag. 2(1), 89–99 (2009)
11. Bernoulli, D.: Exposition of a new theory on the measuremente of risk. Econometrica 22, 23–36
(1954)
12. von Neumann, J., Morgenstern, O.: Theory of Games and Economic Behavior. Princeton
University Press (1944)
13. Costa, D.F.: Ensaios Sobre Vieses Cognitivos No Processo de Tomada de Decisão Gerencial,
Tese de doutoramento. Universidade Federal de Lavras, Minas Gerais (2017)
14. Rogers, P., Favato, V., Securato, J.R.: Efeito Educação Financeira No Processo de Tomada de
Decisões Em Investimentos: Um Estudo a Luz Das Finanças Comportamentais. In: II Congresso
ANPCONT-Associação Nacional dos Programas de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Contábeis,
Salvador/BA (2008)
15. Bortoli, D.: Teoria Do Prospecto, Traços Da Personalidade, Teste de Reflexão Cognitiva e Avali-
ação Do Perfil Do Investidor: Um Estudo Em Finanças Comportamentais., Tese de Mestrado
em Economia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (2016)
16. Pan, Z.: A review of prospect theory. J. Hum. Resour. Sustain. Stud. 7, 98–107 (2019). https://
doi.org/10.4236/jhrss.2019.71007
17. Tversky, A., Kahneman, D.: Rational choice and the framing of decisions. J. Bus. Vol. 59, No.
4, Part 2: The Behavioral Foundation of Economic Theory. pp. S251-S278. Foundations 59(4),
251–278 (Oct 1986)
18. Vasconcelos, A.F., Antunes, G.A., Silva, C.A.T.: Avaliação de Perdas e Ganhos Nas Decisões
Financeiras: Uma Investigação à Luz Da Prospect Theory. Rev. Evidenciação Contábil Finanças
2(1), 22–38 (2014)
19. Yoshinaga, C.E., Ramalho, T.B.: Finanças Comportamentais No Brasil: Uma Aplicação Da
Teoria Da Perspectiva Em Potenciais Investidores. Rev. Bras. Gest. Negocios 16(53), 594–615
(2014). https://doi.org/10.7819/rbgn.v16i52.1865
20. Johnson, D.D., Tierney, D.: Bad world: the negativity bias in international politics. Int. Secur.
43(3), 96–140 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1162/isec_a_00336
21. Michaelson, Z.: Biases in choices about fairness: psychology and economic inequality. Judgm.
Decis. Mak. 10(2) (2015)
22. Thaler, R.H., Johnson, E.J.: Gambling with the house money and trying to break even: the
effects of prior outcomes on risky choice. Manag. Sci. 36(6), 643–660 (1990)
23. Reina, D., Dorow, A., Júnior, J.S.M., Reina, D.R.M., Nunes, P.: Behavioral Finance: Um Estudo
Sobre a Correlação Entre a Heurística Da Ancoragem e a Tomada de Decisão Sob Risco Em
Investimentos. Rev. Informação Contábil 3, 83–98 (2009)
Acquiring Information for the Social
Organization: The Role of Social Media
Use and Social Capital
Susana Bernardino , J. Freitas Santos , and Pedro Silva
Abstract This study explores whether the use of social media determines a positive
impact on the accumulation of social capital and on the generation and acquisition
of information by the social organization. We further explore these issues by cate-
gorizing social media activities as used for maintaining current stakeholders and
seeking new ones. Empirical analysis of the hypothetical models through structural
equation modeling yields supportive results for the positive impacts of social media
on the process of generating and acquiring information to the social organizations,
either directly or indirectly, through the positive contribution of social capital, which
also positively affects the amount of information collected.
Keywords Social media · Social capital · Information · Social organizations
1 Introduction
In a modern society, social organizations should take advantage of advanced infor-

mation and communication technologies to communicate and seek information in
the social media environment [1]. The effective and efficient use of social media
provides awareness of the social organization to the whole community about its
social mission, facilitates the establishment of new ties, reinforces the social capital
base, and diversifies the sources of information [2, 3].
This study proposes a theoretical framework that examines the role of social media
in the development of new and established relationships directed for the accumulation
of social capital by the social organization and the subsequent process of information
S. Bernardino (B) · J. F. Santos · P. Silva

CEOS.PP/ISCAP/P.Porto, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: susanab@iscap.ipp.pt
J. F. Santos
e-mail: jfsantos@iscap.ipp.pt
P. Silva
e-mail: psilva@iscap.ipp.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_18
200 S. Bernardino et al.
acquisition. The model also integrates the relationships established on social media
platforms between the social entrepreneur and the new and actual stakeholders for
exchanging and acquiring information. The unique characteristics of social organi-
zations and the sparse organizational-level research on the impact of social media on
information acquisition [3] are the main reason to undertake this research.
The purpose of this study is to investigate the mechanism linking social media,
social capital and information acquisition. Extending previous studies focusing on
social media, we examine for new and established relationships: (i) the impact of
social media use on social capital and subsequent information acquisition; (ii) the
impact of social media use on information acquisition.
To achieve these purposes, the article is organized as follows. Section 2, describes
the conceptual framework and the research hypotheses. Section 3 explains the
methodology used in the study. Section 4 presents the results. The final section
concludes.
2 Conceptual Framework and Hypotheses
Two different models were considered for testing the hypotheses. Model A specifies
the links among the construct of social media related to the use of social media for
seeking and initiating contacts with new stakeholders and the impacts on social capital
and subsequently on information acquisition. Model B specifies the links between
social media related to the use of social media for retaining contacts with current
stakeholders and the impacts on social capital and subsequently on information. The
hypothesized linkages among these constructs are discussed below.
2.1 Social Media and Information
Social media is seen as platforms or internet-based applications that offer the oppor-
tunity to be interactively connected with different social actors that create and share
contingent communications [4]. Indeed, social media enable social organizations
to exchange, share, disseminate and search the information quickly, efficiently, and
at low costs [5, 6]. Information is a critical asset that includes elements such as
knowledge, expertise, and news [7].
A study developed by [8] shows that social media allows individuals to participate
in online volunteering activities. These activities can include sharing posts, promoting
awareness of social issues, eliciting donations, encouraging others to volunteer,
examining data online, or managing websites for good causes. In some social orga-
nizations volunteers can also provide professional services, such as preparing tax
returns, writing legal documents, and offering management consulting [8].
Further, social organizations have been using social media for crafting, supporting,
and executing fundraising campaigns. Bhati and McDonnell [6] examined social
Acquiring Information for the Social Organization: The Role of Social … 201
media data on nonprofit’s Facebook website and found that fundraising success is
positively associated with the number of likes, posts, and shares. In a systematic
review of the literature on the use of social media for fundraising by nonprofit orga-
nizations, [9] refer to the benefits of increased transparency and accountability, oper-
ational, involvement and engagement, and improved organizational image (although
in respect of the two latter outcomes can be mixed). Investigating about the benefits
of donating by social media [10] pointed out the efficiency and cost-effective factors
or, simply put, the easy, quick and direct transfer of money. Tian et al. [11] found
a positive and significant relationship between several media activities of nonprofit
organizations (communication initiated on their social media pages) and donations.
Social organizations can use social media to publish their individual stories related
to social causes for a wide audience as a means to mobilize collective action, often
referred to as connective action [8]. Based on the analysis of 427 social service
nonprofit organizations in Hong Kong, [12] found that information dissemination is
still the major purpose of nonprofits’ use of the social media, as informational posts
generate the most "likes," while action posts are more likely to be diffused through
“shares”.
Based on the above empirical evidence, the following hypotheses are offered:
H1a): The use of social media to seek and initiate contacts with new stakeholders has a
positive impact on the information accessed by the managers of the social organizations.
H1b): The use of social media to retain contacts with current stakeholders has a positive
impact on information accessed by the managers of the social organizations.
2.2 Social Media and Social Capital
Social media platforms are online public spaces where existing social ties are fostered
and maintained and where there is a huge chance to connect with new people and
encounter new acquaintances or friends [13]. Social media facilitates connections
with strong ties, such as close friends and relatives, but also with weak ties, such as
acquaintances or people only met once [14, 15]. Social capital, in turn, is considered
“the sum of resources” possessed by an individual that can be located in the real or
the virtual worlds shaping the form and function of interpersonal relationships [16].
Studies of relationships between physical communities and online communities
show that computer-mediated interactions positively affect communication within the
community, inclusion and social capital [17–19]. Particularly in the context of social
capital, social media is about the resources made available to people through their
social interactions [20]. Social media facilitates the creation of new relationships, as
it provides an alternative way for individuals to connect with others who also share
the same interests or relational goals [21, 22]. In this context, people accumulate
social capital as a result of their diverse daily range of interactions established with
friends, family, co-workers, volunteers, donors and other stakeholders [23].
Based on this reasoning, we advance the following hypotheses:
H2a): The use of social media to seek and initiate contacts with new stakeholders has a
positive impact on the stock of social capital of the social organizations.
H2b): The use of social media to retain contacts with current stakeholders has a positive
impact on the stock of social capital of the social organizations.
2.3 Social Capital and Information Acquisition
Social capital is critical for obtaining informational resources, which are important
for improving the organization’s ability to identify (local) social needs [24], solve
problems and make management decisions more knowledgeable [25]. Empirical
literature has recognized that different individuals could have different social capital
endowments that are able to influence the benefits they can achieve [26]. Many
authors claim that social capital is a critical asset for social entrepreneurship, and for
the success of social ventures [27–31].
Based on this reasoning, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H3a): When social media is used to seek and initiate contacts with new stakeholders, the
stock of social capital has a positive impact on information accessed by the managers of the
social organizations.
H3b): When social media is used to retain contacts with current stakeholders, the stock of
social capital has a positive impact on information accessed by the managers of the social
organizations.
3 Methodology
The dataset integrates the organizations that the Portuguese tax administration
considers of public interest, such as institutions of social solidarity and other types
of entities (social, cultural and humanitarian). The list included 3,777 organizations
that only contained the fiscal number and the name of the entities. To complete the
database, different sources of information were consulted, including the websites of
the social organizations, the social media pages, and the website of the Social Chart
(includes the institutions that are supervised by the Ministry of Solidarity and Social
Security). This operation was conducted to a list of email contacts of 3,252 entities.
Measures of all constructs were developed based on a review of the literature
[14, 32, 33]. A preliminary version of the questionnaire was developed and admin-
istered to ten academics in the field of management and economics selected by
the researchers, who have evaluated the content validity of the measures selected
through a very detailed analysis of the research instrument. The questionnaire was
then modified based on the feedback received. Subsequently, the revised question-
naire was pretested and refined for relevance and clarity, and no significant problems
were found.
Each of the 3,252 entities included in the database with the email address was
contacted during January and March of 2020. The purification of the database was
completed with the removal of 864 email addresses due to absent emails addresses and
errors messages. The total number of the sampling frame was 2,388 email contacts.
A formal email describing the objectives and importance of the study was sent to all
entities. A total of 337 questionnaires were received, although 24 were dropped due
to excessive missing data. Thus, we obtained 313 responses, yielding an acceptable
response rate of 13.1% (313/2.388).
The sample includes 313 respondents from social organizations. They are located
in the middle of the country (N = 143), North (N = 112), South (N = 50) and
Islands (N = 8). In the sample, 91.1% of the organizations held more than 10 years
of existence, 6.1% held between 5 and 10 years, and the remainder (2.9%) held less
than 5 years. The geographical area of intervention of the majority of organizations
were local (N = 141), regional (N = 92), national (N = 62) and international (N = 18).
The size of the social organizations measured by number of employees, volunteers,
beneficiaries and annual total amount is as follows: number of employee less than
5 (N = 45), between 5 and 10 (N = 41), between 11 and 30 (N = 98) and more
than 30 (N = 129); number of volunteers less than 10 (N = 186), between 10 and
20 (N = 63), between 21 and 50 (N = 25) and more than 50 (N = 39); number of
beneficiaries less than 100 (76), between 101 and 200 (N = 78), between 201 and
500 (N = 58) and more than 500 (N = 101); annual amount less than e50.000 (N =
30), between e50.000 and e100.000 (N = 61), between e100.001 and e500.000,
and more than e500.000 (N = 133).
Multi-item scales and five-point response formats were used to operationalize
all variables. The measurement approach for each theoretical construct is described
briefly below and is measured on a five-item Likert scale: 1 for “strongly disagree”
and 5 for “strongly agree”. The items and scales were adapted for social organizations
and refined in the pre testing of the questionnaire. The first two scales were based on
[14], the third on [32], and the fourth on [33].
Social Media (Seek Stakeholders) (SMSS)—the construct uses four statements
for measuring manager’s perceptions about the importance of social media to acquire
new stakeholders and enhance the network of the social organization.
Social Media (Retain Stakeholders) (SMRS)—the construct was operationalized
using four statements for measuring manager’s perceptions about the importance of
social media to maintain long-term stakeholders and sustain the network of the social
organization.
Social capital (SC)—the construct uses four statements for measuring the
founder’s and its team perceptions about the consistency of their professional back-
ground with the needs of the social organization and the assets embedded in the
network.
Information (INFO)—the construct includes four statements for measuring
manager’s perceptions about its capacity to provide and acquire useful, helpful and
crucial information related to social business (legislation, financial support programs,
suppliers, volunteers, etc.), to engage with stakeholders and take better and informed
decisions.
The relationships between the different constructs were based on the hypotheses
previously deduced from the review of literature.
4 Results
Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was used to analyze the interdependencies

among the various constructs. Models A and B include three latent constructs based
on twelve observable variables. To test the hypothesized structural models, we apply
the software SPSS (Version 26) and AMOS (Version 22).
4.1 Preliminary Analysis
Exploratory data analysis was performed to investigate the data structure of the
sample. Loading factors were estimated (overall > 0.8) and revealed which observed
variables are associated with each construct [34]. Subsequently, we analyze the
assumptions of sphericity (Barlett’s test of Sphericity: P < 0.001), and sample
adequacy based on the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin test (KMO) (overall KMO > 0.60).
The values indicate that the correlation matrix is factorable [35]. The items under-
lying the same construct registered a percentage of total explained variance superior
to 60%, revealing that the data are of high utility [36].
4.2 Measurement Model
The analysis of dimensionality, reliability, and validity of the scales was assessed
by the Cronbach’s Alphas [34] that show values higher than 0.90, denoting a high
reliable scale. Composite Reliability (CR) for the constructs is higher than 0.70
and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) is higher than 0.50 for all constructs, which
indicate convergent validity [34, 37]. The discriminant validity of the constructs is
supported (AVE > Maximum Shared Variance (MSV); AVE > Average Squared
Shared Variance (ASV); and, AVE of a latent variable higher than the squared
correlations between the latent variable and all other variables) [37].
4.3 Model Validation and Hypotheses Testing
Models A (MA) and B (MB) were validated using a confirmatory factorial analysis
(CFA). The values indicated for both models are appropriate according to [34] and
[38]. As can be seen in Fig. 1, the different values obtained show the adequacy of
Fig. 1 Results of the hypothesized models
the models (χ2/df = 1.345 (MA), 2.169 (MB); p < 0.001), the goodness-of-fit [GFI
= 0.975 (MA), 0.956 (MB)], the adjusted goodness-of-fit index [AGFI) = 0.956
(MA), 0.924 (MB)], the normed fit index [NFI = 0.985 (MA), 0.975 (MB)], the
incremental fit index [IFI = 0.996 (MA), 0.986 (MB)], the Tucker–Lewis index [TLI
= 0.994(MA), 0.981 (MB)], the confirmatory fit index [CFI = 0.996 (MA), 0.986
(MB]), and the root means square approximation [RMSA = 0.033 (MA), 0.061
(MB)].
The result of Model A (Fig. 1) supports that social media as seeking new stake-
holders have a positive and significant impact on information (β = 0.14**), and on
social capital (β = 0.22***). The social capital has a positive and significant impact
on information (β = 0.32***), so H1A, H2A, H3A are supported, respectively.
In the Model B (Fig. 1), the result supports that social media used to maintain
the contacts have a positive and significant impact on information (β = 0.20***),
and on increasing the social capital (β = 0.20***). The social capital has a positive
and significant impact on information (β = 0.32***), therefore H1B, H2B, H3B are
supported, respectively.
5 Conclusion
This investigation aimed to study the direction of the links established between social
media, social capital and information acquisition that have been modeled as positive
in all hypotheses. The results show that social media could bring important contri-
butions to social organizations, either directly on the access to information for the
decision process, or indirectly, through the positive impact on social capital accumu-
lation. Also, social capital has showed to be a positive influence on the acquisition
of information for the social organizations. The investigation performed indicates

that the positive role of social media is found whether when it is used for finding
and initiating contacts with new stakeholders or for maintaining and nurturing the
existing ones. Further, the investigation reveals that the interaction with stakeholders
should be mainly conceived in a long-term perspective through continued and reliable
relationships. Indeed, the greatest benefits in terms of informational resources are
obtained through the stock of social capital held by the social organization. However,
to increase social capital the use of social media to retain the contacts already held
with stakeholders is more effective than the use of social media for finding and
initiating contacts with new ones.

References
1. Kaplan, A.M., Haenlein, M.: Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of
social media. Bus. Horiz. 53(1), 59–68 (2010)
2. Lovejoy, K., Saxton, G.D.: Information, community, and action: how nonprofit organizations
use social media. J. Comput. Med. Commun. 17, 337–353 (2012)
3. Nah, S., Saxton, G.D.: Modeling the adoption and use of social media by nonprofit
organizations. New Media Soc. 15(2), 294–313 (2013)
4. Poecze, F., Strauss, C.: Social capital on social media—Concepts, measurement techniques
and trends in operationalization. Information 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/info11110515 (2020)
5. Xu, W., Saxton, D.: Does stakeholder engagement pay off on social media? A social capital
perspective. Nonprofit Volunt. Sector Q. 48(1), 28–49 (2019).
6. Bhati, A., McDonnell, D.: Success in an online giving day: the role of social media in
fundraising. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Q. 49(1), 74–92 (2020)
7. Richter, A., Hirst, G., Knippenberg, D., Baer, M.: Creative self-efficacy and individual creativity
in team contexts: cross-level interactions with team informational resources. J. Appl. Psychol.
97(6), 1282–1290 (2012)
8. Ihm, J.: Classifying and relating different types of online and offline volunteering. Voluntas:
Int. J. Volunt. Nonprofit Organ. 28, 400–419 (2017)
9. Di Lauro, S., Tursunbayeva, A., Antonelli, G.: How nonprofit organizations use social media
for fundraising: a systematic literature review. Int. J. Bus. Manag. 14(1) https://doi.org/10.
5539/ijbm.v14n7p1 (2019)
10. Sura, S., Ahn, J., Lee, O.: Factors influencing intention to donate via social network site (SNS):
from Asian’s perspective. Telemat. Inform. 34(1), 164–176 (2017)
11. Tian, F., Labban, A., Shearer, R., Gai, Q.: The impact of social media activity on non-profit
donations in China. Voluntas 32, 488–497 (2021)
12. Lam, W., Nie, L.: Online or offline? Nonprofits’ choice and use of social media in Hong Kong.
Voluntas: Int. J. Volunt. Nonprofit Organ. 31, 111–128 (2020)
13. Hampton, K.N., Lee, C., Her, E.J.: How new media affords network diversity: direct and
mediated access to social capital through participation in local social settings. New Media Soc.
13(7), 1031–1049 (2011)
14. Ellison, N.B., Steinfield, C., Lampe, C.: The benefits of facebook “friends:” social capital
and college students’ use of online social network sites. J. Comput. Mediat. Commun. 12(4),
1143–1168 (2007)
15. Utz, S., Muscanell, N.: Social media and social capital: introduction to the special issue.
Societies 5, 1–5 (2015)
16. Bourdieu, P., Wacquant, L.: An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology. University of Chicago Press,
Chicago (1992)
17. Hampton, K., Wellman, B.: Neighboring in Netville: how the internet supports community and
social capital in a wired suburb. City Community 2, 277–311 (2003)
18. Kavanaugh, A., Carroll, J.M., Rosson, M.B., Zin, T.T., Reese, D.D.: Community networks:
where offline communities meet online. J. Comput. Mediat. Commun. 10(4), https://doi.org/
10.1111/j.1083-6101.2005.tb00266.x. (2005)
19. Antheunis, M.L., Vanden Abeele, M.M.P., Kanters, S.: The impact of facebook use on micro-
level social capital: a synthesis. Societies 5, 399–419 (2015)
20. Lin, J., Lu, H.: Towards an understanding of the behavioural intention to use a web site. Int. J.
Inf. Manag. 20(3), 197–208 (2000)
21. Ellison, N., Heino, R., Gibbs, J.: Managing impressions online: self-presentation processes in
the online dating environment. J. Comput. Mediat. Commun. 11(2), 415–441 (2006)
22. Parks, M. R., Floyd, K.: Making friends in cyberspace. J. Comput. Mediat. Commun. 1(4)
(1996)
23. Bourdieu, P.: The forms of capital. In: Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of
Education. Greenwood, pp. 241–258 (1986)
24. Shaw, E.: Marketing in the social enterprise context: is it entrepreneurial? J. Cetacean Res.
Manag. 7(3), 194–205 (2004)
25. Bowey, J.L., Easton, G.: Entrepreneurial social capital unplugged: an activity-based analysis.
Int. Small Bus. J. 25(3), 273–306 (2007)
26. Woolcock, M., Narayan, D.: Social capital. World Bank Res. Obs. 15(2), 225–249 (2000)
27. Austin, J., Stevenson, H., Wei-Skillern, J.: Social and commercial entrepreneurship: same,
different, or both? Entrep. Theory Pract. 30(1), 1–22 (2006)
28. Leadbeater, C.: The Rise of the Social Entrepreneur. Demos, London (1997)
29. Mair, J., Martí, I.: Social entrepreneurship research: a source of explanation, prediction, and
delight. J. World Bus. 41(1), 36–44 (2006)
30. Sakurai, M.: Social entrepreneur and resource mobilization: the role of social capital. In:
ISTR 8th International Conference and 2nd EMES-ISTR European Conference, Universitat de
Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain (2008)
31. Sharir, M., Lerner, M.: Gauging the success of social ventures initiated by individual social
entrepreneurs. J. World Bus. 41(1), 6–20 (2006)
32. Huang, H.-C., Lai, M.-C., Lo, K.-W.: Do founders’ own resources matter? The influence of
business networks on start-up innovation and performance. Technovation 32, 316–327 (2012)
33. Thornton, S.C., Henneberg, S.C., Naudé, P.: An empirical investigation of network-oriented
behaviors in business-to-business markets. Ind. Mark. Manag. 49, 167–180 (2015)
34. Collier, J.E.: Applied structural equation modeling using AMOS: basic to advanced techniques.
Routledge (2020). https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003018414
35. Watkins, M.: Exploratory factor analysis: a guide to best practice. J. Black Psychol. 44(3),
219–246 (2018)
36. Hair, J., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., Anderson, R.E.: Multivariate Data Analysis, 7th edn. Pearson,
London (2014)
37. Fornell, C., Larcker, D.F.: Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables
and measurement error. J. Mark. Res. 18(1), 39–50 (1981)
38. Thakkar, J.: Structural Equation Modelling: Application for Research and Practice (with AMOS
and R). Springer (2020)
Video Tutorials as a Didactic Strategy
for the Knowledge of Copyright
María Alejandrina Almeida Aguilar , Rubén Jerónimo Yedra ,

Eric Ramos Méndez , Gerardo Arceo Moheno ,
José Luis Gómez Ramos , and Laura López Díaz
Abstract Due to the changes that have occurred in education with the emergence
of the pandemic, students and teachers have seen the need to integrate ICT into
their daily work. This implies the reuse or elaboration of digital didactic material,
which in order to be elaborated sometimes takes elements such as images from the
Internet to integrate them into the material, without knowing the type of license these
resources have. This action can cause falling plagiarism, even without intending to
do so. Faced with this problem, research was carried out under a mixed approach,
where the survey was used as a data collection instrument and given the result of the
students’ lack of knowledge of Creative Commons licenses, a course was created
through video tutorials under the modality of e-learning with free software for the
knowledge of said licenses, achieving optimal results.
.
Keywords Copyright · Creative Commons Licenses · E-learning
1 Introduction
It has been written in multiple documents the way in which Information and Commu-
nication Technologies (ICT) are embedded in all areas of life, educational field has
not been no exception.
Although technology has been deep in thought in education for many decades, the
disruption that has had in the face of the appearance of COVID-19 and the temporary
closure of schools, which it interrupted the education of 1.6 billion students, it is
undeniable [1].
The same report indicates that to build longer-term resilient systems, countries
must, among other things:
M. A. A. Aguilar (B) · R. J. Yedra · E. R. Méndez · G. A. Moheno · J. L. G. Ramos · L. L. Díaz

Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco, Villahermosa, Tabasco CP. 86040, México
e-mail: alejandrina.almeida@gmail.com
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_19
210 M. A. A. Aguilar et al.
• “Invest in an enabling environment to unlock the potential of digital learning

opportunities for all students”.
• “Ensuring that teachers receive support and access to high-quality professional
development opportunities”.
The use of ICT in these last two years is once again important as a consequence
of the emergence of COVID-19, since its use has contributed to giving continuity to
the educational process, in the face of the new pandemic event [2].
This health contingency has changed the scenario of students and professors and
consequently their strategies and resources. This has undoubtedly induced these
stakeholders around the world to make use of ICT to a greater or lesser extent, in
order to continue with the educational process.
Among the activities that most have to be carried out in this new scenario is the
creation of digital educational resources to attend virtual or distance classes.
Digital materials are defined [3] as the set of digitized materials created in order
to facilitate the development of learning activities, thus favoring the transmission of
learning.
One of the ways where many students and teachers create their materials is by
taking various elements from the Internet: audio, text, images, videos, etc., and
creating their own material from there, and the other way is to find ready-made
teaching material, for example, a presentation and reuse it. Copyright basically
consists of the exclusive power of the owner thereof. It means, you can authorize or
prohibit the exploitation of your work, whether it is the total or partial reproduction,
the communication and/or distribution of the works of your authorship [4].
However, there are authors who, if they want their work to be downloaded, shared,
disseminated and/or serve as a basis for creating new knowledge (modified), for this
they can make use of Creative Commons licenses, then going from having “all rights
reserved” to “some rights reserved” [5].
Creative Commons Licenses emerged in 2001, and are various licenses, where
each of them indicates the conditions of use of the work. These licenses cannot be
revoked, once the work has been shared under any of these licenses it cannot be
revoked.
There are various icons which are shown in Table 1, which are used in the Licenses
and the combination of them is what gives rise to the license types. The icons used
in the licenses are:
Based on the previous icons, Table 2 shows the six different types of Creative
Commons Licenses that are derived from the icons in Table 1, indicating for each
type of license the actions or not allowed:
The NA nomenclature indicates that it does not apply, since they cannot create
derivative works.
Video Tutorials as a Didactic Strategy for the Knowledge of Copyright 211
Table 1 Meaning of the icons

Ícons or symbol Meaning Abbreviation Explanation
Attribution CC BY It shall give the
corresponding credit
to the author of the
work, provide a link
to the license and
indicate if any
changes were made
No CC NC The work cannot be
comercial used for commercial
purposes
Share alike CC SA Any contribution

made to the original
work, whether
remixed,
transformed or if it
was used as a basis
for the construction
of another work, the
derived work shall
be distributed under
the same license as
the original work
Not derived CC ND Works derived from
the original work
cannot be created
Creative CC All creative

Commons commons licenses
start with this icon
Public PD CC0 Indicates that the

domain work or material is
already in the public
domain and that it
can be freely used
for any purpose and
permission from the
author of the work is
not required
212
Table 2 Creative Commons Licenses

License Is it required to Can it be copied? Can it be Can it be Can it be created Can it be Can it be used
give credit to the distributed? modified? derivative works? distributed under for commercial
author of the any license purposes?
work? derivative works?
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No
Yes Yes Yes Yes No NA Yes
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No
Yes Yes Yes Yes No NA No

M. A. A. Aguilar et al.
2 Context
As part of the study program of the Bachelor’s Degree in Computer Systems, there
is a course named as Educational Informatics, which it aims to use the appropriate
didactic means, to carry out the teaching and learning process that allows the student
to develop relevant educational software to educational needs.
Within this context, the students of this course have to develop a lot of didactic
material, for this reason it was important to know how much they knew about these
licenses, to avoid inadvertently infringing copyright and in case of lacking such
knowledge, We can train them in the use of Creative Commons licenses, in such a
way that in the elaboration of their didactic material they do not infringe said rights.
It is necessary to make students aware that not everything found on the Internet can
be used without any restriction, those various elements that are often taken from the
Internet, they may be protected by copyright [6].
The immediacy with which these resources can be accessed on the Internet makes
it easy for anyone to take the information, copy it and paste it without knowing, many
times, if this is correct or not, which it has the consequence of not giving credit to
the author to whom it may concern and consequently plagiarize information [7].
Another way in which this can be incurred it is when many times it is wanted
to spread or share an image, thought or video -because we share the feeling of the
idea, thought or feeling that it transmits-, without intending to infringe the rights of
Author [8].
There are various studies about plagiarism and in their research Timal and Sánchez
[9], affirm that among the different forms that there may be of plagiarism, but in which
they found the highest percentage of plagiarism is: “copying text from web pages
and not citing it” with 89% of students who have carried it out.
Many authors agree that ICTs increase the possibility of academic dishonesty and
within the research of Castro et al. [10], reported that in the use of images, only 1.6%
of the students consider that, if the author must be asked for permission to use them,
the latter denotes the lack of knowledge about copyright.
This development research under the mixed method involves the collection and anal-
ysis of quantitative and qualitative data to achieve a better understanding of the
problem. The goal is not only to replace either method, but also to combine their
strengths [11].
The survey was used as a data collection instrument and observation to directly
perceive the level of knowledge of the students. For the video tutorials, the Velarde
methodology was used et al. [12].
3.1 Target Population
We worked with a group of 15 students, who, as mentioned before, that they belong to
the Bachelor’s Degree in Computer Systems and due to the nature of their academic
training, it can be inferred or assumed that they knew and understood the Creative
Commons Licenses, in addition to knowing how to search on the Internet to locate
suitable material.
A small questionnaire was created for them to confirm or determine the knowledge
that they had about them, being the small group, it was decided not to take a sample,
but rather to take a census.
Unexpected results were found. Figure 1 shows that 47% of the students’ report
having zero knowledge of Creative Commons licenses.
In Fig. 2, 93% of the group states that they do not know how to search for material
on the Internet with Creative Commons licenses. It is pertinent to make the clar-
ification that it does not only refer to a search for information only, but also the
information that they could reuse correctly according to the type of license that the
material requires.
Conocimiento de las Licencias CC
0%
13% bien
27%
13% nulo
poco
47% regular
muy bien
Fig. 1 Students with knowledge of Creative Common Licenses
¿Sabes buscar material en Internet sin problemas de

autoría?
7%
si
93%
no
Fig. 2 Students with knowledge in the searching for material with a Creative Commons license
Given the results obtained, it was decided to train students in the use of Creative
Commons Licenses, in such a way that the preparation of their teaching material
they do not infringe copyright. This through a course under the e-learning modality,
using Moodle as a platform, using video tutorials as a teaching and learning tool.
3.2 Materials
The entire project was carried out using free software. ATube Catcher was used
for creation and OpenShot was used for editing and exporting the videos. When all
the video tutorials were available, they were uploaded to a YouTube channel created
specifically for the course, concluding with the creation of the course in “Mil Aulas”,
which it is a virtual e-learning platform that works with the Moodle LMS.
3.3 Methods
The types of e-learning are self-training, online and mixed training or blended-
learning [13].
In this case, the course is located within the type of self-training, which it implies
virtual training without tutorials, where student learning is self-directed. Similarly,
the instructional design model used was ADDIE.
The Project-Based Learning Theory (PBL) was the teaching and learning model
with which we worked, since it only seeks to guide the student’s training process
[14].
Finally, for the creation of the video tutorials, the proposal of Velarde et al.
[12], which it consists of 5 stages: Planning, Analysis, Design, Development,
Implementation and Evaluation.
Planning. There is a need for them to know and understand the use of Creative
Commons licenses in order not to misinterpret copyright, in the same way, that they
know the different sites that offer sponsored resources.
The hardware used to develop the video tutorials was a normal quality microphone
and a laptop, and the software used was aTube Catcher for creating the videos and
OpenShot for editing and exporting them.
Analysis. The desired profile of the user is that they know how to carry out basic
searches for information in a search engine, that they be creative and have basic
knowledge in the use of a computer. Table 3 shows the structure of the course, which
has a total of 6 video tutorials.
Design. Figure 3 shows the structure of the covers of the different videos, which
they include a number that indicates the sequence of the video tutorials and the name
of the same, in the same way an objective was defined for each of the videos.
Development. At this stage the scripts were written, these allowed writing,
correcting and adapting the necessary information before starting to record and use
Table 3 Course structure

Vídeo Title Time
1 Copyright and Creative Commons licenses 04:56
2 Image banks 10:37
3 Video banks 12:04
4 Banks of sounds 06:47
5 Banks of gifts 10:53
6 How to create a Creative Commons license 07:29
Fig. 3 Cover structure
the editing programs, which made it possible to reduce editing times. The goal was to
have a better command of reading in order not to make many pronunciation mistakes
and to have a good command of the content of each one of them.
Similarly, this stage allows you to preselect all the elements that would be included
in the video, such as images, text, etc. to finally elaborate the video tutorial with all
these elements.
Implementation. Once the videos were finished, they were reviewed to correct
possible errors and so on until they were approved. Once approved, they were
uploaded to the YouTube channel since from that URL they will be linked to the
“Mil Aulas” platform where the course was created.
Assessment. At this stage, the congruence and clarity of the tutorial videos was
measured by means of a visualization test using the same students as test subjects.
An evaluation format was created where the following aspects are evaluated:
colors, font, organization of images, coherence between image and text, presentation
of authorship credits, duration of the video, etc., the scale used for the evaluation
was from 1 to 5, where 1 is the lowest rating and 5 the highest, according to this
the maximum score that can be achieved is 65 points, in the evaluation 59 out of 65
points were obtained.
4 Results
At the end of the series of video tutorials, they had to deliver a work as a product
of the course, which it could be a presentation or design of a page, in the software
the student decided, the requirement is that it should include images, videos, sounds,
etc., and each element that will be taken from the Internet should include its URL,
so that it can be verified if, according to the type of license it has, it was being used
correctly by the student or not.
It may seem like an arduous task for the teacher, however, in addition to adding the
URL addresses, which greatly facilitates the evaluation process, peer evaluation was
also used, so that it is one more exercise for the students to verify if the license used
by your partner, it is being used well or not and this task is part of your evaluation
as well.
In this case, 100% of the elements used in the presentations were correct.
It is important to have knowledge of this type of licenses, the use of these
licenses is a global trend and “many organizations related to the world of publications
recommend them to guarantee the dissemination and use of human knowledge” [7],
agreeing with what writes Marandola [15], stating that these licenses were the first
attempt to provide a legal framework for open access.
5 Conclusions
It can be confirmed with the results of the surveys that the students actually generated
didactic material taking various elements (audio, video, text, etc.) from the Internet
without having any knowledge of copyright.
They finished the course creating their own didactic material to publish it on the
Internet, beginning with this act a process of going from being only consumers of
what is published on the Internet to being creators of new information, and what
is even more important, they created their own license for said material exercising
with this, the power to authorize or prohibit the exploitation of their work, as well as
the total or partial reproduction of it, executing with this action the practice of their
digital citizenship.
It is important that as citizens we are aware that we live within an ethical and legal
framework, however, it is important that this framework extends to the networks, and
hence the importance of knowing and respecting the operation of this type of licenses
since in the same way as authors or creators it allows us to be able to determine for
each of our works, the projection we want to give to our work and how we want it to
be used by other people [16].
References
1. UNESCO: Las pérdidas de aprendizaje por el cierre de escuelas debido a la COVID-19 podrían
debilitar a toda una generación (2021). https://es.unesco.org/news/perdidas-aprendizaje-cie
rre-escuelas-debido-covid-19-podrian-debilitar-toda-generacion#:~:text=Este%20informe%
20ha%20sido%20elaborado,y%20el%20apoyo%20a%20los
2. Torras, V.M.E.: Emergency remote teaching: ICT applied to education during confinement by
Covid-19. Innoeduca. Int. J. Technol. Educ. Innov. 7(1), 122–136 (2021). https://doi.org/10.
24310/innoeduca.2021.v7i1.9079
3. Pérez-Ortega, I.: Creación de Recursos Educativos Digitales: Reflexiones sobre Innovación
Educativa con TIC. Revista Internacional de Sociología de la Educación 6(2), 243–268 (2017).
https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/3171/317151451004.pdf
4. Congreso de la Unión. Ley Federal de los Derechos de Autor, Cap. III. Art. 24 y 27 (2014, 14
de julio). Recuperado de: https://www.ucol.mx/content/cms/13/file/federal/LEY_FED_DEL_
DERECHO_DEL_AUTOR.pdf
5. Boretto, M.M.: ¿Son las Licencias Creative Commons una alternativa a los derechos de
autor? Ed. CERLALC. Dosier CERLALC. Derechos de autor. Acceso Abierto, pp. 29–54.
UNESCO (2018). https://cerlalc.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/CERLALC_Publicaciones_
Derecho_de_autor_120318.pdf
6. Weitzmann, J.H., Spielkamp, M. (s.f.). Acerca de los REA. Portal de Medios para la enseñanza
de STEM. Recuperado de: https://medienportal.siemens-stiftung.org/es/rea?pk_campaign=
Medienportal_ES_Mexico&pk_medium=ppc&pk_kwd=recursos%20educativos%20abie
rtos&gclid=EAIaIQobChMIpu70psGq8gIVYeTjBx3TGggqEAAYASABEgJ87fD_BwE
7. Maradiaga, E.J.: Licencias Creative Commons: licencias de libre acceso y su funcionamiento.
Revista Médica Hondureña 89(1), 71–72 (2021). http://www.bvs.hn/RMH/pdf/2021/pdf/
Vol89-1-2021-14.pdf
8. Barrios-Medina J.A., Tafur-Mangada, S.A.: La vulneración de los derechos de autor en el libre
acceso a la información disponible en Internet. DIXI. Revista de Derecho y Ciencias Jurídicas
19(25) (2017). https://doi.org/10.16925/di.v19i25.1821
9. Timal, L.S., Sánchez E.F.: El plagio en el contexto del derecho de autor. Tla-Melahua, Revista
de Ciencias Sociales 11(42), 49–66 (2017). Recuperado de: http://www.scielo.org.mx/pdf/tla/
v11n42/1870-6916-tla-11-42-00048.pdf
10. Castro, R.Y.,Yoplac-López B., Carpio-Tello A., Sihuay-Torres K. y Cózar Quiroz J.: Percepc-
ción del plagio académico en estudiantes de odontología. Educación Médica 19(3), 141–145
(2018). https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S1575181317300487?token=83BD85801
5D8EE3DE3E0433751A04D390EF094C32CA10ADCB302CACC8C2B557A8298B468
5A80A4EB7AED3502F9376A20&originRegion=us-east-1&originCreation=202108261
95546
11. Hernández, S.R., Fernández, C.C., Baptista, L.P.: Metodología de la Investigación, 6th edn.
Mc. Graw-Hill, México (2014)
12. Velarde, A.A., Dehesa, M.J.M., López, P.E., Márquez, J.J.: Los videotutoriales como apoyo al
proceso de enseñanza y aprendizaje y sus implicaciones pedagógicas en el diseño instruccional.
EDUCATECONCIENCIA 14(15), 67–86 (2020). http://tecnocientifica.com.mx/educateconci
encia/index.php/revistaeducate/article/view/160/226
13. Hilera, G.J.R., Hoya M.R.: Éstandares de E-learning: Guía de Consulta. Universidad de Alcalá
(2010)
14. Vargas, V.N.A., Niño V.J.A., Fernández, M.F.H.: Proyectos mediados por TIC para superar
dificultades en el aprendizaje de operaciones básicas matemáticas. Boletin Redipe 9(3), 167–
180 (2020). Disponible en: https://revista.redipe.org/index.php/1/article/view/943/857
15. Marandola, M.: El sistema de las Creative Commons. El profesional de la información 14(4),
285–289 (2005). http://eprints.rclis.org/28913/1/6.pdf
16. Perilla G.J.S.A.: Alineación iusteoríca desde las Licencias Creative Commons. Revista de
derecho privado 50, 1–29 (2013). Recuperada de: https://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=360
033221002
Interactive Application with Motion
Comics in the School Bullying Awareness
Process
Eduardo Navas and Sebastián Armendariz
Abstract Physical or psychological mistreatment among peers, also known as

Bullying, is a latent problem in basic education institutions with frequent processes
of violent interaction between children who assume power and harassment over
others, such interaction also occurs virtually known as “Cyberbullying”. This study
is based on a quantitative research approach and analyzes this social problem looking
for a nexus of awareness, prevention and mitigation of bullying through the use of
new information and communication technologies. The study was conducted in three
educational institutions in the city of Ambato, Ecuador and an interactive application
was designed using the motion comic technique, whose popularity is increasing in
the children’s segment as a new hybrid style of digital animation. The application was
evaluated with a sample group of children who, according to the use and user experi-
ence, presented favorable results in several aspects of awareness and understanding
of the problem investigated.
Keywords Bullying · Cyberbullying · Motion comic · Animation · Comics · App
1 Introduction
Nowadays we live in a society where violence, aggressiveness and gender inequality

are recurrent events that converge in health and education problems such as bullying
or harassment directed to the educational context, characterized by a dynamic of
systematic mistreatment that occurs between peers in a persistent manner and mani-
fests itself in different ways and factors such as skin tone, clothing, speech, physical
appearance, among others [1]. Oñederra and Garaigordobil [2], distinguish social
exclusion behaviors such as ignoring and not allowing interaction with others, verbal
E. Navas (B) · S. Armendariz

Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, Ambato 180103, Ecuador
e-mail: eduardonavas@uti.edu.ec
S. Armendariz
e-mail: sebastianarmendariz@uti.edu.ec
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_20
220 E. Navas and S. Armendariz
aggression (name-calling), offensive nicknames or “markers”, speaking ill of others,

direct physical aggression (hitting), indirect physical aggression (stealing, breaking,
hiding), threats, sexual harassment (verbal or physical) [2], in this context, the use
of new information and communication technologies in the use of platforms and
social networks allows a fast and effective interaction between people, allowing to
go beyond the limits of traditional bullying, usually confined to a school campus and
to an established class schedule, to extend virtually to the homes of the assaulted
and bullied students, giving rise to what is currently known as cyberbullying [3]. In
Ecuador there have been several studies on school violence; however, it has not been
comprehensively addressed, nor has the situation of bullying been considered specif-
ically, in the research called “An in-depth look at bullying in Ecuador”, conducted by
the Ministry of Education in conjunction with World Vision and UNICEF, highlights
valuable data on the behavior of bullying in Ecuador, the study was conducted in 126
public and private educational institutions across the country with the participation
of 5. The study was conducted in 126 public and private educational institutions
throughout the country with the participation of 5,500 students from eighth grade
to third year of high school, finding that nationally 3 out of 5 students have been
victims of bullying with characteristics of physical, verbal and psychological abuse,
men suffer more from insults and blows, while women often suffer from rumors or
disclosure of secrets and cyberbullying, being mainly the classrooms, playground,
courts and outside the educational center the preferred places for bullies [4]. Robalino
[5], in a study on bullying in educational units in the city of Cuenca, states that in
Ecuador, it is a latent problem in schools at primary, secondary and higher levels,
finding difficulties in the educational process that are reflected in academic perfor-
mance with negative derivations in the physical, mental and behavioral health of
students [5]. This analysis is a key contribution to know how the educational commu-
nity should act and can benefit the education of students by raising awareness and
training teachers and professors to deal with these cases of bullying, detecting ways
of care, prevention and alarm to prevent disastrous results that compromise peaceful
coexistence in the classroom [6].
This study was conducted in the city of Ambato, Ecuador, investigating the social
problem of bullying, which is currently very common in school contexts, the most
frequent type of bullying in educational institutions was analyzed, as well as the
levels at which there is a higher rate of occurrence, Likewise, the design of an
interactive application for mobile devices is proposed, applying the motion comics
technique as an innovative alternative that will raise awareness and reduce bullying
rates in children. It is estimated that the use of this application will allow the group
of professionals in charge of school monitoring to detect bullying incidents in time
and apply the necessary corrective measures to mitigate this problem.
Interactive Application with Motion Comics in the School Bullying … 221
1.1 State of the Art
The development of this project seeks a nexus of awareness, prevention and mitiga-
tion of bullying through the use of new information and communication technolo-
gies with the use of the motion comic technique in the design of an application for
mobile devices that allows a space for awareness and information to raise aware-
ness among students to prevent school violence, develop motivation for learning,
improve group cohesion and relationships within it and distribute opportunities for
academic leadership [7]. In the study conducted by Juca and Garcia, an observation
guide was developed to assess the influence of educational technology on the level of
school violence, it was identified that, the use of internet, computers, mobile devices,
audiovisual, video games, among others, allow the improvement of the educational
system from the prevention and solution of problems in pedagogical practice [8],
these possible solutions involve technology and through this have been looking for
digital alternatives that provide comprehensive solutions to mitigate harassment in
all its forms, so today have been developed several platforms and digital applica-
tions such as ReThink, patented technology, It uses the keyboard of your device to
modify the hurtful messages when they are being written on any platform or social
networks, when it detects this type of offensive messages, it recommends through
an alert notification, to pause, review and rethink the words [9]. Another application
for mobile devices very efficient in the management of cyberbullying is Proofup,
whose intention is to avoid parental control and generate autonomy in children who
will be free to capture or record any situation of harassment and share it with their
parents, the application allows to activate the geolocation of children, and if they
were in an emergency situation, pressing the ‘Alert Button’ will send parents a help
message with their exact location [10]. An example of innovation in the use of digital
technologies to mitigate bullying is promoted by the SEK International School in the
city of Quito, with the implementation of the ZeroAcoso platform that allows anony-
mous communication through various channels such as iOS, Android and Facebook
Messenger, so that any passive observer can become an advocate for the victim,
communicating what is happening, without compromising their safety because its
innovative interface provides the necessary anonymity to report where and when
antisocial behavior happens in their environment [11]. Smith, defines motion comic
as “an emerging form of digital animation that typically appropriates and adapts an
existing comic book narrative and its illustrations into an animated narrative for the
screen.” [12] For Rodriguez, motion comics are a type of audiovisual storytelling in
which the images provided by a particular comic are animated in a simple way [13].
From this point of view, the digital technique of the motion comic is presented as an
innovative alternative in educational processes, from this topic, Figueroa and Rojas,
present the design of a motion comic as a teaching medium to motivate young people
from Zulia to learn about the historical events of the Naval Battle of Lake Maracaibo,
it is considered a significant contribution as an innovative teaching method in the
basic levels of Venezuelan education since they captured in an entertaining way
the events that occurred in that battle [14]. We proposed the design of an animated
short film using the motion comic technique to raise awareness among adolescents
about the harm and consequences caused by drugs, achieving the expected impact
and the identification of viewers with styles and experiences of the characters [15].
The motion comic technique, being a hybrid support between traditional comics and
animation, becomes a new form of digital expression with an infinity of attractive and
innovative options in the teaching–learning process, adding elements such as anima-
tion, special effects, voices and music, emphasizing the translation of the graphic
language of comics with the dynamics of movement [16].
2 Methodology
This study was carried out from a quantitative methodological approach from a type
of research—action, since it is necessary to recognize what are the perceptions and
techniques used by teachers of educational centers to recognize the problem, and
also to address it through the use of technological educational tools, Hernandez,
Fernandez and Baptista, define the quantitative method as: “uses data collection to
test hypotheses based on numerical measurement and statistical analysis, to establish
patterns of behavior and test theories” [17]. Hurtado and Toro point out that quantita-
tive research has a linear conception, which implies clarity among the elements that
make up the problem, which must be delimited and know exactly where they start
from, in addition to recognizing what type of incidence exists among its elements
[18]. The data analysis was developed in the city of Ambato—Ecuador, thanks to
the active participation of 3 public schools, which were contacted to formalize with
the management, teaching staff and student counseling, the purpose and meaning
of the project. As a first stage of the research, a quantitative diagnosis was carried
out by applying field research techniques for the collection of information with the
application of structured surveys to all professionals, including teachers and experts,
totaling 18 people who participate in an interdisciplinary team to support school inte-
gration processes, who use new effective and enjoyable methods, experiment more,
motivate students and prefer to use playful activities. The survey allows for mass
applications by means of sampling techniques, and the results can be extended to
entire communities [19]. This allowed us to learn about the frequency and type of
bullying suffered by children in this context, as well as to inquire the sample group
about the use of new technologies in the teaching–learning process in the resolution
of bullying conflicts through the creation of an interactive application with motion
comics to inform and raise awareness among children about the negative aspects of
this practice. For the second stage of experimentation, the design and prototyping of
the application with the motion comic technique was proposed, whose verification
by advice of the group of experts was aimed at the population that attends the sixth
level of middle school, enrolled in the academic period September 2020–February
2021 of the schools, Hispanoamérica, Luis A Martinez and Ambato, with a total of
245 students, extracting a sample of 107 with a margin of error of 6% and a confi-
dence level of 90%, distributing the sub-quantities proportionally through a stratified
probabilistic procedure.
3 Results
In the first stage, we worked with teachers and experts from the basic education
institutions and applied the survey as an instrument for collecting information, which
was conducted by the researcher together with the group of students who collaborated
in the development of this research.
According to the information obtained from teachers and experts belonging to
the school integration group, it could be established that the highest rates of bullying
occur in sixth and seventh grade of basic education, according to 76 reports and
calls for attention to children during the academic period September 2020–February
2021, (Table 1), 39% of respondents agree that the form of bullying that occurs
most frequently is verbal, followed by the theft of objects and the disclosure or
revelation of secrets, (Table 2); 44% agree that the place where bullying occurs most
frequently is the classroom, taking into account their experience before the covid 19
pandemic; they also mention that cyberbulling is on the rise because there is no face-
to-face contact (Table 3); it was also found that a minimum percentage of teachers
use new information and communication technologies to teach and raise awareness
among children about the consequences of bullying (Table 4); 55.5% say that the
use of motion motion pictures is the most common form of bullying (Table 4). 5%
stated that the use of motion comics through an application for mobile devices will
allow reaching children more easily because of their familiarity with technology and
animation, which, according to the experts’ opinion, should be characters that emulate
real children, living their same activities and experiences of bullying (Tables 5 and
6).
With the results obtained from the research, we proceeded to the design and
programming of the interactive application whose development was carried out in 2
stages, the first one comprising the design, structure, interface design, presentation
logic and information flow for multimedia content, applying the Mobile-D method-
ology designed for the agile development of mobile applications, starting from a
scheme referring to the application as a whole, which includes the use of functional
and non-functional elements, identification of exercises, tasks, visual design (image,
menus, button panels, rollovers, characters), interface design, navigation design,
information design, interaction design, information architecture, functional specifi-
cations, content requirements and user needs with response time, functionality and
feasibility. The Java programming language was used because it is a multiplatform
language for android with easy adaptability to IOS, including aspects of respon-
sive design or “Responsive design”, which allows adaptability to screen sizes and
improves the user experience in the use of different mobile devices such as iphone,
Table 1 Harassment rate by number of reports and calls for attention

Number of reports and calls for attention
Level Frequency Percentage (%)
High school, first grade of basic general education (5 years) 2 2.6
Elementary elementary, second grade of general basic education 3 4.0
(6 years)
Elementary basic, third grade of general basic education (7 years) 7 9.0
Elementary elementary, fourth grade of general basic education 10 13.0
(8 years)
Middle basic, fifth grade of general basic education (9 years) 13 17.0
Middle elementary, sixth grade of general basic education 22 29.0
(10 years)
Middle elementary, seventh grade of general basic education 19 25.0
(11 years)
Total 76 100
Table 2 Main forms of school bullying

Main forms of school bullying
Frequency Percentage (%)
Sexual abuse 0
Physical abuse (hitting, pushing, shoving, falling) 1 5.5
Cyber harassment or cyber bullying 2 11.1
Rumors or disclosure of secrets 3 16.6
Theft of belongings 5 27.7
Verbal (insults, name-calling, teasing) 7 39.0
Total 18 100
Table 3 Places where

Places where bullying occurs
bullying occurs
Physical classroom 8 44.4
Virtual classroom 2 11.1
Bar 1 5.5
Bathrooms 1 5.5
Campus exteriors 3 16.6
Pasillos 0 0.0
Playground or courts 2 11.1
School transportation 1 5.5
Total 18 100
Table 4 Use of technology

Use of technology in basic education
in basic education
Use of audiovisuals 6 33.3
Use of virtual platforms 2 11.1
Use of gamification 0 0.0
Use of applications 1 5.5
None 9 50
Total 18 100
Table 5 Technological
Technological innovation proposal
innovation proposal
APP—Gamification 2 11.1
APP—Augmented reality 2 11.1
APP—Motion comics 10 55.5
APP—Complaints 4 22
APP—Informative 0 0.0
Total 18 100
Table 6 Cartoon characters

Identification characters
that children can identify with
Superheroes 2 11.1
Animals 4 22
Real children 9 50
Mythical characters 2 11.1
Robots 1 5.5
Total 18 100
ipad, smartphones, tablets, etc., allowing an interactive, friendly, attractive and fun
application to raise awareness in children about the problem of bullying (Fig. 1).
Regarding navigation, the app has an interactive menu with 4 content options:
1. Characters. In this space you will find the biographical information of each char-
acter, personality, lifestyle, hobbies, strengths and weaknesses. Each character
has been designed with the intention that children find a reason for identification
and personalization with one or another character of the animated series, making
each episode that is inserted into the application, an experience of awareness and
appreciation of bullying.
2. Episodes. In this space, children can watch short episodes of the animated series,
“The New Classmate”, each episode has a duration of 3 min, the same that has no
Fig. 1 Information architecture
end, the intention is that children in the evaluation process, idealize the end of the
episode so that experts can diagnose possible situations of bullying, the frequency
of uploading new chapters will be fortnightly during an academic period.
3. Album. This space is designed to motivate the children’s interest in collecting
stickers of the characters of the series, each sticker is collectible and each time
a student completes the evaluation, the download of a sticker is activated to fill
their digital album with 60 stickers.
4. Evaluation. The evaluation process takes place once the child has explored the
functions of the app, and has grasped the content in motion comic of the episodes
of “El Compañero Nuevo”, each chapter tells the experiences of an innocent and
very charismatic boy named Sebastian who, because of his shyness and accent, is
constantly harassed by 2 of his classmates, In this context a connection with the
children is achieved since Sebastian’s experiences are very similar to the reality
that children in a state of bullying live, the chapters exposed do not have an
ending since this must be built by the child and in this way the experts can detect
possible cases of bullying, it is important to note that students in the evaluation
tab must upload their final narrative and thus be able to download the gift sticker
to fill their album (Fig. 2).
In the second stage we worked on the production of the motion comic episodes
keeping intact the original art of the comic made previously, the main idea was
achieved through a detailed literary script, providing a fun story that emulates expe-
riences and situations very similar to real life, It is the story of Sebastian and his
friends who are frequently bullied by two boys from their school, in this context,
they live exciting adventures that captivate students who immediately identify with
the main character, the main idea of this product is to raise awareness of the problem
Fig. 2 Prototype interface design
and seek alternatives to mitigate bullying in primary education institutions. Once

the story was created, it was separated into scenes to assemble the animation, which
made it easier to have a reference of the story and work efficiently in the short film,
this process consisted in the creation of scenarios and the sequence that the characters
will perform through sketches that served as a guide (Fig. 3).
The adaptation of the original comic to Motion Comic was expressed through
hundreds of frames exposed in a fluid sequence and at a speed that mimics the real
movement, each existing body performs different types of movements and upon
observing in detail it is determined that the principles of animation were created
based on existing activities to give greater realism to the sequence, and that these
are shown in a more natural way, giving the desired illusion with the insertion of
voice-over and music (Fig. 4).
The application was verified with the participation of 107 children in the
sixth grade of second grade from 3 primary schools mentioned in the research
methodology, and the following results were obtained (Tables 7, 8 and 9).
Fig. 3 Illustration and character sketching stage
Fig. 4 Motion comic editing process
Table 7 Motivation for using

Motivation for using the app
the app
Indicator Frequency Percentage (%)
Highly motivated 49 45.8
Moderately motivated 27 25.2
Poorly motivated 17 15.9
Indifferent 14 13.0
Total 107 100
Table 8 Identification with

Identification with characters
characters
Daniel 6 5.6
Eugenio 3 2.8
Hugo 7 6.5
Lolita 8 7.5
Paula 30 28
Sebastian 37 34.6
Ninguno 16 15
Total 107 100
Table 9 Development of the

Evaluation
evaluation
Done 70 65
Not performed 37 35
Total 107 100
4 Conclusions
School bullying or bulliyng is a frequent problem in all school contexts, according

to the study conducted in 3 public schools in the city of Ambato, the highest rate of
bullying is found in the higher levels of basic education such as sixth and seventh
grade, the most frequent type of bullying in educational institutions is verbal aggres-
sion such as insults, nicknames and teasing, followed by the theft of objects and
rumors, these manifestations were very frequent in the classroom, but due to the
pandemic of covid 19, the rates of virtual harassment or cyber bullying are on the
rise.
It was determined that the use of motion comics added to the technology of
applications for mobile devices is a novel alternative to raise awareness and reduce
bullying rates in children by identifying students with children’s characters who live
stories, adventures and everyday experiences.
The application was verified with the participation of 107 children from 3 public
schools in the city of Ambato, obtaining as a result that 45.8% of the children were
very motivated and 25.2% were moderately motivated. 62.6% of the children iden-
tified with Paula and Sebastian, the main characters of the motion comic who help
others and always leave a positive message in the children.
The evaluation is the final part of the experience with the app, the episodes do not
have an ending since what is sought in the evaluation is that the child builds his own
ending, this, according to the experts, would allow detecting possible signs of bullying
and finding early solutions to these problems, these results are very encouraging since
there is a high rate of acceptance and motivation towards the experience of using the
app in children.
References
1. Musalem, R., Castro, P.: Qué se sabe de bullying. Revista Médica Clínica Las Condes 25(1),
14–23 (2015)
2. Oñederra, J., Garaigordobil, M.: Bullying: incidence of peer violence in the schools of the
autonomous community of the basque country. Int. J. Psychol. Psychol. Therapy 8(1), 51–62
(marzo 2008)
3. Tolga, A., Sinem, S., Aysegul, U., Sevda, S., Songul, C., Nesrin, Y., Cemil, M.: Cyberbullying
among Turkish adolescents. CyberPsychol. Behav. 11(3), 253–261 (2008)
4. M. d. Educación.: Unicef y World Vision, Una mirada en profundidad al acoso escolar en el
Ecuador. Opinión Pública, Quito (2015)
5. Robalino Izurieta, G.: El bullying en las unidades educativas. estrategias de intervención.
Revista de la Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad de Cuenca 34(1), 94–101 (2016)
6. Sánchez Barreto, X.: El bullying en el Contexto Educativo. Sociedad & Tecnología, Revista
del Instituto Tecnológico Superior Jubones 1(1), 29–37 (2018)
7. Castro Morales, J.: Acoso Escolar. Revista de Neuro Psiquiatría 74(2), 242–249 (2011)
8. Juca, F., García, M.: La tecnología desde su perspectiva educativa en función del nivel de
bullying escolar. Luz, educar desde la ciencia 17(3), 56–65 (2018)
9. Navas, E.: ReThink - before the damage is done. https://www.rethinkwords.com/. Último
acceso: 8 Nov 2021
10. Navas, E.: Nace la app Proofup, una solución para actuar ante el ciberacoso. https://www.int
erempresas.net/Tecnologia-aulas/Articulos/195821-Nace-la-app-Proofup-una-solucion-para-
actuar-ante-el-ciberacoso.html. Último acceso: 8 Nov 2021
11. Navas, E.: zeroacoso. https://www.zeroacoso.org/. Último acceso: 12 Nov 2021
12. Smith, C.: Motion comics: modes of adaptation and the issue of authenticity. Anim. Pract.
Process Prod. 1(2), 357–378 (2012)
13. Rodríguez, J.: Descripción de los elementos constitutivos del dibujo animado a partir de análisis
del análisis de signos que integran la historieta. Universidad del Valle, Cali (2010)
14. Figueroa, F., Figueroa, F., Rojas, G.: El motion cómic como técnica de enseñanza en el apren-
dizaje por la historia de venezuela. Caso batalla naval del lago. Impacto Científico, Revista
Arbitrada Venezolana del Núcleo Luz-Costa Oriental del Lago 12(2), 71–91 (2017)
15. Tarira, D., Alex, M.: Producciónd de un cortometraje motion comic para la prevención del
consumo de drogas en el 9no año de la Unidad Educativa “Camilo Gallegos”. Escuela Superior
Politécnica del Chimborazo, Riobamba (2017)
16. Aguirre, J.: Motion comic, el nuevo soporte del comic. Universidad Politécnica de Valencia,
Gandia (2013)
17. Hernández, R., Fernández, C.: Metodología de la investigación. Quinta edición, Editorial Mac
Graw Hill, México (2010)
18. Hurtado, I., Toro, J.: Paradigmas y métodos de investigación en tiempos de cambio. Ediciones
de la Universidad de Carabobo, Valencia (1998)
19. Casas, J., Repullo, J., Donado, J.: La encuesta como técnica de investigación. Elaboración de
cuestionarios y tratamiento estadístico de los datos. Atem Primaria 31(8), 527–538 (2003)
Planning and Development
of the MOOC-DTS “Digital Tutorial
Space”: Case Study in a University Tuna
Bruno F. Gonçalves and Vitor Gonçalves
Abstract Digital innovation is currently a hallmark of higher education institutions

due to the need to remain at the forefront of technology, but also to ensure a more
current, inclusive and participatory teaching–learning process. The university tunas
of these institutions also seem to be an example of innovation in the digital sphere as
they use digital technologies to simplify their internal processes, but also as a means
of promoting and disseminating information and advertising through the web. In
this follow-up, the use of technologies in the context of musical training also seems
to have a preponderant role in the acquisition and improvement of skills of the
members that make up these groups. Considering the interest in the combination
of university tunas and technologies, this research was developed to present the
planning and development processes of a Massive Open Online Course (MOOC)
on the Udemy platform, called Digital Tutorial Space (DTS). This MOOC-DTS
aims to contribute to the improvement of the individual musical quality of the tuna
members through digital technologies, enabling everyone to learn anywhere and
anytime, without geographical or temporal restrictions. For the accomplishment of
the study, the research-action methodology was adopted in this work within the scope
of RaussTuna—Tuna Mista de Bragança, from the Polytechnic Institute of Bragança,
Portugal. While in the planning phase the technical-pedagogical structure and the
design of the course contents were thought, in the development phase the course was
built and all the contents to be inserted in the MOOC were produced.
Keywords Digital tutorial space · MOOC · Music · University tuna
B. F. Gonçalves
Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
V. Gonçalves (B)
Research Centre in Basic Education (CIEB), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança,
Portugal
e-mail: vg@ipb.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_21
232 B. F. Gonçalves and V. Gonçalves
1 Introduction
The world will never be the same after the pandemic phase that devastated us. New
windows of opportunity have emerged, some based on existing digital technologies,
others based on educational information and communication technologies that have
been improved over the last two years. We can say that today people in general use
digital technologies more and better and feel a growing need for them to gather,
work, teach, learn or even for fun.
The growth and expansion of technologies in the world made the digital transition
possible in many sectors of economic activity in Portugal. Examples of this are
health, justice, social solidarity, education, culture, banking, companies, defense,
public administration, but also in the life of every citizen in all its dimensions. One
of these dimensions has to do with the ease we currently have in accessing the internet
through any digital device, whether from home, work, coffee house or car, or from
any other location. Access to the internet through mobile devices means that we are
practically always connected to the network, namely, applications, services, social
networks and a multitude of tools on the web that make it possible to transact goods
and services, but also to establish communication and the interaction between people
and institutions. The dependence we have today on being constantly connected to the
internet, the fact that access to the network allows contact with practically everything
and the experiences taken in online teaching (mostly due to the covid-19 pandemic)
are determining factors to stop and reflect on the implementation of music teaching
or music training at a distance, that is, through digital technologies. The musical
training that we refer to in this research falls only within the scope of university tunas,
particularly in RaussTuna—Tuna Mista de Bragança (TMB), Instituto Politécnico
de Bragança, Portugal.
Based on the research-action methodology carried out, this study aims to present
the planning and development processes of a Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC),
on the Udemy platform, called Digital Tutorial Space (DTS). The DTS is an online
space where all TMB members can acquire knowledge and musical skills through
technologies, regardless of geographic and temporal restrictions. It is a space that
encourages learning and musical practice, without the need for members to travel to
TMB facilities to learn individually, mainly to acquire the bases. Although the role
that MOOC-DTS plays in the evolution of TMB members is recognized, it becomes
evident that it does not replace group musical practice, but is just another contribution
to encouraging the acquisition of musical and artistic skills.
2 Digital Technologies in University Tunas
University tunas are musical groups of academic traditions, usually made up of

students from higher education institutions. Tunas can be divided into three typolo-
gies—male, female and mixed—which are distributed across most Portuguese higher
Planning and Development of the MOOC-DTS “Digital Tutorial … 233
education institutions and others abroad. There are aspects that seem to be transversal
to all tunas, regardless of their typology, such as: dissemination of local and regional
culture; promotion of Institutes and Universities; use of academic attire; presenta-
tion and posture on stage; the diversity of instruments (essentially color-dophones)
used in the performances; the type of songbook adopted (popular songs and original
themes); musical streets and academic serenades; the bohemia tunae; participation in
tunas meetings and festivals, among many others. However, in addition to the charac-
teristics like all tunas, there are other identity traits that are effectively specific to each
tuna. These characteristics result from several factors, such as: historical and socio-
cultural framework; the context and culture of higher education institutions and loca-
tions where they are based; the principles, statutes and internal regulations of these
groups; values and traditions, among others. RaussTuna—Tuna Mista de Bragança
(TMB) is an association governed by private law and seems to be an example of a
tuna that has its own characteristics: democratic participation; inclusion; individual
freedom; respect for peers; cultural heterogeneity and diversity; orientation towards
social causes; and even entrepreneurial and innovative spirit. It is precisely in the
innovative dimension that another project of this tuna is located, in particular, the
MOOC-DTS. Although the project includes the planning, development, implemen-
tation, use and evaluation phases of the MOOC-DTS, this article only addresses the
planning and development phases. However, before talking about the project, it is
important to address the issue of connectivism as a way of framing the MOOCs in
this study.
To frame network learning, Siemens [1] proposes connectivism as a learning
theory for the digital age that approaches knowledge as something distributed in
a network of connections. Connectivism intends to respond to the needs of twenty-
first century students and to the new realities arising from technological development
and economic, social and cultural transformations [2] and can be considered as “the
integration of principles exploited by chaos, network, and theories of complexity and
self-organization. Considering that “the most generalized application of connectivist
learning are the Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC)” [3], in this research, we
sought to plan and develop a MOOC to support the Digital Tutorial Space (DTS)
of TMB. MOOCs offer “new range of challenging possibilities to expand access to
quality education, as they allow the creation of large communities of practice” [4].
According to Siemens [5], MOOCs “are a continuation of the trend in innovation,
experimentation and the use of technology initiated by distance and online learning,
to offer massive learning opportunities” [5]. This type of courses therefore emerge
as an opportunity to change the practices of tuna members and as a technological
innovation, since “from the HEIs’ point of view, MOOCs serve to promote univer-
sities, favoring the recruitment of new students and also as a field for pedagogical
experiments” [6]. These two principles—dissemination and recruitment—can and
should be applied at the TMB level, since a MOOC, due to its size and projection,
also seems to enhance the promotion and dissemination of the TMB brand and image
and, consequently, attracting young people to tuna.
According to Siemens [7], generally, MOOCs can be of two types: cMOOC
and xMOOC. The cMOOCs are context-centric and correspond to a connectivist
perspective. The activities focus on the participant and his/her relationship with the
other participants in the search for information and knowledge. The course materials
are shared among all and the teacher directs, helps and guides the participants’
learning. xMOOCs are courses focused on content and with a more rigid organization,
limiting creativity. In short, cMOOCs privilege the connection between the different
participants, emphasizing the sharing of resources between all the participants, while
the xMOOCs are based on the distribution of content in video lessons, with the teacher
continuing to assume a leading role.
Udemy was created by Eren Bali and is an example of a platform that supports
xMOOC. The contents of the courses offered are quite diversified (development,
business, finance and accounting, IT and software, office productivity, personal devel-
opment, design, marketing, health and fitness and music). According to his website
(www.udemy.com), Udemy currently has 49 million students, 64,000 instructors,
185,000 courses, 75 languages, 10,500 partners and 680 million course registra-
tions. It should also be noted that most Udemy courses offer certificates of comple-
tion. Pedagogies and tools for teaching classes depend exclusively on the teacher, for
example, courses with slides, videos, quizzes, exercises and even live classes can be
published. The platform also has a chat and community system so that students can
interact with each other and/or with instructors, whether to discuss various topics or
ask questions.
This platform has courses designed by institutions and organizations, but any
user is also free to create a course as long as they pay attention to the parameters
and rules established by Udemy. The MOOC that we planned and developed was as
an individual and not as a company or institution. For now, it makes no sense to put
the MOOC in the institutional perspective, since it still must be implemented, used
and evaluated. If it is successful in acquiring the musical skills of tuna members,
we can consider placing it in an institutional perspective, otherwise we will have to
better assess the situation. In any case, it is only later after its use that we can verify,
analyze and evaluate the results with the implementation of the MOOC.
3 Methodology
For the development of this work, the research-action methodology is adopted. The
methodological choice is due to the fact that it is the most suitable for carrying out
the research in terms of the importance it gives to group decisions, the commitment
to improving a concrete problematic situation and the need to involve the participants
at all stages of the research process [8]. Through this methodology it will be possible
to present and characterize the planning and development processes of the MOOC-
DTS which includes a set of phases that were fundamental to guarantee the quality
of both processes so that the course is suitable for the musical training of all the
members of tuna.
In this research, qualitative research techniques are used, being applied, as data
collection instruments, the individual semi-structured interview and the information
contained in the researcher’s diary resulting from the participant observation. The
interview was applied at the beginning of the process, in September 2021, to 20
members of the TMB, with half of the interviews being conducted with females
and the rest with males to ensure parity in the study. Through the interview, it was
possible to assess the perspective of future users of the MOOC-DTS, both in terms
of the technical-pedagogical structure of the course and in terms of how the contents
will be presented to the respective participants in the MOOC-DTS. In fact, the presen-
tation of the contents is an absolutely central aspect of the course, as it is the main
gateway for the registration and loyalty of participants in the course. If the content
is appealing, well-organized and well-prepared, and obvious, of good quality, it’s
expected the results both in terms of participation-loyal and in terms of musical
training/acquisition of musical skills will be quite positive. If this situation does not
occur, then it means that the course is of poor quality and, therefore, the participants
become demotivated and end up giving up.
Still regarding the data collection instruments, it is important to mention that
participant observation was also adopted, insofar as the authors of this research
were part of the MOOC-DTS project and as such had the opportunity to assist and
participate in the processes either of planning and development of the MOOC. The
participation of the authors of the study made it possible to acquire a set of knowl-
edge and skills through experience, which were absolutely central and indispensable
aspects to guarantee the quality of the MOOC-DTS. At the same time, web searches
were carried out on courses in MOOC format to better understand all the fundamental
steps in the planning and development processes of a MOOC to adapt and readapt
the MOOC-DTS.
Content analysis was performed in Microsoft Excel, mainly data from conversa-
tions between interviewers (authors) and respondents (RaussTuna members), as well
as all data recorded in the researcher’s diary from participant observation.
4 Presentation and Discussion of Results
4.1 MOOC-DTS Planning Process
The MOOC-DTS planning process had a set of iterative phases that were articulated
and made it possible to establish the technical-pedagogical support of the course.
This set of phases is presented below:
Phase 1 (Auscultation of the group): The first concerns had to do with the
need to listen to all members of tuna, especially those who have greater needs to
acquire and improve knowledge in the area of music, whether at the vocal and instru-
mental, whether at an artistic or choreographic level. In the process of listening to
the members, we were able to obtain crucial information for the development of the
MOOC-DTS, namely, on the most appropriate pedagogy for the teaching–learning
process, the digital tools most conducive to understanding the tutorials, but also, the
way content should be presented to ensure greater understanding and capture of the
videos.
Phase 2 (Research and learning): in this phase extensive research was carried
out on MOOCs, namely on how to plan and develop this type of courses. In addition,
the position of several specialists in the field was taken into account and the authors
participated in MOOC courses oriented towards the teaching of music, in order to
become acquainted with the functioning of these courses and acquire knowledge
and useful experiences for planning and development of the MOOC-DTS. It is also
important to mention that participation in MOOC courses was also important to
understand the pedagogical dimension and was an indispensable contribution to
answer unanswered questions, such as: How to teach music through technologies?
How to ensure that those who participate in a MOOC can acquire skills and learn
tuna’s songs? In general, all these questions seem to have been answered with our
research, with the consultation of specialists and with our participation in MOOC
courses oriented towards musical training.
Phase 3 (Selection of equipment and hardware): in this phase, a rigorous and
careful research was carried out on the equipment that would best suit the imple-
mentation of the project. The research was carried out on the web, but also through
specialists in other areas, music producers and teachers, audiovisual technicians,
multimedia specialists and other experts. Thus, in terms of equipment, the following
were adopted: two cameras, a sound table with microphone, a green screen, two light
sources, two tripods, an external disk and computers.
Phase 4 (Selection of digital tools): regarding digital tools, as previously
mentioned, an extensive web search was carried out on the most appropriate tools for
the realization of this type of project. However, we went further and also consulted
specialists and technicians in the area that allowed us to obtain more knowledge
and greater reliability and certainty in the answers to the software to be used for the
production and editing of this work. Video editing and design software were used.
Phase 5 (Design of the pedagogical model): like the previous one, this was the
most complex phase and took the longest to complete, as although it was articulated
with the previous phases, it was the most important for the entire project. There were
unanswered questions whose answer was vital for the development of this project:
How can we teach music? How can we track learning? How can we ensure that
participants really acquire skills and that they get to know tuna’s original themes?
Obviously, in addition to extensive search on the web, it was necessary to consult
colleagues to try to understand the most appropriate pedagogical model to imple-
ment in the MOOC-DTS. We concluded that learning should occur at the pace of each
participant, with flexibility, without haste or confusion. It should also have very prac-
tical examples, demonstrations, outlines of the staves and/or sheet music. Learning
should also take place at the time the participant has availability and without any
restrictions or limitations. Regarding the monitoring of learning, this should be done
by the music coordination team either in the online modality or in the face-to-face
modality as a complement. At the level of assessment, this could only be done in
person, and it was up to the participant to show the musical coordination the skills
he acquired during the course.
Phase 6 (Content model design): this was the second most complex phase,
because without quality content, organized, properly structured, easy to understand
for the participants, then MOOC-DTS would be a real failure. We did research,
consulted with tuna members and experts in the field, and concluded that the content
model to adopt would be videos, as they provided greater security and motivation
for course participants. They could watch, practice what they saw and heard in the
tutorials and then go back to watch and improve those learnings and knowledge. Due
to these advantages, we adopted the video as the central typology of content for the
transmission of musical skills, making these videos true learning tutorials.
4.2 MOOC-DTS Development Process
The MOOC development process consisted of two main stages, each with several
tasks.
Stage 1 (Development of the MOOC framework)
The first stage was responsible for configure the course homepage, set the price of
the course, curriculum creation and contents submission, set course messages and,
finally, submission of the whole course for review (Fig. 1).
Task 1 (Configure the course homepage): in this task it is possible to write the
title and subtitle of the course, as well as the description. It is also possible to define
the language in which the course will be taught and define the level of difficulty of
the course (beginner, intermediate and specialist). In addition to these settings, it is
possible to choose the main topic of the course and the sub-theme. You can also
upload a course image that meets our Udemy image quality standards to be accepted
(750 × 422 pixels and .jpg, .jpeg, .gif or .png format).
Task 2 (Set the price of the course): it is possible to set the course enrollment
fee where the list price that students will see in other currencies is determined using
Fig. 1 MOOC-DTS course structure

the price tier matrix. If the course is to be offered free of charge, the total duration
of the video content must be less than 2 h, which is not the case. In this sense, the
premium instructor registration must be completed to set a price for the course. Once
the linked payment method is approved, we will be able to set the price for the course.
Task 3 (Curriculum Creation/Contents Submission): in this task we can add
course content such as lessons, course sections, assignments and more. We created
25 sections, each of which has four classes and each class corresponds to a specific
area: lyrics and chords, instrumental, vocals, choreography. In the lyrics and chords it
is intended that the participants learn the lyrics of the song and the respective chords
(if the latter applies). Participants must also begin to feel and understand the tempo of
the music and, at the same time, begin to shake as if they were in formation with the
entire tuna. In the instrumental class, participants must learn the instrumental of the
song according to the instrument they chose to play, as well as the respective chords
or note lines (if applicable). They should also learn instrumental playing techniques
(fingerings, basses, among others). The timing, technical control, rhythm and tuning
of the instrument are also fundamental, as is waving as if they were in formation
with the entire tuna. They must also learn to maintain their own instrument and treat
it with esteem and care in order to preserve it as long as possible. In the vocal class,
participants must learn to sing the song according to their vocal register, as well
as apply techniques that allow them to improve their performance (breathing, vocal
control, timing, dynamics, etc.). Technical control, rhythm and vocal tuning are also
essential, as is waving as if they were in formation with the entire tuna. They must
also learn to take care of their voice and treat it with esteem and care to preserve it
for a better performance. Finally, in the choreography class, participants must learn
the choreographies of the music that can be used in standard bearers (flags, capes,
confetti, etc.) For the realization of both typologies, time, technical control, posture,
elegance and interaction with the public are also absolutely fundamental. They must
also learn to maintain the materials and equipment related to the choreography and
treat them with esteem and care in order to preserve them as long as possible. It is
important to mention that this sequence of classes is repeated for each of the themes
originating from tuna (each of the sections), making a total of 100 classes. Each of
the sections has a multiple-choice test at the end that participants must complete to
proceed to the next section.
Task 4 (Set course messages): in this task it is possible to write messages to
course participants (optional) that will be sent automatically when they register or
complete your course, encouraging them to interact with the content. If we don’t
want to send you welcome or congratulation messages, we leave the text box blank
(we don’t fill it in). We posted two messages, the first welcoming the MOOC and the
second congratulating the completion of the process.
Task 5 (Submit for review): submitting a course for review will start the quality
review process. The MOOC URL will be activated once the review team approves
the course. After we submit the course, the Quality Review Team will evaluate it and
provide feedback based on the Course Quality Checklist. Once approved, the course
will be published and available on the Udemy marketplace.
Stage 2 (Production and publication of MOOC contents)
Fig. 2 MOOC-DTS course content
Task 1 (Equipment assembly): The scenery and equipment (chroma key, lights,
cameras and microphone) were set up, which was essential for the video recordings.
The logistics were really big since they had to record different types of instruments
and voices, so it was always necessary to change the position of the microphones
but also of the cameras and lights depending on the type of instrument, position and
height of the person. It was a task that required rigor and technical knowledge in
light, image and sound (Fig. 2).
Task 2 (Capture the videos): Capturing videos has been a very demanding
and long process, since it is necessary to make several videos for each original
theme, either to capture the diversity of instruments or to capture the types of voices
and choreographies. It is a process that requires a lot of patience, persistence and
resilience. Every time a member of the TMB made a mistake, it was necessary to
repeat everything. It’s very tiring. It hasn’t been an easy path but we’ll make it.
Task 3 (Video production): this task included recording the person with two
cameras (focus and body), synchronization of cameras and audio and rendering in
three files (focus, body and audio). Editing starts with the three files plus the intro
animation file. During editing, various graphics files created in Adobe Photoshop are
used (chords, flute buttons, etc.). Tabulation software is used to create the lines of
the solo instruments and then transformed into an image. The tabs, chords and lyrics
are synchronized and the solo notes are highlighted one by one in time. In the case
of rhythms, arrows are placed to demonstrate the movement of the hand. This was
a very complex task, as it involved editing all the contents collected by each of the
themes. It required a lot of attention, rigor and advanced technical knowledge.
Task 4 (Bug check and improvements): this task was very important to verify
the existence of errors or certain types of inaccuracy in the videos. Considering
that these are music tutorial videos, it is difficult to combine the image, sound and
guidelines that appear in the videos, so there may be some errors. Viewing videos
and presenting them to other people is an essential and absolutely essential task to
maintain the quality of videos and MOOCs in general.
Task 5 (Export and Publishing): this task in the production of content was the
simplest and probably the least tiring. They were exported to mp4 format and later
published in the MOOC on Udemy, having in mind trainees will watch, practice, and
become better musicians.
5 Conclusions
The research allowed, in a general way, to present all the phases that constituted the
MOOC-EDT planning and development processes.
The planning process took place in six major phases that were articulated and
were absolutely essential for the development of the project: Task 1 (Auscultation of
the group), which consisted of questioning the members of tuna about the technical-
pedagogical structure and MOOC-DTS contents; Task 2 (Research and learning)
where it was possible to do research, consult specialists in the area, participate in
MOOC courses and acquire knowledge and skills in the field of music teaching in
online format; Task 3 (Selection of equipment and hardware) where a rigorous and
careful research was carried out on the equipment that would best suit the imple-
mentation of the project; Task 4 (Selection of digital tools) which made it possible
to carry out a web search on the most appropriate tools to implement this type of
project; Task 5 (Design of the pedagogical model) very important for the implemen-
tation of a pedagogical model more suited to the teaching of music through digital
technologies, essentially resorting to the demonstrative method; Task 6 (Content
model design) fundamental for the design of the content model to be adopted for
the course which, in this case, were the videos given the flexibility they allow and
the motivation they create in the MOOC-DTS participants. The planning process,
although long and complex, was essential for the development of the course with the
quality it deserved.
The development process comprises two stages: the first consists of the devel-
opment of the MOOC framework and the second the production and publication of
MOOC contents. The first stage included five tasks, namely: Task 1 (Configure the
course homepage) where it is possible to write the title and subtitle of the course,
as well as its description and other general settings; Task 2 (Set the price for the
course) useful to set the value by the frequency in the course; Task 3 (Curriculum
Creation/Contents Submission) allows creating classes and inserting the respective
educational resources; Task 4 (Set course messages) is used to set welcome messages
and others; Task 5 (Submit for review) for submission for publication review (accep-
tance or rejection) by the Udemy team. The second stage also included five other
tasks, namely: Task 1 (Equipment assembly) the scenery and equipment (chroma key,
lights, cameras and microphone) were assembled; Task 2 (Capture the videos) which
was a very time-consuming process due to repetitions and the number of tracks per
musical theme (one recording for each instrument, voice and choreography); Task
3 (Video production) where all the editing was carried out—combination of image,
sound and animations; Task 4 (Bug check and improvements) important for error
detection and for learning tests; Task 5 (Export and Publishing) mp4 export for upload
to the course structure on Udemy.
In addition to the stages of development of the two processes presented above, the
research allowed us to aggregate the areas of university tunas and digital technologies
and, consequently, to understand the contribution that these technologies can make
either to the simplification of the internal processes of the tunas or to the promotion
and dissemination of the image with the ultimate objective of attracting new members
to integrate these groups of young people. It is also important to mention that the
topics addressed can constitute a greater reflection and debate, especially in the tunas’
communities, on the importance of innovation and digital modernization within these
groups.
Note: The second and last part of the study will be published in due course with
the title “Use and evaluation of the MOOC-DTS “Digital Tutorial Space”: case study
in a University Tuna” (Part II).
Acknowledgements This work has been supported by FCT—Fundação para a Ciência e a

Tecnologia within the Project Scope: UIDB/05777/2020.
References
1. Siemens, G.: Conectivismo: Uma teoria de Aprendizagem para a idade digital. vol. 2016 (2004)
[Online]. Available: http://wiki.papagallis.com.br/George_Siemens_e_o_conectivismo
2. Siemens, G.: Learning ecology, communities, and networks: extending the classroom.
elearnspace, last Ed. (2003)
3. Sobrino Morrás, Á.: Aportaciones del conectivismo como modelo pedagógico post-
constructivista. Propues. Educ. 42, 39–48 (2014)
4. Teixeira, A., Mota, J., Morgado, L., Spilker, M.: iMOOC: Um Modelo Pedagógico Institucional
para Cursos Abertos Massivos Online (MOOCs). Educ. Formação Tecnol. 1646–933X 8(1),
4–12 (2015)
5. Siemens, G.: Massive open online courses: Innovation in education. Open Educ. Resour. Innov.
Res. Pract. 5 (2013)
6. Riedo, C.R.F., de Aguiar Pereira, E.M., Wassem, J., Garcia, M.F.: O desenvolvimento de um
MOOC (Massive Open Online Course) de Educação Geral voltado para a formação continuada
de professores: Uma breve análise de aspectos tecnológicos, econômicos, sociais e pedagógicos.
SIED EnPED-Simpósio Int. Educ. a Distância e Encontro Pesqui. em Educ. a Distância (2014)
7. Siemens, G.: MOOCs are really a platform. eLearnspace (2012)
8. Oliveira Cardoso, A.P.P.: Inovar com a investigação-ação: desafios para a formação de
professores. Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra/Coimbra University Press (2014)
The AmTriangle Meta-Dataset
for Playing with Machine Learning
Artur Marques , Rafael de Amorim Silva, and Filipe Madeira
Abstract AmTriangle is a meta-dataset for machine learning (ML) that supports

convenient and configurable dataset production in addition to a classifier that
performs supervised learning. The idea is to have a never-ending source of super-
vised datasets, minimizing learning barriers to ML, for training models, and facili-
tating educational experiments and comparisons between different workflows. It is
a “meta-dataset” because it is a solution to generate sets of samples (datasets), as
many as desired, correctly classified. Each sample is a triangle, classified as “acute”,
“obtuse” or “right”, according to trigonometry. Each generated dataset can be used
to “teach-by-example” how to classify new samples, by different techniques, namely
K-Nearest-Neighbors and neural networks. The triangles could be other analogous
objects, other tuples.
Keywords Dataset · Education 4.0 · KNN · Supervised learning
1 Introduction
Machine Learning (ML) is an Artificial Intelligence (AI) area in which computer

programs, “machines”, can autonomously learn and classify data, not by explicitly
stating all the outputs for every anticipated input sample, but rather from examples,
which can “train” a model [1–3], ideally well enough to adapt to new samples.
A. Marques (B) · F. Madeira

Escola Superior de Gestão e Tecnologia, Instituto Politécnico de Santarém, Santarem, Portugal
e-mail: artur.marques@esg.ipsantarem.pt
F. Madeira
e-mail: filipe.madeira@esg.ipsantarem.pt
Centro de Investigação em Artes e Comunicação – Pólo de Literacia Digital e Inclusão Social,
Instituto Politécnico de Santarém, Santarem, Portugal
R. de Amorim Silva
Federal University of Alagoas–Computing Institute, Maceio, Brazil
e-mail: rafael@ic.ufal.br
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_22
244 A. Marques et al.
In this context, a model is like a function that, receiving arguments, computes

them, or classifies them correctly, with a certain degree of accuracy. The accuracy
or confidence in the computed classification alludes to the underlying statistical
techniques. “Statistical Learning” is another name for ML. The AmTriangle construct
is for discrete classification problems; however, in other ML applications, namely
regression, the output is non-discrete.
The techniques applied to AmTriangle’s output datasets, discussed next, take
advantage of the availability of the correct classification for every sample. The output
datasets are suited to train and test ML algorithms. It is the correct classification avail-
ability that justifies the expression “supervised learning” [4, 5]. In other problems, the
correct rating might not be available, and the machine will have to discover it—that
would be “unsupervised learning” [6, 7].
In each “AmTriangle” dataset, all and each of the samples are vectors of three
floating-point numbers, corresponding to the three internal angles of a triangle. As an
example, the vector (90.0, 2.06, 87.94) is a valid sample, corresponding to a triangle
with a classification of “right” for having an internal angle of 90°—note that the
sum of the three numbers is 180. Angles greater than 90° are labelled “obtuse”, and
angles less than 90° are labelled “acute”.
A dataset with, for example, 999 samples, can be represented as a 2D matrix of
999 lines by 3 columns. Because there are three possible ratings (“right”, “obtuse”,
“acute”), this is called a 3-class or 3-target classification problem.
From a ML software practitioner’s perspective, AmTriangle is a set of free or
“libre” tools, written in the Python programming language. In its current version,
the end-user scripts are “dsgen.py” (a datasets generator) and “mlclass.py” (a
ML classifier that can classify any 3-tuple, based on a model it builds while learning
from a training dataset). These tools are also referred to as the “generator” and the
“classifier”.
The code in “dsgen.py” produces datasets.
The code in “mlclass.py” builds a ML model, from the examples in an input
dataset, and then it can classify any new tuple, with measurable accuracy.
On average, larger datasets (datasets with more samples) should lead to more
reliable models. However, if there is an imbalance in the number of examples per
class/target in a dataset, the learning process may result biased, because of misrepre-
sented possibilities, so size is not enough. The generator can assure balanced repre-
sentations of all classes, being that optional though, since the purpose of having
this instrument is to facilitate playing with ML and observing (and measuring) the
consequences of dataset composition on model behavior.
ML is one driver of automation. Studies on the effects of automation on voca-
tions have long identified that most of the latter will have a significant number of
tasks automated, as a consequence of the ongoing fourth industrial revolution [8].
The so-called “Education 4.0” is a learning approach aligned with the context of the
current industrial changes, in which human creativity and complex human interac-
tions emerge as reinforced needs, while repetitive, non-creative tasks become more
exposed to alternatives, including AI-based solutions.
The AmTriangle Meta-Dataset for Playing with Machine Learning 245
Education is one sector where automation is expected to have relatively low

reach [9]. Human interactions during class time, at any scholar level, are very
complex and heavily dependent on hard-to-extract and act-upon contexts. Activities
not so centered on immediate personal interactions, e.g., researching and writing,
pose different hurdles to automation, around the delicate integration balance of
comprehension, communication, and creation activities, amongst others.
Still, automation will increasingly permeate education, eventually freeing people
from administrative tasks, enabling automatic assessment instruments, and comple-
menting humans in different ways, namely via digital assistants that we see as
learning-capable personalized software agents. For this to happen gradually, related
techniques and technologies can benefit from inter-disciplinary approaches that
somehow lower or eliminate barriers to integration opportunities.
Trigonometry in general and triangle classification in particular are one such
opportunity for seeing ML in action around familiar problems. Whether dataset
and model generation are trivial enough, those interested in getting exposure to the
subject, or exposing others to it, may consider AmTriangle.
2 Solution Architecture and Techniques
AmTriangle is a meta-dataset for ML, in the sense that it is about having control
over datasets. Its usage pattern consists in outputting a randomly generated dataset,
configurable in size and automatically exported to a file, then feeding it for model
training and model accuracy testing.
The dataset generator offers the possibility to output completely random collec-
tions or to enforce the equal-representation of all n classes in an n-classification
supervised learning problem: for example, if 999 samples are requested, the output
can contain 333 triangles of each type (“right”, “obtuse”, “acute”).
The resulting dataset can be an input for the classifier, which currently builds
a model using the K-Nearest-Neighbors (KNN) algorithm [10], at its highest
complexity; that is, with K = 1.
When asked to classify a new sample N, the model will measure the “distance”
of N, relatively to all learned examples, identifying the closest or less-distant tuple
in the training dataset, and assigning its classification C to N.
On lower complexity calls, i.e., K > 1, the algorithm looks for the “top K” closest-
to-N samples, finds the majority classification C, and ranks N as C.
This means that, in the extreme case of K = number of elements in the training
dataset, the most frequent classification would always be the one assigned to any
new sample. This would build a low complexity model, probably low precision too,
risking “underfitting” or “undercomputing” [11], as the model could not fit the correct
values for the training data, overgeneralizing.
KNN is an option, but the generated datasets can support any other alternatives for
model creation for supervised learning, namely neural networks. Neural networks
are computational graphs in which nodes perform mathematical functions, weighting
their inputs to compute an output. That output will feed nodes in subsequent layers,
until reaching a final layer whose outputs aim to approximate what the examples are
teaching. With neural networks, the complexity will be high if the number of nodes
and/or layers also present high values.
Very complex models can generate so-called “overfitting” situations [12], in which
the model performs very well with the training data, but is unable to generalize as
desired in the face of new samples.
A proximity measurement algorithm, suitable and adaptable to different dimen-
sional spaces, including the 2D space in which triangles are inscribed, is the
Minkowski distance. In AmTriangle, the classifier module uses KNN with K =
1 and the Minkowski distance.
The nth order Minkowski distance between samples P and Q is defined as follows:
( )(1 n)
d(P, Q) = | p1 − q1|n + · · · + | pn − qn|n /
That is, for n = 2 it is the Euclidean distance, and for n = 1 the Manhattan distance,
the sum of the absolute values of the differences between all the components of the
vectors to be measured.
These are the current techniques in-place, but being free or “libre” software, users
will have the freedom to independently adapt this approach to their needs.
3 Workflow
The dataset generator module produces JSON (JavaScript Object Notation) files,
which describe randomly computed triangles. The module accepts an argument that
sets how many samples per “target” or possible classification class that are to be
created.
The classifier module can run from one of these JSON files. For example, here
is a command-line call to generate a dataset with just one sample of each type of
triangle:
python dsgen.py 1
The purpose of this singular case is only to observe the generated JSON file,
depicted in Fig. 1.
The dataset is structured in sections with “keys” named “triangles”, “angles”,
“lengths”, “targets” and “files”:
• “triangles” is a collection of vectors, each with 3 real numbers, corresponding to
3 points that define a graphical representation of a triangle.
• The figure shows the triangle ((458, 185), (469, 185), (458,85)), which should be
imagined in a frame of reference where the point (0,0) is the upper left corner of
the plane.
Fig. 1 A JSON for a dataset with just 3*1 samples
• “angles” is a collection of vectors, each with 3 real numbers, corresponding to the

interior angles set by the sides defined by the triangle’s points. The figure shows
(90, 6.28, 83.72), expanded.
• “lengths” is a collection of vectors, each with 3 real numbers, corresponding to
the lengths of the sides of a triangle. The figure shows (11, 100, 100.6).
• “targets” corresponds to the correct classification of each sample. In the JSON
structure, it reads that the first triangle has target 0 (“acute”), the second target 1
(“obtuse”), and the third target 2 (“right”).
• Finally, “files” corresponds to the names of files with pictures of the triangles if
there is a need to visualize them.
In many machine learning problems, sample classification is provided by experts.
For example, in Ronald Fisher’s established “Iris dataset” [13], the biologist classifies
150 flower samples into 3 species/targets, based on 4 real numbers (length and width
of sepals, length and width of petals); and, in the “UCI ML Breast Cancer Wisconsin
Diagnostic dataset” [14], the creators classify images of tissues extracted from breast
lumps as benign or malignant, based on vectors of 10 numbers.
In AmTriangle datasets, the correct classification is assured by trigonometric

methods, which take the place of “experts”. These methods only happen in the fabri-
cation of the dataset for supervised learning. During the classification process, only
ML techniques, based upon the examples, operate. In reality, classifying triangles
does not need ML techniques—it is a problem solvable with secular trigonometry.
The rationale in the “AmTriangle” meta-dataset is the following:
• In first usages of ML, the lack of experience with peripheral areas, such as botany
or medical imaging, can pose an obstacle to understanding what the samples mean
and why they are classified as they are. The use of trivial samples, from a well-
understood context, minimizes this barrier and frees the practitioner to focus on
the specific ML tools that are in application.
• A triangle can be understood as any object with a trio of “features” or characteris-
tics, such as, for example, a flying insect seen as (wingspan in mm, length in mm,
mass in grams). Therefore, the triangles are not necessarily trigonometric—the
practitioner’s imagination is invited to think of something else.
• Moreover, since this is a project with free and open-source code (FOSS), the
practitioner can adapt the generator module to produce n-dimensional entities,
with n > 3, here finding an instrument that enables writing datasets of variable
size [15], suitable for measurements that might help in understanding relationships
between the size of datasets, and/or the number of features, and the results achieved
with different models, trained differently.
In a typical workflow, first, the generator writes a dataset as a JSON file; next, the
classifier inputs that file, builds and trains a model from the training data, making
available an object that can classify new samples.
Here is an example of calling the classifier to learn from a dataset file, from the
command line:
python mlclass.py 400_samples_per_target.JSON
The model used in the example call consists of 400 samples for each target. During
the generator’s operation, parameters in the code control accessory details, such as
if picture-files for the triangles are being saved.
During the operation of the classifier, the following feedback happens: listing of
the dataset samples, listing of each sample’s corresponding classification, summary
of the model, and a report on how the model performed with the training samples,
including a measure of its accuracy.
4 Model Construction and Assessment
A triangle’s internal angles determine its classification. Thus, one of the first oper-
ations in the classifier is the extraction of the internal angle values. Because there
is extra information in the dataset, namely designations for the sides that form the
angles—useful for building graphical representations,—this data “reduction” oper-

ation returns a leaner data structure, representing only the strictly necessary values
for model training and accuracy assessment.
The result is a list of vectors, each consisting of 3 angles.
Another parallel list holds the correct classification per vector.
What follows is a process of reserving a fraction of the dataset for training (75%,
by default), and another fraction for gauging the training results (25%, by default).
For this purpose, the instrument “model_selection.train_test_split”
of the module “sklearn” is used. The result is a division (“split”) of the received
dataset, in parts to be used for training (“train”) and testing/assessing the training
results (“test”).
The following code snippet corresponds to the split:
from sklearn import model_selection as m
tupleTrainAndTestsSets = m.train_test_split(
listOfListsEachATrioOfAngles,
listOfTargetsForEachTrioOfAngles
)
X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = tupleTrainAndTestsSets
It is common to capture this stage’s output in the following identifiers:

• X_train—the list of vectors that will be used as examples for learning.
• X_test—a list of vectors, which will NOT be used as examples, but reserved
for measuring the training accuracy, at a later stage. The machine will have to
autonomously classify these test samples, without having access to their correct
classification, thus allowing the ML practitioner to compare the results achieved
by the model, with those that are assuredly the correct.
• y_train—the list of correct targets; that is, of classifications, for each of the
samples in X_train.
• y_test—the list of correct targets, for classifying the samples in X_test. This
list is essential for the process of measuring the accuracy of the model.
The model itself here discussed is a KNN classifier, using the Minkowski distance.
The learning or training process occurs when the classifier’s “fit” method is called.
knn = KNeighborsClassifier(metric="minkowski",
n_neighbors=1)
knnResult = knn.fit(X_train, y_train)
After “fitting” to the training data, which is learning from the examples, the
programmatic object “knnResult” is used to make predictions about new samples.
For example, the execution of the following code assigns “thePrediction” a
prediction of what the classification for “someNewSample” is.
thePrediction = knnResult.predict(someNewSample)
The prediction will be right or wrong. To determine how much can one trust the
model’s predictions, all elements of X_test will be arguments to the “predict”
method, and all the obtained results will be compared with the correct targets, as
available in y_test.
If, for example, 70 out of 75 comparisons match, then the model accuracy is 70/75
= 0.9(3) ~ 93%.
5 Looking at the Generated Dataset and Model Accuracy
Each triangle consists of 3 attributes (or “features”). One visualization possibility for
an entire dataset, is to work with a dispersion matrix, which is an instrument whose
diagonal consists of histograms of absolute frequencies for each of the attributes
under analysis: each of the internal angles, in this case. The remaining cells in the
“scatter matrix”, called “pair plots”, are 2D representations of the interception of
pairs of values of characteristics, two by two.
Figure 2 shows a “balanced” dataset with 100 samples of each triangle class,
therefore a total of 300 samples, 75% of which were used for training (225) and
25% reserved for accuracy assessment (75). The “acute” triangle data points appear
in red, the “obtuse” in green, and the “right” in blue. But any other colors can be
used, depending on a correspondence dictionary, that follows the mathematical color
model “RGBA” (Red Green Blue Opacity).
Depending on the number of samples and graphical rendering limitations, the
histograms may not display all possible samples.
The AmTriangle kit includes a function for singular sample testing: the sample
is subject to the model’s predict method and the result is compared to the correct
rating. The classifier module ends its operation by computing the model’s accuracy,
obtained by two different, but equivalent, ways:
• by using the score method of the model object:
knnResult.score(X_test, y_test);
• by directly comparing each prediction with the correct result.
In the current example, the accuracy was ~ 93%:

Model accuracy / average matches: 0.9333333333333333
Model score by knn.score 0.9333333333333333.
Fig. 2 Scatter Matrix for a “balanced” AmTriangle dataset with 3*100 samples
6 Discussion of Results
AmTriangle is a meta-dataset for machine learning, supporting convenient and

configurable dataset production, plus a classifier that does supervised learning.
One idea is to have a never-ending source of supervised datasets—this is effec-
tively achieved by the dsgen.py module. It also aims to minimize learning barriers
to ML, for training models, facilitating experimentation and comparisons between
different workflows—all of these can be conducted with the included mlclass.py
tool.
Thus, this is one solution supporting educational playing with ML, around a
familiar problem, defeating availability limitations and using trivial triangles as the
starting samples, generalizable to tuples that can be more complex.
The need for “meta-datasets” has been previously studied [16], but in the context of
benchmarking “few-shot” classification models for Deep-Learning. The AmTriangle
solution is not comparable: not a benchmark, but rather an approach to facilitate new
“triangle” datasets whenever needed, and a procedure for experimenting with them
on different models.
In AmTriangle, problems can happen on purpose, such as when requesting small
imbalanced datasets. “Good” datasets can also be enforced, as when generating large,
balanced, perfectly classified collections that can train adaptable models. In the end,
it is up to the practitioner to decide what the experiments will be, assisted by the
included generator and classifier tools.
References
1. Alzubi, J., Nayyar, A., Kumar, A.: Machine learning from theory to algorithms: an overview.
J. Phys: Conf. Ser. 1142, 012012 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1142/1/012012
2. Gangadhar, S., Shanta, R.: Chapter 8—Machine learning. Handbook Stat. 38, 197–228 (2018).
https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.host.2018.07.004
3. Jaime, G.C., Ryszard, S.M., Tom, M.M.: 1—an overview of machine learning. 3–23 (1983).
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-051054-5.50005-4
4. Caruana, R., Niculescu-Mizil, A.: An empirical comparison of supervised learning algorithms.
Icml 06, 161–168 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1145/1143844.1143865
5. Dridi, S.: Supervised Learning—A Systematic Literature Review (2021)
6. Barlow, H.B.: Unsupervised learning. Neural Comput. 1(3), 295–311 (1989). https://doi.org/
10.1162/neco.1989.1.3.295
7. Ghahramani, Z.: Unsupervised Learning. In: Bousquet, O., von Luxburg, U., Rätsch, G. (eds.)
Advanced lectures on machine learning: ML Summer schools 2003, Canberra, Australia,
February 2–14, 2003, Tübingen, Germany, August 4–16, 2003, Revised Lectures, pp. 72–112.
Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg (2004)
8. Insights, D.: The Fourth Industrial Revolution (2020)
9. Chui, M., Manyika, J., Miremadi, M.: Where machines could replace humans—and where they
can’t (yet) (2016)
10. Zhang, Z.: Introduction to machine learning: k-nearest neighbors. Ann Transl Med 4(11),
218–218 (2016). https://doi.org/10.21037/atm.2016.03.37
11. Dietterich, T.: Overfitting and undercomputing in machine learning. ACM Comput. Surv. 27(3),
326–327 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1145/212094.212114
12. Roelofs, R., Shankar, V., Recht, B., Fridovich-Keil, S., Hardt, M., Miller, J., Schmidt, L.: A
meta-analysis of overfitting in machine learning. In: Wallach, H., Larochelle, H., Beygelzimer,
A., Alché-Buc, F.d., Fox, E., Garnett, R. (eds.) Advances in Neural Information Processing
Systems, vol. 32. Curran Associates, Inc. %U (2019). https://proceedings.neurips.cc/paper/
2019/file/ee39e503b6bedf0c98c388b7e8589aca-Paper.pdf
13. Fisher, R.A.: The use of multiple measurements in taxonomic problems. Ann. Eugen. 7(2),
179–188 (1936). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-1809.1936.tb02137.x
14. Wolberg, D.W.H., Street, W.N., Mangasarian, O.L.: Breast Cancer Wisconsin (Diagnostic)
Data Set (1995)
15. Alwosheel, A., van Cranenburgh, S., Chorus, C.G.: Is your dataset big enough? Sample size
requirements when using artificial neural networks for discrete choice analysis. J. Choice
Model. 28, 167–182 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocm.2018.07.002
16. Triantafillou, E., Zhu, T., Dumoulin, V., Lamblin, P., Evci, U., Xu, K., Goroshin, R., Gelada, C.,
Swersky, K., Manzagol, P.-A., Larochelle, H.: Meta-dataset: a dataset of datasets for learning
to learn from few examples. In: International Conference on Learning Representations (2020)
Evaluation on Collaborative
and Problem-Based Learning–Some
Teaching Experiences in Mathematics
Joana Becker Paulo , Arianne S. N. Pereira , and Catarina O. Lucas
Abstract The main purpose of this article is to describe three teaching experi-
ences developed by three teachers from a Polytechnic Higher Institute in Portugal
(ISPGAYA) in the field of Mathematics. Although each of them taught a different
curricular unit and in different degrees, the teachers showed similarities in the way
of assessing the learning of concepts and acquisition of skills by their students
through the resolutionof problemsituations using mathematical software. Excel
and Matlab were used in online assessment. The methodologies adopted by the
three teachers were Problem-Based Learning (PBL), Evaluation and Assessment
of Student Learning, and Flipped Learning. The results revealed a greater devel-
opment of students’ mathematical and computational skills. It was concluded that
the exploration of problem situations that involve the simultaneous development of
mathematical and programming skills are more engaging for students, allowcooper-
ativepeer work, and consequent transfer of skills among students, allowing them to
obtain much more useful and interesting results for their professional context.
Keywords Assessment · Mathematics · Problem based learning
1 Introduction
Distance learning has been causing a greater isolation of the student and a lower
participation in classes, giving more responsibility to the student in the teaching–
learning process, and demanding from him a greater concentration, discipline, and
study organization. Also, many times the teacher has difficulties to perceive if the
student is present and attentive in the remote class. Therefore, the need to readapt
the teaching methodologies arises and, mainly, the evaluation instruments of the
knowledge and competences acquired by the students.
Thus, this paper emerged to overcome learning difficulties in online teaching, to
motivate students for mathematical contents taking as an advantage the degree of
J. B. Paulo (B) · A. S. N. Pereira · C. O. Lucas

ISPGAYA, Av. Dos Descobrimentos, 333, 4400-103 Vila Nova de Gaia, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: jbpaulo@ispgaya.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_23
254 J. B. Paulo et al.
autonomy that is given to them in remote education and promoting a greater inter-
action among students. So, in 2021, three teachers from Instituto Superior Politéc-
nico Gaya (ISPGAYA) promoted an assessment based on Problem Based Learning.
This experience involved students from undergraduate courses in Management,
Accounting, and different Engineering courses (Informatics, Mechanics, Electronics
and Automation).
Since there are many real-world mathematical problem situations that are costly
(or even impossible) to solve with just pencil and paper because, for example, they
involve mathematical models with several variables and parameters or because they
require a geospatial perspective of the problem situation, the need to use ICT (Infor-
mation and Communication Technology) in Mathematics classes in Polytechnic
Education arises. When faced with this type of mathematical challenge/problem, the
student will feel that he does not yet know enough tools and techniques to solveit. So,
theywillresort totechnologies, todifferentsoftware, tonew meanstosolvetheproblem
from a mathematical point of view.
In this paper three didactic experiences developed by three teachers of the Poly-
technic with their classes will be described, discussed, and evaluated. They consisted
of evaluating students by solving problem situations using mathematical software.
The methodologies adopted by the three professors were Problem-Based Learning
(PBL), Evaluation and Assessment of Student Learning, and Flipped Learning.
2 Theoretical Basis
Over the years, the Didactics of Mathematics has been suggesting the use of tech-
nology in the classroom. As well, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
(NCTM) and the British Educational Communications and Technology Agency
(BECTA) have recommended the use of ITC as tools to assist students in valida-
tion, decision making and problem solving [1, 2]. Currently, there are numerous
works by teachers and students that demonstrate the use of various software tools
as aids in solving mathematicalproblems, suchas: Matlab, GeoGebra, Excel, R, etc.
[3, 3, 3]. Also, ICT plays a relevant role in the construction of mathematical logical
reasoning necessary to solve problem situations and by allowing the visualization of
different representations of mathematical models (graphical, geometrical, and alge-
braic). According to Malheiros [6]: “(…) the increased presence of ICT in everyday
school life, the possibilities for experimentation and investigation of certain situations
can be optimized, enabling simulations and predictions to be made” (p. 865).
The assessment method used was based on Problem-Based Learning (PBL).
According to Borochovicius and Tortella [7]: “The basic premise of PBL is the use of
real-life problems to stimulate conceptual, procedural and attitudinal development
of the learner” (p. 268). The authors further indicate that through these proposed
problems motivating situations are presented, which prepare students for the job
market. Among several methodologies that could be used such as: observation-
based learning, peer tutoring, self-directed or game-supported learning, among others
Evaluation on Collaborative and Problem-Based Learning–Some … 255
[8]; it was considered that PBL would be the most appropriate to the principles of
polytechnic education.
Assessment of learning involves different methods of evaluation and the creation
of environments suitable for the development of competencies. In agreement with
Sambell et al. [9]: “Alternative assessment was perceived to enable, rather than
pollute, the quality of learning achieved. When describing alternative assessment,
interviewees found it difficult or inappropriate to say where their learning stopped
and the assessment began, so fully integrated were the two aspects in their minds”
(p. 358).
According to Hwang et al. [10]: “the flipped classroom is a pedagogical approach
which moves the learning contents taught by teachers’ direct instruction to the time
before class to increase the chances for the students and teacher to interact. Therefore,
teachers would have more time to guide the learning activities and solve students’
problems to promote the learning effects” (p. 452).
In this article two different computer programs will be highlighted: EXCEL and
MATLAB. Microsoft Excel because it is widely spread and for its potential in matrix
operations. The Matrix Laboratory-(MATLAB) dueto is asoftwarewith asimpleand-
directlanguage, forhavinga library with pre-defined mathematical functions and for
allowing the resolution of many numerical and graphical problems faster than with
similar programs in Fortran, Basic or C language [4].
3 Implementing
For this work each of the three teachers chose an example of a problemsituation that
was proposed for their students’ evaluation.
Professor A worked with the students of the Degree in Informatics Engineering,
during a semester that took place in a completely online format. The evaluation
proposal consisted in exploring the syllabus of the course unit of Mathematical
Analysis, morespecifically, with contents related to Vector Functions. The students
would have to use, on one hand, some computerprogram as an auxiliary technological
tool to show the usefulness of the study and application of this mathematical concept
for their profession. On the other hand, they would have to create a video lesson
on the subject (similar to the ones on Youtube) that would be a distance evaluation
tool in oral presentation format. The final grade was calculated as follows: 50% for
the written group work and 50% for the presentation (individual part). Thus, if any
element of the group did not speak in the video, the individual classification would
be null.
The students’ enthusiasm and excitement were visible, they were motivated to
build something creative, and committed to taking risks by doing interesting work.
The Informatics Engineering class was composed of 40 students, so 8 groups of
5 elements were formed. Each group chose the topic of Vector Functions content
application and explored different computational means to be able to explain the
concept in a more visual and interactive way. For example, the concept of Divergence,
of Laplacian Operator or even the work of Image Processing.
The challenge proposed to the student groups was to try to answer the question:
How can weexplain to our classmates the usefulness of the Laplacianoperator in aclear and
functional way?.
The group of students began by presenting some approaches in image processing,

Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and the applications of this operator, for
example, in medicine (segmentation of dermatological images), security (facial
recognition) androbotics (object detection in navigation). Based on the Flipped
Learning methodology, the students explained to their colleagues thatwhatdiffer-
entiates the Laplacian operator from other image detectors is the fact that it works
with a 2nd order derivative, while the others work with 1st order derivatives. They
specified that the positive Laplacian removes the outer edges of an image, and the
negative Laplacian removes the inner edges of the image. Thus, the students chose
a concrete problem situation whose objective was to eliminate noise from a given
image, in order to detect and smooth its edges. To do so, this group of students chose
to develop codes with Matlab software to apply the positive and negative Laplacian
Operator to the original image, obtaining the images shown in Fig. 1.
The student group observed that applying the negative Laplacian allowed them
to obtain a sharper image (e.g., a greater difference in the camera tripod). Thus,
the students demonstrated the usefulness of the Laplacian to locate and highlight
gray-level discontinuities (the edge pixels of an image) by increasing the contrast
between the edge and the background. Similar works exist in the medical field [11]
and with the use of Python [12]. According to Araujo and Meira, the advance of
ICT in teaching, in computational technology has been improving both at the level
of the creation of new computational languages, as well as in the implementation
of algorithms in mathematical software, pointing out that [4]: “Such mathematical
software gives freedom to its users to create their own methods that facilitate their
understanding.” (p. 6).
Professor B worked with the students of the Electronic and Automation Engi-
neering, Mechanical Engineering, and Informatics Engineering degrees, during a
semester that also took place in a completely online format. The assessmentpro-
posalconsisted in exploring the syllabus of the Probability and Statistics curricular
unit, more specifically, with contents related to Descriptive Statistics and Prob-
ability Distributions. For Probability and Statistics teaching, the use of ICT has
several advantages, as mentioned by Mills [5]: “An advantage of the microcomput-
erin the statistics classroomis that it allows students to accomplish computational
tasks more quickly and efficiently, thereby freeing themtofocus moreon statistics
concepts. Therefore, thecomputernotonly operates as a powerful computational tool,
but it can also help to reinforce specific concepts by providing settings in which
students can apply statistics concepts and techniques.” (p. 2).
Ninety-eight students participated (total of all classes) on an individual basis,
i.e., nostudentwork groups were formed. To make up for the absence of face-to-
face assessment moments throughout the semester, the continuous assessment of
Original Image
Matlab Code Laplacian Positive Operator
Matlab Code Laplacian Negative Operator
Fig. 1 Matlab codes and the images projected by them
these students was based on 3 assessment instruments, 2 of which consisted of indi-

vidual resolution of problem situations using the Excel computer tool. This tool was
chosen because it is easily accessible to students, allowing to visualize the results in
a fewsteps. Also, it contains several statistical functions, which makes it very wide
spread for teaching of probabilities and statistics [13, 13].
To assess the contents of Descriptive Statistics, Excel files with several problem
situations were made available to students. Figure 2 presents an example of response
presented by a student for the construction of a diagram of extremes and quartiles,
calculation of measures of central tendency and dispersion of samples, quartiles,

and extremes by observation of frequency tables (and their validation with Excel
functions).
To explore the contents related to Probability Distributions, during the classes,
Excel was used as a tool to visualize the distributions and to calculate the prob-
abilities of the Binomial, Poisson and Normaldistributions. A file foreachdistribu-
tionwasmadeavailabletothestudents, andtocalculate the probabilities of the proposed
problems, the students had to identify which type of distribution and which param-
eters should be inserted in the respective file, and thus, solve the problem. Figure 3
shows the file thatwas made available to students for the Poisson distribution, in
which can be seen the distribution of probabilities depending on the parameter k and
the respective functions and parameters used to calculate the point or cumulative
probabilities for a given number of successes (x).
Forthe second assessment instrument, an online testwas given with questions
aboutprobability distributions. To solve them, students should use the respective
Fig. 2 Student response to a problem situation used to assess Descriptive Statistics (in Excel) 1st
assessment instrument
Fig. 3 Poisson distribution file made available to students and used in class to solve exercises
Fig. 4 Resolution of an
online assessment question
by an informatics
engineering student
Excel files. Figure 4 shows the resolution of one of the questions of this assessment by
a Computer Engineering student, which shows that after interpreting the problemand
extracting the parameters, Excelwas used to calculate the required probability. During
the lessons, as they were all working in Excel, the teacher noticed great participation
fromthe students, as they all had the goal of reaching a satisfactory solution with the
use of the tool. Namely, it positively impacted on the interest and attitudes in their
mathematical learning [15]. Regarding the assessments, the students felt safe and
performed well. Despite the online environment, the use of the computer tool was of
great help in keeping the students interested and participative, which was reflected
in the results of the evaluations using Excel.
Professor C worked with the students of the undergraduate courses of Management
and Accounting during a semester that took place in a mixed format (face-to-face and
online). The proposed evaluation consisted in exploring the contents of the curricular
unit Quantitative Methods Applied to Management, more specifically, with contents
related to Linear Programming.
As one of the evaluation tools it was proposed a challenge, a problem situation that
allowed the application of the linear programming method and the Excel Solver, used
by other authors [3]. The challenge was proposedto 28 students (total ofallclasses)
who participated online and individually, with motivation to solve the problem. The
final presentation of the work took place via Microsoft Teams. Figure 5 shows the
problematic situation that was proposed to the students: regional agricultural plan-
ning for 3 kibbutzim [16] considering some limitations of arable land and water
distribution:
The students were engaged in exploring hypotheses and defining variables.
Initially, they had difficulty interpreting the problem and defining the restrictions. Out
of 28 students, only 10 found the right solution. Figure 6 shows one student’s descrip-
tion and interpretation of the proposed online assessment challenge. The objective
function (total profit) was defined as a product of matrices using Excel and the Solver
tool to find the solution to the problem.
Considering the general enthusiasm of the students in presenting their work and to
promoteinter- course relations and inter-curricular communication, the three profes-
sors organized a videoconference for the students of the various degree courses with
Kibbutz Usable Land (Acres) Water Allocation (Acre Feet)

1 400 600
2 600 800
3 300 375
▪ Crops grown in this region: sugar beets, cotton, and sorghum.

▪ Since limited water, every kibbutz plant same proportion of irrigable land.
▪ Goal: Maximize net return by determining how many acres to use for each crop at each
kibbutz.
Fig. 5 Problematic situation of regional agricultural planning for 3 kibbutzim [16] (online
assessment question)
a debate on the topic: “The functionality of Mathematics in ISPGAYA’scourses from

the students’ perspective”. The ideacame up to break a little bit the rhythm of succes-
sive classes in distance education, motivate students to the mathematicalcontents and
promote an interaction among students fromthe different courses of the Institute. In
this way, students shared their work with colleagues from other courses, showing,
from student to student, the importance of studying certain mathematical concepts in
Polytechnic teaching, presenting concrete examples of application in various profes-
sional contexts. It was interesting to observe students fromthe Computer Engineering
course questioning colleagues from the Managementcourse about the use ofmatrices
in solving linear programming problems to solve Management problems and, vice-
versa, Management colleagues being helped and receiving recommendations from
their Informatics Engineering colleagues to improve their Excel spreadsheets.
4 Discussion
As mentioned above, the recommendations for the Didactics of Mathematics refer

to the use of technologies in the classroom. In this paper, it was possible to go a little
further, and present a proposal in which technological tools appear integrated (and
not disjointed) in the assessment system and are part of the assessment instruments
themselves in several Mathematics curricular units.
Some difficulties have been experienced in the assessment process based on
Problem-Based Learning. Here, some of these weaknesses are highlighted: difficulty
in managing and distinguishing individual work fromcollective work; assessing in
an impartial and fairway, despite the different strategies usually used by teachers
to mitigate this unfairness, such as complementing the written assessment of the
assignments with the assessment of an oral presentation (used by Teacher A). Itwas
noticed thatwhenthe evaluation is based on individual computationalwork (the case
of Teachers B and C), on the one hand there is greater fairness in the evaluation
process, but on the other hand there is no cooperation and transfer of skills between
students within the peer group (as occurred in the case of Teacher A). As strengths
of this approach, the possibility of enabling a Real Assessment of Student Learning
Fig. 6 Definition of the decision variables, all restrictions and solution of the proposed challenge
using Excel’s Solver by a student in the Management degree
stands out, since students with PBL assessment develop mathematical and program-
ming skills that they would never develop with traditional teaching–learning method-
ologies, such as: interpretation, investigation, hypothesis formulation, technological
questioning (and comparison of techniques), initiative, creativity, logical reasoning,
organization, mathematicalmodeling. In addition, the final videoconference was
useful in enabling cooperative work between peers from different undergraduate
courses (Engineering and Management), with students receiving recommendations
from peers from other courses for the development of their work.
Another issue that was discussed is related to the fact to define in advance the
software that the students should use to solve the problem situations (teacher B
and teacher C suggested Excel). However, teacher A did not define a software, she
suggested GeoGebra because it is free software, but without specifying or requiring
a computer program. In fact, it was surprising to observe that several groups chose
Matlab and were already using it autonomously.
The experiments with students described above allowed to conclude that the Problem
Based Student Assessment process presents great advantages by allowing the trans-
ference of skills between students and the exploration of real problems and the
student’s professional context. The use of the Flipped Learning methodology was also
very useful in the sense of promoting greater motivation and commitment from the
students (and from the teacher) in the teaching–learning process. Toovercome thed-
ifficulties incollectiveassessment, asuggestion is tousea mixedsystem of assessment
should be used that includes individual and collective Problem Based Student Assess-
ment with, for example, an oral presentation of the work in which all elements of the
group are required to participate so that the teacher can perceive the greater/lesser
participation of the element in the development of the computational group work.
In future work, it would be interesting to present a range of software to students
so that they themselves decide which software they should use, orwhich is more
suitable, to solve the proposed problem-situation. In this way, such technological
questioning should be provoked in our students:
To solve this type of situation, what mathematical concepts and techniques should I study?
Which software should I use? Which one allows me to visualize different representations
of the problem (algebraic, graphical, numerical)? Which one permits to simulate different
scenarios and easily compare the results? Which mathematical techniques are the most
appropriate? (Broaden the range of knowledge for the student investigate andselect).
And this kind of questioning in the teaching of the mathematics curricular units:
In the scope of polytechnic education, in what situations are ICT useful? And in what
situations can they hinder the development of the student’s abstract reasoning?
It would be interesting if the mathematics teacher could propose the exploration

of problem situations thatwould allow the student to explore mathematicalmod-
eling techniques, manipulation ofparameters, simulation, projection, prediction, etc.
In particular, the construction ofmathematical models. However, there are certain
teaching time restrictions and faculty limitations that could be worked around with
greater investment in teacher training and re-adaptation of polytechnic curricula to
the needs of the twenty-first century generation of students.
Acknowledgements This work was funded by Instituto Superior Politécnico Gaya, ISPGAYA.
The authors thank to the students: André Silva, Bruno Borges, Bruno Neves, João Moita, Pedro
Briga, Filipa Santos.
References
1. NCTM, National Council of Teachers of Mathematics: Principles and Standards for School
Mathematics (2000)
2. BECTA:What there search says about using ICT in Maths(2003)
3. Dias, M.: A Programação Linearno Ensino Secundário. Tesede Mestrado. Universidadede
Aveiro, Portugal (2011)
4. Araújo, L., Meira, J.: Potencialidades do Software Matlab no Ensino e Aprendizagem de
Matemática. XIII ENEM Encontro Nacionalde Educação Matemática.Cuiabá/MT (2019)
5. Mills, J.D.: Using computer simulation methods toteach statistics: a review of the literature. J.
Stat. Educ. 10(1) (2002)
6. Malheiros, A.: Researche son mathematical modeling and diverse trend son education and
mathematics education. Bolema 26(43) (2012)
7. Borochovicius, E., Tortella, J.: Aprendizagem Baseada em Problemas: ummétodode ensino-
aprendizageme suaspráticaseducativas. Ensaio Avaliaçãoe Políticas Públicasem Educação
22(83), 263–294 (2014)
8. Pereira, C., Júnior, G., Oliveira, K., Santos, N., Passos, R.: Suporte ao Ensino Remoto:
Metodologias ativas de aprendizagemeavaliaçãoformativa. NIDES,2ªedição (2020)
9. Sambell, K., McDowell, L., Brown, S.: But is it fair?: an exploratory study of student perceptions
of the consequential validity of assessment. Stud Educ Eval 23(4), 349–371(1997)
10. Hwang, G.J., Lai, C.L., Wang, S.Y.: Seamless flipped learning: amobile technology-enhanced
flipped classroom with effective learning strategies. J. Comput. Educ. 2 (4), 449–473 (2015)
11. Faria, D.: Trabalhos Práticos Análisee Processamentode Imagem. Tesede Mestrado. FEUP,
Portugal (2010)
12. Antonello, R.: IntroduçãoaVisãoComputacional com Pythone OpenCV.Parte1de2.Versão0.1a
13. Hunt, D.N.: Teaching statistics with Excel 5.0. Maths Stats. 7(2),11–14 (1996)
14. Chaamwe, N., Shumba, L.: ICT integrated learning: using spreadsheets as tools for e-learning,
a case of statistics in Microsoft excel. Int. J. Inf. Educ. Technol. 6(6), 435–440 (2016)
15. Lee, S.L., Park, J., Choi, S.H., Kim, D.J.: Re-exploring teaching and learning of probability
and statisticsusing excel. J. Korea Soc. Comput. Inf. 21(7), 85–92 (2016)
16. Leung, Y: Interregional equilibrium and fuzzy linear programming: 1. Environ. Plan. A: Econ.
Space 20(1), 25–40. Pion Limited, California (1988).
Robotic Process Automation (RPA)
Platforms to Boost Students’ Career
Readiness
Mary Lebens , Mousumi Munmun , and Roger Finnegan
Abstract A critical goal for faculty is helping students find employment after grad-
uation. Students’ career readiness is boosted by imbuing the curriculum with tools
employers require. The challenge is determining which tools are in demand. This
study begins with a review of the related work underlying the research question:
Should schools teach the Robotic Process Automation (RPA) platforms in the Gartner
Leaders Quadrant to boost students’ career readiness for the RPA sector? Then
the paper explains the descriptive study design, which was used to examine how
frequently the RPA platforms in the Quadrant are described in current job postings.
The findings clearly support that higher education should teach the RPA platforms in
the Leaders Quadrant to boost career readiness. This study’s broader impact is that
faculty can use these findings to teach in-demand RPA tools, which will in turn, help
their students find careers in this fast-growing sector of technology.
Keywords Robotic Process Automation (RPA) · Gartner leaders quadrant ·

Information systems students · Information systems curriculum
1 Introduction
As educators we want our students to find successful employment after graduation.

This means faculty must teach tools that are in demand by employers to increase
students’ career readiness. The problem is determining which tools are the leaders in
their industry sector and are in demand by employers. This research study uncovers
whether the Gartner Quadrants report is a useful place for educators to find the
M. Lebens (B) · M. Munmun · R. Finnegan

Metropolitan State University, Saint Paul, MN 55106, USA
e-mail: mary.lebens@metrostate.edu; mary.lebens@summitoic.edu
M. Munmun
e-mail: mousumi.munmun@metrostate.edu
R. Finnegan
e-mail: roger.finnegan@metrostate.edu
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_24
266 M. Lebens et al.
Robotic Process Automation (RPA) tools that are in demand by employers and
therefore can be used to improve students’ career readiness.
This paper begins with an overview of the related work, which informs the
research question. The paper then describes the quantitative approach to the descrip-
tive research design, which included analyzing a sample of 500 + job descriptions
to determine the number of times a specific RPA platform is mentioned in the job
postings. Next the results are discussed in terms of how the findings on RPA tools
supported the research question. The impact of the results is discussed, as well as the
limitations of this study and avenues for future research, and finally, the conclusions
are presented.
2 Background
RPA is a growing sector of Information Technology (IT), offering potential for

students seeking careers in IT [6]. As higher education institutions examine how
to boost career readiness for RPA, a natural question is which platform should the
students be taught. A platform that is valuable in industry would offer the most
opportunities for students, and a place to look for these platforms is in the Gartner
Quadrants report, specifically in the Leaders Quadrant which represents the most
important companies in a specific sector.
2.1 Gartner Quadrants
Gartner is a consulting and research organization with over 15,000 clients. They
provide research reports to clients on various aspects of IT. These reports include
information on the scope of the market for various technologies, including business
intelligence and RPA. Gartner provides a graphic of its “Magic Quadrants” in these
reports. The graphic is a matrix that plots companies operating in a specific tech-
nology market based on the perceived completeness of their product vision and the
company’s ability to execute that vision. The quadrants include niche players, chal-
lengers, visionaries, and leaders. Niche players perform well in specific markets.
Challengers have strong execution but lack a vision for their product. Visionaries
have a strong vision for their product but may not have the ability to execute it in a
wide market. Leaders have both a complete vision for their product and the ability to
execute on that vision. They are considered the best products in a particular market
[1].
The Gartner quadrants have been criticized as obsolete since they are at most
updated annually and in one year technology may change rapidly. Additionally,
Gartner’s proprietary research methodology lacks transparency. Vendors are included
in the quadrants based on three criteria: budget, revenue, and the number of customers.
A company missing a criterion may be left out of the report and the criteria may not
Robotic Process Automation (RPA) Platforms to Boost Students’ Career … 267
be as important as the vendor’s customer service or customer reviews. Therefore, a

company providing a valuable product may be excluded from Gartner’s report [2].
2.2 Robotic Process Automation (RPA)
RPA is a technology that trains software to perform repetitive tasks, such as

copying information and performing keystrokes. RPA’s goal is streamlining processes
by removing humans from performing mundane recurring tasks. RPA automates
repetitive tasks that follow simple logical rules, freeing humans to perform more
complicated tasks with more complex rules [3].
Demand for RPA is growing at 20% per year and is expected to be a $5 billion
industry by 2024 [4]. Even though systems perform many tasks, there are still manual
processes in most organizations which can be automated by RPA. One software
robot can perform the tasks of two to five people. These robots do not need to be
programmed or integrated into existing IT applications. Instead, the bots are trained
to act like humans interacting with the systems, learning to perform repetitive tasks
on their own [5].
RPA adoption grew from 13% in 2020 to 20% in 2021, and is expected to grow to
universal adoption within the next five years [6]. This widespread adoption of RPA
is leading to an increasing number of career opportunities for students who possess
RPA skills.
2.3 Indeed.Com Jobs Board
Indeed.com is a jobs board owned by Recruit Holdings Company. The site claims
to have 250 million views per month as well as being the largest job site in the
United States. Indeed.com is an aggregator of job postings and pulls postings from
companies’ websites as well as from other job boards [7]. The descriptions for IT
jobs usually include specific technologies, for example, “RPA” or “robotic process
automation.”
3 Research Question
The research question was developed based on the review of related work:
Should schools teach the RPA platforms in the Gartner Leaders Quadrant to boost
students’ career readiness for the RPA sector?
3.1 Research Design
A quantitative descriptive design was chosen for this research study, since the inten-
tion was to examine how frequently the RPA platforms in the Gartner Leaders Quad-
rant are described in current job postings that mention the term “RPA.” A non-
experimental approach was chosen since the variables surrounding the job postings
cannot be controlled by the researchers.
3.2 Sample
The sample included 505 job postings listed on the Indeed website during the 45-
day window from December 5, 2021 to January 20, 2022. Indeed.com was selected
because it is the largest jobs board in the United States. To eliminate the risk of
duplicate postings, Indeed.com was the only website used in the research. A job
posted for multiple locations was considered a single job. Postings were verified as
unique to avoid duplication of postings. The postings included a description of job
requirements as well as any required certifications.
3.3 Procedure and Analysis
Gathering the data involved manually scraping job posting data from the Indeed.com
website and copying it into an Excel spreadsheet. The job postings were sorted in
descending order by the date of posting (from most to least recent).
After the job posting data was transferred to Excel, the data was analyzed to
determine the number of times each RPA tool appeared in the postings. A cross-
sectional analysis of the data was performed using a pivot table. The researchers
tallied the number of times each of the RPA platforms in the Gartner Leaders Quadrant
was mentioned, the number of times other RPA platforms that are not a part of the
Leaders Quadrant were mentioned, and the number of job postings that mentioned
RPA but did not reference a specific platform.
4 Results
The results of the analysis showed some of the job postings specified multiple RPA
platforms, while others did not specify a platform. 181 of the job listings mentioned
RPA experience as a qualification without specifying the platform. The top five RPA
platforms mentioned in the job postings that are a part of the Gartner Leaders Quad-
rant are UiPath, Automation Anywhere, BluePrism, Microsoft, and Pegasystems, as
Table 1 Job postings for RPA platforms in the gartner leaders quadrant
RPA platform Number of job postings for Percentage of job postings for
platform platform (%)
UiPath 163 32.38
Automation anywhere 87 17.23
BluePrism 83 16.44
Microsoft 24 4.75
PegaSystems 18 3.56
Appian 16 3.17
WorkFusion 10 1.98
IBM 6 1.19
SAP 4 0.79
EdgeVerve Systems 1 0.20
Nintex 1 0.20
NTT 1 0.20
ServiceTrace 1 0.20
Kryon 0 0.00
NICE 0 0.00
shown in Table 1 and Fig. 1. These five platforms accounted for nearly 75% of the
postings which specified a platform that was a part of the Leaders Quadrant.
The results of the analysis showed nine RPA platforms mentioned in the job
postings were not a part of the Leaders Quadrant and these comprised almost 7% of
the postings which specified a platform, as shown in Table 2 and Fig. 2.
5 Discussion
The results revealed that the top five RPA platforms mentioned in the job postings,
which are also a part of the Gartner Leaders Quadrant, are UiPath, Automation
Anywhere, BluePrism, Microsoft, and Pegasystems. These platforms accounted for
almost 75% of the postings that specified a platform. While there are nine plat-
forms specified in postings which do not appear in the Leaders Quadrant, these
platforms comprised less than 7% of the listings that mentioned a platform. The
most popular platform outside of the Leaders Quadrant is Alteryx, which appeared
in a mere nineteen, or 3.76%, of postings specifying a platform. Since the majority
of postings which specified a platform described one in the Leaders Quadrant, the
findings support the theory that higher education should teach the RPA platforms in
the Leaders Quadrant to increase students’ career readiness for the RPA sector.
However, the answer to the research question of whether schools should teach the
RPA platforms in the Leaders Quadrant is a qualified yes. While the vast majority
Fig. 1 Job postings for RPA platforms in the gartner leaders quadrant
Table 2 Job listings for platforms outside of the gartner leaders quadrant
RPA platform Number of job postings for platform Percentage of job postings for
platform (%)
Alteryx 19 32.38
MuleSoft 5 17.23
Xceptor 3 16.44
Mendix 2 4.75
WDG Automation 2 3.56
Celonis 1 3.17
K2 1 1.98
Knime 1 1.19
UI Vision (Kantu) 1 0.79
of postings that required a specific platform described one included in the Leaders
Quadrant, a significant percentage, nearly 36% of postings, did not specify a platform
at all. This indicates that teaching any platform may help to increase students’ career
readiness for the RPA sector. Nevertheless, to provide the greatest career readiness
Fig. 2 Job listings for platforms outside of the gartner leaders quadrant
in that sector, teaching one of the top five RPA platforms in the Leaders Quadrant is
ideal.
Based on the results of this research, faculty should choose one of the RPA tools
in the Leaders Quadrant to integrate into their existing IT curriculum, in order to
match the skills students are learning to the RPA platforms that are in demand. When
choosing which RPA tool to integrate into the curriculum, faculty should note that not
all of the RPA platforms in the Quadrant were mentioned in a significant amount of
job postings. Two of the tools (Kryon and NICE) were not specified in even a single
posting. Surprisingly, only a handful of listings mentioned the enormous software
companies SAP and IBM, so although they both provide free RPA curriculum for
faculty, they may not be the best choices for boosting career readiness.
While the Leaders Quadrant serves as a guide to narrow the choices, faculty
must examine the current job market to further refine the choice of RPA platform.
Moreover, while this study examined job postings for the entire United States, faculty
may want to narrow their search for postings to regions where their students are
likely to seek employment. The demand for specific RPA platforms may vary across
different regions of the United States, based on the concentration of industry and
proximity to various software vendors.
While integrating RPA platforms into the curriculum may seem daunting to
faculty, several large universities in the United States and Canada have already intro-
duced RPA: the University of Texas, University of Toronto, Carnegie Mellon, and
DePaul University [8–11]. In addition, eight U.S. colleges and universities partnered
with UiPath, the RPA software company, to create curriculum, such as California
State University and Tuskegee University [3]. The ability of these institutions to
integrate RPA into their curriculum should encourage faculty to feel confident about
integrating RPA platforms into their own curriculum.
6 Limitation and Future Research
One limitation is of this research is that the sample was limited to a 45 day window.
Although this allowed the research to capture recent job postings, there may be
seasonal differences in job postings. This study will be repeated over another 45 day
window in a different season to gather additional follow-up data. Another limitation is
that study excluded information on the level of academic degree employers requested,
such as associates or bachelor’s level. Future research should examine the intersection
of academic degree and RPA job requirements.
7 Conclusion
The findings strongly support the idea that higher education should teach the RPA
platforms in the Gartner Leaders Quadrant to boost students’ career readiness for
the RPA sector. The conclusion is higher education should focus on the top five
Leaders Quadrant RPA platforms mentioned in the job postings, UiPath, Automation
Anywhere, BluePrism, Microsoft, and Pegasystems, and avoid other platforms which
have less demand from employers. Based on the results of this research, faculty should
choose one of the RPA tools in the Leaders Quadrant to integrate into their existing
IT curriculum, in order to match the skills that students are learning with the RPA
platforms that are in demand. The broad impact of this study is that faculty can use
these findings to choose in-demand RPA tools more accurately for their curriculum,
which will in turn, help their students prepare for careers in this fast-growing sector
of technology.
References
1. Lehman, J.: Magic Quadrants and Marketscopes: How Gartner Evaluates Vendors within a
Market. Gartner, Stamford, CT (2008)
2. Tayeb, H.: Is the Gartner Magic Quadrant Obsolete? (2022). https://www.uipath.com/rpa/rob
otic-process-automation
3. UiPath: Develop in-demand RPA skills for students at your institution. https://www.uipath.
com/rpa/academic-alliance.
4. Newswire, P.R.: Robotic Process Automation Market Growth Predicted at 20% Till 2024.
Global Market Insights, Inc. (2020)
5. Lacity, M.C., Willcocks, L.: What Knowledge Workers Stand to Gain From Automation (2015).
https://hbr.org/2015/06/what-knowledge-workers-stand-to-gain-from-automation
6. Horton, R., Gordeeva, M., Green, J., Rollason, C., Patel, T.: The Robots are Waiting: Are You
Ready to Reap the Benefits? Deloitte (2018)
7. Gerencer, T.: 30+ Best Job Search Engines and Boards for Finding a Job (2021). https://zety.
com/blog/best-job-search-sites#indeed
8. Honig, L.: Advances in robotic process automation. https://api.heinz.cmu.edu/courses_api/cou
rse_detail/94-886/. Last accessed 15 Feb 2022
9. Musselman, I.: UT Dallas 2021 Graduate Catalog (2021). https://learn.utoronto.ca/programs-

courses/courses/3757-robotic-and-intelligent-process-automation
10. Piperno, C., Simpson, C.: Robotic and intelligent process automation. https://learn.utoronto.
ca/programs-courses/courses/3757-robotic-and-intelligent-process-automation. Last accessed
15 Feb 2022
11. Adelakun, O.: Robotic process automation. https://www.cdm.depaul.edu/ipd/Programs/Pages/
Robotic-Process-Automation.aspx
Narrative of Videogames, Automation
of a Proposed Analysis Model
Patricia Salvador and Miguel Cobos
Abstract Videogames are cultural products that are immersed in practically all
social dynamics. These products convey messages, stories, facts, etc., created and
reaffirmed by the context that surrounds them. Therefore, it is important to iden-
tify their narratives to take advantage of them. At Indoamerica University, students
produce videogames starting from a story, from the literary narrative to the interac-
tive game narrative. Achieving effective links between the narratives and the player’s
experience is fundamental within the design process. This work is based on previous
research, where a model was proposed to identify the relationship between literary
narrative and narrative in videogames. This proposal, of a qualitative nature, consists
of 4 steps: 1. Context, 2. Literary narrative, 3. General description and 4. Relation-
ship between literary and video game narrative. We proceeded to review the model
to determine if the videogame narrative is present and appropriate according to the
identified story. Workshops were conducted based on a participatory practice, taking
advantage of the university academic context, with experts in the areas of videogames,
digital design, psychology, education, literature, together with the creators of these
products. This allowed correcting certain aspects and finally improving the original
model adjusted to emphasize the narrative in videogames. This result was adapted to
a quantitative approach for automation, following the recommendations of Adams
and Dormans, as well as the use of the Scrum methodology. The automation was
achieved using Microsoft Word with the support of Visual Basic for Applications,
thus generating an accessible tool, easy to apply and with immediate results. It is
planned to include the use of this tool in future projects and to highlight the importance
of videogame narrative in the corresponding syllabus.
Keywords Videogame · Narrative analysis · Automation
P. Salvador (B) · M. Cobos

Indoamerica University, Quito, Ambato, Ecuador
e-mail: patriciasalvador@uti.edu.ec
M. Cobos
e-mail: miguelcobos@uti.edu.ec
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_25
276 P. Salvador and M. Cobos
1 Introduction
1.1 Video Games as a Cultural Product
The human being, from the moment he is born, is automatically inserted in each
culture, where he will inevitably delimit and reproduce all his emotions, sensa-
tions, relationships, values, ideas, etc. Lotman [8] calls it a semiosphere, that is, the
field that allows an individual to have the weapons to construct the meaning of the
world and to live in it. Consequently, this space of meaning gives rise to countless
interactions, including the generation of cultural products with symbolic values that
lead to the reproduction of society and the expansion of capital [6]. Video games
are cultural products in which literature, music, visual arts, theater, design, among
others, converge. They represent the reality in which we live and are structured thanks
to a mixture of story, narration, playfulness, entertainment, culture, among others, as
stated by Fernández-Vara [5]. These cultural products emerge from stories, fables,
and tales, specific to the semiosphere that produces them. In the video game, they
take the form of literary narration until they become interactive, in order to produce
a unique game experience for each player.
1.2 Video Game Design and Production
Designing and producing video games today is a topic of great interest. What are
the relationships and determinations to design, how is the story maintained in the
narrative of the video game? It is essential to achieve an adequate and relevant
product in which the interactive narrative allows the immersion of the player and
that, this experience, favors the construction of the narrative in the player. There
is no design and production method that guarantees the aforementioned, what we
can take into account are the necessary elements of the video game, the literary
and interactive narrative, rules, mechanics, experience, space, among the main ones.
But identifying and generating them in the game does not ensure that the player
will be able to construct the plot after the playful act. This highly creative space,
designing and producing, is a transcendental state that will define the success or not
of a videogame.
1.3 Narrative in Videogames
The interest in recognizing and studying these new cultural products is not only
pertinent to a sociocultural context, but it is also possible to intervene from a narra-
tological approach. The video game is a narrative structure that proposes a series of
events delimited by space and time, in which the player not only intervenes playfully,
Narrative of Videogames, Automation of a Proposed Analysis Model 277
but also becomes part of this structure as a character and narrator of an interactive
story.
Narrative in video games is present from the story, as a literary discourse, to
the narrative of the video game, the latter as the way of telling the story from the
interactive components [14]. For this reason Pérez Latorre [9] and other authors
argue that the narrative in the video game is there and must be worked on, both for
the design and for the analysis.
1.4 The Need for a Narratological Analysis Tool for Video

Games
As already mentioned, video games as cultural products can be studied from various
lenses. In this sense, narratology allows us to analyze the story that is told through
the interactivity of the game [9]. Sometimes the design and development of the video
game can lose the story from which it started and thus lose the initial literary narrative
objective. A tool that allows linking the literary narrative axes with the interactive
narrative axes would allow analyzing the effective presence of the narratological
elements and the events of the game. The same that should trigger the gameplay. An
analysis tool of this type not only allows the subsequent study of the video game
design, but it can also become a working model for the design and development of
these technological cultural products.
2 Related Work
Several authors have worked on video game analysis and development models.
Fernández-Vara[5] in his book, Introduction to game analysis, recognizes story as a
general descriptive element, does not propose a format, and focuses on a study with
a sociocultural approach. Level Up, written by Rogers [10], proposes a step-by-step
structure that integrates the literary, graphic and video game narratives, his proposal
consists of the video game design document. Adams y Dormans [1], for their part,
from the inception of the idea move on to the development of experimental versions
and pilot tests. New ideas found in experimental development are welcomed and do
not necessarily have to conform to the initial story. And finally Jesse Schell [12]
exposes a way to build the video game, it does not have a structure; however, he
proposes important elements that are conceived thanks to the story, through a series
of lenses that allow to refine the design. These proposals are the closest to an analysis
tool and allow to study the structure of a video game.
3 Methodology
This paper is based on a previous research, where a model was proposed to identify the
relationship between literary narrative and narrative in video games. This proposal,
of a qualitative nature, consists of 4 steps: 1. Context, 2. Literary narrative, 3. General
description and 4. Relationship between literary and video game narrative. A problem
encountered in the model is that it does not allow to obtain an immediate tangible
result on the coherence between the video game narrative and its elements. Figure 1
shows the first step of the model to be improved.
In step 2, the intervention took place in 30% and basically consisted of organizing
the contents and automating it. Step 3 was improved by 50%, modifying the structure
of its content and including some parameters that were considered relevant, also
included criteria and graphics to help visualize the layout of the elements in the
video game.
Figure 2 shows a part of the format of Step 4, which identifies and describes the
relationships of the literary narrative with that of the video game. The contents of
this step were adjusted by 50% to improve the identification of the relationships.
In addition to this, the format does not offer a clear reading that leads to filling out
the table adequately. When the instrument was applied, there were errors of double
marking, erasures, crossings out that compromised the reading of the results. The
confusing data at the time of selection and description jeopardize the objectivity of
the study.
Subsequently, we proceeded to review the model, applying it to the video games
developed by the students, this allowed us to identify whether the parameters are
adequate, focused on determining whether the narrative of the video games is present
and adequate according to the identified story. This analysis involved methodological
proposals and recommendations from authors in different areas related to video game
design and literary narrative. or the literary part of the project, we worked with the
narrative structure proposed by Bal [2] and Freytag’s dramatic structure validated by
Kremers [7] and Rogers [10]. On the other hand, for the parameters of the structure of
the videogame, the following were considered: The formal structure of Fernández-
Vara [5], the sense of freedom proposed by Schell [12], the rules developed by Salem
Fig. 1 Step 1 of the model to be improved

Fig. 2 Excerpt from the model Step 4 to be improved
y Zimmerman [11], the mechanics proposed by Dormans [1], the Flow suggested
by Csikszentmihalyi [4] and Schell [12], the recommendations for making a video
game in 48 h as presented by Gabler on Adams y Dormas [1].
Based on the above analysis, workshops were held under a participatory practice,
taking advantage of the university academic context, with experts in the areas of
video games, digital design, psychology, education, and literature, together with
the creators of these products. This allowed correcting certain aspects and finally
improving the original model, adjusted to emphasize the narrative in video games.
The use of agile Scrum methodology helped in the process [13]. This result was
adapted to a quantitative approach in order to automate it and thus obtain a tool that
is easy to apply and interpret.
Automation was achieved using Microsoft Word with the support of Visual Basic
for Applications, in this way, an accessible, easy-to-use, easy-to-maintain and scal-
able tool was generated, with immediate results. This tool was refined several times
until a version was obtained that allowed it to be applied to the products with favorable
results.
4 Results
The final modified model discussed and worked on in workshops with experts
from different academic areas of Indoamerica University, together with video game
students, maintains the original structure as summarized in Table 1, adjusting certain
criteria for a quick application.
Table 1 Model adaptation: narrative analysis of videogames

Step Description % Intervention
1. Context General description of the video game 30
that helps to contextualize the game for
its analysis
2. Literary Narrative This structure builds the diegesis, the 30
fictional world from which the story
emerges
3. General description Technical overview/emphasis on the 50
storyline
4. Relationship between literary Detail of what happens in each event, 50
narrative and videogame narrative contrasting the elements of the
videogame and the narrative in each
event
4.1 Application of the Model
Among the video games, El secreto de Cantuña was selected, on which the automated
model was applied to determine the ease of use and the results obtained. This is
available in a Microsoft Word template with the use of macros, a new document
must be saved for each video game analyzed.
4.2 Case Study: El Secreto De Cantuña
This video game was developed by a student as a final project, to which the model
resulting from this work will be applied. It was chosen because it is based on a legend
of the city of Quito and can be used to analyze many narrative elements in each of
the steps. The process consists of opening the template and filling out each of the
sections. When finished, using the Process button, the results will be obtained in the
form of a table and graph. The steps are detailed below, with an explanation of what
happens in each one.
Step 1—Context. This section describes the most general aspects of the
videogame, this information is extracted from the GDD videogame design docu-
ment [3]. The possible options have been improved and automated, data logging is
now faster and more accurate as shown in Fig. 3.
Step 2–Literary Narrative. The second section focuses on the story and facts
related to the literary narrative that can be identified in the video game, describing
the narrator, character, space, time, and events that can be identified. To complete this
step, start from the design document and copy the story as presented in the design
document [3]. Then play the video game for several times to describe the elements
present related to the literary narrative (Fig. 4).
Fig. 3 Step 1 of the applied model on Cantuña videogame
Step 3–General description. The third part gives an overview of the video game.
Describes the world [12], the levels [12], the type of argument [9, 12], the rules
present at the level [11]. To complete this step, we start from the beat chart of the
design document proposed Rogers [10] where the details of the levels are described,
the rules are extracted from the design document and a labeled map based on the
Kremers [7] proposal has been incorporated, the latter makes it possible to identify
the elements of the videogame, as shown on Fig. 5. This step has been automated as
much as possible to facilitate its use and to prevent errors when executing it.
Step 4—Relationship between literary narrative and videogame narrative.
This is the final step of the model and the most automated. It is divided into 4 sections
categorized according to the original model with the adjustments recommended in
the workshops. The implementation in the selected video game is described below.
Formal Structure. This section is based on Fernández’s analysis and Rogers’s
beat-chart [5, 10]. The application is very simple, just identify the criterion, describe
what was observed when necessary and select the corresponding option among: Null,
Low, Medium, and High. Figure 4 shows the application on the video game under
study (Fig. 6).
Sense of the Freedom. This section follows Jesse Schell’s proposals for suggested
indirect controls [12]. These determine the presence of indirect controls that lead to
the objectives of the video game and fit the narrative of the game. Filling out this
section is like all those in Step 4. The application of this section in the video game
tested is shown in Fig. 7.
Flow. Analyzing the flow in video games is very important and helps the narration
of events. This is Based on Csikszentmihalyi’s flow theory [4] and recommended
by many authors, allows to analyze the balance between the skills and challenges
presented to the player. The flow analysis is shown in Fig. 8.
Mechanics. The analysis of the mechanics focused on determining their effect
on the narrative will help in an important assessment of the result of this model.
The mechanics have been worked under the proposal of Adams y Dormas [1]. The
application in the video game under analysis is shown in Fig. 9.
Analysis report generation. Once the entire model has been filled in, the report
must be generated to obtain the results. Just click on the Generate Report button,
and the data table and the graph with the percentages obtained according to each
criterion and the degree to which the literary narrative fits the video game narrative
will be inserted at the end of the document. Figure 10 shows the data table and the
graph based on the steps worked on.
As shown in the figure, the result allows to identify visually and in the data table
the points that should be intervened to fit the narrative, this will help considerably in
the success of the video game.
Fig. 6 Formal sructure as a part of Step 4
Fig. 7 Sense of the feedom as a part of Step 4
Fig. 8 Flow as a part of Step 4
Fig. 9 Mechanics as a part of Step 4

Fig. 10 Results obtained from the analysis
5 Conclusions
The work formats are varied and demonstrate the wide spectrum that exists. In this
framework, aligning these propositions in a systematized analysis tool allows clas-
sifying, ordering, and linking the information to have access to a better reading of
the data emerging from the narratives of the game and its interactivity. Automating
the model improves application and precision and allows for immediate results and
the possibility of applying it several times on the same product.
The analysis tool makes it possible to easily identify the critical points where it is
necessary to intervene to establish the relationship between the literary narrative and
the video game narrative. In addition, based on the results obtained, it is possible to
determine graphically and data on which criteria should be adjusted.
This tool not only serves as an analysis, but also to consider it within the design
process, incorporating it in the syllabus as part of the methodological process to
produce video games.
References
1. Adams, E., Dormans, J.: Game Mechanics: Advanced Game Design. New Riders, Berkeley,
CA (2012)
2. Bal, M., van Boheemen, C.: Narratology: Introduction to the Theory of Narrative. University
of Toronto Press, Toronto (2009)
3. Cobos, M., Ripalda, D.: Production of educational videogame from the design document.
Presented at the Intelligent Human Systems Integration (IHSI 2022) Integrating People and
Intelligent Systems (2022). https://doi.org/10.54941/ahfe100996
4. Csikszentmihalyi, M.: Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. Harper [and] Row, New
York (2009)
5. Fernández-Vara, C.: Introduction to Game Analysis. Routledge, New York, NY (2019)
6. Kozuch, O., Mayer, V.: Pig kidney epithelial (PS) cells: a perfect tool for the study of flaviviruses
and some other arboviruses. Acta Virol. 19(6), 498 (1975)
7. Kremers, R.: Level Design: Concept, Theory, and Practice. A.K. Peters, Wellesley, MA (2009)
8. Lotman, Y.M., Navarro, D.: La semiosfera, vol. 1. Cátedra, Valencia (1996)
9. Pérez Latorre, Ó. et al.: Análisis de la significación del videojuego fundamentos teóricos del
juego. Universitat Pompeu Fabra (2010)
10. Rogers, S.: Level Up! The Guide to Great Video Game Design. Wiley, Chichester (2014)
11. Salen, K., Zimmerman, E.: Rules of Play: Game Design Fundamentals. MIT Press, Cambridge,
Mass (2003)
12. Schell, J.: The Art of Game Design: A Book of Lenses. CRC PressTaylor & Francis Group,
Boca Raton (2019)
13. Schwaber, K., Sutherland, J.: The Scrum Guide the Definitive Guide to Scrum: The Rules of the
Game (2020). https://scrumguides.org/docs/scrumguide/v2020/2020-Scrum-Guide-US.pdf
14. Suárez, A.: Un modelo de análisis para la narración en el videojuego en presencia de interacción.
Caracteres 8(1), 39–71 (2018)
Innovation and Information Technologies
in Microenterprises in the Commerce
Sector
Gerardo Arceo Moheno , Eric Ramos Méndez ,

María Alejandrina Almeida Aguilar , Rubén Jerónimo Yedra ,
Martha Patricia Silva Payró , and Carlos Mario Flores Lázaro
Abstract Microenterprises (ME) normally compete with local companies and in

stable environments. However, given the phenomenon of globalization fostered by
information technologies (IT), this is changing rapidly, therefore, it is common to
compete currently against larger and bigger companies in other parts of the world
and even on the Web, which can offer improved and innovative products at lower
costs. To deal with this, ME are forced to innovate their processes and/or products,
and in this scenario, the ones that must play a relevant role are the ITs. This paper
presents the results of a research that aimed to carry out an analysis of the activities
related to innovation and the use of IT in ME in the commercial sector of the city
of Villahermosa, Mexico. For this study, directors and/or managers of 67 ME were
questioned. Among the obtained results, it was found that even though entrepreneurs
consider innovation relevant within companies, few of them conduct activities that
indicate innovation, therefore the idea expressed by entrepreneurs is not reinforced.
In relation to IT, the results show that the uses that are given to them are of a general
and non-strategic nature in such a way that they help to promote innovation.
Keywords Internet · Competitiveness · Market · Business sector · Information

technologies
1 Introduction
Global competition, increased customer demands, accelerated technological devel-

opments and product life cycles are factors that currently characterize the economic
environment. This brings implicit changes in the organizational structures of compa-
nies. In this environment, it becomes essential for the companies to adopt an innova-
tive capacity to continuously keep innovating their products, services, and processes,
in such a way that they can offer an additional value that is difficult to imitate by
G. Arceo Moheno (B) · E. Ramos Méndez · M. A. A. Aguilar · R. J. Yedra · M. P. S. Payró ·

C. M. F. Lázaro
Juarez Autonomous University of Tabasco, 86040 Villahermosa, Tabasco, PC, Mexico
e-mail: ericarceo@hotmail.com
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_26
288 G. Arceo Moheno et al.
their competitors. In this new reality to many, a relevant factor is the information
technologies (IT), since these help companies to improve those activities that are
related with processes, which has made them increasingly more used as a way of
optimization of operations and, in this way, obtain differences with their competitors
[1]. According to some researchers, there is a relation between innovation and IT,
indicating that these technologies are much more than what can be seen [2], although
unfortunately many microenterprises (ME) are not getting the adequate advantage
of the mentioned technologies.
It is worth mentioning that one of the criteria for classifying the companies in
Mexico is the number of employees, thus indicating that microenterprises, regardless
of the sector they belong to (commercial, industrial and services) have a workforce
of 1 to 10 employees [3].
Although IT have recently received much publicity as the solution to all business
problems, there is still confusion regarding their relationship with innovation. Many
entrepreneurs think that there is a relationship between investment and performance,
persisting the idea that integrating IT into organizational processes will make the
company innovative, believing that with the increase in investment in IT, organi-
zational processes will automatically be improved, therefore this confusion has led
to many companies not reflecting the expected results despite the money invested,
causing distrust to many entrepreneurs due to the high degree of technological
involvement necessary for a successful innovation program.
Considering the aforementioned, the objective of this paper is to know the
existing relationship between IT and innovation in the commercial ME of Villa-
hermosa, Mexico, with the purpose of proposing improvements that strengthen this
relationship.
2 Context
The most recent study on Business Demography 2021 done by the National Institute
of Statistics and Geography (INEGI) estimated that there are 4.9 million companies
in Mexico, of which 95% are microenterprises. Furthermore, between May 2019 and
July 2021, one million 187 thousand 169 micro, small and medium enterprises were
born; in contrast, close to one million 583 thousand closed their doors, of which the
vast majority were microenterprises [4].
It is highly recognized the input of ME to regional and national development for
its contribution to social and regional development.
Marcelo Lebendiker, president of Parque TEC, points out that the mortality of
these companies is very high, indicating that only 20% of this type of company
survives in the first three years of life [5]. This is corroborated by the e-Mexico
National System, which indicated that 80% of this type of company fails before
reaching 5 years of life, while, of the remaining 20, 90% fail to reach 10 years of life.
The study companies do not escape the whole situation expressed. The competition
of the informal economy and the great difficulty in accessing credit are some of the
Innovation and Information Technologies in Microenterprises … 289
causes that lead to this mortality, however many of the causes of this situation are
found within the company such as incorrect decision-making, the inappropriate use
of own resources and the lack of business training of managers.
Nevertheless, not many studies have been found that relate the innovative capacity
of companies with IT in the environment of the city of Villahermosa, Mexico, despite
the relevance of innovation in business competitiveness, given the relationship of IT
with innovation and the relevance of the study companies in terms of their contribu-
tion to the local economy, it is expected that the results found in this research and
shown in this communication provide theorical knowledge in this field.
The question of research that originates this study is: Are IT related to the inno-
vative performance of the ME? and in accordance with this, the results obtained in
commercial microenterprises in the city of Villahermosa are shown.
To know the size of the study universe, data from the Mexican Business Informa-
tion System (SIEM) of the Ministry of Economy, of the National Institute of Statistics
and Geography (INEGI) was used [6]. The study universe was constituted of 12,175
microenterprises from the commercial sector of the city of Villahermosa.
To determine the sample size, the following formula was used for finite populations
(less than or equal to 100,000) [7]:

n = Z2 ∗ N ∗ P(1 − P) (N − 1) ∗ K2 + Z2 ∗ P(1 − P)
where n is the sample size, N is the size of the total population or universe, Z is the
number of units of standard deviation in the normal distribution that will produce the
desired degree of confidence, and P is the percentage of the population that has the
characteristics of interest, which could be calculated by means of a pilot test, but if
it is not known in advance, as in this case, it is recommended to use the worst case
scenario of 50%.
Taking into account that the data considered for this study are the following: N =
12,175, Z = 1.96 for the 95%, P = 0.5 y K = 0.1, the result was 67 as the sample
size.
To obtain the data, e-mail was used, however, in several cases the company was
visited (in some cases it had to be done several times), requiring the director or
manager of the company for the complete panorama on the organizational processes
that these must have.
3 Materials and Method
The methodology used in this research was constituted in this manner: bibliographic
review, approach to the model and research hypothesis, design of the data collection
instrument, determination of the study population and sample, and statistical analysis
of the information.
Fig. 1 Theorical model and research hypothesis
Figure 1 shows the model used in this research, which focuses mainly on the
relationship between innovation and IT, seeking to know the innovative performance
of commercial microenterprises through the use given to IT.
According to this model, the following primary research hypothesis is proposed:
H1 : IT maturity is positively related to innovation maturity.
From which the following secondary hypotheses are derived:
H1a : The uses given to IT have a positive impact on innovation.
H1b : IT maturity has a positive relationship with innovation activities.
Tables 1 and 2 show the variables involved in this model, which were constructed
from an extensive literature review and questionnaires such as “Survey on the use of
Information and Communication Technologies and Electronic Commerce in compa-
nies” (National Institute of Statistics of Spain (INE), “Diagnostic questionnaire on
the management of innovation in your company” (Valencian Association of Plastics
Entrepreneurs (AVEP)), “Survey on the state and use of Technologies of Informa-
tion” (Monterrey’s Virtual Technology University), “Determinants of innovation in
the company” (Economic and Social Council of the Region of Murcia (CES)) and
“Survey on the use of Information Technologies and Communications and Electronic
Commerce in companies” (National Institute of Statistics of Spain (INE)).
Likert scales with 3-point ranges were developed, where 1 is equivalent to “totally
disagree”, “has substantially decreased” or “no use”, depending on the scale to be
measured, and in the same way, 3 is equivalent to “totally agree”, “has grown spectac-
ularly” or “intense use”, being able to say that the ratings have a relatively equivalent
meaning, depending on the context of the item to be answered. No questions were
asked that could be considered compromising (such as those related to money), in
order to avoid bias in the answers and thus obtain greater veracity, which gives ample
security to draw global conclusions from the obtained data.
Table 1 Innovation block variables

Name Definition
Importance It is an item that reflects the assessment of the importance of innovation within the
company
Context 10 items (arising from the enablers of innovation [8], with which it is intended to
know the operational and market context in which the company operates
Obstacles It is intended to know those factors that are totally obstacles and which ones are
not obstacles at all to carry out innovation in companies. Consists of 13 items
Attitudes In this variable, it is interesting to know the value that best reflects the attitudes
shown by the companies; that is, if they agree or disagree with a series of attitudes
mentioned in this variable. Consists of 11 items
Activities 21 items with which it is sought to know the valuation given to the activities
related to innovation and carried out within the company
Maturity This variable (or index) is constituted of the variables importance, context,
attitudes and activities. A “high” maturity in innovation is obtained when it is
considered of vital importance in the company, the value on the attitudes that the
company shows towards innovation is high, a high assessment is obtained for the
context that can foster innovation is high and the valuation obtained for innovation
activities within the company is high
Table 2 Variables of the information technologies block

Name Definition
Importance Item that allows knowing the role played by IT as a source of organizational
competitive advantage
Attitude With these 6 items, we seek to know the assessment given to IT in different areas
and moments within the organization
Investment 3 items that measure the degree of growth of investment in IT, be it hardware,
software or training
Usage Based on the Technology Assimilation Theory [9], 23 items were designed to
measure the degree of use that IT has in the daily activities of the company
Maturity This variable (or index) is integrated with the four previous variables, being able to
say that there is a “high” maturity of IT when they are considered as an important
source of competitive advantage, there is a high appreciation in terms of attitudes
towards them, investment in them has increased, and there is a high assessment
regarding the use of these in specific activities related to strategic activities
4 Results
Based on the results obtained from this survey, it was determined that 28
entrepreneurs indicated that innovation is the heart of the company, 37 indicated
that innovation plays a significant role while only 2 indicated that innovation plays
a null role. Inside the company. The mean obtained for this item was 2.39.
In relation to the context conducive to innovation in which companies operate, it
was found that the item “Technological development offers remarkable possibilities
in our field of business” obtained the best rating with a mean of 2.24, mainly due
to the fact that entrepreneurs consider that social networks are a relevant means to
be able to trade their products. On the other hand, the item “Our competitors have
a know-how superior to ours” achieves the lowest score with 1.78, which is due to
the fact that the respondents consider that their competitors perform in a similar way
to them in their processes of marketing and sales. It is highlighted that the general
mean obtained for the “Context” factor was 2.03.
When talking about the attitudes shown by the company and related to the inno-
vative capacity, the predictable was found: an attitude related to customers—“Cus-
tomers play the most important role in our company”—obtains the best mean (2.932)
when considering that entrepreneurs listen to customers regarding their wishes and
requests for the products to be marketed. On the contrary, and arguing the difficult
prevailing conditions aggravated by the pandemic, the following attitude “In the
company job security and the existence of little uncertainty is promoted” obtained
the lowest rating of those surveyed with 1,896. The general mean obtained for the
“Attitudes” factor was 2.42.
The activities related to innovation and that are carried out in the company was
the next factor evaluated where it was found that the item “Managers clearly perceive
the trends in the environment” obtained the best score with an average of 2.23. On
the contrary, the items “We own patents, licenses and copyrights” and There are
intense relationships with universities, research centers and such obtain the lowest
average with 1.07, which demonstrates the lack of knowledge of the respondents of
the innovation products. as well as the null approach of the investigation organisms
to them. It is worth mentioning that the mean obtained for the “activities” factor was
1.27.
Once the means of the factors that constitute the maturity of the innovation were
obtained, the index corresponding to this maturity was obtained, which was 2.02.
Finally, regarding the obstacles that managers consider that companies face to
innovate, Table 3 presents the three that were considered the greatest obstacles.
Table 3 Innovation obstacles within the company

Frequency Mean
Lack of knowledge about innovation Not an obstacle at all 8 1.66
Partially an obstacle 28
Totally an obstacle 31
The expenses involved Not an obstacle at all 4 1.85
Partially an obstacle 29
Lack of economic resources (own, governmental or Not an obstacle at all 0 1.37
other sources) to finance it Partially an obstacle 25
Regarding the importance that respondents give to IT as a source of innovation

and competitiveness, the results obtained indicate that 38.8% of them indicated that
IT plays an essential role, 40.3% said that it plays a significant role while 20.9%
indicated they play no role. According to previously mentioned, the general mean
obtained was 2.18.
Regarding the attitudes shown towards IT within the ME studied, it was found
that the item “In the design of the company’s strategy, the investment and use of
IT is considered” obtained the best score with an average of 2.74, while the item
“The company constantly updates/replaces hardware/software” was the least valued,
obtaining an average of 1.14. In general, the “Attitudes” factor obtains an average of
1.97, which shows that these companies do not have a favorable attitude towards the
integration of IT in their processes.
In relation to the investment made by the company in relation to IT, a similar
behavior was found in the 3 items evaluated: “investment in hardware”, “investment
in software” and “investment in training and training of personnel for the use and
management of IT”, noting that the predominance of responses indicates that the
investment has remained stable, that is, without investment or updating, obtaining a
general average of 1.89.
It should be noted that the IT maturity index obtained is 2.03.
Finally, the uses given to IT were assessed, highlighting that 70.1% of ME do not
use IT in their daily operations, 20.9% use it for office activities and only the rest
(9.0%) indicated using social networks as means of communication. promotion.
Once the descriptive analysis was completed, some linear regressions were carried
out to try to determine the relationship that could exist between innovation and IT.
The first regression that was carried out is the one that involves the indices of
maturity in innovation and in IT. These data are shown in Table 4.
The data show a very weak relationship between both study variables.
To corroborate the data obtained and have a better understanding, a regression
was carried out that considers only the innovation activities with IT and whose data
obtained are shown in Table 5.
It is observed in the results obtained that the relationship between these variables is
practically null, which can be seen through the adjusted coefficient of determination.
Table 4 Innovation model coefficients based on IT

Model R R square Adjusted R square Std. Error of the estimate
1 0.457 0.205 0.154 0.1313
Predictors: (Constant), ATM_IT
Unstandardized Standardized coefficients t Sig.
coefficients
Model B Std. Beta
Error
(Constant) 1.498 0.111 11.498 0.000
ATM_IT 0.325 0.041 0.542 7.813 0.098
Table 5 Coefficients of the Innovation activities model based on IT

Model R R Square Adjusted R square Std. Error of the estimate
1 0.398 0.137 0.098 0.2483
Predictors: (Constant), ATM_IT
Unstandardized coefficients Standardized coefficients t Sig.
Model B Std. Beta
Error
(Constant) 0.640 0.164 4.045 0.000
ATM_IT 0.501 0.520 0.576 8.919 0.605
Table 6 Coefficients of the Innovation based on the variables model that constitutes IT maturity
Model R R square Adjusted R square Std. Error of the estimate
1 0.233 0.201 0.169 0.2311
Unstandardized Standardized coefficients t Sig.
coefficients
Model B Std. Beta
Error
(Constant) 1.589 0.173 9.173 0.000
Importance 0.118 0.059 0.206 2.008 0.048
Attitude -3.192E-03 0.087 -0.005 -0.037 0.971
Investment -4.882E-02 0.071 -0.097 -0.686 0.495
Usage 0.325 0.061 0.573 5.354 0.843
Finally, it was decided to test if there could be an influence of the four variables
involved in the maturity of IT on innovation. The data obtained is shown in Table 6.
The data shows that there is practically no relationship between these variables
either. It seems that only the importance that the employer gives to IT exerts a minimal
influence on innovation.
5 Conclusion
According to the answers obtained, it can be said that the commercial microen-
terprises of Villahermosa are not innovative, nor do they make use of IT. As for
innovation, despite recognizing its importance in the company and indicating that
there are appropriate attitudes for it to occur, it is not reflected in the activities of
innovation, and it can be practically said that these activities are not being performed
within the companies. These results are similar to those obtained in other research
[10], emphasizing that this situation seems to be a characteristic of the ME that knows
no borders or business lines.
The findings suggest that these entrepreneurs are not yet facing foreign, virtual
or larger competitors, or that they already have an established market and have no
intention of expanding.
As for IT, just like innovation, the businessman recognizes the importance that
these have in the operation of the company. However, like other studies [11], it was
found that attitudes are not appropriate for the use of these technologies. A very rele-
vant piece of information is that financial investment towards them seems stagnant,
and it was even found that many of these companies do not have any computer tools.
Given the previously mentioned, the uses are very poor. It is highlighted that the
results found do not coincide with some few studies [12] that indicate that ME make
more use of IT than other types of companies.
What was expressed above is very worrying and fully coincides with what was
found in another study [13]. As an example, mention is made of the large number
of grocery stores and pharmacies that have closed their doors due to the arrival of
chains such as Oxxo, Farmacias Guadalajara, etc., which, without a doubt, make
use of innovation strategies by aligning IT with these strategies. It is urgent that
the microentrepreneurs of the commercial sector of Villahermosa adopt innovative
strategies and actions considering the IT that can provide them with many competitive
advantages.
For all the previously mentioned, it is suggested:
• That there be an approach of the Universities and research centers so that the
personnel are trained in these subjects, since this business sector has been undoubt-
edly ignored. In this way, the entrepreneur will be able to recognize the importance
of innovation, as well as the role that IT must play in this entire process.
• That there are sources of financing for investments in IT and, therefore, innovation
activities can be promoted. It is important to point out that there must be a change
on the part of the people and the culture of the payments of granted credits should
occur. Unfortunately, in our country there is a lot of delinquency among customers,
which has led to mistrust in granting credit.
• Employees should be encouraged to participate with ideas and actions that can
lead to innovation, trying to avoid a culture of fear and instead create a culture of
encouragement.
• Sufficient time must be given in companies to carry out strategic practices that
are directed towards innovation. This should not be viewed as a waste of time.
References
1. Flanding, J., Grabman, G., Cox, S.: The Technology Takers: Leading Change in the Digital
Era. Emerald Publishing Limited, Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley, UK (2019)
2. Laudon, K., C., Laudon, P, J.: Information Systems Administration. Prentice Hall, Mexico
(1996)
3. Republic Senate: Republic Senate Gazette (2015). Obtained from: https://www.senado.gob.

mx/64/gaceta_del_senado/documento/54141
4. INEGI: 2020 Demographics of Business Study Results (2021). Accessed from: https://www.
inegi.org.mx/contenidos/saladeprensa/boletines/2021/OtrTemEcon/EDN2020.pdf
5. El Financiero: The death of SMEs. How long do small businesses last and why? (2017).
Obtained from https://www.elfinancierocr.com/pymes/la-muerte-de-las-pymes-cuanto-tie
mpo-duran-los-pequenos-negocios-y-por-que/QMKIITYSUFENHADJA3UEFSQO5E/story/
6. SIEM (2021). Obtained from https://mipymes.economia.gob.mx/vender/promocion-y-dif
usion/siem-digital/
7. Vázquez, R., Trespalacios, J.A.: Marketing: Sectoral Strategies and Applications, 4th edn.
Civitas Ediciones, S.L., Madrid (2005)
8. Davenport, T.H.: Process Innovation: Reengineering Work Through Information Technology.
Harvard Business School Press, Boston (1996)
9. Lei, M.: Determinants of IT innovation diffusion from dynamic perspective. Rev. Prospect.
Technol. Invest. 7(1), 123–139 (2016). Galeano, S. (2022).
10. Hernández-Fuentes, S.N., Sánchez-Mojica, K.Y.: Innovation and competitiveness: micro and
small companies in the agro-industrial sector in Cúcuta. Res. Magazine. Dev. Innov. 8(1)
(2017). https://doi.org/10.19053/20278306.v8.n1.2017.7368
11. Peña-Ponce, D.K.: Innovation management model for family microenterprises in the food
sector in Jipijapa, Manabí. Doctoral thesis in Economic Sciences. Faculty of Economics
and Business, Pinar del Río University, Cuba (2018). Obtained from: http://repositorio.une
sum.edu.ec/bitstream/53000/2230/1/Tesis%20Doctoral%20Diana%20Katiuska%20Pe%C3%
B1a%20Ponce.pdf
12. Pérez Estébanez, R.: Technological innovation in Spanish microenterprises. Venezuelan J.
Manag. 21(74), 214–226 (2016)
13. Choez, D.A., Madrid, R.B., Cantos, M.A.B.: Entrepreneurship and innovation of the Ecuado-
rian microenterprise sector during the covid-19 pandemic. Pole Knowl.: Sci.-Prof. Mag. 6(3),
2145–2164 (2021)
Quality and Practices for Sustainability
in Higher Education—An Impact
Ranking Approach
Teresa Nogueiro and Margarida Saraiva
Abstract Higher Education Institutions (HEI) are critical to the growth of society
since they are one of the key agents in the transformation of professionals who will
shape the labour market and societal trends. Those interested in university growth
must operate as a basis for knowledge dissemination and the strengthening of sustain-
able practices. The Times Higher Education (THE) Impact Rankings are the only
global performance tables that link universities to the United Nations’ Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs). It assesses how well universities around the world are
achieving those SDGs. The third edition of the Impact Rankings, published in 2021,
covers 1,118 universities from 94 countries and regions. This work is based on a
qualitative analysis of the elements of sustainability and SDGs included in the THE
Impact Rankings for 4 selected Portuguese HEIs and on the elements and documents
about the issues available in their websites. The aim of this paper is to contribute to
the theoretical reflection on the contribution of HEIs to sustainability and to the SDGs
advocated in the 2030 Agenda. Through the study of the selected Portuguese HEIs
it is intended to understand/corroborate how these institutions are committed and
involved in sustainability practices and contribution to the SDGs and a more sustain-
able world. In conclusion, HEIs are committed and involved in sustainability prac-
tices, in a true contribution to the achievement of the goals outlined for 2030 through
the SDGs. HEI are committed to ensure that no one is left behind or discriminated
against, not compromising future generations.
Keywords Quality · Sustainability · Times higher education impact ranking
T. Nogueiro · M. Saraiva (B)

School of Social Sciences, Universidade de Évora, 7004-516 Évora, Portugal
e-mail: msaraiva@uevora.pt
M. Saraiva
BRU—Business Research Unit-Iscte-Instituto Universitário de Lisboa, 1649-026 Lisboa, Portugal
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_27
298 T. Nogueiro and M. Saraiva
1 Introduction
“Sustainable”, “Sustainability”, and “Sustainable Development” are concepts that

have gained global relevance, initially connected with issues of planet preserva-
tion but now more related with human well-being and relationships with the earth
for the well-being of several generations. These terms have had to be re-examined
since society has used them ambiguously, mixing them with the concepts of growth,
progress, maturity, evolution, and riches on several occasions [1].
Sustainability, according to Bañon Gomis et al. [2], is not merely a “fashion or
trend” appreciated by external circumstances but is also linked to the ethics that guide
human activity, representing the virtues of courage, prudence, and hope. Although
the term “sustainability” has recently gained popularity, the concept has ancient and
universal roots.
The United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development detailed the
commitment of high-level stakeholders to sustainable development. The fundamental
shifts were identified and expressed in 17 universal Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) and related objectives that balanced all aspects of sustainable development,
including economic, environmental, and social concerns [3].
The conceptual difficulties underlying the practice of supporting sustainable
development are becoming increasingly important to higher education institutions
(HEI). This function is both inevitable and necessary in the context of an urgent need
for them to develop in a sustainable manner [4].
In 1990, 22 university delegates presented ten-point action plan for higher educa-
tion institutions to contribute to a more sustainable future at an international meeting
in Taillores, France [5, 6].
Higher Education Institutions (HEI) are critical to society’s development since
they are a key player in the transformation of professionals who will shape the
labour market and societal trends. HEIs, like any other organization, require a great
number of available resources due to the vast flow of people, information, and activ-
ities created and distributed. These businesses are left with a huge environmental
obligation, necessitating the implementation of sustainable development strategies
[7]. Higher education is becoming a more competitive field that aspires to great-
ness while also trying to meet the requirements of society and the labour market.
Students, educators, staff, classes, and financial institutions are all common stake-
holders of higher education institutions. However, societal impacts need universities
collaborating with various types of communities or working with companies [8].
Teaching and research, for example, can all help to promote sustainability in
higher education institutions [7, 9].
According to Brandli et al. [4], the implementation of sustainable practices at HEIs
is hampered by the rigid bureaucratic and hierarchical system, the lack of awareness
and commitment of the agents involved (teachers, students, and administration), and
the lack of definition of short- and long-term institutional policies. The purpose of this
study is to contribute to the theoretical discussion on higher education’s contribution
to sustainability and the 2030 Agenda’s Sustainable Development Goals. It seeks to
Quality and Practices for Sustainability in Higher … 299
understand/corroborate how these institutions are engaged and involved in sustain-

ability practices and contributions to the SDGs through the study of a selection of 4
Portuguese HEIs, selected in Times Higher Education (THE) Impact Rankings [10].
This work is structured into 5 chapters. The first is concerned with the introduction,
followed by a section dedicated to the sustainability of higher education institutions
and the relationship with the THE Impact Rankings. The research methodology, the
results obtained and the final considerations, limitations and future research, are the
last three aspects to be considered in this article.
2 Sustainability of Portuguese Higher Education

Institutions and the Times Higher Education Impact
Rankings
This section is dedicated to the evaluation of the published results of the Portuguese
HEIs accessible in 2022 in the Times Higher Education Impact Rankings [10]. and
the information available on their websites.
The Times Higher Education (THE) World University Rankings, Impact Rankings
2021 [10]. are a global performance tables that evaluate universities in relation to
the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It measures global universities’
success in delivering the United Nations’ SDGs. To give a complete and impartial
comparison across four main areas: research, stewardship, outreach, and education,
they use very precise calibrated metrics/indicators.
In order to obtain the data, the THE Impact Rankings used a methodology in which
they firstly defined the concepts related to the 4 selected areas. The 17 United Nations’
SDGs are included in the assessment, and university performance is evaluated in each
of them using a different and specific methodology, depending on the SDGs chosen.
Universities can provide statistics/data on as many of the 17 Sustainable Development
Goals as they want or are able to. Each SDG has a set of indicators that are used to
assess the university’s progress toward that goal. The aggregate ranking includes any
university that submits data on SDG 17 and at least three other SDGs. Any university
that teaches at the undergraduate or postgraduate level is eligible for the rankings.
Although research activities are part of the approach, there is no requirement for
participants to complete a certain amount of research. The range for all SDGs is 0—
100 and the calculation of the overall score is based on the following proportions:
SDG 17: 22% and for the top three SDGs: 26% each. Figure 1 shows the scheme of
calculation.
The third edition of THE Impact Ranking 2021 has registered 1,118 universities
from 94 different countries and regions. However, of this universe of higher education
institutions only 11 are Portuguese. According to the Directorate-General for Higher
Education, Portugal has 99 HEIs [11]. In this way, it can be seen that only a very small
percentage of only 11% is registered in the aforementioned ranking. Besides SDG
17, which is common to all HEIs, by imposition of the ranking rules, there is no great
Fig. 1 Calculation of the

overall score. Source THE
World University Rankings
[10]
uniformity, by institution, in the 3 best ranked SDGs. Still, the common SDGs that
appear in greater number are SDG 3 in 5 HEIs, SDG 9 in 4 HEIs and SDG 16 also in 4
which becomes interesting to check. SDG4 only appears in the Polytechnic Institute
of Setúbal, which is curious considering that these are educational institutions in
which the quality of education, should be present in all of them with high score.
This section describes the main findings of this research work. Looking at Table
1 it can be seen that there are some highlights worth noting. Of the 11 Portuguese
HEIs, 2 stand out for their high position in the Ranking, namely the University of
Coimbra, in 21st position and Nova University of Lisbon, in position 53.
It should also be noted that the overall score of the best ranked Portuguese HEI
(University of Coimbra) differs from the worst positioned (Polytechnic Institute
of Setúbal) by 45.1–36.2 points. The Catholic University of Portugal is the only
HEI, from the private sector and Polytechnic Institute of Setúbal is the only HEI
from the Polytechnic education system. It is also noteworthy that only 2 of the 11
Portuguese HEIs in the Ranking are located in the country side of Portugal. Only
4 Portuguese HEIs were selected for this study: University of Coimbra, University
of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Catholic University of Portugal and Polytechnic
Institute of Setúbal. The selection of these four HEIs is important due to the distinct
characteristics they present and the contribution that the information on the strategic
plan and on the evidence of events, activities and sustainable practices have for the
development of this work. Information on the selection and the Portuguese HEIs is
presented in the following sections.
3 Research Methodology
The research methodology is based on several steps, as described below:

– The first step is to do a literature review.
– The next step is to select the Portuguese Higher Education Institutions based
on their geographical location, trying to ensure the greatest possible dispersion
(country side or coast and north or south), their typology in terms of sector (public
or private) and type of education system (university or polytechnic) as shown in
Table 1.
– Collection of systematised information from each selected HEI, on their charac-
teristics, strategic plans, sustainability plans, SDGs and activities within the scope
of sustainability and/or associated with the SDGs as a third step.
Table 1 Portuguese HEIs in the times higher education impact rankings
HEI Type of institution Education system Location SDGs Rank Overall score Decision and criteria
University of Coimbra Public University Coast North 9, 2, 3, 17 21 92.7 Selected: Public
University, Coast
North best ranked
NOVA University of Public University Coast South 9, 16, 3, 17 53 89.4 Not selected
Lisbon
University of Algarve Public University Coast South 16, 15, 10, 17 101–200 77.5–85.2 Not selected
University of Aveiro Public University Coast North 15, 14, 6, 17 101–200 77.5–85.2 Not selected
University of Minho Public University Coast North 9, 4, 8, 17 101–200 77.5–85.2 Not selected
University of Public University Country side North 2, 7, 15, 17 101–200 77.5–85.2 Selected: Public
Trás-os-Montes e Alto University, Country
Douro side best ranked
Quality and Practices for Sustainability in Higher …
ISCTE-University Public University Coast South 12, 9, 16, 17 201–300 71.0–77.4 Not selected
Institute of Lisbon
Catholic University of Private University Coast South 16, 3, 10, 17 301–400 66.3–70.9 Selected: Only
Portugal Private University
Coast South
Universidade Aberta Public University Coast South 8, 5, 10, 17 401–600 56.6–66.2 Not selected
University of Beira Public University Country side North 3, 12, 8, 17 401–600 56.6–66.2 Not selected
Interior
Polytechnic Institute of Public Polytechnic Coast South 4, 3, 1, 17 601–800 47.6–56.5 Selected: Only
Setúbal Public Polytechnic
Coast South
Source Own elaboration
301
– Fourth step: Analysis of the data collected in the previous step in order to under-
stand the type of events and activities that translate into sustainability practices,
which HEIs adopt in order to become more sustainable and, in this way, of higher
quality for their stakeholders.
Without the use of any other analysis tools, the data is analyzed qualitatively, and
the results are presented in tables for easy comprehension.
The ranking has 11 Portuguese higher education institutions in very different
ranking positions from each other. 10 belong to the university sector and only 1
institution belongs to the public polytechnic sector. Of the 10 universities, 9 are
public and 1 is private. Table 1 presents the Portuguese HEI accessible in 2022 in
the Times Higher Education Impact Rankings.
Taking into consideration the universe of only 11 Portuguese HEIs registered in
THE Impact Ranking, the selection fell upon 4 institutions: University of Coimbra,
University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Catholic University of Portugal and
Polytechnic Institute of Setúbal. In order for the sample to be representative of the
reality of Portuguese higher education, the choice was based on the criterion of
the largest possible geographical dispersion, the sector of the institution and the
education system. Thus, the criterion of geographical dispersion took into account
the location of the institutions, i.e., whether they were located inland or on the coast
and whether they were in the south or north of Portugal. The other selection criterion
focused on whether they belonged to the private or public sector. And, finally, whether
the education system was university or polytechnic. For the selection, the first best
ranked HEI in each rank was taken into account.
Being an ongoing study and based on the above criteria, and as presented in Table
1, the selection of the University of Coimbra (rank 21) was due to the fact that it is a
public university HEI of the northern coast, the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto
Douro (rank 101–200) was selected for being a public university HEI of the northern
hinterland. The Catholic University of Portugal (rank 301–400) was selected for
being the only private HEI and the Polytechnic Institute of Setúbal (rank 601–800)
for being the only polytechnic higher education HEI, both in the south.
4 Results
These 4 institutions are presented below in terms of their characterization, strategic

plans and evidence of sustainability practices (activities, events, documents, etc.).
4.1 HEIs: Characterization and Strategic Plans
The following table presents a summary of the characterization and the strategic
plans of the selected Higher Education Institutions.
4.2 Evidences for Sustainability
This section presents the actions and activities undertaken by the selected HEI within
their operational and management practices, in order to become more sustainable
and contribute to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Table 2
summarizes the evidences and the best ranked SDGs in THE Impact Rankings 2021
(Table 3).
Regarding the 4 HEIs selected, it can be seen that they belong to very different
realities, starting by the year of their creation/implementation. The University of
Coimbra has a history of approximately 700 years of life and the others, between 40
and 60 years.
The size and type of structure is different in the case of universities and poly-
technics. While the first ones are organised by faculties, the polytechnic institute is
organised by schools. With the exception of the Polytechnic Institute of Setubal which
has on its website an outdated strategic plan that ended in 2018, the 3 universities
present a current strategic plan that includes the sustainability pillar. Only the Univer-
sity of Coimbra has defined objectives, indicators and targets to be achieved, while
the remaining institutions only present objectives and indicators, possibly consid-
ering as targets those defined for the SDGs. In a clear commitment to contribute
to gender equality, the Catholic University of Portugal and the IPS present a plan
to achieve this goal, also foreseen in SDG 5. It is worth emphasising the practices
associated with sustainability that UC, UTAD and IPS have shown to have or have
already had as a contribution to the most varied SDGs. It becomes curious to note that
neither UCP nor IPS have SDG 5 in their ranking of top ranked SDGs in THE Impact
Ranking 2021, although they do have a plan for gender equality. Unfortunately, in
the analysis of the UCP web pages it was not possible to find evidence of events,
activities or practices that demonstrate the development or implementation of the
strategic plans, both regarding the sustainability dimension and gender equality.
The 4 institutions analysed seem to be truly concerned with sustainability and its
implementation in their respective organisations. Through the practices, events and
activities carried out and planned, they also seem to want to ensure that this dimen-
sion is considered a quality factor to be appreciated by stakeholders. It is visible the
number of evidences that it is possible to extract and that corroborates the contri-
butions of these organisations to sustainable development and, consequently, to the
SDGs. There is a real commitment from higher education institutions to ensure that
no one is left behind or discriminated against, and that they will not compromise
future generations.
Table 2 HEIs: characterization and strategic plans
304
Characterization Strategic plan

University of Coimbra (UC) It was founded in 1290 and is one of the world’s oldest 2019–2023: UC adopts a perspective of sustainable
universities as well as the oldest in Portugal. It was management of its activities and resources and social
also the world’s only Portuguese-speaking university responsibility in its actions, allowing it to respond to
until the early twentieth century. Its sixteenth century the needs of the present, without compromising the
campus is a UNESCO World Heritage site, built on the future, strengthening awareness and civic action and
grounds of a medieval palace. The institution, which is as-sessing impacts. It is also part of the Sustainable
located in the historic city of Coimbra, has over 21,000 Campus Network. There are two dimensions that, due
students, 10% of whom are international. It is divided to their relevance and emergence in the current context,
into three campuses and has eight faculties that offer a determine a firm commitment to sustainable
wide range of aca-demic programs [12] development and human rights: Environment and
Climate Action and Citizenship, Equality and
Inclusion. The adoption of the guidelines of the United
Nations Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development is
a premise of this Strategic Plan. The strategic
guidelines include the promotion of environmental and
energy sustain-ability on the university campuses; the
encouragement of behavioural change by combating
waste and promoting an environmentally responsible
campus; the adoption of a green public purchasing
policy and ensuring the financial sustainability of the
implementation of environmental measures, combating
gender inequalities and ensuring equal opportunities by
removing imbalances and barriers; promoting policies
for social inclusion and protection of minorities,
ensuring the right to difference and the right to have
rights, ensuring equal access and conditions for
success; and, promoting enlightened and responsible
citizenship, social cohesion and human rights,
defending civilizational and ethical principles and
contributing to the integral formation of citizens [12]
T. Nogueiro and M. Saraiva
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro (UTAD) It is a public university in Vila Real, Portugal, in the 2021–2025: Sustainability is one of the most structural
north-east of the country. Despite the fact that the axes. Intends to be a HEI aligned with the UN’s
institution was founded in 1986, its roots may be traced Agenda 2030 and with the causes of the future and of
back to the Vila Real Polytechnic Institute, which was the planet. Its aim is to make the world a better, more
founded in 1973. This original school, which developed, free, and fair place by valuing the
functioned from 1973 to September 1979 and became knowledge it produces and puts to the service of
the Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro Higher Education society while remaining in perfect harmony with
Institute, was essential in the development of the area. nature. To provide the finest worldwide learning
The government raised the institution’s status to a experience for all students by training competent
qualified university in less than a decade after its professionals, socially aware humans who are
founding, owing to the remarkable work done at the integrated and autonomous, all while adhering to the
institute in the domains of technological and scientific ideals of active citizenship, respect for life, and
research and education. The university consists of four environmental stewardship. Produce and disseminate
university schools and a polytechnic school, with the creative scientific information in response to the
majority of facilities located on the Vila Real campus requirements of society and businesses as a catalyst for
and the remainder on the Chaves campus [13] economic development and the enhancement of
people’s quality of life, as well as a key component of
territorial cohesion. For each strategic axis objectives
are defined, to which are associated goals that the
institution hopes to achieve in the period from 2021 to
2025
(continued)
305
Table 2 (continued)
306

Catholic University of Portugal (UCP) It is the country’s first private university. It was founded 2021–2025: UCP pursues its mission sustained on
in 1967 in Braga as a philosophy faculty. Three years three pillars: (1) Teaching; (2) Research and
later, as part of a deal between the Catholic Church and In-novation; and (3) Service and University Social
the Portuguese government, the university expanded to Responsibility. UCP promotes integral formation
the capital, Lisbon, where it is presently headquartered, oriented towards the global reality, based on the
and obtained official status. It has expanded since then principles of truth and respect for people and the
to include two additional bases in Porto and Viseu, environment. As part of its strategic development plan,
with the institution’s 15 faculties dispersed throughout UCP has defined its own sustainability agenda for the
the four campuses. As private colleges have sprouted period 2021–2025 on 4 pillars of sustainability:
up in Portugal in recent decades, UCP’s autonomy has governance, environmental, social and economic that
grown less exceptional. Economics, education are associated with the dimensions of mission
sciences, arts and humanities, as well as biosciences (teaching, research and university social responsibility)
and bioengineering, are among the faculties [14] and resources (people, economic-financial and
infrastructures). For each one there is a vision and
strategic objectives. There is a detailed plan for gender
equality at various levels, however, and although there
are indicators and a clear indication of their
contribution to the SDGs, it is not possible to identify
the targets they are intended to achieve or their timing
[14]
Polytechnic Institute of Setubal (IPS) It was founded in 1979 and began teaching students in Although the Strategic Plan is not updated and
1981. It focuses on health and social welfare, physics, referring to a recent past that end-ed in 2018, the IPS
mathematics, and computer science, as well as social shows concern for sustainability having established
sciences, business, and law. Setúbal Higher School of objectives and targets. These goals can be seen on
Technology (ESTSetúbal), School of Education (ESE), page 55 of the document PEDIPS (2016). IPS also
School of Business Sciences (ESCE), School of presents a plan for gender equality for 2022–2023,
Technology of Barreiro (ESTBarreiro), and School of without indicating targets, but with detailed objectives
Health (ESS) are the current higher schools. It has two and indicators [15]
campuses in the Greater Lisbon Metropolitan Area, in
the cities of Setubal and Barreiro [15]

Table 3 HEIs: SDGs and evidences for Sustainability
Evidences for sustainability
University of Coimbra Courses classified according to their contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals; scientific production
and promotion of its dissemination with close links to the SDGs; structuring projects: Academy for the
meeting of cultures and religions, Ageing Coimbra, EfS energy for sustainability, Healthy campus, RCR
Sustainable Campus Network, etc.; Other initiatives: Ecoliteracy, Experimenta—Physical activity programme,
Social Support Fund, Office for Cooperation and Development, Less equals more, Integrated programme for
the promotion of equal opportunities and equity in access and attendance at the University of Coimbra, etc.
Networks and partnerships: Alliance ODS Portugal, ORSIES—Observatory of Social Responsibility and
Higher Education Institutions, Portuguese Pact for Plastics, European School of Sustainability Science and
Research, etc.; Various documents: strategic plan, sustainability report, commitment of HEIs to sustainable
development
SDG in THE Impact Ranking 2021:
University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro Energy and environmental policy; Certification of the Energy Management System and Environmental
System; Creation of an Eco campus; Gradual elimination, of environmentally un-friendly materials, existing in
the built patrimony and adoption of strategies around sustainable construction in new buildings. Events:
UTAD Healthy and Sustainable Food Charter, Commitment to Sustainability and 2021 European Learning &
Teaching Forum: Embedding and facilitating sustainability | 18–19 February 2021
Catholic University of Portugal Gender equality plan; UCP’s Agenda for Sustainability; Alumni Association Católica-Lisbon draws up
database for employing Ukrainian refugees
(continued)
307
Table 3 (continued)
308
Evidences for sustainability

Polytechnic Institute of Setubal Antiracist Roadmap returns to the School of Education of the IPS; E3 UDRES2 Science Pub Quiz tests
knowledge on sustainability; Projects: IPS Eco, IPS Solidarity; For each of the SDGs the IPS developed
initiatives: Solidarity Christmas, 2nd cycle of webinars on SDGs, Seminar Social Vulnerabilities and Health |
Poverty, Social Exclusion and Health—an interdisciplinary view (2019), Sustainable IPS Competition,
Unidos@IPS Programme, Environmental Awareness Action “The Sea is not plastic” (2019)
Source Own elaboration adapted from https://www.timeshighereducation.com/impactrankings

Despite the difference between the institutions, it is important to check the align-
ment that exists between them on the importance of being registered in the impact
ranking.
Considering the objective of this study, it is believed that with the data and the
information collected and processed, there is added value to the theoretical discus-
sion on the contribution of higher education to sustainability and to the Sustainable
Development Goals of the 2030 Agenda. It was also possible to understand, through
Portuguese HEIs, how these institutions are committed and involved in sustainability
practices, in a true contribution to the achievement of the goals outlined for 2030
through the SDGs.
Limitations and future research
This study’s limitation is that it is merely a theoretical contribution that needs to be
tested. As a result, it is recommended that future research validate this study by using
an appropriate instrument to get data that may support the theoretical foundations
stated here.
As future research it would be very important to study why SDG 4 does not
appear in all Portuguese HEIs in THE Impact Rankings 2021 list as it should be
a strong and robust one since they are educational institutions that should have a
high-quality education performance. Another research could be based on the 99
Portuguese HEIs, to which a survey on the sustainability practices used would be
applied in order to map this reality and cross-reference this information with the
strategy defined by the European Commission for Universities and with the national
strategy for sustainability in the sector.
References
1. Ríos-Osório, L.A., Cruz-Barreiro, I.C., Welsh-Rodríguez, C.M.: The concept of sustainable

development from an ecosystem perspective: History, evolution, and epistemology. In: Yáñez-
Arancibia, A.R., Dávalos-Sotelo, I.C., Day, J.W. (eds.) Ecological Dimensions for Sustainable
Socio Economic Development, Chapter 2. WIT Transactions on State-of-the-art in Science and
Engineering, vol. 64 (2013)
2. Bañon Gomis, A.J. Guillén Parra, M., Hoffman, W.M., McNulty, R.E.: Rethinking the concept
of sustainability. Bus. Soc. Rev. 116(2), 171–191 (2011)
3. United Nations.: Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Develop-
ment; United Nations, New York, NY, USA. https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda, last accessed
2022/01/26.
4. Brandli, L.L., Frandoloso, M.A.L., Tauchen, J., Vieira, L.C., Pereira, L.A.: The Latin America
Meeting of Sustainable Universities (I ELAUS): results and possibilities. In: ERSCP-EMSU
Conference. Delft, The Netherlands. (2010)
5. Chaleta, E., Saraiva, M., Leal, F., Fialho, I., Borralho, A.: Higher Education and Sustainable
Development Goals (SDG)—potential contribution of the undergraduate courses of the school
of social sciences of the University of Évora. Sustainability 13(4), 1828 (2021)
6. Talloires Declaration.: Talloires Declaration of University Leaders for a Sustainable Future.
http://ulsf.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/TD.pdf. Last accessed 27 Dec 2021
7. Gazzoni, F., Scherer, F.L., Hahn, I.S., de Moura Carpes, A., dos Santos, M.B.: O papel das
IES no desenvolvimento sustentável: estudo de caso da Universidade Federal de Santa Maria.
Revista Gestão Universitária na América Latina-GUAL, Florianópolis 11(1), 48–70 (2018)
8. Ali, M., Mustapha, T.I., Osman, S.B., Hassan, U.: University social responsibility (USR): an
evolution of the concept and its thematic analysis. J. Clean. Prod. 286, 124931 (2020)
9. Evangelinos, K.I., Jones, N., Panoriou, E.M.: Challenges and opportunities for sustainability
in regional universities: a case study in Mytilene, Greece. J. Clean. Prod. 17(12), 1154–1161
(2009)
10. THE World University Rankings.: Impact Rankings 2021. https://www.timeshighereducation.
com/rankings/impact/2021/overall#!/page/0/length/25/sort_by/rank/sort_order/asc/cols/und
efined. Last accessed 26 Jan 2022
11. Ensino superior em números (s/d): Direção-Geral do Ensino Superior. https://www.dges.gov.
pt/pt/pagina/ensino-superior-em-numeros. Last accessed 13 Apr 2022
12. UC.: Universidade de Coimbra. https://www.uc.pt/. Last accessed 28 Mar 2022
13. UTAD.: Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. https://www.utad.pt/. Last accessed
28 Mar 2022
14. UCP.: Universidade Católica Portuguesa. https://www.ucp.pt/pt-pt. Last accessed 28 Mar 2022
15. IPS.: Instituto Politécnico de Setúbal. https://www.ips.pt/ips_si/web_page.inicial. Last
accessed 28 Mar 2022
Efficacy of the Flipped Classroom Model
on Students at Jorge Basadre Grohmann
National University of Tacna in English
Learning
Kevin Mario Laura-De La Cruz , Silvia Milagritos Bazán-Velásquez ,

Cecilia Claudia Montesinos-Valencia , Miliam Quispe-Vargas ,
and Sam Michael Espinoza-Vidaurre
Abstract Numerous higher education institutions are now committed to using The
Flipped-Classroom Model to improve educational processes and benefit all members
of their institutions via online instruction. According to a preliminary study conducted
by the researchers, teachers have not yet fully embraced the Flipped Classroom
idea. Thus, the primary purpose of this research is to investigate the efficacy of the
flipped classroom model in English Learning among students enrolled in the Foreign
Language Specialty at Jorge Basadre Grohmann National University in Tacna. The
study was applied in nature and used a single group in a pre-experimental design.
The population consisted of 232 students from that Specialty, and a non-probability
sample of 50 students from the X cycle was used to determine the population. To
collect data, a test (pre-and post-test) was administered; it was an international Exam
Sample Level B1 (PET) with a maximum score of 170 points. The pre-test results
indicated that most students (90%) were at level A2, whereas the post-test indicated
that they were at level B1 (66%). Consequently, it was determined that the Flipped
Classroom Model improves students’ English skills.
Keywords English learning · Flipped learning · Virtual learning · Higher

education · International exams
K. M. Laura-De La Cruz (B) · C. C. Montesinos-Valencia · S. M. Espinoza-Vidaurre

C. C. Montesinos-Valencia
e-mail: cecmontesinosv@virtual.upt.pe
S. M. Espinoza-Vidaurre
e-mail: samespinozav@upt.pe
S. M. Bazán-Velásquez · M. Quispe-Vargas
e-mail: sbazanv@unjbg.edu.pe
M. Quispe-Vargas
e-mail: mqu-ispev@unjbg.edu.pe
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_28
1 Introduction
González and Yañez [1] contends that economic globalization, multiculturalism, and
scientific advancement all demand the populace to learn new knowledge to confront
new global issues. As a result, in today’s information culture, learning a language
other than one’s mother tongue is critical, as it broadens one’s horizons of study and
employment; therefore, according to statistics from the Statista website [2], English
is the most often spoken first language. This demonstrates the critical importance
of embedding this language in the curricula of higher education institutions of our
country.
However, distance education has been understood as the transfer of face-to-face
to virtual teaching modalities without considering the context, the new emerging
pedagogies or the active methodologies that lead to effective online learning. Conse-
quently, it is necessary to implement a methodology that can benefit all university
students, especially future English teachers in our country.
Foreign language learning has become a high-demand priority globally, from
a personal to a professional one. Nowadays, acquiring languages other than one’s
native tongue is a prerequisite for academic, professional, and social advancement.
Mastering a language entail developing the ability to comprehend, explain, and
comprehend various cultures and gaining access to and comprehension of scien-
tific knowledge. Currently, there is no new trend in the teaching mode of foreign
language training in most nations, particularly in the academic and professional
fields; the technique used to teach another language is determined by the teacher’s
pedagogical management.
While the significance of English learning is acknowledged in Peru, the requi-
site didactic tools to accomplish the goals throughout the teaching process are not
yet accessible. This situation is exacerbated in universities that provide education
in the specialty of Foreign Language (English) since candidates to the specified
specialization are not required to take an admission test assessing their English Skills.
On the other side, the Ministry of Education supports English language certifica-
tion via international tests aligned with the CEFR. The English language has been
acknowledged as a global business language and a method of benefiting businesses
and the growth of Peru. It is essential for students specializing in Foreign Languages
to obtain an international language certification as a graduation requirement.
Consequently, the Flipped Classroom model presents a chance to address this
issue, as research indicates its adoption has a significant “positive impact on learning”
for pupils [3]. This is illustrated in the works of Bergmann and Sams [4], who name
various higher education institutions that successfully use this pedagogical approach
to teaching.
According to several writers, such as Kuiper et al. [5], implementing the flipped
classroom is good since it allows for personalization and increases the amount of
time spent interacting and communicating with students and instructors, therefore
integrating students in their learning.
Efficacy of the Flipped Classroom Model on Students at Jorge Basadre … 313
Thus, this research aims to build the Flipped Classroom model for English
language learning while taking into account the norms of international tests estab-
lished by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. The study
is noteworthy because the experience, procedure, and findings provide fresh insights
for academics interested in both study variables.
2 Methodology
2.1 Participants
The sample size is calculated using a non-probabilistic convenience sampling tech-

nique [6–8] since 50 students enrolled in the X cycle of the career of Foreign Language
at Jorge Basadre Grohmann National University.
2.2 Design
An experimental research was applied because it aimed to solve a practical problem

in the educational field. The study method was hypothetical and deductive because
the working hypothesis was obtained from the theoretical framework; it was of a
pre-experimental design with a single group (pre-test and post-test) because in this
design, “a test prior to the stimulus or experimental treatment is applied to a group,
then the treatment is administered and finally a test is applied, post-stimulus test”
[9].
2.3 Techniques for Data Analysis
Techniques. Knowledge test techniques were used. A test technique was applied to
determine students’ English level according to the CEFR.
Instruments. An English test was administered according to Cambridge Interna-
tional Examination standards, level B1.
Measurement Scale. The written test considered the four English Skills according
to the CEFR level, where the student who scored between 100 and 119 was classified
at level A1; between 120 and 139, at level A2; and between 140 and 150, at level B1.
Data Analysis. The data was collected personally. Results were analyzed through
double-entry tables and figures made by the SPSS 21 program and Microsoft.
Procedure. Following the pre-test, seventeen lessons were conducted using Flipped
Classroom activities with students using Google Classroom and various digital tools
to focus on the four English Skills. Finally, a follow-up test was performed. Notably,
the test covered Cambridge University’s international exam Preliminary English Test
(PET). Finally, a post-test was conducted. Notably, the test covered the international
exam Preliminary English Test (PET) by Cambridge University.
Reliability of the Instrument. It is an international exam, as defined by CEFR, and
hence does not need dependability since the University of Cambridge uses it to assess
English proficiency globally.
3 Results
Table 1 shows the level of English learning before and after applying the Flipped
Classroom. In the pre-test, 90.00% of students were at the Basic level (A2), while
in the post-test, 26.00% were at the same level; that is, there was a notable improve-
ment. Next, it is observed that in the pre-test, 8.00% were found at the Intermediate
level (B1), showing a significant difference with the post-test result of that same
level, which presented 66.00% of students who reached an Intermediate level (B1).
Finally, it is observed that in the pre-test, 2.00% of students were at the Intermediate-
Advanced level, while in the post-test, it increased to 8.00% of students at the same
level.
According to the data shown, most students present a significant improvement in
their learning of English after applying the Flipped Classroom model. According to
the international Preliminary English Test (PET), most students are at the Interme-
diate level. Therefore, the effectiveness of the mentioned model is confirmed, which
improved the level of learning of the English language.
In Table 2, we observe the results of the English learning level of the students of
the Foreign Language specialty of Jorge Basadre Grohmann National University of
Tacna in the year 2021. In the pretest, the average reaches a mean of 54.92. Likewise,
the rating with the lowest score was 40, and the one with the highest score was 92.
After applying the Flipped Classroom model, a mean of 74.30 was obtained in the
Table 1 English learning level before and after the application of the Flipped Classroom
English language learning level Experimental group
Pretest Postest
n % n %
Basic (A2) 45 90,00 13 26,00
Intermediate (B1) 4 8,00 33 66,00
Intermediate-Advance (A2) 1 2,00 4 8,00
Total 50 100,00 50 100,00
Table 2 Comparison of means according to the non-parametric statistical test Wilcoxon’s T and
direct scores of the level of learning of English
Study variable Statistics Experimental group Inferential Bilateral sig
Pretest Postest statistics
(n = 50) (n = 50) Wilcoxon’s T P < 0.05

English language Half 54,92 74,30 T = −5,754 There is a
learning level Median 52,00 74,00 P valor significant
P = 0.000 improvement
Standard 10,152 9,237
deviation
X mín 40 56
X máx 92 100
Note Negative ranks (En = 0), positive ranks (Rp = 34), and tied ranks (Re = 16)
Source English test applied to students
post-test. Likewise, the rating with the lowest score was 56, and the one with the
highest score was 100. It shows that the experimental group improved significantly,
marking a difference of 19.38 points, resulting in the study group notably improving.
By comparing descriptive measures and comparative hypothesis tests with the
non-parametric t-Wilcoxon test, it is possible to infer that there is a significant
improvement as the p-value (0.000) is less than the significance level (0.05) in the
pre and post-test in the four English Language Skills, being the writing skill that
shows better improvements, thus demonstrating the effectiveness of the application
of the Flipped Classroom model.
4 Discussion of Results
After analyzing the results obtained regarding the level of command of the English
language before and after applying the flipped classroom methodology, we proceed
to compare the objectives achieved with the results of other studies in divergent
educational contexts.
It can be affirmed that the Flipped Classroom methodology shows high potential
in the educational field and, especially, in the learning of English when observing
that its level in the students improved from A2 (Basic level) with 90% of the sample
towards a B1 (Intermediate level) with 66%.
Similar studies demonstrate the effectiveness of the methodology in contexts
of teaching English as a foreign language, obtaining positive changes in language
proficiency [10–12]. The cause of the student’s progress in the language is due to
the contextualization of the review materials according to the needs expressed by
the students in the forums applied during the experimentation period. Thus, the
importance of the teaching role in this model is reaffirmed when designing or trans-
forming educational materials for students and providing a rapid response for a
critical exchange of knowledge during class [13].
At the same time, the methodology’s effectiveness regarding academic perfor-
mance was verified by contrasting the average scores of the sample, with a mean of
54.92 being obtained at the time before to the experimentation. Afterward, the mean
was 74.30, with a significant difference of 19.38 points. Similarly, there are studies
on the flipped classroom methodology that resulted in better academic performance
of students after the application, such as the research by Santikarn and Wichadee
[14], who experimented, as with this research, with the use of videos before classes,
discussion of them during classes and practice of exercises through an educational
platform such as Edmodo, similar to Google Classroom. However, at the end of the
experimentation, the students were interviewed in an unstructured and general way
about their experience with the methodology used. It also expressed great satisfac-
tion in achieving healthy study habits and having more participatory and interactive
classes with the teacher. It is essential to point out that there are similar investiga-
tions or cases where other researchers find positive perceptions in other educational
aspects that go unnoticed [15, 16].
Regarding the results of English skills, it was found that the skill that obtained
the most remarkable improvement with the flipped classroom methodology was
writing because it went from 14% in the pretest to 78% in the posttest. This change
is relevant since the writing skill is considered one of the most difficult, according
to Kawinkoonlasate [17], since students must identify the main sentences, outline,
review and edit their writing so that there are no errors in it (Punctuation, grammar and
spelling). This result is because, apart from the presentation of material and content
for review outside class, web pages were provided to help and provide feedback in
the writing of texts such as Write and Improve and Grammarly, which are known for
their benefits in the field [18, 19]. Both pages visualized to the students the errors in
their writing, gave correction options, and provided information about the style and
level of English through the analysis of the text. Likewise, participation in the forums
in the English language reinforced the writing skill compulsorily. Similarly, other
studies confirm the ability to improve writing skills through the flipped classroom due
to interactive and collaborative learning, peer support and assessment, and correction
activities [11, 20].
On the other hand, the reading ability had an advance of 54% from the pretest to the
posttest, thus confirming the improvement of this ability through the Flipped Class-
room, as already argued by the research by Hashemifardnia et al. [21] and Lotfi and
Siahpoosh [22]. The reading ability was positively influenced due to the inclusion of
interactive exercises from web pages and the use of questionnaires through Quizziz or
Kahoot, gamified tools (or applications) that evaluated the students’ reading compre-
hension and vocabulary knowledge. In the same way, the comments that highlighted
the use of these gamified questionnaires as very useful, motivating and exciting stand
out from the forums. These comments are not surprising since the benefits of gamified
tools have a large amount of research, of which their effectiveness is verified, and a
positive perception of students towards these tools is obtained [23–25]. Furthermore,
the students were asked to read the texts beforehand outside the class, which allowed
them to assimilate and search for the meaning of the new words; and thus, respond
satisfactorily to the reading comprehension questions during class, which could not
happen in traditional teaching unless the teacher used a large part of the session time
for reading [26].
Positive results were also obtained concerning listening skills in English, as shown
in Table 3, going from 24% in the pretest to 74% of students passing in the posttest.
This result contradicts what was found by Ahmad [27] and Öztürk and Çakıroğlu [11],
who found no significant differences in listening scores after experimentation. For
the satisfactory advancement of the skill, interactive exercises were provided. They
allowed quick and concise feedback about the correct answer to each exercise for the
listening skill; this feedback was essential so that the students could identify their
errors. In addition, the videos indirectly provided practice for this skill, as emphasized
by Namaziandost et al. [28], by giving the possibility of listening to native speakers
and understanding non-verbal communication. Similarly, the inclusion of web pages
that provided audiobooks covered the needs of students who had a more auditory
than visual learning style, demonstrating a series of benefits both in the ability to
improve vocabulary and in listening [29].
Finally, the speaking ability was the one that obtained the least percentage advance
from the pretest to the post-test, with a difference of 42% between the two. However,
it is vital to indicate that this was since, at the beginning of the experimentation,
36% of the students already had a passing level in that skill and, therefore, as shown
in Table 3, the speaking skill was one of those that resulted in a high percentage in
the post-test; apart from writing with 78%. Consequently, another study reaffirms
the help provided by the flipped classroom to improve the speaking skill due to its
interactive and critical methodology [30]. The advancement of the level of this skill
may have occurred because the conversations and discussions during the classes were
in the target language, thus practising this skill in a similar way to the research by
Quyen and Van [31], who insist on affirming that the Flipped classroom methodology
helps in improving speech.
Another reason for the positive results in the development of English language
skills was videos since each session was complemented with this type of resource,
whether elaborated by the teacher or not, about the different language skills. It
provides advice and theory to improve listening, reading, writing and speaking skills
in English. In similar studies, it was observed that students perceived this resource
as very useful since it allowed them to pause the video, take notes and review them
at any time and place, allowing them to learn knowledge at their own pace [4, 11].
In the same way, the help provided by learning management platforms, specifically
Google Classroom, in this research, which sent reminders to students to review the
materials and participate in the forums planned before the synchronous class, cannot
be denied. According to the investigations of Ferreira and Amorim [32] and Ramad-
hani et al. [33], the use of this platform for applying the flipped classroom model was
satisfactory. They perceived that this platform provides a new experience to students
and facilitates interaction and collaboration in virtuality.
Table 3 Comparison of means, according to non-parametric statistical test wilcoxon t-test

according to scores categorized by level of English learning
Variable Statistics Experimental group Inferential Sig bilateral
dimension Pre test Post test statistics
(n = 50) (n = 50) wilcoxon p < 0.05

t-test
Competence of Mean 54,76 74,08 w = -5.657 Rn = 0
reading Median 51,50 75,00 P value Rp = 32
Std deviation 15,226 12,994 P = 0.000 Re = 18
Xmin 31 50 There is a
Xmax 94 100 significant
improvement
(n = 50) (n = 50) wilcoxon p < 0.05
t-test
Competence of Mean 46,88 70,14 w = −4.899 Rn = 0
writing Median 44,00 70,00 P value Rp = 24
improvement
(n = 50) (n = 50) wilcoxon p < 0.05
t-test
listening Median 58,00 80,00 P value Rp = 35
improvement
(n = 50) (n = 50) wilcoxon p < 0.05
t-test
speaking Median 53,00 71,50 P value Rp = 20
improvement
Source English test applied to students
In this way, the disposition and autonomy in learning were a limitation in the study
since it prevented, to a certain extent that a group of students did not see progress
through the application of the model. Certain researchers such as Bergmann and
Sams [4] or Prieto [34] affirm that in the Flipped Classroom, the role of the student
takes a much more active role, leading them to be the protagonists of learning [25].
Consequently, it is proposed that the teacher be the subject or agent that helps leap
traditional teaching too much more innovative with the purpose that students find
learning and research as a satisfactory and exciting activity; therefore, teachers must
be flexible to change and experiment with new teaching methodologies that respond
to the needs and perceptions of their students [26, 35]
5 Conclusions
Financial resources are required to implement this model in a public institution. It

can be concluded that Flipped Classroom has resulted in positive changes in English
learning, by reinforcing the students’ English Communicative skills and autonomy.
The student recognizes self-learning strategies in the organization, planning, and
concentration of objectives to accomplish in response to their English language
abilities.
Numerous challenges remain in implementing this model in a Professional Career,
such as optimizing the virtual classroom and teacher training in its practical appli-
cation. As there is a lack of familiarity with Application of the model. On the other
hand, there is an evident willingness on the part of teachers to use it, which necessi-
tates an analysis of the curriculum to continue improving the quality of professionals
with an International Pedagogical Approach and level of English Knowledge. In
this current context, it is advantageous for the university student forming as a future
professional in Education specializing in languages to take an active and participa-
tory role in digital environments that foster the critical, collaborative, autonomous,
and reflective learning necessary for an English teacher, and above all, in achieving
high English language proficiency during the learning process.
Additional research is needed on the inverted classroom in English learning, using
International Tests that have been validated for their validity and consistency by
prestigious universities charged with measuring English proficiency to consolidate
the varied experiences of its application.
References
1. Gónzales, M., Yáñez, C.: El aula invertida como estrategia para la mejora del rendimiento
académico. Revista Mexicana de Bachillerato a Distancia 8(16), 68–78 (2016). http://revistas.
unam.mx/index.php/rmbd/article/view/57108/50653
2. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/266808/the-most-spoken-languages-worldwide/.
Last accessed 17 Dec 2021
3. Salas-Rueda, R., Lugo-García, J.: Impacto del aula invertida durante el proceso educativo
superior sobre las derivadas considerando la ciencia de datos y el aprendizaje automático.
EDMETIC, Revista de Educación Mediática y TIC 8(1), 147–170 (2019). https://doi.org/10.
21071/edmetic.v8i1.9542
4. Bergmann, J., Sams, A.: Flip your classroom: reach every student in every class every day.
International Society for Technology in Education, Washington DC (2012)
5. Kuiper, S., Carver, R., Posner, M., Everson, M.: Four perspectives on flipping the statistics class-
room: changing pedagogy to enhance student-centered learning. Primus 25, 655–682 (2015).
https://doi.org/10.1080/10511970.2015.1045573
6. Carrasco, S.: Metodología de la investigación científica. Editorial San Marcos, Lima (2007)
7. Arias, F.: El proyecto de investigación: Introducción a la investigación científica, 7th edn.
Editorial Episteme, Caracas (2016)
8. Vara, A.: Desde La Idea hasta la sustentación: Siete pasos para una tesis exitosa. Un método
efectivo para las ciencias empresariales. San Martín de Porres University, Lima (2012)
9. Hernández, S., Fernández, C., Baptista, P.: Metodología de la investigación. 6ta edición.
McGraw Hill, México (2014)
10. Galindo, H.: Flipped classroom in the educational system. Educ. Technol. Soc. 24(3), 44–60
(2021)
11. Öztürk, M., Çakıroğlu, Ü.: Flipped learning design in EFL classrooms: Implementing self-
regulated learning strategies to develop language skills. Smart Learn. Environ. 8(1) (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-021-00146-x
12. Turan, Z., Akdag-Cimen, B.: Flipped classroom in English language teaching: a systematic
review. Comput. Assist. Lang. Learn. 33, 590–606 (2019)
13. Buil-Fabrega, M., Casanovas, M., M., Ruiz-Munzon, N., Filho, W.: Flipped classroom as an
active learning methodology in sustainable development curricula. Suistainability 11(17), 4577
(2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/su11174577
14. Santikarn, B., Wichadee, S.: Flipping the classroom for english language learners: a study of
learning performance and perceptions. Int. J. Emerg. Technol. Learn. 13(9), 123–135 (2018)
15. González-Gómez, D., Jeong, J., Airado, D., Cañada-Cañada, F.: Performance and perception
in the flipped learning model: an initial approach to evaluate the effectiveness of a new teaching
methodology in a general science classroom. J. Sci. Educ. Technol. 25, 450–459 (2016). https://
doi.org/10.1007/s10956-016-9605-9
16. Touchton, M.: Flipping the classroom and student performance in advanced statistics: evidence
from a quasi-experiment. J. Politic. Sci. Educ. 11(1), 28–44 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1080/
15512169.2014.985105
17. Kawinkoonlasate, P.: Integration in flipped classroom technology approach to develop english
language skills of Thai EFL learners. Engl. Lang. Teach. 12(11), 23 (2019). https://doi.org/10.
5539/elt.v12n11p23
18. Dong, Y., Shi, L.: Using grammarly to support students’ source-based writing practices. Assess.
Writ. 50, 100564 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2021.100564
19. Karabas, I., Nikolov, N., Wood, B.: The effect of eWOM from Identity and non-Identity social
media on movie sales. J. Manag. Issues 33(3), 289–305 (2021)
20. Engin, M., Donanci, S.: Instructional videos as part of a ‘flipped’ approach in academic writing.
Learn. Teach. High. Educ.: Gulf Perspect. 13(1), 73–80 (2016). https://doi.org/10.18538/lthe.
v13.n1.231
21. Hashemifardnia, A., Namaziandost, Sepehri, M.: The effectiveness of giving grade, corrective
feedback, and corrective feedback-plus-giving grade on grammatical accuracy. Int. J. Res. Stud.
Lang. Learn. 8(1), 15–27 (2018)
22. Lotfi, S., Siahpoosh, H.: looking at the impact of the flipped classroom model on reading
comprehension of Iranian EFL learners. Arab. Lang., Lit. Cult. 5(2), 14–22 (2020). https://doi.
org/10.11648/j.allc.20200502.12
23. Laura, K., Velarde, J.: La Aplicación de un Software en Comprensión de Textos en inglés para
Estudiantes en Perú. Neumann Bus. Rev. 5(2), 108–121 (2019). https://doi.org/10.22451/3002.
nbr2019.vol5.2.10042
24. Laura, K., Franci, L., Luza, K.: Gamification for understanding english texts for students in a
public school in Peru. Int. J. Dev. Res. 10, 1–5 (2020). https://doi.org/10.37118/ijdr.20319.10.
2020
25. Laura, K., Gebera, O., Copaja, S.: Application of gamification in higher education in the
teaching of english as a foreign language. In: Mesquita, A., Abreu, A., Vidal, J. (eds.), IOT
with smart systems, vol. 256, pp. 323–341. Springer, ICITED (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/
978-981-16-5063-5_27
26. Laura, K., Morales, K., Clavitea, M., Aza, P.: Aplicación Quizizz y comprensión de textos
en inglés con el contenido de la plataforma educativa “Aprendo en Casa”. Revista Innova
Educación 3(1), 151–159 (2021). https://doi.org/10.35622/j.rie.2021.01.007
27. Ahmad, S.: The flipped classroom model to develop Egyptian EFL students’ listening
comprehension. Engl. Lang. Teach. 9(9), 166 (2016). https://doi.org/10.5539/ELT.V9N9P166
28. Namaziandost, E., Abedi, P., Nasri, M.: The role of gender in the accuracy and fluency of
Iranian upper-intermediate EFL learners’ l2 oral productions. J. Appl. Linguist. Lang. Res.
6(3), 110–112 (2019)
29. Al-Jarf, R.: Mobile audiobooks, listening comprehension and EFL college students. Int. J. Res.
Granthaalayah 9(4), 410–423 (2021). https://doi.org/10.29121/granthaalayah.v9.i4.2021.3868
30. Abdullah, M., Supyan, H., Kemboja, I.: Implementation of flipped classroom model and its
effectiveness on english speaking performance. Int. J. Emerg. Technol. Learn. (IJET) 14(09),
130–147 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3991/IJET.V14I09.10348
31. Quyen, T., Van, N.: Flipped Model for improving students’ english speaking performance. Can
Tho Univ. J. Sci. 54(2), 90–97 (2018). https://doi.org/10.22144/CTU.JEN.2018.012
32. Ferreira, L., Amorim, N.: Uso da plataforma web Google Classroom como ferramenta de apoio
à metodologia Flipped Classroom: Relato de Aplicação No Curso de Bacharelado em Sistemas
de Informação. Anais Do Workshop de Informática Na Escola 25(1), 647–656 (2019). https://
doi.org/10.5753/CBIE.WIE.2019.647
33. Ramadhani, R., Umam, R., Abdurrahman, A., Syazali, M.: The effect of flipped-problem based
learning model integrated with LMS-google classroom for senior high school students. J. Educ.
Gift. Young Sci. 7(2), 137–158 (2019). https://doi.org/10.17478/JEGYS.548350
34. Prieto, A., Barbarroja, J., Álvarez, S., Corell, A.: Eficacia del modelo de aula invertida (Flipped
Classroom) en la enseñanza universitaria: una síntesis de las mejores evidencias. Revista de
Educación 391, 149–177 (2021). https://doi.org/10.4438/1988-592X-RE-2021-391-476
35. Laura-De La Cruz, K., Roque-Coronel, L., Noa-Copaja, S., Rejas-Junes, L.: Flipped classroom
methodology in english language learning in higher education. In: Imitation market modeling
in digital economy: game theoretic approaches. Imitation market modeling in digital economy:
game theoretic approaches, pp. 448–459. Springer, ICITS (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-
3-030-96293-7_37
Communication as a Democratic
Strategy in the Republic of Ecuador
Arturo Clery , Lilian Molina , Ana Tapia, Karla Ortíz ,

Shirley Huerta , Lilibeth Orrala , and Gabriel Arroba
Abstract Communication is a determining element in the development of any

democracy, since it allows political parties to define and present their positions to
their citizens. On the other hand, as professionals and teachers of communication,
we are forced to establish a relationship between the theoretical analysis that is
taught in the Universities and the social reality in which that theoretical knowledge
is going to be encouraged. In some way, communication can also mean recognition
of democratic values, which for forty years have built, apart from officialdom, the
civilized conscience of Ecuadorians. This civilized and mature behavior of citizens
is frequently spoken of. What is not recognized at official levels is that this civilized
formation has not come from official bodies, which through the media have tried
to maintain a wrong conception of democratic processes. The authentic formation
of civics has been carried out by the citizen political forces and a good number of
independent professionals of culture and communication.
Keywords Communication · Democracy · Citizens
1 The 4 Paths of Information and Official Communication
Official communication is the tool that allows a public institution to inform, promote
and publicize the actions carried out or planned in the medium term [1]. This type
of communication responds to state policy, regardless of who is in power. The one
that communicates is the State, therefore, it is a democratic form of communication,
where the path that an administration travels is indicated [2].
A. Clery (B) · L. Molina · A. Tapia · L. Orrala

Universidad Estatal Península de Santa Elena, La Libertad, Ecuador
e-mail: clery@upse.edu.ec
A. Clery · K. Ortíz · S. Huerta
Universidad de Guayaquil, Guayaquil, Ecuador
G. Arroba
Independient Investigator, Guayaquil, Ecuador
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_29
324 A. Clery et al.
Faced with the need to be permanently in the media, or to respond to political

marketing requirements, which may have a more private than public profile, it tends
to fall into the excessive use of symbols with personal or partisan reference to position
or maintain a figure or political party [3]. There is a mistake in the appreciation of
the State, on the use of resources in communication matters [4].
It has been possible to observe the misuse of official promotion or communication
by various administrations, States, countries, provinces, municipalities, even using
the colors or symbols representative of the political party in power, to flood the
landscape with propaganda about their management. Ponce and Rincón [5]. These
practices have been recurrent in several administrations in the region, which has
generated the feeling of being in a permanent political campaign.
Each government can and should make use of official communication, however,
the embezzlement of resources can respond to political interests. It is a duty for the
experts, but especially for those who make up the communication areas, to point out
this difference, to work for the benefit of respecting and preserving state identities
[6].
The authorities must avoid falling into the propaganda sphere and rethink govern-
ment communication, through new strategies that allow them to adequately inform
citizens [7]. Trying to deploy a new propaganda apparatus can mean a fundamental
political cost for any regime.
If there is a desire by officials to demonstrate the achievements of their manage-
ment, but with a more partisan or political character, it must be done outside the
State and with their own resources. In the Republic of Ecuador, the current situa-
tion requires making a clear differentiation between government communication and
propaganda, in order to avoid repeating the practices that caused so much damage
during previous decades.
2 Social Media
Official communication must be timely, abundant and, above all, attached to the veri-
fiable and credible truth [8]. The philosophy of freedom of expression and the press
was the campaign theme of the official speech of the current Ecuadorian president,
and comes from various actions of the Executive Branch.
Quite a true contrast with those times when the vision of power tried to impose
itself vertically, uniquely, without debate and with a rhetoric closer to propaganda
and patronage, than to transparency and truth.
For now, it is clear to understand that for major national issues such as vaccination
campaigns, health, education and prevention and action on natural risks, certain
communication options are viable and even essential.
In this scenario, the idea of the Ecuadorian Government is to be present in social
networks. There are risks, such as competing with the armies of fake accounts and
counter-propaganda, and presenting information without verification or mediation.
Communication as a Democratic Strategy in the Republic of Ecuador 325
Likewise, it must be considered that a high percentage of Ecuadorians is not familiar

with or has access to social networks.
Face-to-face meetings with the press, interviews with important officials must be
frequent, in order to transparently face their duty to inform public opinion about their
tasks [9].
For now, there is some caution or suspicion, perhaps because many of them are not
familiar with the media. Some barely attend certain televised interviews, rejecting the
option of being on the radio, a way of mass communication and resolving concerns
without avoiding difficult issues. It is better to report and respond, and not all official
spokespersons do so widely enough yet.
Using Facebook, Twitter or Instagram has become very common today, as social
networks today constitute new opening spaces to socialize, inform and exchange
knowledge. Without a doubt, they are the fashionable means of communication [10].
Twitter represents the network with the greatest functionality to broadcast short
and specific information, due to the limited length or space for writing, since it has
a maximum of 140 characters.
A study by the Inter-American Development Bank [IDB] revealed that: "the vast
majority of large municipalities in Latin America have institutionalized the use of
social networks in public administration and also have formal structures to manage
them" which shows that At the regional level, the use of social networks already
marks an important milestone in terms of new communication systems [11].
According to the research, 97.6% of entities have an official Facebook account,
90.2% have a YouTube account, and 85.4% have a Twitter account. Additionally,
four out of five mayors have accounts on Twitter, and almost the same proportion on
Facebook, cites the aforementioned study.
Ecuador evidences a true revolution in telecommunications, since the Ministry of
Telecommunications and the Information Society [MINTEL] has carried out impor-
tant actions to promote the diversification and universalization of Information and
Communication Technologies, so that the 46% of people used the internet in 2021,
compared to 35%, corresponding to 2019.
Until 2021, 39.6% of people in Ecuador had some social network such as: Face-
book, Twitter or YouTube. Of this percentage, 47.4% were located in the urban sector
and 22.1% in the rural sector.
Likewise, Pichincha is the province with the highest access to social networks in
Ecuador, with 49.7%, followed by Azuay with 43.4% and El Oro with 43%. Other
provinces with high percentages of incursion in social networks are: Guayas with
42.7% and Pastaza with 40.1%.
These figures are not simple data, they reflect that its use has become widespread
in the country, thanks to the public policies implemented to reduce the digital divide.
Social networks in Ecuador are used in many ways, from fun and debate, to work
and job creation.
Public policies have contributed to the massive deployment of Broadband and
mobile infrastructure, as contributions to the technological development of this
nation.
326 A. Clery et al.
3 Traditional Media
The media includes the “traditional” ones such as television, radio, movies, CDs or
DVDs, as well as the written media, and also the Internet information highway [12].
The media has become so important in our society that it is hard to imagine a life
without television, emails, video sharing websites, online news, portals or blogs. Its
traditional role as a window to the world continues to grow. The media have acquired
new functions, such as forums for interaction and social communication, a place to
buy or sell goods, to collect information of any kind, or to send multimedia content.
For a long period of time, the traditional media, sometimes called “the fourth
power” by analogy with the three traditional powers in a democracy [legislative,
executive and judicial], have been an ally of citizens when it comes to questioning
the government policies that were harmful to the people. However, at the World
Social Forum held in Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2003, Ignacio Ramonet, a journalist
and university professor, stated that the conventional media had been acquired by
transnational corporations and had become an enemy: with the power of exploit and
oppress people instead of protecting them [13].
Some people call the Internet the fifth power as it increasingly competes with
traditional media to raise issues and serve as a watchdog.
The growing power of the media, especially the Internet, can serve to increase
awareness and participation, and to improve access to information, but it also has
inherent dangers [14]. It can foster empathy and human rights activism, but it can
also risk fueling hate, stereotypes and misinformation. Children and young people
are especially vulnerable to risks on the Internet [15].
The digital revolution transformed the way of generating and consuming news
content. New digital realities drive innovative rules to inform and, above all, connect
with the digital user [16].
Given this scenario, there are many questions and debates that have been generated
around the relevance of traditional media in an interconnected world, where the speed
of information is increasingly important.
In the age of digital information, the large traditional media outlets are trans-
forming themselves, have expanded their range of channels and are creating a symbi-
otic relationship with digital platforms. Beyond the website, they are also increasing
their presence on the main social networks [Twitter, Facebook, Instagram], as well
as implementing the creation of podcasts.
The symbiosis between traditional and digital platforms has made the media
evolve the way of presenting information. Now, for example, we see that the print
media include the possibility of reflecting audiovisual content on their website and
social networks, incorporating a TV studio in their newsrooms to record interviews.
According to research, 52% of users consume news through social networks [17].
The media accounts have become a means of alerting and news opening, inviting
the digital user to expand their content on the traditional platforms of the medium:
website, press, newscast, etc. A good headline on Twitter should have the power for
the user to click and expand the information on the web page of the medium.
So, are traditional media still important in our communications strategy?

Definitely understanding the new symbiotic dynamics is mandatory to develop
successful Public Relations strategies. It is important to understand the information
needs of the digital consumer and media content.
Based on the approach of the previous question, the digital transformation of
traditional media contributes to the online positioning of our brand and therefore
increases interest in expanding the information we are sharing. It is pointed out that
82% of users search for news through online media, so traditional media with a
digital presence make room for our messages not only on the web, but also on social
networks.
Consideration in our communication strategies of traditional media symbiotically
connected with digital platforms is key. Nowadays it is important to consider a mix
of influencers, native journalists, digital immigrants and traditional ones to reach
different types of audience, according to their news consumption preferences.
The challenge that lies ahead is to generate information in the appropriate formats
according to the needs of each communication medium. The press release continues
to be the protagonist, but it must evolve and become a document that connects you
with other, more visual resources that serve the different media platforms [18].
As long as a traditional medium is transformed and generates a symbiotic relation-
ship with digital platforms, it will have a guaranteed life and less risk of disappearing.
Leaving them aside in our communication strategies is a mistake, the media today
continue to make room for our messages in public opinion, the challenge is to give
them valuable information to arouse interest in the digital user who consults them
[19].
4 Public Road
Outdoor advertising is the oldest form of advertising and mass communication. The
beginnings of the outdoor sign can be traced back to the refinement of the lithographic
process over 200 years ago, where signs began to be used for political propaganda
and advertising.
In the modern era, outdoor advertising originated in the 1930s, when the car
became the most widely used means of transportation and new printing techniques
were being developed [20].
Among the advantages of advertising on public roads we have that outdoor adver-
tising can reach the majority of the population of a market, with high frequency and
at a very low cost per exposure; it is an excellent medium to support other media or
to achieve some recognition in the public; With the use of color and electric light,
external communication constitutes a medium that cannot be ignored; it has a reach
of the local public, with a geographic segmentation criterion; It has a creative impact,
due to its large dimensions and the use of shapes and colors.
Outdoor advertising is most successful when used for immediate recall by citizens,
in order to complement other forms of advertising.
328 A. Clery et al.
There are various communication strategies on public roads [21], but the most
important are:
1. Branding. It is used when seeking notoriety. This type of advertisement must
achieve great visibility to achieve the position that is expected to be achieved in
the mind of the citizen. Some of their goals are to build emotional bonds; Make
a Difference; and promote the association of ideas.
2. Promotions. Promotion always has the purpose of informing, persuading and
reminding the citizen. If you are looking to create a promotional communication
campaign through public roads, the objectives must be related to recognition.
3. Releases. This type of strategy is used when planning to introduce a new service.
4. Interaction. Currently it is essential for brands to have a solid audience
that interacts with their content, because citizens need to connect with their
governments.
Street or outdoor advertising is a visual medium intended to reinforce a name. It
has a high impact and reaches a mobile audience with a very high frequency, often
on a 24 h basis.
5 Socialization
Socialization is a process by which the individual adopts the sociocultural elements

of his environment and integrates them into his personality to adapt to society.
Within the socialization process, three types are distinguished [22]. The first corre-
sponds to the family, which is the area closest to the individual and where he first
learns to relate to others. The second covers the entire group that is outside the family,
that is, social groups of acquaintances, friends, or others. And the third, which has
been born in the last decade, is called “socialization through the mass media”.
The mass media provide information, judgments on different topics and events,
and above all, they form behavior models in the population [23]. In addition, its
contents have an impact on a larger population than any other socialization group.
These means offer us advantages in terms of how to establish relationships, but
also some other drawbacks. One of the advantages is the speed with which you can
find a new friend, in less than five minutes’ contact is established with various users.
In real life, this is not so easy, it costs us [some more than others] to form new
friendships and maintain them. One of the drawbacks is that little by little the human
warmth is lost, instead of hearing the voice of your partner you only hear the buzz
of the computer.
On the net, users can lie endlessly, and the only way to discover their deception
is “face to face”. For this reason, we ask ourselves if the relationships established
through the network are fiction or reality. How many cases have come to our ears, of
people who fall in love with another without ever having had real contact with each
other, and then when it comes to seeing each other face to face it has been a total
failure, because one had lied and the other too. We are not saying that all users lie,
but we do know that they have at their fingertips, something that many people want,
to change for another. You can create a new personality and a new body, or simply
improve the things you don’t like about yourself. Double deception, you deceive the
other user and you deceive yourself.
The socialization process can be defined as continuous, which is in permanent
development. It starts from the moment of birth, it progresses and evolves during
all the stages of the life cycle. Socialization requires, therefore, to adopt certain
social patterns as their own, with the aim of achieving the necessary self-regulation
that allows a certain independence when adapting to society’s expectations. Self-
regulation is the foundation of socialization, it requires cognitive awareness and
importantly, emotional control.
The agents of socialization [those people or institutions that make possible the
effectiveness of the internalization of the structure and social processes], are diver-
sifying as the social contexts of action of the individual increase, passing from the
exclusivity of the family to the influence of other external agents [24].
Through the process of socialization, the individual joins the group, develops
an identity and thereby associates in a certain number of social categories. Social
interaction is the central aspect of socialization, it can be considered as a process
of relationships through which certain ways of thinking, feeling and acting that are
characteristics of a group are developed. This process will not only produce changes
in the individual himself, but also in the system of relationships that he establishes,
modifying and adapting to his own relationship norms.
Socialization is a process of cultural shaping; we are socialized through learning
the cultural practices carried out by the members of the chosen group and that teach
both the ways of acting and expressing emotions, as well as the ways of reacting to
certain situations, as well as the establishment of relational schemes.
A good example of this entire process analyzed can be found during the events that
occurred in October 2019 in the Republic of Ecuador, where there were disturbances
in various areas of the country, particularly by the indigenous population that led a
very strong protest.
These communities continued with the demonstrations, launching slogans in their
ancestral language against what they called the “paquetazo” [series of austerity
measures announced by the president at the time, Lenin Moreno]. They blocked high-
ways with stones, sticks and tires in several places and there was even a confrontation
with soldiers who were trying to clear one of the blocked roads in the Andean province
of Cotopaxi.
CONAIE, the largest indigenous center in the country, sat down and achieved
some of its purposes of struggle, thanks to the communication established with
representatives of the government of President Moreno, serving as an example of a
communication strategy with impact groups in the socialization of the indigenous
people.
330 A. Clery et al.
6 Special Thanks
To the Universidad de Guayaquil and Universidad Estatal Península de Santa Elena,

for the resources provided, in the development of the projects called “Systematization
and digitalization of the records of the archives of the Council of the Faculty of
Jurisprudence” and “Impact study of communication 4.0”.
References
1. Díaz, J.C.L., Fernández, L.R., Rojano, F.J.P.: Comunicación gubernamental y emociones en la

crisis del Covid-19 en España. Revista latina de comunicación social 78, 23–40 (2020)
2. Medina, G.: Opinión pública: Comunicación política, democracia y medios. Universidad de
Antioquia (2020)
3. Ocampo, S.P.: Símbolo y comunicación-hacia un concepto de comunicación simbólica desde
la teoría general de sistemas sociales. Sociol. Antropol. 9, 871–893 (2019)
4. Fernández-Souto, A.B., Puentes-Rivera, I., Vázquez-Gestal, M.: La gestión comunicativa de
las grandes empresas en España: estructura, recursos y principales retos de sus responsables.
Commun. Soc. 32(1), 161–177 (2019)
5. Ponce, M., Rincón, O.: Medios de lucha: Comunicación de gobierno en América Latina. B DE
BOOKS (2018)
6. Barres, D.M.: Políticas estatales e identidades en el Ecuador: etnicidades de la Costa y
“reindigenización”. Crisol 6 (2019)
7. Elías, C.: Expertos/as científicos/as y comunicación gubernamental en la era de las fake news.
Prisma Social: revista de investigación social 31, 6–39 (2020)
8. Atkinson, S., Kim, C., Lee, J.Y.: Facebook as an official communication channel in a crisis.
Aust. J. Emerg. Manag. 36(1), 92–98 (2021)
9. Ergasheva, M.P: Public opinion and its role in the social life of society. Theor. Appl. Sci. 10,
183–185 (2019)
10. Miller, B.J., Mundey, P.: Emerging SNS use: the importance of social network sites for older
American emerging adults. J. Youth Stud. 23(5), 613–630 (2020)
11. Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo, de Desenvolvimento.: Informe anual del Banco Inter-
americano de Desarrollo: Reseña del año (2020)
12. Villota Ramírez, T.D.: El impacto del periodismo ciudadano en la cobertura de los medios
tradicionales de las protestas de octubre 2019 de la ciudad de Cuenca [Bachelor’s thesis,
Universidad del Azuay] (2020)
13. Foro Social Mundial.: Direcció, G. D. L. I. B., de Cooperació, G., de l’Ensenyament, S. D. T., &
Solidaris, E., Foro Social Mundial. Porto Alegre 2003, Foro Mundial de Educación (2003)
14. Clery, A.: El acceso a la información pública: análisis de la experiencia europea y española y
bases para su regulación en la República del Ecuador (2015)
15. Kwak, Y., Kim, H., Ahn, J.W.: Impact of Internet usage time on mental health in adolescents:
using the 14th Korea youth risk behavior web-based survey 2018. PLoS ONE 17(3), e0264948
(2022)
16. Chan, A.H.Y., Honey, M.L.: User perceptions of mobile digital apps for mental health: accept-
ability and usability-an integrative review. J. Psychiatr. Ment. Health Nurs. 29(1), 147–168
(2022)
17. Machuca Acosta, C.E.: El contenido informativo de los memes y la credibilidad en los usuarios
de la red social Facebook del diario El Comercio [Bachelor’s thesis, Universidad Técnica de
Ambato, Facultad de Jurisprudencia y Ciencias Sociales, Carrera de Comunicación Social
(2022)
18. Molina, L., et al.: Information society: access to public information. In: Marketing and Smart
Technologies, pp 350–362. Springer, Singapore (2016)
19. Clery, A. et al.: University Communication in Times of Covid-19: The Ecuadorian case. In:
International Conference on Comprehensible Science. Springer, Cham (2020)
20. Şik, E., Soba, M.: Los ojos no mienten. Investigación de la eficacia de los instrumentos de
publicidad exterior: una investigación de neuromarketing aplicada con la técnica de seguimiento
ocular. Acta bioethica 27(2), 235–246 (2021)
21. Aimetta, M.L.: Imagen corporativa: creación de una estrategia de comunicación externa
[Bachelor’s thesis] (2021)
22. Chica, Ó.D., Martín, M.H.: ¿Las redes sociales satisfacen las necesidades de comunicación
interpersonal? Cosmovisión de la comunicación en redes sociales en la era postdigital, p 77
(2021)
23. Paula, I.A.N., Caballero, I.Z.: Análisis de modelos sobre Comportamiento Informacional, desde
un enfoque socio-psicológico. Bibliotecas. Anales de investigación 12(1), 63–89 (2021)
24. Contrí, G.B., Descals, A.M., Alonso-Geta, P.M.P., Leonhardt, P.C.: Los adolescentes como
consumidores: la familia como agente de socialización. Estud Consumo 58, 35–46 (2001)
Impact of Lecturer Training
on Absenteeism and Job Performance:
Ecuador’s Higher Education Institution
Case
Rosa Llerena , Elsa Álvarez , John W. Castro , Nancy Rodríguez ,

and Lucrecia Llerena
Abstract Ecuador’s public university system is at a stage in which supply exceeds

demand and where competition between universities plays a leading role. The objec-
tive of this research is to carry out an analysis of the impact of lecturer training on
absenteeism rate and job performance in a Public Higher Education Institution. We
conduct an initial diagnosis is performed by cluster analysis, also a correlational anal-
ysis and a Student T-test to examine the effect of training courses on absenteeism rate
and job performance of lecturers. According to the results obtained, training courses
do not have a significant impact on absenteeism nor the quality of job performance
of university lecturers.
Keywords Absenteeism rate · Assessment · Cluster analysis · Higher education ·

Job performance · Training courses
R. Llerena
Ministry of Education, Quevedo, Ecuador
e-mail: rosa.llerena@educacion.gob.ec
E. Álvarez · N. Rodríguez · L. Llerena (B)
Quevedo State Technical University, Quevedo, Ecuador
e-mail: lllerena@uteq.edu.ec
E. Álvarez
e-mail: ealvarez@uteq.edu.ec
N. Rodríguez
e-mail: nrodriguez@uteq.edu.ec
J. W. Castro
Departamento de Ingeniería Informática y Ciencias de la Computación, University of Atacama,
Copiapó, Chile
e-mail: john.castro@uda.cl
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_30
334 R. Llerena et al.
1 Introduction
The teaching–learning process in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) allows

students to develop their ability to investigate and solve problems, both in their profes-
sional practice and in society. To do this, it is necessary to continuously evaluate the
lecturer’s performance. Both lecturers and students must engage in an institutional
framework, characterized by equity, democracy, teaching policies and regulations
[1]. The term absenteeism at academic level has been defined as “the conscious
and premeditated action to absent from the physical environment of the univer-
sity class, leading to the search for alternatives in the use of the time” [2]. There-
fore, absenteeism is considered a significant problem from an educational, social,
economic, and personal point of view. Thus, to improve the quality of teaching and
increase the performance of lecturers, lecturers are required to attend their classes
with certain normality. Training lecturers through courses, seminars, workshops,
etc., are excellent solutions to overcome the problems lecturers face (gaining self-
efficacy). According to the Career and Ranking Regulations of the Professor of HEIs,
lecturers have the right to training and professional updating, such as in learning
research methodologies and knowledge linked to their teaching activity [3]. This
means that HEIs must promote the training and updating of their lectures. It is
HEIs responsibility to evaluate the lecturer’s performance to demonstrate what they
are doing in their activities, such as implementing teaching techniques. Therefore,
the HEIs must evaluate the lecturer’s performance to improve the quality of the
education it imparts. For our study, we have selected an Ecuadorian HEIs accred-
ited by the Consejo de Evaluación, Acreditación y Aseguramiento de la Calidad de
la Educación Superior (CEAACES). Due to data privacy reasons and institutional
policies, we cannot mention the university’s name. To develop this work, we have
considered two school periods (2017 and 2018) with data from two measures of job
performance, self-assessment and heteroevaluation, carried out annually to lecturers
of HEIs in Ecuador. A self-assessment allows the evaluation of lecturer’s job perfor-
mance, whilst within a heteroevaluation, lecturers evaluate the performance of other
lecturers who belong to different levels of the teaching system. The maximum accred-
ited score for both the auto and heteroevaluation is 100 points. In 2017, the selected
University had 453 lecturers, reaching 467 lecturers in 2018. Since 2018, new concil-
iation policies and measurements, such as conducting national, international, and
research training courses in different areas of knowledge, have been established,
ensuring that lecturers’ job performance is constantly improving and strengthening
the student training process.
The research hypothesis of this study is to test the impact of training courses
on absenteeism and on quality job performance of university lecturers. In addition,
verify that the absenteeism rate of university lecturers in 2018 is lower compared
to 2017. Lecturers play a crucial role in any education system, and their proper
training can, directly and indirectly, affect the learning process of students. The
purpose of the training courses is to help lecturers promote their work. To carry out
this research, previously, the publications related to cluster analysis and university
Impact of Lecturer Training on Absenteeism and Job Performance: … 335
teaching training have been reviewed. To that end, a review process Systematic
Mapping Study (SMS) was used [4]. The results revealed a lack of studies reporting
the impact of training university lecturers on absenteeism and job performance. In
addition, no studies reported the use of cluster analysis to profile university lecturers
based on job performance.
In the present study, the problem considered is to verify whether teacher training
courses have a significant impact on absenteeism and on the work performance of
university teachers. As an approach to solving the research problem, an analysis
of the impact that the implementation of training courses has on job performance
improvement and reduced absenteeism is carried out. Prior to this study, an initial
diagnosis is performed by cluster analysis to obtain guidelines to use in our research.
The results of the cluster analysis can explain how teacher training has benefits in
educational institutions. Therefore, a simple initial study of the descriptive ones is
not enough to obtain the same results as in cluster analysis. A cluster analysis can
facilitate the search for the differences that exist between the characteristics of the
teachers in an Ecuadorian HEI, facilitating, for example, the following benefits in
teaching and education, such as high selection of individual clusters to through a
great heterogeneity between the groups, and allows the evaluation of existing data.
We propose the following research objectives: (i) Establish lecturer profiles based
on gender, age, seniority, absenteeism, job performance, and training courses, by
cluster analysis, and (ii) determine the impact of conducting lecturer training courses
on performance and absenteeism by Student’s t-test analysis. According to these
objectives, two research questions (RQ) for the present research, are defined as
follows: (RQ1) What are the profiles of university lecturers according to their gender,
age, seniority, absenteeism, job performance, and HEIs training courses? (RQ2) What
impact does the realization of lecturer training courses have on the job performance
and absenteeism of lecturers in the IES?
This article is organized as follows. Section 2: introduction to the state of the
art. Section 3: Description of the research method. Section 4: Report on the results.
Section 5: Answers and discussion on the research questions. Finally, Sect. 6 focuses
on conclusions and future work.
2 State of the Art
The literature review allows finding and analyzing publications related to areas you
want to investigate. To do this, a review process known as the Systematic Mapping
Study (SMS) has been used. According to Kitchenham and Charters [4], an SMS
consists of a review of the relevant literature (primary studies) in a specific subject
area, aiming to identify available evidence on a topic. The SMS answers the following
research question: RQ. What are the profiles of university lecturers according to their
gender, age, seniority, absenteeism, job performance, and HEIs training courses?
The SMS process started by identifying keywords and search strings built from the
research question. Initially, a traditional search was carried out, from which some
articles were obtained that were studied to determine the most appropriate search
strings. These strings were validated and completed by an expert in this research
method. The search string used was: “cluster analysis” AND (“lecturer training” OR
“job performance” OR “work absenteeism”). The electronic databases (DB) used in
the SMS were Scopus and SpringerLink. For the search, the start date was 2017 and
the end date was 2020. The fields to perform the search were not always the same
because they depended on the options of each database. Once the SMS was carried
out, we find no relevant results to corroborate our research. Therefore, this research
is necessary and covers this gap.
3 Research Method
The research method used to validate the viability of our research proposal was a
correlational study and a Student’s T-test. The aim was to determine the impact of
lecturer training on absenteeism and job performance in an HEI in Ecuador. We
first present the data from the samples collected that correspond to the research
participants for the methodology. Next, we describe the instruments used. Finally,
we illustrate the process proposed in the framework of the research work.
Participants. The data correspond to the surveys carried out by the teachers on
a mandatory basis in the educational institution. These data do not correspond to
a convenience sample, because we had access to the complete data of the subjects
that make up the entire population of the institution. It is important to note that
this data is anonymized for data protection purposes. The samples collected from
the lecturers present the following data: gender, age, seniority in the institution,
annual remuneration, annual absenteeism percentage, self-assessment notes, and of
heteroevaluation. According to these samples in 2017, an average is calculated as
47.27 for women and an average of 53.50 for men. In the year 2018, the average is
50.27 and 56.59 respectively.
Instruments. In the evaluation of the variable job performance, a questionnaire
was used to measure university lecturers’ educational work for the purpose of contin-
uous improvement of the HEIs. This questionnaire is an internal form used by the
HEIs, its access is restricted by a user account and password, and it is only acti-
vated in the lecturers’ performance assessment period. No participant recruitment
methodology was used for our study. Therefore, informed consent was not necessary
because the data used in the analysis correspond to the mandatory evaluations in each
school period carried out by teachers. A fragment of this questionnaire is shown in
the following link.1
Process. First, a cluster analysis was conducted to determine the segment of
lecturers based on the variables: gender, age, seniority, absenteeism, job performance,
and training courses. The K-means algorithm was used to profile lecturers who partic-
ipated in the study. Lecturers’ clusters were formed with those variables most similar
1 https://n9.cl/dettv.
Table 1 Description of the 2017 and 2018 samples

Variable Min Max Median Mean DT Variance Skewness Kurtosis
Self-assessment 40 100 90 89.41 7.349 54.01 −2.318 8.836
2017
Hetero-evaluation 38 100 87 87.61 6.541 42.789 −3.353 19.419
2017
% Absenteeism 0 1 0.2 0.179 0.21 0.044 2.26 5.817
2017
Self-assessment 75 100 90 90.98 6.339 40.188 −0.319 0.137
2018
Heteroevaluation 61 100 89 88.14 6.227 38.781 −1.904 5.199
2018
% Absenteeism 0 1 0.2 0.199 0.254 0.064 1.582 2.054
2018
to each other. The similarities and differences between clusters were subsequently
explored by Student’s T-test procedure. Second, a correlation analysis was performed
to measure the extent to which the two variables in this study, absenteeism and job
performance, are related. In addition, correlation analysis between absenteeism and
training courses completion was made for 2018. Finally, Student’s T-test is used to
examine the differences in absenteeism rate and job performance between the 2017
and 2018 samples. Other non-parametric tests such as the Wilcoxon signed ranges
test [5, 6] is used, when the assumption of normality in the data distribution did not
meet.
4 Results
This section answers all two research questions based on the results after processing
and analyzing the dataset using R programming language.2
4.1 Initial Inspection of Data
In this section, the descriptions of each sample are reported, before separating them
into clusters. Table 1 contains the descriptions of the samples for the years 2017 and
2018.
2 https://www.r-project.org/.
4.2 What Are the Profiles of University Lecturers Based

on Their Gender, Age, Working Seniority, Absenteeism,
Job Performance, Training Courses?
First, we obtain the relevant columns of lecturers’ samples (gender, seniority, age,
remuneration, absenteeism rate, and job performance measured in self-assessment
and heteroevaluation). Afterwards, to determine homogeneous groups of lecturers
based on the characteristics previously mentioned, we use machine learning tech-
niques such as the k-means algorithm. The k-means algorithm is a grouping method
aiming to partition a set of n observations into k groups (clusters) [7]. For this study,
a total of three clusters, were decided as manageable to compare the university
lecturers’ profiles [7].
Segment determination 2017 sample. Training courses are not considered for
2017 cluster determination because they were not yet implemented for lecturer
performance improvement. From the processing carried out to the data described
in the research method, we identify three lecturer profiles using cluster analysis.
It is important to mention that another number of lecturer profiles could be chosen,
however, for this research 3 profiles were chosen as an appropriate number [7]. These
values are standardized. After performing all the calculations, the data is unstandard-
ized to obtain the segments of lecturers who share common characteristics. Below,
for reasons of space only the first cluster for the 2017 sample is presented below:
Cluster 1: Male lecturer between 64 and 65 years old, more than 25 years in the
institution, annual salary of more than $40,000 USD and 15.5% absenteeism. In
the self-assessment they have been valued with 90 points and in the heteroevaluation
88.2 points. When comparing lecturers’ profiles, we clearly note that the main differ-
ences between cluster 1, 2 and 3, are salary and work experience, being considerably
higher in cluster 1 when compared to clusters 2 and 3. These last two, also show
important differences in gender and salary between them. The rest of the variables,
absenteeism rate, self-assessment and heteroevaluation are very similar between the
three clusters.
Segment determination 2018 sample. As with 2017 sample, the analogous
procedure is performed. For reasons of space, only the first cluster for the 2018
sample is presented below: Cluster 1: Male lecturer between 63 and 64 years old,
26 years in the institution, annual salary of more than $41,000 USD and 26.4% absen-
teeism. In the self-assessment they have been assessed with 91.8 points and in the
heteroevaluation 88.5 points. He has completed between 1 and 2 training courses in
2018. Analyzing the clusters obtained from 2018 sample, we note that the main differ-
ences between clusters are salary and work experience, being considerably higher in
cluster 1 when compared to clusters 2 and 3, which also show important differences
in gender and salary. The rest of the variables, absenteeism rate, self-assessment
and heteroevaluation are very similar between the three clusters. When comparing
lecturers’ profiles, we found similarities between clusters obtained in both years 2017
and 2018. Analyzing cluster 1 both years, we found that the main differences are
salary and work experience, considerably greater than those of the other clusters.
Clusters 2 and 3, presented gender and salary as major differences when compared
between them. Cluster 3 showed the highest salary for those whose gender was male.
The rest of variables, absenteeism rate, self-assessment and heteroevaluation, were
very similar in all three clusters for both years. Training courses for HEIs lecturers
were not implemented in 2017 and as a result, the variable training courses were not
considered.
4.3 What Impact Does Lecturers’ Training Courses Have

on Job Performance and lecturer’s Absenteeism Rate
in an Ecuadorian HEI?
This section shows correlations analysis performed between the variables lecturer
training, job performance and absenteeism rate to know the relationship between
them.
Correlation between lecturer training courses and absenteeism (2018). We test
correlation level between the variable absence rate and lecturers’ training courses.
Figure 1 shows a correlation coefficient of −0.063, meaning a low correlation in
these variables.
Summary of correlation results between the variables: absence, job perfor-
mance, and training courses completion. Table 2 summarizes results of correlation
analysis between the variables absenteeism, self-assessment, heteroevaluation and
training courses completion, to facilitate the reading of this section. According to
Table 2, correlation coefficient between absenteeism and self-assessment in 2017, is
virtually zero, therefore these two variables are unrelated. Similarly, the correlation
between absenteeism variables and heteroevaluation in 2017 is very low to deter-
mine that they are correlated. The correlation between absence and self-assessment
in 2018 is negative, i.e., lower self-assessment implies a higher absenteeism rate.
Fig. 1 Correlation between Absenteeism rate and Courses completed variables 2018
Table 2 Correlation between

Variables Absenteeism 2017 Absenteeism 2018
absenteeism rate, job
performance, course Self-assessment 0.0029 −0.11
completion Heteroevaluation 0.0014 0.055
Completion courses −0.063
Similarly, correlation value between absenteeism and heteroevaluation for 2018 is

very low. Finally, there is a low correlation between the variable absenteeism and
training courses in 2018.
According to Table 3 regarding 2017 results, we found for the 3 clusters a positive
but null correlation between self-assessment and absenteeism. As for the correlation
between heteroevaluation and absenteeism is considered null for all 3 clusters. 2018
results, shows that clusters 1 and 3, had a low and negative correlation between
self-assessment and absenteeism. Cluster 2 showed a null correlation between self-
assessment and absenteeism rate, because it is lower than 0.1. As for the correlation
between heteroevaluation and absenteeism we observed in cluster 2 a stronger posi-
tive correlation, 0.130, when compared to other clusters. Finally, we observe for the
variables courses completed and absenteeism the highest correlation (−0.130) in
cluster 1 and a null correlation for the other two clusters in 2018, which means that
these variables have low correlation.
Student T-tests for absenteeism, self-assessment, and heteroevaluation
samples. In order to analyze the impact of training courses a Student’s T-test has
been conducted to determine if there are significant differences between absenteeism
rate, self-assessment and heteroevaluation data, from samples from years 2017 and
2018. First, to verify that the distribution of the data on absenteeism samples from
both years met the Normality criterion with the Shapiro Wilk test was performed. As
noted in Table 4 p-value was lower than 0.05, therefore, in both cases the samples do
not meet the Normality criterion. Thus, instead, we perform a non-parametric statis-
tical analysis, i.e. Wilcoxon test of signed ranges, allowing comparisons between
Table 3 Correlation between absenteeism variables, job performance, course completion for each
cluster
Variables Cluster Absenteeism 2017 Absenteeism 2018
Self-assessment 1 0.006 −0.210
2 0.014 0.039
3 0.001 −0.190
Heteroevaluation 1 -0.041 0.061
2 0.033 0.130
3 0.042 −0.003
Courses completed 1 −0.130
2 0.054
3 −0.058
Table 4 Contrasts of normality

Variables Shapiro–Wilk 2017 p-value 2017 Shapiro–Wilk 2018 p-value 2018
Absenteeism 0.664 < 0.0001 0.761 < 0.0001
Job performance 0.742 < 0.0001 0.712 < 0.0001
(Self-assessment)
Job performance 0.827 < 0.0001 0.831 < 0.0001
(Heteroevaluation)
Table 5 Non-parametric Wilcoxon’s signed ranges test

Variables x̄ 2017 STD 2017 x̄ 2018 STD 2018 Wilcoxon p-value
Absenteeism 17.87 0.21 19.94 0.25 −0.993 0.321
Job performance 89.41 7.35 90.98 6.34 −2.992 0.003
(Self-assessment)
Job performance 87.61 6.54 88.14 6.23 −1.819 0.069
(Heteroevaluation)
data that do not meet normality requirements [5, 6]. Wilcoxon’s signed ranges test
compares the mid-range of two related samples and determines if there are differences
between them. Table 4 shows a p-value > 0.05 therefore, there were no significant
differences between absenteeism rates and completing and no completing lecturers’
training courses. Second, absenteeism rate averages of both samples are compared.
As we observed in Table 3, the absence rate in 2018 is not significant with respect
to absenteeism in 2017.
As with absenteeism samples, to test the Normality of the distribution of the
data on self-assessment and heteroevaluation a Shapiro Wilk test was performed
for both years. Table 4 shows p-values lower than 0.05, therefore, in both cases
the samples do not meet the Normality criterion. Again, we use Wilcoxon’s signed
range test. Table 5, we note that the p-value is lower than 0.05, meaning that there
are significant differences in the average of the two samples. As a result, we can
say that the average self-assessment has improved significantly from 2017 to 2018.
Once we perform a Wilcoxon’s signed ranges test for heteroevaluation samples, we
note, Table 5, that the average in 2018 is higher than the average in 2017, however,
the difference is not statistically significant, p-value > 0.05. Finally, we can conclude
that the incorporation of training courses does not have a significant impact neither
on lecturers’ absenteeism rate nor on the evaluation of lecturers’ job performance.
5 Discussion the Results
When comparing the values of the means, medians, first and third quartiles of each
variable between the years 2017 and 2018 (See Table 1), we observe that they are
quite similar in all of them. If we look at the standard deviation and skewness, we
notice that they are higher in the 2017 Self-Assessment sample than in the 2018 Self-
Assessment sample. This also occurs when comparing heteroevaluation samples. The
standard deviation indicates the dispersion concerning the sample mean of the data
and the skewness shows us if the distribution is symmetric, that is, if there is the
same number of values to the right as to the left of the mean. This indicates that the
2018 Self-Assessment and heteroevaluation data are more concentrated around the
mean. We can see a similar behavior in the variable Absenteeism Percentage, which
may indicate that the data has slightly homogenized from one year to another. The
research questions raised in this work will then be answered and discussed.
RQ1. What are the profiles of university lecturers based on their gender, age,
seniority, absenteeism, job performance, and HEIs training courses? With cluster
analysis, lecturer segments were identified in the HEIs, i.e., we determined three
profiles related to the variables gender, age, seniority, absenteeism, job perfor-
mance and training courses. This analysis allowed us to group lecturers with similar
characteristics into clusters to perform correlation and Student’s T-test analysis
between absenteeism, job performance and training courses. With these clues we
aim to obtaining partial correlations in each cluster, in addition to total correlations.
According to career and teaching ladder of the Ecuador among the requirements and
merits considered to be a university lecturer are work experience, training courses,
publications and others [8]. In addition, in the case of public HEIs, the lecturer
must comply with the requirements contained in article 5 of the Organic Law on
Public Service [9]. These regulations which started in 2014, might be behind the
low percentage of young lecturers in the HEIs sector. Regarding the cluster analysis,
the main profile of a university lecturer in Ecuador found, has the following charac-
teristics: male, over 63 years old, over 25 years of work experience and an annual
remuneration of about $40,000 USD.
RQ2. What impact does lecturer training courses have on the job perfor-
mance and absenteeism of lecturers at IES? Since 2018, lecturers have been given
the opportunity to take training courses. To test this hypothesis, we made compar-
isons between samples from year 2017, when the courses were not implemented,
and samples from year 2018 when those courses were implemented. To calculate
job performance, we rely on the weighting of the self-assessment and heteroevalua-
tion and perform a Student T-test to compare the effect of introducing more training
opportunities to lecturers in 2018. Similarly, to see the effect on absenteeism rate
we take the relative percentage of each lecturer’s absenteeism and performed again
a Student T-test. The results obtained were lecturer training courses do not have a
significant impact on neither absenteeism rate nor job performance of HEIs lecturers.
6 Conclusions and Future Works
The objective of this research has been to analyze the impact of lecturer training on
absenteeism and the job performance of Ecuadorian public HEIs. In addition, a cluster
analysis is performed on lecturers according to the variables gender, age, seniority,
absenteeism, job performance, and training courses. We can conclude that absence
rate did not decrease in 2018 as we assumed at the start of this investigation. We can
infer that lecturer training courses did not have an impact neither on absenteeism
nor on the quality of job performance of university lecturers at the public university
selected for our study. In addition, cluster analysis has provided the first complete
profile of higher education lecturers oriented to Ecuadorian university society. This
study aims to strengthen the professional development of lecturers who are expected
to be committed to HEIs.
One of the focal points of higher education reforms is human resources strength-
ening. It can be deduced from this that fundamental advances have been made in
our country, such as a fourth-level degree requirement for teachers and continuous
training. [10]. At present, teacher training has focused on the participation of teachers
not only in courses, seminars, and workshops but also in fourth-level studies. These
are excellent solutions to overcome the problems teachers face and gain self-efficacy.
In the last decade, both the physical and human capacity of HEIs have been strength-
ened and have undergone significant changes, especially concerning their perfor-
mance, as they have been able to attract more funding for better support of human
resources [11]. Therefore, the support of the Ecuadorian state with increased funding
to HEIs for teacher education and training leads to greater satisfaction by the teaching
staff, also directly leading to improved levels of competitive quality among HEI staff.
The present study mainly makes four contributions to the body of knowledge of
the teaching–learning process. First, we establish a model for the analysis of the
incidence of teacher training in a higher education institution and the impact on their
assessment of their performance. Becoming a baseline for future comparative studies
related to absenteeism and job performance from the point of view of variables such
as sex and age. Second, our research is a source of support for profiling university
teachers in developing countries. Third, at the Institutional level, our study will serve
as a basis for improving institutional policies regarding the teaching staff. Finally,
fourthly, at the international level, our study will serve as a reference for governments
to place teacher training policies on their agenda, in such a way that teachers can
face the current challenges of university students, improve learning, universities and
educational quality. Future work will include further statistical studies to evaluate
other important variables, such as overtime.
References
1. CONEA.: El Sistema nacional de evaluación y acreditación de la educación superior: Estruc-

tura, políticas, estrategias, procesos y proyecciones. Ecuador (2003) [Online]. Available: https://
unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000148843
2. Sierra, S.: El absentismo en las aulas universitarias. El caso de la Escuela Universitaria de
Estudios Empresariales de la Universidad de Sevilla. REDU. Rev. Docencia Univ. 11(2), 469
(2013). https://doi.org/10.4995/redu.2013.5586.
3. CES.: Reglamento de carrera y escalafón del profesor de educación superior. no. 265. Ecuador,
pp 1–59 (2019)
4. Kitchenham, B., Charters, S.: Guidelines for performing systematic literature reviews in soft-
ware engineering version 2.3. Technical Report S.o.C.S.a.M. Software Engineering Group,
Keele University and Department of Computer Science University of Durham (2007)
5. Field, Z., Miles, A., Field, J.: Discovering Statistics Using R. London. SAGE Publications Ltd.,
United Kingdom (2012)
6. Ross, S.M.: Introducción a la Estadística. Reverte. Madrid (2007)
7. Hamerly, G., Elkan, C.: Learning the K in k-means. Adv. Neural Inf. Process. Syst. (2004)
8. Registro Oficial 265.: Reglamento de carrera y escalafón del profesor e investigador del sistema
de educación superior (Codificación), no. 265. Ecuador (2012)
9. Registro Oficial Suplemento 294.: Ley orgánica del servicio público. p. 55 (2010)
[Online]. Available: https://www.educacionsuperior.gob.ec/wp-content/uploads/downloads/
2014/09/LOSEP.pdf.
10. Santelices, M.: La Educación Superior En Ecuador: Análisis Crítico (2016)
11. Llerena, R., Llerena, L.: El estado ecuatoriano y su participación en el sistema de educación
superior (2022)
Developing the Pedagogical Capacity
of English Language Teachers in Regular
Basic Education in Tacna Region
Domingo Nicolás Pérez-Yufra ,

Cecilia Rosario del Pilar Mendoza-Gómez ,
Silvia Milagritos Bazán-Velásquez , Niria Rocío Ticahuanca-Mullo ,
and Kevin Mario Laura-De La Cruz
Abstract The purpose of this study was to ascertain the effect of the lexical approach
on English language learning in first-year secondary students from a variety of public
educational institutions, as developed through the pedagogical capacity of English
language teachers in regular basic education, with a particular emphasis on the Local
Education Management Unit (UGEL) in Tacna Region. The current inquiry is of
the applied type, with a pre-experimental design; before application, 13 teachers’
pedagogical capacities were reinforced by pragmatic training in the lexical approach
immersion in the classroom, with the assistance of a specialist. Each school was
monitored and visited throughout the growth process by an expert. To assess the
approach’s effectiveness, a pre-test was administered as an entry test and a post-
test as an exit test to a sample of 276 students. The results indicated that before
implementing the Lexical Approach, the English area’s learning level was medium,
but after implementing it, it increased to a high level, with a percentage of 60.14% of
pupils. Additionally, there is a distinction between input and output tests in statistical
testing. In conclusion, it developed pedagogical capacities and employed a lexical
approach that benefits English language learning.
D. N. Pérez-Yufra (B) · C. R. P. Mendoza-Gómez · S. M. Bazán-Velásquez ·

N. R. Ticahuanca-Mullo
e-mail: dperezy@unjbg.edu.pe
C. R. P. Mendoza-Gómez
e-mail: cmendozag@unjbg.edu.pe
S. M. Bazán-Velásquez
e-mail: sbazanv@unjbg.edu.pe
N. R. Ticahuanca-Mullo
e-mail: nticahuancam@unjbg.edu.pe
K. M. Laura-De La Cruz
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_31
346 D. N. Pérez-Yufra et al.
Keywords Lexical approach · Learning · Vocabulary · English language · Regular

basic education
1 Introduction
In recent years, lexical approach has gained traction as a viable alternative to form-
based approaches. It is geared toward increasing pupils’ proficiency through vocabu-
lary, words, and word combinations [1]. It is predicated on the premise that an essen-
tial component of language learning is comprehending and producing lexical phrases
as wholes or unanalyzed chunks, which serve as the raw data from which learners
perceive language patterns [2]. Historically, this was considered to be grammar.
Learning a foreign language, such as English, is a necessary and essential skill
for competitiveness in today’s globalized world, owing to its numerous benefits
in economic, job, academic, and social environments [3]. Recognizing the value
of second language learning, teachers are interested in learning about new and
diverse pedagogical models and approaches, and resources that enhance the English
teaching–learning process.
At the international level, education in a foreign language has modified teaching
methods throughout its history, research, and diverse applications in order to provide
adequate training and guidance to students based on their needs. Attya et al. [4], on the
other hand, say that one of the difficulties in learning a foreign language is that learners
at the primary or starting level lack an extensive vocabulary, which inhibits them from
establishing short-term communication skills. Similarly, according to Ghavamí [5],
there is still a paradigmatic gap in the language classroom; the author notes that
the use of rote lists demonstrates this and that, as a result, learning becomes bland
and unappealing, lowering student motivation. For his part, Favilli [6] demonstrated
a more considerable emphasis on grammar in lower-level textbooks through his
analysis research. Although an increasing emphasis is being placed on the language
learner communicating first, due to the perplexing nature of a language other than
their native tongue, there are still constraints, such as updating and reinforcing ways
and strategies in the language classroom.
According to the Ministry of Education, mastering the subject of English in ordi-
nary primary education establishes the abilities necessary for language proficiency:
oral comprehension and expression, text production, and text comprehension [7].
However, students struggle to learn the topics assigned to these levels of education.
According to García et al. [8], students complete their school stage with an incipient
level of foreign language, a reality reflected in many public schools, and conse-
quently, the majority of students do not comprehend what they read, much less retain
what they learn. Although the teacher’s desire is constant, the English course is rela-
tively fragmented, with two pedagogical hours per week in the case of schools with
an essential school day [9]. According to Puente [10], it is difficult for the teacher
to reduce the dispersion of student interest in such a short period without proper
tactics and tools. By nature, students are inquisitive and ready to learn from their
Developing the Pedagogical Capacity of English Language Teachers … 347
surroundings. However, because the English course may cause them stress and drive
them to reject the subject, it is vital to reassess the techniques and methodologies
utilized in this context.
The current research contributes to the advancement of active methodology in
the classroom by proposing innovative and recreational strategies for learning the
English language via the lexical approach, which expedites the process of foreign
language acquisition by exposing students to helpful vocabulary. Similarly, this
research contributes to the development of English learning for the benefit of students
by strengthening the pedagogical capacities of teachers who, in the case of the
current investigation, work in institutions focused on the UGEL Tacna and shared the
common characteristic of having only two weekly pedagogical hours of the language.
Teachers can change their approach in the classroom pragmatically after receiving
prior training from a specialist; conversely, the specialist’s monitoring and observa-
tion reinforce what is taught; in this way, the influence on student learning can be
quantified. As a result, the research findings aid individuals who teach English and
serve as a beneficial tool for future research initiatives examining the lexical method.
This study aims to raise the level of English learning in students in the first grade
of the secondary level at educational institutions focused on Tacna region by using
a lexical approach.
2 Method
2.1 Participants
For convenience, the sample is non-probabilistic, which means that its elements are
chosen according to the researcher’s specifications; in this case, the sample consists
of 276 students enrolled in the first grade of the secondary level at the UGEL Tacna’s
13 targeted educational institutions in 2018.
2.2 Design
According to Vargas [11], applied research is when fundamental research infor-

mation and theories are employed to tackle an existing problem. Similarly, a pre-
and post-test was used to examine a pre-experimental design. This work exam-
ines the lexical approach and its effect on the English area learning of secondary
school students, more precisely, first-grade secondary school students from selected
educational institutions in Tacna City.
2.3 Techniques for Data Analysis
The strategy is the test, and the instruments are the written entry and exit tests used
to assess students’ ability to improve their level of learning in the domain of English
through the use of the lexical approach.
Measurement scale. The written test assessed three English competencies as defined
by the Peruvian National Curriculum, using the following measuring scale: low level:
0–8, medium level: 9–16, and high level: 17–25.
Data analysis. The data was collected individually. The results were analyzed using
SPSS 21 and Microsoft Excel to create double-entry tables and figures.
Procedure. Permission was obtained from educational institutions to administer the
entrance test, conduct one-month-long training for teachers on the lexical approach
in English classes, and then implement it in their classroom lessons. Two months of
monitoring, followed by the administration of the output test. It worked for a total
of five months.
Reliability of the instrument. The questionnaire’s reliability was 0.89 using the
Kuder Richardson 2.0 internal consistency technique, indicating that it is reliable.
Additionally, portions of the International Exam by Cambridge Starters and Movers
level A1 were included in the test.
3 Results
According to the entrance evaluation in Table 1, only 25.72% of students had a high
level of English; 61.96% had a medium level, and 12.32% had a low level. While
most of the student population does not have a low level, the dominating level is the
medium level. After applying the lexical method, it is seen that 60.14% of pupils
are at the High level, 34.06% at the medium level, and 5.80% at the Low level. As a
result, there is a noticeable improvement in English acquisition (Fig. 1).
Table 1 Level of English in regular basic education students

English level Experimental group
Pretest Postest
n % n %
Low level 34 12,32 16 5,80
Medium level 171 61,96 94 34,06
High level 71 25,72 166 60,14
Total 276 100,00 276 100,00
Source English test
Fig. 1 Test statistic
On the other hand, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test was employed to eval-
uate if the data in Table 2 (Source: Inferential statistics) are normally distributed,
comparing the p-value to the 0.05 significance threshold (or alpha). Note that the
p-values are 0.000 and 0.001, indicating that the data do not follow a normal distri-
bution. To assess whether there is a significant difference between the pre-and post-
application of the lexical method, the z distribution table of the two-tailed test is
utilized, with the Z value equal to or greater than 1.96. The results indicated a value
of −9.378978432, which is within the rejection zone; hence, the high prevalence of
the lexical approach in the English language learning area is demonstrated, the latter
being a didactic and acceptability strategy for instructors and students.
It is worth noting that the application began with teacher training and moni-
toring for proper lexical approach use, which contributed to increasing attention and
awareness of the importance of incorporating a lexical approach into the design of
EFL classes and materials in the classrooms considered. Although this is a small-
scale investigation, it enables the examination of novel approaches and the subse-
quent investigation of their impact in a different context, for which it is suggested to
continue with local entities and the application of the Lexical Approach, as well as
prior training for its implementation and development, as it has been demonstrated
to improve student learning levels.
This study aims to determine the prevalence of the lexical approach in English, using
a sample of 276 high school students in the first grade of secondary school from
thirteen educational institutions with a simple school day in the city of Tacna. Each
teacher representative of an institution was assigned a room as an experimental group,
where an increase in the percentage of students with a sufficient level was observed
following the application of the lexical approach.
According to Azhari and Fang [12], the lexical method in the classroom entails
the use of standardized phrases and lexical blocks that are constructed similarly
to grammatical constructs, as learning is accomplished through their combination,
complementing, and applying language in the classroom more practically, maxi-
mizing teaching time. Azhari and Fang also emphasize adjusting to the student’s
demands, as Attya and Mostafa [4] urge that foreign language teachers attempt to
construct and develop their activities based on a lexical approach appropriate for their
students’ needs and educational levels [13], Both authors emphasize the significance
of developing pedagogical capacities prior to implementing the strategy, as these
would differ according to the institutional reality. It should be highlighted that while
working with targeted schools that offer two hours of English per week, it is critical
to train teachers in effective teaching tactics and student acceptance in order to make
the best use of available time.
On the other hand, analyses were conducted for each competence established by
the Ministry of Education in the National Curriculum Document, except for oral
production due to the study sample’s size. However, while the contents proposed by
the Ministery of Education are structured according to the Lexical Approach, there
is a dearth of information on the extent to which teachers use it in class and the
actual practice that students engage in both inside and outside the classroom. Favilli
[6] notes that these constraints have a cumulative effect on students’ performance;
as a result, it is critical to maintaining constant adaptation for the deployment of
new ways in language education and their control. In the current study, collaborating
with a monitoring stage enabled teachers to receive assistance with their classroom
performance on the complementation of the strategy.
The beneficial outcomes are patterns that have been replicated successfully in this
research and the teaching of other languages. Balsas-Ureña [14] states that the results
of his study, which integrated quantitative and qualitative methodologies, suggest a
favorable acceptance of this framework by students and pave the way for future
research on the lexical approach in Chinese education. Additionally, Ghavamí et al.
[15] worked with Persian students to teach Spanish. These two studies demonstrate
the adaptability of this technique.
Undoubtedly, the Lexical Approach used in this experience made a consider-
able difference in the English learning achieved by more than 200 students through
teacher training in targeted schools. Similarly, the importance of the lexical approach
in English language teaching is reflected, as it focuses on the development of students’
linguistic competence [16], which also encompasses various strategies [17] used by
teachers to strengthen students’ communicative English language competence in
a face-to-face setting, and also reinforce their digital competence in order to foster
autonomous learning in students in virtual environments, as Laura et al. [18] suggest,
through gamification elements that promote concentration, reflection, and autonomy
in students’ English learning; thus, the lexical approach is accompanied by increased
opportunities to achieve an expected level of English according to international stan-
dards. One of the difficulties in teaching English in Peru is that public educational
institutions have a limited number of academic hours available. According to Laura
et al. [19] highlight, when applying to English language instruction, the use of invis-
ible learning, which emphasizes active student experiences and the development of
soft skills, can assist in betting on non-traditional resources or methods, such as the
use of new technology.
The lexical approach was implemented following the psycholinguistic principles
it promotes, beginning with teacher education [20], emphasizing the development
of practical skills aimed at meeting students’ genuine needs for knowledge, safety,
and affection, as well as its theoretical foundation and lexical unit typology. During
the monitoring stage, it was shown that students retained structures and expressions
better than lists of words; also, teachers encouraged students to utilize more noun
phrases and fewer single words, which aided in their improvement in this area.
Additionally, students indicated increased interest in and acceptance of the activities
and decreased fear when utilizing words in specific contexts, which enriched the
meaning of language learning. Overall, this study indicated several positive indicators
for the lexical approach, which supported replication of the research in varied contexts
and further contributions to the development of practical activities based on the
approach for improved foreign language learning.
References
1. Lewis, M.: The Lexical Approach: the Estate of ELT and the Way Forward. Language Teaching
Publications, England (1993)
2. Lewis, M.: Language in the lexical approach. In: Lewis, M. (ed.), Teaching Collocation: further
Developments, pp. 126–154. In The Lexical Approach. Language Teaching Publications, Hove
(2000)
3. Laura, K., Morales, K., Clavitea, M., Aza, P.: Aplicación Quizizz y comprensión de textos en
inglés con el contenido de la plataforma educativa “Aprendo en Casa”. Rev. Innova Educ. 3(1),
151–159 (2021). https://doi.org/10.35622/j.rie.2021.01.007
4. Attya, A., Quora, A., Mostafa, A.: Using the lexical approach—Based activities to enhance
EFL preparatory stage students’ vocabulary learning. J. Res. Curric. Instr. Educ. Technol. 4(2),
73–92 (2019). https://doi.org/10.21608/jrciet.2019.31938
5. Ghavamí, S.: El Enfoque Léxico y Algunos Aspectos de La Enseñanza Del Léxico En E/LE
Con Hablantes de Persa [Doctoral Thesis]. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, España (2017)
6. Favilli, L.: The Lexical Approach Implementation on Selected EFL Textbooks of the Last
Decade: a Quantitative and Qualitative Research [Mater’s Thesis]. Universitá Ca’Foscari
Venezia, Venezia (2020)
7. MINEDU.: Currículo Nacional de La Educación Básica. MINEDU, Lima (2017)
8. García, I., Vecorena, N., Velasco, E.: El nivel de inglés alcanzado en quinto grado de secundaria
en tres colegios públicos de Lima metropolitana, (55), 80–102. Pontificia Universidad Católica
Del Perú (2019). https://doi.org/10.18800/educacion.201902.004
9. MINEDU.: Lineamientos Para La Implementación de La Enseñanza Del Idioma Inglés En Las
Instituciones Educativas Públicas de Educación Básica Regular. MINEDU, Lima (2014)
10. Puente, Y.: La Enseñanza Del Idioma Inglés En El Sistema Educativo Peruano y Su Importancia.
Conocimiento Amazónico 6(2), 151–156 (2015)
11. Vargas, Z.: La Investigación aplicada: Una forma de conocer las realidades con evidencia
científica. Rev. Educ. 33(1), 155 (2009). https://doi.org/10.15517/revedu.v33i1.538
12. Azhari, A., Fang, X.: Gamification framework: using lexical approach on social media
application online reviews. In: Kurosu, M. (eds.), Human-Computer Interaction. Interaction
Technologies, vol. 10903. Springer, Cham (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91250-

9_32
13. Hyland, K.: As can be seen: lexical bundles and disciplinary variation. Engl. Specif. Purposes
27(1), 4–21 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2007.06.001
14. Balsas-Ureña, I.: Tratamiento del léxico y la gramática mediante ejemplificación en la
enseñanza de chino lengua extranjera. Revista Electrónica de Investigación Docencia Creativa
8(3), 30–47 (2020). https://doi.org/10.30827/digibug.58482
15. Ghavamí, S., Gorji, K., Alcoba, S.: Enfoque Léxico: traducción e interpretación en la enseñanza
deE/LE con hablantes de persa. Revista de lengua y literatura 3, 99–135 (2017). https://doi.
org/10.5565/rev/doblele.33
16. Abdulqader HB, Murad IH, Abdulghani MI.: The impact of the application of lexical approach
on developing students’ writing skills at a university level. ESJ 13(32), 130 (2017) https://euj
ournal.org/index.php/esj/article/view/10246
17. Richards, J.C., Rodgers, T.S.: Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, 2nd edn.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2001)
18. Laura, K., Gebera, O., Copaja, S.: Application of gamification in higher education in the
teaching of English as a Foreign language. In: Mesquita, A., Abreu, A., Vidal, J. (eds.), IOT
with Smart Systems, vol. 256, pp. 323–341. Springer, ICITED (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/
978-981-16-5063-5_27
19. Laura, K., Noa, S., Lujano, Y., Alburqueque, M., Medina, G., Pilicita, H.: Una nueva perspectiva
desde la enseñanza de inglés. El aprendizaje invisible y sus aportes en la adquisición de una
lengua extranjera. Revista Innova Educación 3(2), 140–148 (2021). https://doi.org/10.35622/
j.rie.2021.03.00
20. Torres Ramírez, A.: The lexical approach: collocability, fluency and implications for teaching.
RLFE 18, 237–254 (2012). https://ojsspdc.ulpgc.es/ojs/index.php/LFE/article/view/44
Internet Access and Educational
Backwardness in the Times
of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence
from Mexico’s Rural Households
Jorge Mora-Rivera , Fernando García-Mora, and Noemí Vásquez Quevedo
Abstract We evaluate the impact of Internet access on educational backwardness

in rural Mexico, with a focus on gender differences. Based on data from Mexico’s
National Survey of Household Income and Expenditure in 2020 (Encuesta Nacional
de Ingresos y Gastos de los Hogares, ENIGH 2020) and a treatment econometric
model, our results indicate that in the total sample of the rural sector, Internet access
decreases up to 3.28% points the probability that an individual will experience educa-
tional backwardness. With respect to gender differences, our results suggest that the
effect of Internet access on educational backwardness is greater for women than for
men, due to prevalent gender inequality in rural Mexico. Our findings point to the
need for better policymaking to narrow the digital divide and educational gap that
have expanded during the COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico’s rural sector.
Keywords Internet · Educational backwardness · Rural households · COVID-19
1 Introduction
The economic and social repercussions of the COVID-19 pandemic have been
widespread in all spheres of society and the educational sector has not been the
exception [1]. In unprecedented worldwide conditions, in-person educational activ-
ities were halted to prevent or slow the virus’ spread. As a consequence, institutions
were forced to adopt a distance education model in which access to Information and
J. Mora-Rivera (B) · N. V. Quevedo

Tecnologico de Monterrey, Calle del puente #222, Col. Ejidos de Huipulco. Tlalpan, CDMX. C. P.
14380, Mexico City, México
e-mail: jjmora@tec.mx
N. V. Quevedo
e-mail: nvasquez@tec.mx
F. García-Mora
El Colegio de México, Carretera Picacho Ajusco #20, Col. Ampliación Fuentes del Pedregal,
Tlalpan, CDMX. C.P. 14110, Mexico City, México
e-mail: fernando.garcia@colmex.mx
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_32
354 J. Mora-Rivera et al.
Communications Technologies (ICTs), and the Internet played a fundamental role.

Online educational tools and resources became essential where they had been only
a possibility a few years earlier [2–4].
In the last few decades, ICT has been adopted mainly through the use of mobile
phones, which have become increasingly affordable for many individuals [5, 6].
However, a necessary condition for effective online education is fully functioning
high-speed Internet. Indeed, according to Ting et al. [7], among all available ICTs,
the Internet has brought the most impactful changes to people’s lives during the
COVID-19 crisis [7]. Nevertheless, since many areas of the world have little to no
Internet infrastructure, online education has faced considerable difficulties [8]. Such
is the case of Mexico, which has a large digital gap between rural and urban areas,
in terms of Internet access. According to Mexico’s National Survey on the Avail-
ability of Information and Communications Technologies (ENDUTIH), in 2020, the
percentage of citizens with Internet access in rural Mexico was 50.4% versus 78.3%
in urban areas [9].
The indicators that describe Mexico’s educational performance and achievements
are the percentage of terminal efficiency of the National Educational System, the
average years of schooling, and the percentage of the population with educational
backwardness. This final indicator is more relevant than the others for two main
reasons. First, it is one of the six social deprivations used by the Mexican National
Council for the Evaluation of Social Development Policy (CONEVAL) to refer to
the social rights that measure multidimensional poverty. In other words, social back-
wardness could be understood as the official indicator for measuring educational
achievement in Mexico [10]. The second reason is that calculating the indicator can
be replicated with the information from the official biennial survey, which is repre-
sentative for both rural and urban Mexico [11]. Also, it is worth highlighting that
this indicator has been widely used in the international multidimensional poverty
literature [12, 13].
According to CONEVAL estimates, educational backwardness in Mexico
increased between 2016 and 2020. In 2016, 22.3 million people were affected by this
condition, and by 2020 the number had increased by 2.1% to a total of 24.4 million
people. The data show a significant difference between the urban and rural sectors.
In 2020, the percentage of people with educational backwardness in the urban sector
was 15.6%, while the percentage was almost double (31.5%) in rural areas. Approx-
imately one out of every three people in rural areas was facing educational social
deprivation in 2020 [14].
In this context, the objective of our research is to assess the impact of Internet
access on the educational backwardness of people living in rural areas of Mexico,
differentiating between men and women. To reach this goal, we used data from
Mexico’s National Survey of Household Income and Expenditure (ENIGH) in 2020
and performed an econometric model that identified the effects of Internet access
on educational backwardness. The research questions guiding this study are: (1)
Does Internet access contribute to a reduction in the educational backwardness of
people living in rural areas of Mexico, and (2) Are the impacts of Internet access
on educational backwardness different for men and women? Our hope is that the
Internet Access and Educational Backwardness in the Times … 355
answers to these questions will provide policymakers with useful, relevant, and timely
information on the role of Internet access as a potential factor for reducing educational
backwardness in Mexico and contributing to the country’s economic development.
2 Methodological Approach
2.1 Conceptual Framework: The Digital Divide
The topic of how technological innovation processes have impacted society has been
addressed from various theoretical and methodological perspectives. An approach
that has gained significant momentum in recent years is the Digital Divide [15, 16].
The main advantages of this approach are the contribution of theoretical and empir-
ical elements that facilitate understanding the relationship between the spread of
ICTs around the world and the factors that influence the inclusion and exclusion
of countries, regions, and people in the digital era. The approach has also provided
valuable insights in assessing the effects of these processes of innovation and techno-
logical diffusion on individuals and society [17, 18]. Since Mexico’s rural sector, like
rural areas in other developing countries, has slowly incorporated Internet access,
the analytical concept of the digital divide is highly relevant.
The term, digital divide, originated in the 1990s in the United States and became a
topic of great interest as ICTs grew in popularity [19]. The concept has since evolved,
and more complex conceptualization frameworks have been developed to include
statistical indicators of the access and use of ICTs. Three levels have been addressed
in the analysis of the digital divide. The first refers to the inequality between those
who have and do not have access to ICTs; it is related to infrastructure and to the
availability of goods and services associated with ICTs [19].
The second level is related to both the use and the skills necessary for the efficient
use of ICTs [20]. Studies of this level have explored the type of activities that people
carry out online, as well as the skills required to do so. With respect to the Internet,
van Deursen and van Dijk [15] point out that a particular set of skills is necessary to
make proper use of the Internet and that not everyone possesses these skills [15].
The third level concerns the use of the Internet to obtain specific benefits, and the
way that insufficient skills limit success in specific Internet tasks [21]. Recent studies
also provide insights on Internet use, based on the assumption that certain activities
yield greater benefits than others. For example, some online activities may offer
more opportunities and better resources for education, employment, and social and
professional endeavors compared to online activities that provide mere entertainment
[15, 20].
2.2 Data and Characterization of the Sample
We used data from Mexico’s National Survey of Household Income and Expenditure
(ENIGH) in 2020 to obtain a representative account of the rural sector at the national
level. The information in this survey permits analyzing the amount, origin, and distri-
bution of income and expenses, as well as infrastructure and equipment in Mexican
households, including Internet access. The information in the survey also allows for
the official calculation of educational backwardness used by CONEVAL as a statis-
tical indicator in measuring multidimensional poverty in Mexico [11]. Through the
design and sample selection, we can obtain representative results for rural areas and
gender at a national level. The sample size was 118,079 rural residents, of whom
36,017 (30.5%) have Internet access. When differentiating by gender, it was found
that 29.8% of rural men and 31.2% of women have Internet access.
The thresholds used by CONEVAL to identify the population with educational
backwardness are based on the proposal made by the National Institute for the Eval-
uation of Education, the organization in charge of evaluating the educational sector
in Mexico. These thresholds consider the Obligatory Schooling Regulations of the
Mexican State (NEOEM, in Spanish acronym), which stipulate that a person suffers
from educational backwardness when the individual level of education is lower than
the compulsory educational level for the corresponding age. Therefore, individuals
who meet any of the following criteria are considered to suffer from educational
backwardness [22]:
• From three to twenty-one years old, incomplete compulsory education, and not
attending a formal school
• Twenty-two years old or older, born in or after 1998, and incomplete compulsory
education (high school)
• Sixteen years old or older, born before 1982, and did not complete compulsory
education on schedule (elementary school)
• Sixteen years old or older, and did not complete compulsory education on schedule
(secondary school).
To assess progress and persistent challenges in educational backwardness,
NEOEM and its updated criteria provide information on Mexico’s ability to ensure
that the population completes compulsory basic education, a fundamental part of the
human right to education.
2.3 Empirical Methodology
Matching techniques are one of the most frequently used methodological approaches
to estimate the effects of an intervention (treatment) on one or more variables of
interest [23]. In this research, the basic assumption for estimating the impact of
Internet access on educational backwardness is that providing Internet access is akin
to receiving a “treatment,” which in turn permits measuring the treatment’s impact

on the outcome variable (educational backwardness).
However, to obtain unbiased estimates of this impact, we must ensure that no statis-
tically significant differences exist between individuals who have Internet access and
those who do not. To control for this bias, we must create a sample of individuals
without Internet access identical to the population that does have access (a counter-
factual). In this way, having or not having access to the Internet can be considered a
random event, and the difference in the levels of educational backwardness between
individuals with Internet access and those without access can be completely attributed
to receiving the treatment [24].
In practice, the biggest challenge for matching is to solve the dimensionality
problem of a large number of features to be matched. To deal with this dilemma, we
use what is known as the propensity score, a function that estimates the probability
of receiving the treatment given a vector of characteristics X [25], where the vector
X is summarized by a number τ(X). This number can be estimated by using a Probit
or Logit model that predicts the probability that people will have Internet access
based solely on their own characteristics. As Rosenbaum and Rubin [25] show, the
propensity score is exogenous; that is, the potential outcomes are independent of the
treatment conditional on τ(X) [25]. The PSM estimator can be formally defined as
⎡ ( 1 ) ( 0 )⎤
∆PSM
ATT = E τ (X)|D=1 E Y |D = 1, τ (X) − E Y |D = 1, τ (X)
Different matching algorithms identify untreated individuals with a propensity

score similar to that of the treated ones [23, 24]. Here, we estimate the results for
three of them: nearest neighbor, kernel, and radius.
3 Findings
The statistics shown in Table 1 exhibit interesting differences and similarities between
the three groups in our analysis (total group, men, and women). First, we can see
that the percentage of individuals with educational backwardness is similar among
men and women, with a slight difference in favor of men (31%) compared to women
(30%). Regarding sociodemographic characteristics, the figures show that no signif-
icant disparities exist between the average ages of men and women, and that the
proportion of male students is similar to that of female students. However, a consider-
able difference exists between the percentages of men and women who are employed
(44% of men versus 21% of women). This gap can be attributed to the lack of job
opportunities for women in the rural sector. Similarly, a higher percentage of men
than women are self-employed.
We can see that as the level of education increases, the proportion of people who
complete that level decreases considerably for both men and women. For example,
while almost half of the individuals completed elementary education, only 7%
completed a technical level or higher. Regarding the households’ sociodemographic
Table 1 Descriptive statistics

Variables Mean values
Total Men Women
Outcome variable
Educational backwardness 0.30 0.31 0.30
Independent variables
Individual-level
Age 33.38 33.21 33.53
Student 0.29 0.29 0.29
Worker: employed 0.32 0.44 0.21
Worker: self-employed 0.15 0.17 0.14
Elementary school 0.43 0.44 0.41
Secondary school 0.29 0.28 0.29
High school 0.13 0.13 0.13
Technical school or higher 0.07 0.06 0.07
Speaker of Indigenous language 0.12 0.12 0.12
Remittances 0.09 0.08 0.10
Household-level
Number of members 4.61 4.59 4.64
Minors 1.52 1.49 1.55
Senior adults 0.31 0.31 0.32
Number of rooms 3.64 3.62 3.65
Source: By the authors based on data from ENIGH 2020 [11]
characteristics, the data show that the average number of members is 4.61 individuals
with 1.52 on average corresponding to minors and 0.31 to seniors. With respect to
household liquidity (estimated by two variables: number of rooms and remittances),
we see that the households have an average of 3.64 rooms while approximately 9%
of the households receive remittances.
Table 2 shows the results of Internet access on educational backwardness in rural
Mexico. Each column represents the effects obtained with a different matching
algorithm. In general, regardless of the algorithm, Internet access decreases the
probability that an individual will suffer from educational backwardness. Row (i)
shows the impact on the total number of inhabitants in the rural sector: Internet
access reduces the probability that an individual will have educational backward-
ness, ranging from 1.9 (nearest neighbor) to 4.07 (kernel) percentage points (pp) at
1% statistical significance.
The two main differences between men and women are shown in rows (ii) and (iii).
First, the impact of Internet access on reducing educational backwardness is greater
for women than for men. Second, when using the nearest neighbor algorithm, the
effect of Internet access on educational backwardness is almost double for women
than for men, and with a higher level of significance. This indicates that the effect of
Table 2 Propensity score

Nearest neighbor Radius Kernel
matching results: ATT
(i) Total −1.91 −3.85 −4.07
(−3.31)*** (−12.51)*** (−13.47)***
(ii) Women −2.71 −3.98 −4.19
(−3.96)*** (−9.29)*** (−10.01)***
(iii) Men −1.41 −3.39 −3.87
(−1.97)** (−7.57)*** (−8.84)***
Source: By the authors based on data from ENIGH 2020 [11]
The numbers in parentheses correspond to t statistic values
***; **: Statistically significant at 1% and 5%, respectively
Estimated effects are shown in percentage points (pp)
Internet access on the average educational level is greater for women than for men.
This effect can probably be attributed to Mexico’s sizeable gender gaps in terms of
equality and opportunities, which are even greater in the rural sector than in the urban
sector.
The effects found with the radius and kernel algorithms show a positive effect of
Internet access on educational backwardness for both men and women in the rural
sector. In the case of the radius algorithm, the effect ranges between 3.3 and 3.8 pp,
while the kernel algorithm shows an effect ranging from 3.9 to 4.2 pp, statistically
significant at 1%.
4 Discussion
Our results show that Internet access has a positive effect on reducing educational
backwardness in Mexico’s rural sectors. This finding is similar to those of Risner
and Gadhavi [26], Atasoy [27], and García-Mora and Mora-Rivera [5]: namely that
ICTs have a positive effect on people’s well-being as measured by various indicators
[5, 26, 27]. Recent studies in African countries indicate that Internet penetration
is a key element in reducing the digital divide for these countries, in addition to
helping to overcome the ravages of the COVID-19 pandemic; therefore, government
policies should be focused on improving the telecommunications infrastructure and
increasing the Internet access and skills of students and parents to take better advan-
tage of online education [4, 28]. Furthermore, these positive effects are clearly higher
for women than for men, as previously shown by Martínez-Domínguez and Mora-
Rivera [29] in studying the heterogeneous effect of Internet use on Mexico’s rural
sector [29].
Two aspects of our findings contribute to the existing literature that analyzes the
effects of Internet access on the well-being of the rural population in Mexico. First,
our findings make a clear and distinct analysis of the effects of Internet access on
particular educational levels. This analysis can contribute to policymaking to reduce
educational backwardness, exacerbated by the COVID-19 health crisis. Second, our

results point to a clear need for policies that consider gender inequality in rural areas,
especially with regard to women’s effective access to basic education, an aspect that
is currently absent from the social programs that fight educational backwardness in
Mexico.
5 Conclusions
Our research provides relevant results on the impact of Internet access on educa-
tional indicators in Mexico’s rural population. Given the high levels of educational
backwardness in this sector and low Internet access among rural inhabitants, our
results offer insights into the links between the digital divide and wellbeing in low-
and middle-income countries like Mexico. Our findings reveal that Internet access
decreases levels of educational backwardness and increases the probability that indi-
viduals living in Mexico’s rural sectors will not face this condition, especially in the
context of the greater need for online educational services during the COVID-19
pandemic. However, we have found that these effects are greater for women than
for men. The study’s most significant implication from the perspective of the public
agenda is the need to promote public policies aimed at improving Internet access in
the rural sector, taking into account the existing gender inequality in Mexico. There-
fore, it would be recommendable to promote future research based on experimental
methods to evaluate the design of public policies that reduce educational backward-
ness in rural households, and especially rural households that are more vulnerable to
the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. This type of studies would supplement and
extend the findings of this research.
Despite the contributions of our study, the type of data used in the analysis has two
limitations. First, the availability of panel data to analyze the dynamics of the rela-
tionship between Internet access and educational backwardness would be desirable.
Unfortunately, information sources in Mexico make this task impossible at present.
Second, extending the study beyond Internet access would be advisable. To do so,
we would need information to identify Internet uses in combination with data on
educational achievement and terminal efficiency, and in this way contribute to the
debate on the relationship between the digital divide and education in Mexico’s rural
areas.
References
1. Monroy-Gómez-Franco, L., Vélez-Grajales, R., López-Calva, L.F.: The potential effects of the
COVID-19 pandemic on learning. Int. J. Educ. Dev. 91, 102581 (2022). https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.ijedudev.2022.102581
2. Lockee, B.B.: Online education in the post-COVID era. Nat. Electron. 4(1), 5–6 (2021). https://
doi.org/10.1038/s41928-020-00534-0
3. Sun, L., Tang, Y., Zuo, W.: Coronavirus pushes education online. Nat. Mater. 19(6), 687–687
(2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41563-020-0678-8
4. Azubuike, O.B., Adegboye, O., Quadri, H.: Who gets to learn in a pandemic? Exploring the
digital divide in remote learning during the COVID-19 pandemic in Nigeria. Int. J. Educ. Res.
Open 2, 100022 (2021)
5. García-Mora, F., Mora-Rivera, J.: Exploring the impacts of Internet access on poverty: a
regional analysis of rural Mexico. New Media Soc. 14614448211000650 (2021)
6. Whitacre, B., Gallardo, R., Strover, S.: Broadband’s contribution to economic growth in rural
areas. Telecommun. Policy 38(11), 1011–1023 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2014.
05.005
7. Ting, D., Carin, L., Dzau, V., Wong, T.: Digital technology and COVID-19. Nat. Media 26(4),
459–461 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-0824-5
8. Donou-Adonsou, F.: Technology, education, and economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Telecommun. Policy 43(4), 353–360 (2019)
9. Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI).: Encuesta Nacional Sobre Disponibil-
idad y Uso de Tecnologías de la Información en los Hogares 2020 (2020a). https://www.inegi.
org.mx/programas/dutih/2020/
10. Consejo Nacional de Evaluación de la Política de Desarrollo Social (CONEVAL).: Metodología
para la medición multidimensional de la pobreza en México, first edition. CONEVAL,
Ciudad de México (2009). https://www.coneval.org.mx/Informes/Coordinacion/INFORMES_
Y_PUBLICACIONES_PDF/Metodologia_Multidimensional_web.pdf
11. Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI).: Modelo Estadístico 2020 para la
continuidad del MCS-ENIGH (2020b). https://www.inegi.org.mx/investigacion/eash/2020/
12. Santos, M.E., Villatoro, P.: A multidimensional poverty index for Latin America. Rev. Income
Wealth 64(1), 52–82 (2016)
13. Alkire, S., Foster, J.: Counting and multidimensional poverty measurement. J. Public Econ.
95(7–8), 476–487 (2011)
14. Consejo Nacional de Evaluación de la Política de Desarrollo Social (CONEVAL).: Medición
de la pobreza: anexo estadístico de pobreza de México. CONEVAL, Ciudad de México (2020)
15. Van Deursen, A., Van Dijk, J.: The digital divide shifts to differences in usage. New Media
Soc. 16(3), 507–526 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444813487959
16. Van Dijk, J.: Digital divide: impact of access. Int. Encycl. Media Eff. 1–11 (2017). https://doi.
org/10.1002/9781118783764.wbieme0043
17. Galperin, H.: Why are half of Latin Americans not online? A four-country study of reasons for
Internet non-adoption. Int. J. Commun. 11, 3332–3354 (2017)
18. Van Deursen, A., Van Dijk, J.: Internet skills and the digital divide. New Media Soc. 13(6),
893–911 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444810386774
19. Van Dijk, J.: Digital divide research, achievements, and shortcomings. Poetics 34(4–5), 221–
235 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.poetic.2006.05.004
20. Zillien, N., Hargittai, E.: Digital distinction: status-specific types of internet usage. Soc. Sci.
Q. 90(2), 274–291 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6237.2009.00617.x
21. Scheerder, A., Van Deursen, A., Van Dijk, J.: Determinants of internet skills, uses and outcomes:
a systematic review of the second- and the third-level digital divide. Telemat. Inform. 34(8),
1607–1624 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2017.07.007
22. Consejo Nacional de Evaluación de la Política de Desarrollo Social (CONEVAL).: Metodología
para la medición multidimensional de la pobreza en México, third edn. CONEVAL, Ciudad de
México (2019)
23. Abadie, A., Imbens, G.W.: Matching on the estimated propensity score. Econometrica 84(2),
781–807 (2016). https://doi.org/10.3982/ecta11293
24. Becker, S.O., Ichino, A.: Estimation of average treatment effects based on propensity scores.
The Stata J.: Promot. Commun. Stat. Stata 2(4), 358–377 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1177/153
6867x0200200403
25. Rosenbaum, P.R., Rubin, D.B.: The central role of the propensity score in observational studies
for causal effects. Biometrika 70(1), 41–55 (1983). https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/70.1.41
26. Risner, C., Gadhavi, V.: Using real-time monitoring to enhance graduation from extreme
poverty in Bangladesh. IDS Bull. 46(2), 115–123 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1111/1759-5436.
12134
27. Atasoy, H.: The effects of broadband internet expansion on labor market outcomes. Ind. Labor
Relat. Rev. 66(2), 315–345 (2013). https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1890709
28. Bukola, F.: Online learning during COVID19 and beyond: a human right based approach to
internet access in Africa. Int. Rev. Law, Comput. Technol. 36(1), 68–90 (2022). https://doi.org/
10.1080/13600869.2022.2030027
29. Martínez-Domínguez, M., Mora-Rivera, J.: Internet adoption and usage patterns in rural
Mexico. Technol. Soc. 60, 101226 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2019.101226
Determinants of the Adoption of Digital
Platforms in Higher Education
Institutions by Students
Dália Pires and Nuno Fortes
Abstract Digital platforms have come to revolutionize the way Higher Education
Institutions (HEIs) communicate with different audiences. The key to success of plat-
forms adoption in HEIs is to be aware in advance of the factors affecting technology
acceptance by users, so that HEIs can adopt strategies that enhance their use. This
study aims to contribute to fill a gap in the literature, by identifying the determinants
of the intention to use digital platforms by HEIs’ students. The results of this research,
carried out in the initial stage of a digital platform adoption, allowed us to conclude
that, together, performance expectation, facilitating conditions, habit and perceived
privacy explain in 60.1% the students’ intention to use the digital platform. From the
findings of this study, relevant theoretical implications arise for HEIs management.
Keywords Technology adoption · Digital platforms · Higher education

institutions · Students
1 Introduction
Nowadays, information technology and the widespread use of the Internet are present
in all organizations and have become crucial in several daily routine operations
[1]. The ease of access to information encouraged the emergence of several online
services, particularly in the field of education [2]. According to Pinho et al., the
technological evolution, the increasing of information on the web and the growing
competitiveness lead Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) to invest in faster and more
D. Pires
Polytechnic of Coimbra, ISEC, Rua Pedro Nunes – Quinta da Nora, 3030-199 Coimbra, Portugal
e-mail: dpires@isec.pt
Polytechnic of Coimbra, ESEC, Rua Dom João III – Solum, 3030-329 Coimbra, Portugal
N. Fortes (B)
Polytechnic of Coimbra, ESTGOH, Rua General Santos Costa, 3400-124 Oliveira Do Hospital,
Portugal
e-mail: nuno.fortes@estgoh.ipc.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_33
364 D. Pires and N. Fortes
effective information systems, namely in web portals [3]. Pinho et al. and Saghapour
et al. refer that web portals have revolutionized the way the academic community
interacts and communicates [3, 4]. Pinho et al. and Bawack and Kamdjoug argue that
this technology enables the integration of all the institutional information, applica-
tions, and tools into a single system, thereby facilitating the procedures and changing
the way of communicating, the working relationships, and the teaching and learning
activities [3, 5].
As mentioned by Pinho et al., the resistance to the implementation of these web
tools can make information management and success of the HEIs increasingly diffi-
cult, i.e., the acceptance of the technology is fundamental for the successful use of
these platforms [3]. These authors refer that the literature produced on this theme
is crucial to help HEIs in identifying the factors that hinder the acceptance of tech-
nology by the users and to implement corrective measures that enhance the use of
these web platforms, in particular by students [6]. Despite the relevance of the topic,
there is a gap in the literature, given the reduced number of studies conducted in
higher education contexts, on the mandatory use of digital platforms by students.
Thus, this study will be guided by the following research question: What are the
determinants of digital platforms adoption by HEIs’ students?
The answer to this research question will be provided through the construc-
tion of a research model, grounded on the theoretical framework presented in the
following chapter, and its empirical validation. The methodology of the empirical
study will be presented in the third chapter and the results described in the following
chapter. Finally, the results will be discussed and the conclusions of the study will
be presented.
2.1 Digital Platforms in HEIs
The new information technologies are part of everyday life of students in higher
education, as stated by Dečman [7]. This author mentions that the use of computers
and other digital equipment in daily activities has facilitated the execution of
academic tasks in a more efficient way.
Pinho et al. refer that the use of digital technologies in the education sector has been
increasing in the last decades [3]. Dečman argues that educational institutions are
committed to providing information systems that facilitate the learning activity and
performance of online tasks [7]. To maintain competitiveness in attracting students,
HEIs are increasingly investing in new digital applications and services, which allow
them to improve teaching/learning, research, management, and services provided.
The multiple areas integrated in HEIs produce a huge amount of data that needs to
be managed in an effective way [8].
Determinants of the Adoption of Digital Platforms in Higher Education … 365
Internet-based technologies and, consequently, web portals have revolutionized

the way the academic community communicates and organizes itself. The sharing
of knowledge and the information management have become more secure [4]. This
type of portal, designated by Jain and Chande as information portal, is one of the
most important systems that integrates information technology in education, because
it allows to store in a single system a range of information and applications, which
are accessible to the user, by just having access to the internet [8]. According to these
authors, the portal is an access point to the intranet and meets the goals of teachers,
students, and HEIs management.
The use of digital platforms (identified in the literature review, among others, as
“web portals”, “academic portals” or “university portals”) allows HEIs to project an
image of efficiency in the provided services and to place themselves at the vanguard
of information technology [3, 9]. The adoption of digital platforms has enhanced
the service provided by HEIs, allowing decision-makers to combine the efficient
management of information and services with the interaction and communication
among the academic community [10]. According to Pinho et al., the global vision of
existing resources and how they are being used optimizes the management process
in this institutional context [3]. Digital portals are, therefore, considered by these
authors as important tools to support decision-making in HEIs, which enable quick
and efficient access to information. Saghapour et al. refer that web portals can inte-
grate and relate internal databases of multiple services and areas [4]. According to
these authors, this integration into a single system reflects positively in the exchange
of knowledge and information among stakeholders, namely students, teaching and
administrative staff, researchers, ex-students, and partner institutions.
According to Lewis, web portals were created to provide students and teaching and
non-teaching staff with a diversity of personalized resources and services, namely
email, schedules, registrations, orientation, treasury among other applications [11].
This author mentions that HEIs can customize their own portals or choose standard
commercialized products, which provide basic functionalities, however allowing, at
the same time, their customization.
For Jain and Chande, the adequacy of a portal to the needs of the HEIs is the
key to success for the information management of the institutions and consequent
competitiveness [8]. These authors consider, however, fundamental that all HEIs
stakeholders participate in the implementation process of the information systems,
to be aware in advance of the real needs of the institutions.
For Presley and Presley, although efforts have been made to develop and adapt
the academic portals to the realities of the HEIs, there may be obstacles to their
use, either by students, teachers and/or collaborators [6]. For these authors, the use
of these portals should be continuously evaluated to adjust these instruments to
the needs of each institution. These systems should, therefore, be user-satisfaction
oriented, periodically evaluated, constantly adjusted, and provided with immediate
support systems [9].
2.2 Determinants of Adoption
Performance expectancy refers to the user’s perception that he/she will benefit in
carrying out his/her tasks by using the technology [12, 13]. According to Dečman,
performance expectancy is the most important construct identified in studies on the
use of technology in education and HEIs, with positive influence on the intention
to use [7]. Studies carried out in HEIs organizational context, some of which in
mandatory environment of technology use, namely e-learning systems, also revealed
that performance expectancy is one of the strongest predictors with positive and
significant influence on the intention to use [7, 14–16]. In view of these arguments,
the following hypothesis was formulated:
H1: Performance expectancy has a positive influence on students’ intention to
use digital platforms in HEIs
The facilitating conditions are defined as the perception of the existence of an orga-
nizational and technical structure to support the use of technology [12, 13]. Studies
conducted in HEIs contexts have proven the positive relationship of facilitating condi-
tions on the intention to use [15, 17]. Based on the previous studies, the following
hypothesis is proposed.
H2: Facilitating conditions have a positive influence on students’ intention to
use digital platforms in HEIs
Habit was defined by Venkatesh et al. as the degree to which the consumer uses
technology automatically in the learning process, based on prior knowledge [13].
For these authors, habit is positively related to the intention to use technology in
consumer environments. Baptista and Oliveira also validated the significant influence
of habit on the intention to use, but in the context of e-banking use [18]. The habit
is a construct that may be important to explain the behavior of higher education
students, since they are born and raised in the age of technologies, being considered
by Dečman as digital natives [7]. In view of the above, the following hypothesis is
formulated.
H3: Habit has a positive influence on students’ intention to use digital platforms
in HEIs
According to McLeod et al. perceived privacy is understood as the user’s belief that
the information they submit online remains confidential. The issues related to privacy
and its perception by users have been addressed in several contexts and in several
technologies [19]. The results of the study by McLeod et al. reveal that perceived
privacy directly and indirectly influences the intention to use technology [19]. In
e-commerce, e-banking and social networking contexts, Belanger et al., Merhi et al.,
and Shin concluded that perceived privacy is an extremely important factor for trust
in technology use and positively affects technology use intention [20–22]. In HEIs
organizational context, Almaiah and Al-Khasawneh’s study revealed that the higher
the degree of perceived privacy associated with the use of technology, the higher
Fig. 1 Research model
the trust in its use, which will increase the probability of its use [23]. Based on the
previous arguments, the following hypothesis is proposed.
H4: Perceived privacy has a positive influence on students’ intention to use
digital platforms in HEIs
The proposed research model, composed of 5 constructs and 4 hypotheses, is
represented in Fig. 1.
3 Methodology
The empirical study was conducted in the adoption phase of a new digital platform,
in a Portuguese higher education institution, targeting a population consisting of
11,043 students.
The sampling method used was of a probabilistic nature, of the simple random
type, which means that each element of the population has the same probability
of being included in the sample [24]. The sample collected is made up of 430
students, mostly composed of female respondents (69.8%) and attending under-
graduate courses (79.1%), with an average age of approximately 24.3 years and who
have attended the institution for about 2.3 years.
Data collection was carried out through a questionnaire survey, in which multi-
item scales previously validated in the literature were used. For the performance
expectation, facilitating conditions and intention to use constructs, the scale was
adapted from the study of Venkatesh et al. [13]. The habit scale was taken from the
work of Limayem and Hirt [25], while the perceived privacy scale was adapted from
the study by McLeod et al. [19]. The statements of the scales were measured using
7-point Likert scales, classified from 1—totally disagree to 7—totally agree.
The questionnaire was hosted online, to speed up data collection and facilitate
the computer processing of responses. The entire study population was invited to
respond to the survey through a notification sent by the digital platform under study
and a message sent by e-mail.
For the validation of the research model, structural equation modeling was used,
through the partial least squares (PLS) methodology, being successively analyzed
the measurement model, through reliability, convergent validity and discriminant
validity, and the structural model, through the sign and significance of the inves-
tigation model relationships, as well as the explained variance of the endogenous
constructs. The statistical significance of the model parameters was obtained through
bootstrapping with 5000 subsamples.
4 Results
In order to ensure that the multi-item scales used are adequate to measure the
constructs of the research model, we analyzed their reliability, convergent validity
and discriminant validity.
In a first stage, we analyze the loadings, which measure the connection of each
construct to the respective measurement indicators. It is considered that the loadings
must have a value greater than 0.7 to ensure that the measurement indicators have
adequate reliability [26]. Initially, we eliminated the item FC1, because it had a very
low loading. In the remaining items, all loadings are greater than 0.7 (Table 1), except
for FC4, which is very close to the reference value. Thus, we can conclude that the
measurement indicators are reliable.
Composite reliability (CR) is an indicator that assesses the reliability of scales. The
literature recommends that this indicator be greater than 0.7 to ensure that the scales
have adequate reliability [26]. The CR of all scales shows values clearly above 0.7,
ranging between 0.764 and 0.951 (Table 3), which points to their adequate reliability.
To analyze the convergent validity, we used the extracted mean variance (AVE),
whose value must be equal to or greater than 0.5 to guarantee the convergent validity
of the scale [26]. The AVE of all scales are above the minimum threshold of 0.5,
ranging between 0.520 and 0.865 (Table 3), which points to their convergent validity.
Discriminant validity was assessed using cross-loadings and the Heterotrait-
Monotrait (HTMT) ratio. To ensure the discriminant validity of the scales, the load-
ings must be greater than the respective cross-loadings [26], as it occurs in all items
of the scales used (Table 2). Additionally, HTMT values must be less than 0.9 [27],
as is the case with all scales used (Table 2). These results allow us to conclude that
the scales have discriminant validity.
The structural model was analyzed through the explained variance (R2 ) of the
endogenous constructs, as well as the sign and statistical significance of the coeffi-
cients of structural relationships [26]. The explained variance of intention to use is
60.1%, which means that the four independent variables (performance expectancy,
facilitating conditions, habit, and perceived privacy), together, explain 60.1% of the
IU variance. It is therefore concluded that the present model has a strong explanatory
capacity of the intention to use HEIs digital platforms by students. The four structural
relationships present a signal compatible with that proposed in the research model
(positive) and are statistically significant at the level of 5% (Table 3), which allows
Table 1 Loadings and cross loadings

Item Loading p-value Cross loadings
PE FC HAB PP IU
PE1 0.817 <0.001 0.317 0.628 0.321 0.563
PE2 0.890 <0.001 0.434 0.611 0.371 0.557
PE3 0.905 <0.001 0.434 0.610 0.376 0.518
PE4 0.850 <0.001 0.380 0.584 0.352 0.511
FC2 0.745 <0.001 0.306 0.382 0.265 0.356
FC3 0.745 <0.001 0.304 0.332 0.195 0.337
FC4 0.670 <0.001 0.371 0.302 0.332 0.324
HAB1 0.723 <0.001 0.596 0.531 0.338 0.561
HAB2 0.747 <0.001 0.532 0.306 0.322 0.476
HAB3 0.783 <0.001 0.491 0.223 0.364 0.520
HAB4 0.834 <0.001 0.551 0.325 0.432 0.606
HAB5 0.866 <0.001 0.613 0.456 0.429 0.657
PP1 0.911 <0.001 0.392 0.376 0.477 0.527
PP2 0.945 <0.001 0.376 0.326 0.424 0.508
PP3 0.764 <0.001 0.289 0.239 0.341 0.383
PP4 0.933 <0.001 0.392 0.342 0.455 0.550
IU1 0.908 <0.001 0.534 0.425 0.614 0.511 0.908
IU2 0.924 <0.001 0.602 0.447 0.675 0.493 0.924
IU3 0.958 <0.001 0.597 0.442 0.711 0.550 0.958
Table 2 AVE, CR, and HTMT ratio

CR AVE HTMT ratio
PE FC HAB PP
PE 0.923 0.750
FC 0.764 0.520 0.657
HAB 0.894 0.628 0.807 0.687
PP 0.939 0.794 0.453 0.518 0.538
Table 3 Structural model

Hypothesis Independent variable Dependent variable β p-value R2 (IU) Result
H1 PE IU 0.173 <0.001 60.1% Confirmed
H2 FC IU 0.101 <0.001 Confirmed
H3 HAB IU 0.433 <0.001 Confirmed
H4 PP IU 0.242 <0.001 Confirmed
confirming all the hypotheses of the research model. Habit is the variable with the
greatest impact on intention to use (β = 0.433), followed by perceived privacy (β =
0.242), performance expectancy (β = 0.173) and, finally, facilitating conditions (β
= 0.101).
5.1 Discussion of Results
The present study attempted to identify the determinant variables of students’

intention to use digital platforms in HEIs.
Hypothesis H1 proposed that performance expectancy would have a positive
impact on the intention to use. This hypothesis was validated, confirming the conclu-
sions of works on technology adoption [12, 13], as well as studies conducted in
organizational context, in HEIs and in environments of mandatory use of technology
[7, 14–16]. Thus, it can be concluded that the greater the students’ conviction that
using digital platforms will contribute to increased effectiveness in the performance
of their academic tasks, the greater the students’ motivation to use them.
Hypothesis H2 predicted that the facilitating conditions would have a positive
influence on the intention to use the platform. The results of this study confirm the
findings of Venkatesh et al., El-Masri and Tarhini, and El-Gayar et al. [13, 15, 17],
allowing us to conclude that students perceive that there is an organizational and
technical infrastructure to support the use of the platform and that this perception
determines the intention to use the platform.
Hypothesis H3 advanced that habit positively influenced the intention to use. The
results confirmed the acceptance of the hypothesis, corroborating the conclusions of
Venkatesh et al. and Baptista and Oliveira [13, 18]. Thus, it can be concluded that
the continued use of digital platforms by students contributes to the improvement of
their use and influences their intention to continue using them.
Hypothesis H4 indicated that perceived privacy had a positive relationship with
usage intention. This hypothesis was validated, confirming the findings of the works
of McLeod et al., Belanger et al., Merhi et al., Shin and Al-Khasawneh [19–23]. As
such, it can be concluded that if the student perceives that their personal information
remains confidential on the HEI’s digital platform, then it is more likely to be used
by the student.
The results show that the independent variables performance expectancy, facil-
itating conditions, habit, and perceived privacy significantly explain the intention
to use, especially habit, which has the greatest impact on the dependent variable,
followed by perceived privacy, performance expectancy and, finally, facilitating
conditions.
5.2 Implications of the Study
This study has relevant theoretical and managerial implications. From a managerial
perspective, the results highlight some aspects that HEIs may consider so that the
acceptance of digital platforms has greater success among students, namely:
• The adoption of continuous use strategies of the platforms, for example, alerting
students for the importance of regularly consulting the notifications, the academic
situation, the timetables, i.e., suggesting permanent tasks so that students, in an
increasingly spontaneous and routine way, use the platforms, since habit proved
to be the most important factor in this study;
• The organization of awareness sessions aimed at students, highlighting, on the
one hand, the ease, convenience and effectiveness in performing tasks on the
platforms and, on the other hand, the fundamental contribution of the platforms
to improve their performance;
• The perceptible use of privacy assurance systems adopted by the platforms, in
order to assure the student that the system will keep his/her personal data protected
against access by unauthorized third parties;
• The organization of training sessions on how to use the platform and the dissemina-
tion of practical support guides, easily accessible, to perform the tasks according
to their complexity level. It is also important that the platforms are suitable to
their users, simplified, and easy to use. HEIs should invest in the creation of an
adequate technical support for students, because even if they do not need to use
this support, their perception of its existence is important in motivating them to
use the platform.
In terms of theoretical implications, this study contributes to filling a gap in the
literature, given the lack of studies on acceptance and use of digital platforms by
students in higher education, in a context of compulsory use. It should also be high-
lighted the high explanatory power of the proposed research model, which explains
in more than 60% the intention to use digital platforms by HEIs’ students.
5.3 Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research
One of the limitations of this study is related to the fact that the proposed research
model was only tested on a sample composed of students from a Portuguese HEI.
It is suggested that, in future studies, this model be tested in HEIs from different
countries and by other types of users, such as teaching and non-teaching staff.
Since it was necessary to delete one of the items from the facilitating conditions
scale, it is proposed that this scale be revised in future studies.
In order to deepen the motivations to use digital platforms of HEIs by different
types of users, it is suggested to carry out qualitative studies, in which data collection
is carried out through individual in-depth interviews or focus groups.
References
1. Nov, O., Ye, C.: Personality and technology acceptance: personal innovativeness in IT, openness
and resistance to change. In: 41st Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences
Proceedings, pp. 448–448. IEEE, Waikoloa, HI, USA (2008)
2. Rokanta, S. A.: Information technology adoption and competitive advantage of higher educa-
tion. In: International Conference on Information Management and Technology Proceedings,
pp. 226–231. IEEE, Yogyakarta, Indonesia (2017)
3. Pinho, C., Franco, M., Mendes, L.: Web portals as tools to support information management
in higher education institutions: a systematic literature review. Int. J. Inf. Manag. 41, 80–92
(2018)
4. Saghapour, M., Zailani, S., Iranmanesh, M., Goh, G.G.: An empirical investigation of campus
portal usage. Educ. Inf. Technol. 23(2), 777–795 (2018)
5. Bawack, R.E., Kamdjoug, J.R.K.: The role of digital information use on student performance
and collaboration in marginal universities. Int. J. Inf. Manag. 54, 102179 (2020)
6. Presley, A., Presley, T.: Factors influencing student acceptance and use of academic portals. J.
Comput. High. Educ. 21(3), 167–182 (2009)
7. Dečman, M.: Modeling the acceptance of e-learning in mandatory environments of higher
education: The influence of previous education and gender. Comput. Hum. Behav. 49, 272–281
(2015)
8. Jain, A., Chande, S.: Information portal system for a digital campus based on information
architecture. In: 2013 IEEE International Conference in MOOC, Innovation and Technology
in Education Proceedings, pp. 349–352. IEEE, Jaipur, India (2013)
9. Lee, H.S., Jo, N.O., Choi, Y.H.: Determinants affecting user satisfaction with campus portal
services in Korea. J. Internet Bank. Commer. 14(1), 14 (2009)
10. Shaltoni, A.M., Khraim, H., Abuhamad, A., Amer, M.: Exploring students’ satisfaction with
universities’ portals in developing countries: a cultural perspective. Int. J. Inf. Learn. Technol.
32(2), 82–93 (2015)
11. Lewis, C.: Driving factors for e-learning: an organisational perspective. Perspect.: Policy Pract.
Higher Educ. 6(2), 50–54 (2002)
12. Venkatesh, V., Davis, F.D.: A theoretical extension of the technology acceptance model: four
longitudinal field studies. Manag. Sci. 46(2), 186–204 (2000)
13. Venkatesh, V., Morris, M.G., Davis, G.B., Davis, F.D.: User acceptance of information
technology: toward a unified view. MIS Q. 27(3), 425–478 (2003)
14. Chen, L., Holsapple, C.W.: E-business adoption research: state of the art. J. Electron. Commer.
Res. 14(3), 261–286 (2013)
15. El-Masri, M., Tarhini, A.: Factors affecting the adoption of e-learning systems in Qatar and
USA: extending the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology 2 (UTAUT2). Educ.
Technol. Res. Dev. 65(3), 743–763 (2017)
16. Samsudeen, S.N., Mohamed, R.: University students’ intention to use e-learning systems: a
study of higher educational institutions in Sri Lanka. Interact. Technol. Smart Educ. 16(3),
219–238 (2019)
17. El-Gayar, O., Moran, M., Hawkes, M.: Students’ acceptance of tablet PCs and implications for
educational institutions. J. Educ. Technol. Soc. 14(2), 58–70 (2011)
18. Baptista, G., Oliveira, T.: Understanding mobile banking: the unified theory of acceptance and
use of technology combined with cultural moderators. Comput. Hum. Behav. 50, 418–430
(2015)
19. McLeod, A., Pippin, S., Catania, V.: Using technology acceptance theory to model indi-
vidual differences in tax software use. In: 15th Americas Conference on Information Systems
Proceedings, pp. 1–11, San Francisco, California, USA (2009)
20. Belanger, F., Hiller, J.S., Smith, W.: Trustworthiness in electronic commerce: the role of privacy,
security, and site attributes. J. Strat. Inf. Syst. 11(3–4), 245–270 (2002)
21. Merhi, M., Hone, K., Tarhini, A.: A cross-cultural study of the intention to use mobile banking
between Lebanese and British consumers: extending UTAUT2 with security, privacy and trust.
Technol. Soc. 59, 101151 (2019)
22. Shin, D.: The effects of trust, security and privacy in social networking: a security-based
approach to understand the pattern of adoption. Interact. Comput. 22(5), 428–438 (2010)
23. Almaiah, M.A., Al-Khasawneh, A.: Investigating the main determinants of mobile cloud
computing adoption in university campus. Educ. Inf. Technol. 25(4), 3087–3107 (2020)
24. Malhotra, N., Nunan, D., Birks, D.: Marketing Research: an Applied Approach, 5th edn.
Pearson (2017)
25. Limayem, M., Hirt, S.G., Cheung, C.M.: Force of habit and information systems usage: theory
and initial validation. J. Assoc. Inf. Syst. 4, 65–95 (2003)
26. Hair, J.F., Ringle, C.M., Sarstedt, M.: PLS-SEM: indeed a silver bullet. J. Market. Theory Pract.
19(2), 139–152 (2011)
27. Henseler, J., Ringle, C., Sarstedt, M.: A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in
variance-based structural equation modeling. J. Acad. Mark. Sci. 43(1), 115–135 (2015)
MATHematics DIGital Escape
Rooms—Empowering Students
Lurdes Babo , Carla M. A. Pinto , Jorge Mendonça ,

Deolinda M. D. Rasteiro , Cristina M. R. Caridade , Zsolt Lavicza ,
Eva Ulbrich , Imam Fitri Rahmadi , Branko Andić - ,
Fadhlan Muchlas Abrori , Selay Arkün Kocadere , Konstantinos Petridis,
Christos D. Nikolopoulos , Evangelos A. Kokkinos ,
and Ioannis O. Vardiambasis
Abstract We introduce the MATHematics Digital Escape Rooms—MATH-

DIGGER platform, which is an Erasmus + project, designed to empower students
in their learning process. MATH-DIGGER aims to provide a stimulating innovative
L. Babo
CEOS.PP, ISCAP, Polytechnic of Porto, São Mamede de Infesta, Portugal
e-mail: lbabo@iscap.ipp.pt
C. M. A. Pinto · J. Mendonça (B)
ISEP, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: jpm@isep.ipp.pt
C. M. A. Pinto
e-mail: cap@isep.ipp.pt
C. M. A. Pinto
Centre for Mathematics, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
J. Mendonça
SIIS, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal
D. M. D. Rasteiro · C. M. R. Caridade
ISEC, Polytechnic of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
e-mail: dml@isec.pt
C. M. R. Caridade
e-mail: caridade@isec.pt
C. M. R. Caridade
CICGE, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- · F. M. Abrori
Z. Lavicza · E. Ulbrich · I. F. Rahmadi · B. Andić
Johannes Kepler Universität Linz, Linz, Austria
e-mail: eva.ulbrich@gmx.at
I. F. Rahmadi
e-mail: imamrahmadi@unpam.ac.id
S. A. Kocadere
Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology, Hacettepe University, Ankara,
Turkey
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_34
376 L. Babo et al.
learning and teaching practice, using escape rooms. Students solve several challenges
(puzzles, quizzes, etc.) in a limited amount of time, to escape a virtual room. Further-
more, MATH-DIGGER seeks to support students’ digital capabilities, and other
essential skills, including entrepreneurship, communication, teamwork, negotiation
and persuasion, problem solving, leadership, organization, perseverance and moti-
vation, ability to work under pressure, and confidence, which are core skills for their
future professional success. There will be an emphasis on females’ active participa-
tion in STEM and STEAM areas. Considerations are made to Math curricula develop-
ment, including these educational games, and new assessment tools. Several Higher
Education Institutions (HEIs), and one company are involved in this project. MATH-
DIGGER is meant to set a benchmark for the development and implementation of
escape rooms in mathematics subjects, in HEIs.
Keywords MATH-DIGGER · Digital escape rooms · STEM · STEAM
1 Introduction
Generation Z—iGen, students are the next generation surging to higher education.
They are technology natives, used to easy access to social media, exchanging tweets,
posts, shares, snaps [1]. iGen students are eager to be given opportunities to fully
immerse in their educational learning, to use more technology in the classroom,
to focus on creativity during class, instead of passively listening to lectures and
taking a tool to encourage new ideas and collaborations with traditional topics. iGen
students are expecting education and educators to empower today’s challenges in
and out of class. These students look at technology as a valuable and indispensable
tool in their learning process [2]. Thus, providing these students with continuous
learning from secondary school to higher education, career and citizenship, and
preparing them for a “world that nobody knows yet” is assuming a crucial role [3].
HEIs are at the front row to assume this role, and they have the human capacity and
scientific knowledge to make it happen. With the constant and colossal changes in the
marketplace, the technical skills taught at HEIs ‘today’ will no longer be of any utility
e-mail: selaya@hacettepe.edu.tr
K. Petridis · C. D. Nikolopoulos · E. A. Kokkinos · I. O. Vardiambasis
Department of Electronic Engineering, Hellenic Mediterranean University, Heraklion, Greece
e-mail: cpetridis@hmu.gr
C. D. Nikolopoulos
e-mail: cnikolo@hmu.gr
E. A. Kokkinos
e-mail: ekokkinos@hmu.gr
I. O. Vardiambasis
e-mail: ivardia@hmu.gr
ATHENA European University, Porto, Portugal
MATHematics DIGital Escape Rooms—Empowering Students 377
‘tomorrow’, being the time difference between ‘today’ and ‘tomorrow’ narrower each
day. We live in a VUCA (volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity) world
and it is imperative to promote increasing self-confidence in the students to practice
their skills [4]. HEIs should focus on the development of students’ essential skills,
such as higher critical-thinking, better communication skills, improved collaboration,
problem-solving, motivation, among others, help students build a successful future
and sustainable professional life. Key competencies contribute to better adjustment
to flexibility, complexity, and adaptability in different life contexts. Thus, the need
arises for innovation and questioning of which teaching styles and methodologies
should be applied in order to develop these competences.
There is a general consensus regarding the lack of fundamental and elementary
Mathematics contents and/or in the interpretation results and real-life problems’
applications [5, 6]. Students struggle with Mathematics contents and, specifically,
with the level of abstraction of the concepts. A study from Magalhães [7] brought
to light the difficulties of freshmen in a Calculus course at ISEP. It was identified
poor prior knowledge acquisition, which translated into errors, considerably inad-
missible, at this level of education. The authors in [8] found that university students
share the same difficulties of high school students, particularly in the interpreta-
tion of mathematical symbols. This deficiency constituted major obstacles to further
development of more complex abstract mathematical contents. Educators have been
adapting and creating learning environments able to overcome these difficulties.
Some possible techniques are gamification and Game-Based-Learning (GBL). Gami-
fication is defined as the use of game elements and game-design techniques in non-
game contexts with the aim of engaging and solving problems. On the other hand,
GBL comprises the design of games for educational purposes [9]. Viamonte and
Figueiredo [10] promoted students’ engagement using gamification techniques in a
Linear Algebra and Analytical Geometry course, with the aim of decreasing students’
dropout. Reducing dropout and increasing completion rates in higher education is
regarded as crucial to building the high-level skills required for economic develop-
ment, as well as for Europe’s ability to innovate and promote productivity and social
justice [11].
Numerous studies found positive effects of games in learning, in terms of cogni-
tive and behavioural skills, and, also in promoting students’ 21st century skill [12].
Game-based-learning approaches have been applied in Mathematics and Sciences
to reduce learning anxiety and to foster motivation and engagement [13, 14]. In
addition, the power of games in education has been demonstrated in terms of the
development of higher order thinking skills such as problem solving, collaboration,
and critical thinking [15]. Recently, researchers have considered escape rooms (ER)
as an excellent gamification activity due to its power to increase students’ motivation,
to foster positive attitudes, to develop communication skills and teamwork in solving
complex tasks, and to promote reflexive learning [16]. ER can be a fun, exciting way
to unlock a mystery in a collaborative manner. Teams work together to solve several
challenges (puzzles, quizzes, etc.) in order to escape the room. The exploration of
this activity with pedagogical and didactic perspectives is scarce [9] and there is a
378 L. Babo et al.
need for guidelines to develop and implement ER in mathematics subjects in higher

education.
The MATH-DIGGER platform enables all partners to increase the quality and
relevance of their activities, to develop and reinforce their networks of partners, to
increase their capacity to operate jointly at transnational level, boosting internation-
alization of their activities and through exchanging or developing new practices and
methods as well as sharing and confronting ideas. The way to achieve this is by
the development of MATH-DIGGER, as an open access tool to maximize students’
enjoyment, engagement, and motivation in their learning process. The virtual envi-
ronment elevates the digital experience by stimulating the 3D awareness of the brain
in a unique manner.
The article is organized as follows: Sect. 2 describes the project goals, and Sect. 3
introduces the partners involved in the project. The activities that we propose to
implement are described in Sect. 4. The expected results are shown in Sect. 5, and
in Sect. 6 we end the paper with the main conclusions.
2 Project Goals
The main goal of the current project is to develop a virtual ER game, that involves
mathematical problem-solving challenges with didactic purposes involving the latest
scientific results of education technology, psychology, and the related fields. All part-
ners develop their pedagogical materials, in the form of videos and microgames, thus
promoting new teaching frameworks, international publicity, and positive feedback
from students, resulting in more involvement, engagement and motivational teaching
setup. MATH-DIGGER as a platform for ‘educational games’, is designed to support
students learning, expanding concepts, reinforcing development, understanding, and
deepening their knowledge. Moreover, these ER will also intend to promote the
development of essential skills (hard and soft skills) in students, required to their
excellence in the upcoming Fifth Industrial Revolution. Thus, HEIs also become
more attractive to companies.
In what concerns female students, this project aims to promote their active partic-
ipation in STEM areas, since there is a sustained lack of females there, both in
Education and in the Marketplace [17, 18].
Another project goal is the empowerment of teachers’ digital skills by providing
pedagogical support to create digital teaching resources. Literature also refers to
the need for identification of the pedagogical surplus value of digital materials by
the teachers, in order to promote motivation for concrete, effective, and subject-
oriented successful examples [19]. MATH-DIGGER will also intend to promote the
exploitation of the new teaching models, added to the adapted and novel pedagogical
materials, among other HEI’s teachers. It is expected that they recognize the added
value of this learning platform, since they will assist to an increase in students’
learning confidence, and to the development of collaborative learning partnerships.
MATH-DIGGER intends to intensify the internationalization of partners and

students, which paves the way for future mobility partnerships with teachers and
students, for example in the scope of Erasmus + KA1 calls. Bottom line, MATH-
DIGGER promotes a more Agile way of thinking and transforming Education. Being
an innovative platform, the MATH-DIGGER team’s pretension is its continuity,
focusing on its continuous improvement and growth.
3 Partners
3.1 Polytechnic of Porto (Coordinator)—Portugal
The Porto Polytechnic—P.PORTO (www.ipp.pt) is the largest and the most dynamic
Polytechnic in the country, occupying the first position in the ranking of the Poly-
technic and, in conjunction with major universities, is placed in the upper reaches
of the ranking of National Higher Education. Its mission is to be the leader of Poly-
technic subsystem in Portugal, taking its social responsibility in the presence of the
community and society, in an international frame of reference, demanding for the
excellence. It includes eight schools, which are the link between the three Campuses,
more than 19,000 students, 58 undergraduate degrees and 65 masters’ degrees and
cover different areas: Engineering, Accounting and Business; Education; Music and
Performing Arts; Media Arts and Design; Hospitality and Tourism; Management
and Technology, Health. P.PORTO has 24 scientific research centers and groups,
distributed across its eight Schools. The School of Engineering (ISEP) is one of
the top schools of technology in Portugal, since 1852. Its goal is to contribute to
the achievement of sustainable development, by creating and transmitting applied
knowledge. As future engineers, ISEP’s students can produce creative solutions for
present or upcoming challenges, becoming agents of global progress. ISEP offers a
wide range of programmes in different fields of Engineering. It has more than 6000
students, each one unique and with the ability to excel in high level entrepreneur-
ship, teamwork, out-of-box thinking and technical expertise, key competences for a
successful international career. The Porto Accounting and Business School (ISCAP),
is the second oldest educational institution in P.PORTO, has a long history of training
in the field of business sciences. Since 1886, ISCAP has been implementing a
higher education model of excellence, strongly concerned with creating an interface
between the academy and the community. With more than 4500 students and over
200 teachers, ISCAP prepares generations of innovative citizens, able to face present
and future challenges. Committed to cooperation and internationalization, over the
years we have established cooperative and collaborative relations with various similar
institutions at national and international level, promoting student, teacher, and staff
mobility. We invest in innovation, by developing ideas and transversal entrepreneurial
solutions in both national and international contexts. We train leaders in Business
Administration.
380 L. Babo et al.
3.2 Polytechnic of Coimbra—Portugal
The Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra—IPC (www.ipc.pt) was created in 1979 in the

city of Coimbra, which has been known for centuries as the “city Portuguese higher
education institutions (HEI) with a major role in the development of the region and
the progress of the country. IPC offers higher education programmes in many fields
of study such as agricultural sciences, education and arts, media and communica-
tions sciences, tourism and sports, gastronomy, health technologies and engineering.
As a HEI of applied sciences, approach to education which has been relevant to
build a respectful national recognition among companies and to give students career
research which is coordinated by the Institute for Applied Research (IIA), an organic
research and service unit for the community that and Society Studies and several
laboratories of R&D. IIA has the mission of promoting, supporting, and managing
research activities. internationally recognized by the excellence of its incubator and
accelerator organizations. IPC has also an entrepreneurship academy innovation,
entrepreneurship and to foster the creation and growth of startups and spinoff compa-
nies. INOPOL promotes several projects ideas” and “Poliempreende”—the largest
network for the promotion of Entrepreneurship in the Portuguese polytechnic higher
education, “Innovation Network”. In 2011 IPC had the initiative and was the leading
of the first erasmus consortium project remaining, until the present, a major national
reference. The consortium was refunded in 2019 with a larger mission to develop next
years under the new Erasmus + programme 2021–2027. Presently ERASMUS +
programme is a main pillar of IPC internationalization. Interinstitutional agreements
with HEI partners from programme countries and achieve, annually, high numbers of
students and staff incoming Engineering (ISEC) counts more than 90 years serving
technology and engineering education. ISEC is constantly up to date with technical,
in the present and projecting into the future. It has recently invested in modernizing
labs and equipment, as well as in the construction performance Computational Centre
and a Biomechanical Laboratory.
3.3 Johannes Kepler University—Austria
Johannes Kepler University—JKU (www.jku.at) is located in Linz, Austria, the

largest university in the region of Upper Austria. Since its inception in 1966, JKU
has become a successful and innovative center for science, academics, and society.
Today, the JKU has become one of the largest educational institutions in Upper
Austria and enjoys an international reputation not only in conducting base-knowledge
research, but also in applied-oriented research. The university offers interdisciplinary
and hands-on educational programs designed to meet today’s business and societal
needs and our cooperation agreements with over 300 partner universities in over
50 countries as well as over 120 professors and over 1800 academic faculty ensure
superior research and study conditions. The JKU Linz is ranked among the world’s
best young universities (under 50 years). For the second year, the most recent “Times
Higher Education 100 Under 50” ranking placed the JKU among the Top 70 of the
world’s best young universities (under 50 years). With nine active Christian Doppler
laboratories on campus, the JKU is among the best universities in Austria.
3.4 Hacettepe University
As a research university committed to the promotion of excellence in education in line

with universal values. Hacettepe University—HU (www.hacettepe.edu.tr) mission
is to educate and nurture students as individuals equipped with quality and depth
of provision in all fields of science, technology, and arts; empowered by inspiring
intellectual curiosity and critical minds, open for improvement and positive change;
and to contribute to society through research, technology, and public services it
pursues. HU continues its activities with 16 Faculties, 15 Graduate Schools and
Institutes, 2 Applied Schools, 1 Conservatory, 4 Vocational Schools, 94 Research and
Application Centers, 3 Libraries. As one of the leading universities in the country, HU
keeps contributing to social development and universal values in the fields of science,
technology, and art, within 132 Departments, 132 Undergraduate Programmes, 191
Master Programmes (plus 52 multidisciplinary), and 132 Ph.D. Programmes (plus
23 multidisciplinary and 40 associate Ph.D. programmes).
Ultimately, HU serves over 56,000 registered students with over 3600 Academic
Personnel. Hacettepe University was designated as one of the ten “Research Univer-
sities” in Turkey in 2017. Empowered with the multidisciplinary research at HU
contributes to industry and society with technology and public services it pursues.
Hacettepe University raised its place in World University Rankings published by
several organizations such as THE, QS, CWUR, URAP. THE 2019 ranking results
revealed that it is the only Turkish University that has an upward trend rising from
601–800 band to 501–600 band. According to Web of Science data for March 2016,
HU ranks 1st in the ranking of scientific publications among Turkish universities.
3.5 Hellenic Mediterranean University—Greece
The Hellenic Mediterranean University—HMU (www.hmu.gr)—is the evolution

of the Technological Educational Institute of Crete (founded in 1983) which was
renamed as the Hellenic Mediterranean University during the reformation process of
the Hellenic Higher Education system which took place in Greece in 2019. HMU has
its main campus in Heraklion Crete and branches in Chania, Rethymno, Agios Niko-
laos, and Sitia. Its currently consists of five Faculties and 11 Academic Departments,
which approximately 12,000 undergraduate and postgraduate students, and approx-
imately 300 permanent and part-time teaching and research staff. The University
provides high—quality undergraduate, postgraduate and doctoral education in the
382 L. Babo et al.
fields of Engineering, Management and Economics, Health, Agronomy, and Music &
Opto-Acoustics Technology and conducts high impact research in the aforemen-
tioned subjects which is reflected in scientific publications in high impact factor and
in the success in undertaking and participating in national and international research
programs. HMU utilizes the research outcomes for the benefit of the Hellenic society,
contributes to the professional specialization of young scientists, provides public and
private services, develops collaborations with educational and research Institutions in
Greece and abroad and undertakes research, development, and consulting activities in
cooperation with national and international organizations. HMU is also partner in the
European University ATHENA—Advanced Technology Higher Education Network
Alliance (athena-uni.eu), coordinating three of the nine work-packages.
3.6 MISTEMS Innovation and Services Ltd.—Hungary
MISTEMS Ltd. is a tech startup (micro-size enterprise) that develops and main-
tains the MaxWhere 3D (VR) software framework (www.maxwhere.com) with
vital education technology relations. MaxWhere is a 3D virtual environment that
combines conventional 2D modalities with interactive 3D worlds, leading to a
provenly effective learning environment. In the composition of learning materials,
especially in technical subjects, the text, graphics, and video contents can be orga-
nized in a spatial (3D) context, including interactive simulations. These character-
istics make MaxWhere helpful and effective in teaching students. The software has
been developed since 2016, and nowadays it has reached a decent level of maturity.
The MaxWhere client can be downloaded for Windows and Mac computers. The
ecosystem provides a Cloud-based content Store which makes the content distribu-
tion flawless all over the Globe. MISTEMS builds and sustains close cooperation
with universities to involve more and more learning content into the ecosystem and
to foster software developers’ education capable of developing MaxWhere plugins
and interactive content. Besides the founders, the development team includes four
contract software developers and three graphics designers. Through university part-
nerships, mainly with the University of Győr and Óbuda University, MISTEMS has
access to a wide range of competencies.
4 Activities
MATH-DIGGER’s platform has two complementary strands: learning and ER.

Students will have the opportunity to learn concepts from different curricular units
from various scientific areas (in particular, Mathematics), in a student-centered
teaching environment. MATH-DIGGER will begin with a Mathematics section, in
which users will have the opportunity to learn Linear Algebra and Analytical Geom-
etry, Differential and Integral Calculus, among other topics, in an enthusiastic ER’
set up. There are several activities and multiplier events planned in the scope of this
project. We start with a Learning-Teaching and Training (LTT) C1 activity (June
2022), to develop digital modules (microgames in Geogebra), which is directed only
to the partners involved in the project. In April 2023, a LTT activity (C2) is devoted
to the teachers’ training of the new MATH-DIGGER platform and the SWOT anal-
ysis of its development at that time. The next LTT activity, C3 (April 2024) will
comprise the training of teachers, external to the project’s team, of the MATH-
DIGGER platform. The last LTT activity, C4 (June 2024) will take place at Oporto,
Portugal, and is devoted to the testing of the pilot-implementation of the MATH-
DIGGER platform by students. It will be a students’ “competition” from several
HEIs. It will also be used to rise students’ motivation, support possible students’
exchanges in future Erasmus + activities, help to understand links between Mathe-
matics and Engineering fields and use and couple/deepen the knowledge gained from
the created learning materials and games. This will be followed by a ME, organized
for a wider audience to communicate main outputs elaborated in the project—anal-
ysis of MATH-DIGGER systems, mathematics tasks, mathematics MATH-DIGGER
learning model and scientific papers-, disseminate project results, share experiences
and launch networking activities. The ME is organized in the final phase of the
project, because by then intellectual outputs are ready to be fully disseminated to a
broader audience, namely other teachers, stakeholders, students, among others. This
will be a time to share the experiences from partners (professors) and from students
who have been playing and testing the platform and to show to others (professors,
students, stakeholders) that this is a valuable software and a worthy educational tool.
The project aims to have international visibility, due to the establishment of strategic
partnerships with other HEIs.
5 Expected Results
The outcomes of the MATH-DIGGER project may be summarized as follows: (i) a

finished MATH-DIGGER user interface (O1); (ii) a set of micro-games in Geogebra,
developed for Linear Algebra and Integral Calculus courses; (iii) a set of tuto-
rial videos of the MATH-DIGGER platform for students and for teachers (O2);
(iv) one ME to disseminate the MATH-DIGGER platform and promote a pilot-
implementation; (v) a contribution for the digital skills of the teachers, by their
participation and engagement in LTT activities and in the ME; (vi) an expected contri-
bution to the motivation and engagement of female students to STEM subjects, due to
their active participation in the MATH-DIGGER ER. As Nicholson found, the demo-
graphic data from these ER, exhibited an equal draw of players from both genders. Of
the player groups of these rooms, it was reported that 71% were mixed genders, 15%
were all male and 14% were all female. If Escape Rooms and other interactive, LARP
games attract a balanced gender pool of player types, then GBL designers should
consider and ask, what are the elements that make these experiences truly appealing to
both genders [9, 20]; (vii) dissemination of the MATH-DIGGER platform, by papers
384 L. Babo et al.
published in international journals, by communications in national and international

conferences, by networking in national and international conferences.
In more detail, the customer segments will be mostly students and teachers of
HEIs, worldwide. The outputs of this project, targeted to innovative Higher Educa-
tion teaching environments, also make it possible to broaden its applicability for
other educational institutions and academic staff at lower educational levels, namely
secondary education.
6 Conclusions
In this paper, we start the first, of predictably many, communications about MATH-
DIGGER. This is already such a challenging project, from the very beginning, a
small seed, that grew to become this strong grounded and well-established project.
The i-Gen students are prone to develop intellectual curiosity and critical thinking, for
improvement and positive change. They constantly monitor whether corporations,
brands, and governments are doing what it takes to care about the future of young
people, and society, in general. The MATH-DIGGER research team is committed to
the promotion of excellence in Education, in line with universal values. Our vision
is to empower our students with the right tools (technical & soft skills) to foster their
transformation into empathic human beings and successful professionals.
Additionally, MATH-DIGGER will provide a platform for a curriculum develop-
ment, based in four specific areas—science (S), technology (T), engineering (E) and
mathematics (M), in an interdisciplinary and applied approach. STEM occupations
are expected to experience rapid growth in the coming decade.
Our adventure is starting, looking to contribute to establish an effectively new
paradigm in Education in the 21st century society.
Acknowledgements All authors would like to thank Erasmus+ through the MATH-DIGGER
project—MATHematics DIGital Escape Rooms, No. 2021-1-PT01-KA220-HED-000032234.
References
1. Fong, J., Lucchi, M., Trench, B., Lope, N., McDermott.: An insider’s guide to generation
Z and higher education 2019. In: University Professional and Continuing Education Associ-
ation (2019). https://upcea.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Generation-Z-eBook-Version-4.
pdf. Accessed 04 Mar. 2022
2. Talmon, G.A.: Generation Z: what’s next? Med. Sci. Educ. 29, 9–11 (2019)
3. Eberhard, B., Podio, M., Alonso, A.P., Radovica, E., Avotina, L., Peiseniece, L.: Smart work:
the transformation of the labour market due to the fourth industrial revolution (I4.0). Int. J.
Bus. Econ. Sci. Appl. Res. 10(3), 47–66 (2017)
4. Bierema, L.L.: Enhancing employability through developing T-shaped professionals. New Dir.
Adult Contin. Educ. 2019(163), 67–81 (2019)
5. Mazana, M.Y., Montero, C.S., Casmir, R.O.: Investigating students’ attitude towards learning
mathematics. Int. Electron. J. Math. Educ. 14(1), 207–231 (2018)
6. Almeida, M.E.B., Queiruga-Dios, A., Cáceres, M.J.: Differential and integral calculus in first-
year engineering students: a diagnosis to understand the failure. Mathematics 9(1), 1–18 (2021)
7. da Magalhães, J.M.: Aprendizagem de conteúdos matemáticos de cálculo por alunos do 1.o
ano de cursos de engenharia: contextos e materiais didáticos. Universidade do Minho (2016)
8. Ferretti, F., Gambini, A.: A vertical analysis of difficulties in mathematics by secondary school
to university level: some evidences stems from standardized assessment. In: HAL, Dublin
(2017)
9. Sánchez-Martín, J., Corrales-Serrano, M., Luque-Sendra, A., Zamora-Polo, F.: Exit for success.
Gamifying science and technology for university students using escape-room. A preliminary
approach. Heliyon 6(7) (2020)
10. Viamonte, A.J., Figueiredo, I.P.: Can gamification be effective in combating dropout in higher
education? In: CASHE Conference: academic Success in Higher Education, pp. 1–3 (2019)
11. Vossensteyn, H., et al.: Drop-out and Completion in Higher Education in Europe—Main Report
(2015)
12. Qian, M., Clark, K.R.: Game-based learning and 21st century skills: a review of recent research.
Comput. Human Behav. 63, 50–58 (2016)
13. Wang, A.I., Tahir, R.: The effect of using Kahoot! for learning—A literature review. Comput.
Educ. 149(January), 103818 (2020)
14. Campillo-Ferrer, J.M., Miralles-Martínez, P., Sánchez-Ibáñez, R.: Gamification in higher
education: impact on student motivation and the acquisition of social and civic key competen-
cies. Sustainable 12(12) (2020)
15. Chen, P.Y., Hwang, G.J., Yeh, S.Y., Chen, Y.T., Chen, T.W., Chien, C.H.: Three decades of
game-based learning in science and mathematics education: an integrated bibliometric analysis
and systematic review. J. Comput. Educ. (0123456789) (2021)
16. Hunt-Gómez, C.I., Moreno-Fernández, O., Moreno-Crespo, P., Ferreras-Listán, M.: Escape
rooms’ pedagogical potential from female future teachers’ perspectives. J. Univ. Teach. Learn.
Pract. 17(5), 1–16 (2020)
17. Parson, L., Ozaki, C.C.: Gendered student ideals in STEM in higher education. NASPA J.
About Women High. Educ. 11(2), 171–190 (2018)
18. Charlesworth, T.E.S., Banaji, M.R.: Gender in science, technology, engineering, and mathe-
matics: issues, causes, solutions. J. Neurosci. 39(37), 7228–7243 (2019)
19. Amhag, L., Hellström, L., Stigmar, M.: Teacher educators’ use of digital tools and needs for
digital competence in higher education. J. Digit. Learn. Teach. Educ. 35(4), 203–220 (2019)
20. Clarke, S.J., Peel, D.J., Arnab, S., Morini, L., Keegan, H., Wood, O.: EscapED: a framework
for creating educational escape rooms and interactive games to for higher/further education.
Int. J. Serious Games 4(3), 73–86 (2017)
Training Routine for Electrical Power
Station Operators Using Virtual Reality
Pablo Teodoro, Leandro Mattioli, Gabriel Cyrino, Alexandre Cardoso,

Edgard Lamounier, Emmanuele Zorcot, and Daniel Ramos
Abstract This paper presents the use of Virtual Reality (VR) to improve the content
learning and practice of electrical power stations power station operators, where a
training routine was created for them using a tool of the RVCEMIG software, called
Routine Editor. With this training routine an operator will go through a self-guided
visit, with the objective of identify electrical equipment of power station. using
instructions will be given to him and at the end of the visit, a learning assessment is
carried out with questions about the observed equipment. The final purpose of the
method is to use to improve the traditional training method. Where, using a model
for creating feedback reports, called Kirkpatrick model, it will be possible to carry
out these comparisons properly in order to measure the changes achieved by the use
of the tool within the company, being able to demonstrate the benefits of this new
type of training.
Keywords Virtual learning · Virtual reality · Training methodologies · Electrical

power station operator
1 Introduction
The educational process, as well as the training, aim at the formation and qualifi-
cation of students and professionals from different areas. In this context, they are,
therefore, indispensable in the learning process and in the acquisition of skills. That
said, it was observed that over time, due to social transformations, globalization,
greater availability of information and changes and advances in technology, teaching
methodologies and different training programs must be constantly reviewed, in order
to meet the new demands that emerge from the different industrial sectors [1].
P. Teodoro · L. Mattioli · G. Cyrino · A. Cardoso (B) · E. Lamounier

Virtual and Augmented Reality Group, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Federal University of
Uberlândia (UFU), Uberlândia, Brazil
e-mail: alexandre@ufu.br
E. Zorcot · D. Ramos
Electric Energy Company of Minas Gerais State (CEMIG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_35
388 P. Teodoro et al.
However, most educational methodologies, also the traditional training methods,

involve teaching techniques that promote the transfer of knowledge in a passive way,
based on reading the proposed content, lectures, video exposure and demonstrations,
making with that there is a big gap in the process of learning and acquisition of
skills, since these techniques do not allow students and professionals to experience
the activities, as well as the problems that may arise from them, which will be
performed in an environment of real work, which sometimes encourages their lack
of interest and discourages the learning process [2, 3].
In this scenario, the development of systems based on Virtual Reality (VR) and
Augmented Reality (AR) emerges. VR is a technology based on computer graphics
that allows simulating scenarios, real life events, creating dynamic, immersive and
interactive spaces and virtual reality items through the auditory, visual as well as
tactile media manipulation of computer [3].
While when it comes to AR, this is a technology based on live or indirect vision
of the real physical environment integrated with computer graphics, whose objec-
tive is to improve the perception of reality as opposed to trying to replace the real
environment with a simulated one, such as like in VR [4].
The implementation of systems based on VR and AR in the educational process,
as well as in training programs, aims to provide pedagogical tools that allow for
the active learning process and enable the development of practical skills specific
to different areas of knowledge. That said, the present article aimed to present a
systematic review of the literature about works in which experimental results for the
implementation of systems based on VR and AR in the educational and/or training
scope were presented.
2 Background
2.1 Operator Training
As has been widely recognized, manpower training is a key factor in keeping a

company running and providing quality service. However, it is difficult to collect
and analyze training data to improve it. Furthermore, different methods can have
positive or negative effects depending on who is being trained. Therefore, it is always
necessary to fine-tune the best training method for the types of employees who will
perform it [5].
Therefore, several types of applications and training methodologies have been
developed with the aim of providing better conditions for its use, especially when it
comes to operations that involve greater care or that aim at the learning of an operator
who will handle equipment which is critical for society, such as civil, electrical or
security areas. In these environments, training must be as rigid as possible and seek
the maximum improvement of the operator, aiming to reduce any type of risk to life
or economic losses for the company [6, 7].
Training Routine for Electrical Power Station Operators Using Virtual … 389
Over the years, the evolution of these trainings has become visible, especially
when it is used in environments where practical training is bordering on unfeasible,
due to safety, health or economic factors. A palpable example is a training on a
possible failure in a nuclear power plant system, in which the objective is to train
what operators should do at this moment for their own safety and avoid a greater
catastrophe, since it is impossible to carry out, in the practice, this event [8, 9].
Practical training is currently carried out mainly in simulators with simulated
events, as the actual contingencies that exist are not desirable in the system and also
expose people and equipment to risks. And these simulations came in the most diverse
ways, either demonstrating only in a multimedia presentation, or else, simulating
through theatrical means, the event to be trained, without directly implying the most
serious problems, such as security or economic losses. All these attempts have a
flaw, which is the lack of immersion and sensation, which are extremely necessary
for a deeper learning, since if any of these simulated events happen, the operator
must be fully prepared, with the instructions well defined in your mind and your
psychological prepared for a critical moment like this [10, 11].
Seeking to meet this objective, the use of VR and AR began to be explored for the
training of operators in the most diverse ways, because of the current technologies, it
is considered the one that allows in a greater way an immersion as close as possible
to reality. Therefore, making a connection between the training methodologies that
already exist with the use of VR or AR technology, it is possible to get the most
out of these trainings that aim at critical operations in general. And in recent years
its use has been even more widespread, especially considering that the cost of this
technology has been dropping [12].
2.2 Impact of the Pandemic on Training
Due to the events of the COVID-19 pandemic, several sectors were harmed in several
possible areas, from direct impacts such as lack of employees due to them having
acquired the disease, the transition to a more remote work to avoid agglomeration
or even a little more indirect, where the consumption of some goods was reduced
either by the need for it not to be essential or also by the decrease in the purchasing
power of the population in general having decreased a lot, mainly due to the high
unemployment in some countries [13].
However, some are more simply observable, such as the impact on restaurants,
concerts or parties, as these were closed during much of the pandemic to avoid a high
number of people in the same environment. But when the matter is looked at more
deeply, it is possible to notice that some other means were quite affected, among
them, the teaching and training part was one that underwent an important forced
transformation [14, 15].
As previously stated, with this need to avoid agglomerations, training previously
carried out by companies, needed to undergo changes to adapt to the current global
moment, moving from the face-to-face to remote model. These took some time to
Fig. 1 Basic schematic of

agile methodology
start the transition because it is not something simple to do, in addition, there was
a strong resistance to learning and teaching in this type of model. These problems
are directly linked to the fact that many companies and teachers simply convert the
traditional teaching method to an online form, which is ineffective, since they are
different means of disseminating knowledge, therefore, greater care is needed to
carry out this transition, using new methodologies, technologies and adapting them
according to the need [16].
Some attempts that had greater success were the use of agile methodologies,
generally applied in the delivery of products, mainly in the area of technology, now
being used in teaching, either in universities, to improve the learning of students
or in companies, for operators able to better absorb the content without necessarily
depending on an instructor to pass everything as it would be in a face-to-face training
room, seeking to overturn that traditional waterfall teaching model [17, 18] (Fig. 1).
Nevertheless, if in person, some more critical training could no longer be repro-
duced in a completely reliable way, with the advent of the pandemic, it became even
more difficult to carry out these in a satisfactory way. Therefore, VR is considerably
a highly viable way to carry out these trainings, since even in the remote model,
as long as with the appropriate equipment, the immersion and interactivity of the
operator will be the same as if the operator did the same training in person in the
company [19].
2.3 Use of Virtual Reality in the Energy Industry
Energy industry training is an extremely specialized field and, as such, traditional

methods have not been able to meet all of the industry’s training needs, mainly due to
the unique environment, non-reproducible scenarios, and expensive or unavailable
equipment. These factors are common in training involving electrical energy. That
said, there is a great need to incorporate new training methods, particularly to meet
these demands on generally scarce resources that present high security risks and are
even unattainable in some cases [20, 21].
An example in the energy field was a proposed method using virtual reality to
simulate the structure of the nuclear installation and support the physical safety of
nuclear installations where a real-time control approach from intrusion response
to the industrial automation systems (IASs) based on task scheduling table with
various requirements being considered to get instant intrusion response to cyber-
attacks. By combining the 3D modeling functions of Physical Protection Systems
(PPS) with automatic 2D drawing (such as CAD drawings) generation, the proposed
method provides designers with comprehensive and visualized PPS information in a
platform that will allow a quick and convenient design of PPS Given the high risk of
the environment, simulations like this are extremely important for greater immersion
since practical training is practically unfeasible [22, 23].
Given the diversity of applications, research has been carried out with the purpose
of applying VR in training, simulations, maintenance and operation of equipment,
aiming to benefit the energy sector through Virtual Reality techniques. Virtual Envi-
ronments of Electric Power Stations represent a new approach to improve knowledge
of the operation and supervisory control of the electrical system. The qualification for
maintenance and operation of the electrical power systems of the operation centers
has been a concern, because with each passing day, the operator’s function becomes
more complex, mainly for the remote-controlled installations, where a failure could
seriously compromise the electricity supply. The use of a three-dimensional model
faithful to the real structures in these critical environments proves to be a suitable
alternative for learning, as it allows to present realistic models of power station in
training and operation centers, complementing the electrical models of operation
diagrams [24–26].
A product already in the final stage of development is RVCEMIG, a virtual envi-
ronment made by the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU) and Minas Gerais
Energy Company (CEMIG). This environment is the one that was used in this article
for the creation and execution of a self-guided training, where the operator will be
able to visit a power station, being able to recognize all the equipment, as well, under-
stand their functions and visualize the bus bar arrangement, without the need of a
physical displacement to the location. Since CEMIG has several power stations, the
use of training aims to provide operators with the opportunity to have an experience
and contact the most diverse characteristics of each of these stations and their partic-
ularities, especially for the new operators who have never been carrying out a prac-
tical visit to a power station. The application of this training methodology preserves
the health and safety of the employees (a concern even bigger during the current
pandemic) and contributes economically for the company, avoiding expenses with
travel, immersion and learning. Thus, enabling operators, who until that moment,
only had contact with single-line diagrams of power stations, which do not convey
Fig.2 RVCEMIG virtual environment
a perception of how it is in practice, a real apprenticeship through the virtual envi-

ronment that passes in an infinitely superior way the sensation of being really in the
physical place [19, 27] (Fig. 2).
2.4 Self-Guided Training
With this tool we have developed a personalized training which in addition to consid-
ering the student’s degree of prior knowledge and personal abilities, we add the
possibility of experiencing and interacting with the environment, discovering it as
it builds understanding. in self-guided training, the operator will have access to
pre-programmed classes, personalized routines, and can experience through simula-
tions critical events, maneuvers or possible problem., For this, the operator will be
instructed and invited to perform a trajectory of discovery, according to the script, by
the substation, but the tool leaves him free to perform his own path as well. However,
at the end of the route, the operator must have performed all the information points
foreseen for that experience, how soon, it will be evaluated in order to measure their
developed learning [28].
But due to the plurality of people, some may have the feeling that this method-
ology may be weak or inefficient because it has difficulty in self-learning and lacks
immersion for a better absorption of the content. Therefore, using VR, it is possible
to fill these gaps caused by self-guided training, where it will be possible to obtain
a resolution in the common point between the problems, the lack of immersion and
interactivity for being something done individually, the need for a type of training
that does not involve a tutor or the lack of possibility of a visit to a certain place for
security or financial reasons [28].
2.5 Kirkpatrick Model
Training evaluations are an essential part of understanding whether training has

been well implemented and whether its impact on the company has been positive,
both for the present and for future changes that may occur. Therefore, there are
certain assessment methodologies that are generally used in more classical models of
teaching and training, but that can be easily adapted for training given in virtual reality.
The Kirkpatrick Model was created by Professor Donald Kirkpatrick to measure the
impact of traditional training programs. His method consists of four levels: response,
learning, performance and results. All are important, one cannot exist without the
other. As the assessment progresses, the process becomes more complicated and
durable, but offers invaluable data [29, 30].
The four levels that the model are:
• Level one—Reaction
At this stage, the person responsible for the training must assess the participants’
reaction to the entire learning process. Therefore, here you must apply tools that
allow you to find out how the training participants reacted to the process. So, it
is here that the degree of satisfaction of your employees with the training and
their general perception of the process will be measured. In this sense, it is at this
stage that you should apply ways to collect feedback, such as questionnaires and
interviews, for example [29, 30].
• Level two—Learning
Here, the degree of learning of the training participants in relation to the content
that was made available should be observed. For example, an assessment can be
applied based on the content exposed during the stages or after the training. In
this way, it will be possible to know how much the training in question is being
absorbed and if the participants are really learning what was passed on. As a
result, you will find out which trainings are having their content better assimilated
[29, 30].
• Level three—Behavior
It is useless to learn new skills and assimilate content if the entire result of the
training does not bring practical results to the work environment. Therefore, level
3 will assess the behavior of the training target team. Within this stage, it should be
observed whether the training participants are actually applying the new knowl-
edge acquired in their daily lives in the company. However, it is important to
emphasize that this observation should start sometime after training [29, 30].
• Level four—Results
Finally, we have the observation and evaluation of the results obtained with the
trainings that were adopted in the company. In short, at this stage it is necessary
to assess whether the objectives that were defined in the training planning were
achieved. Therefore, here you can define indicators and adopt different metrics
to verify if the result that your company was looking for with the training was
achieved. That is why it is important that even before starting the training the
objectives are very well defined, as they will be necessary for the evaluation
[29, 30].
3 Methodology
3.1 Virtual Environment and Routine Editor
The virtual environment that was used for the construction of the self-guided tour
was the RVCEMIG, designed and built by the UFU, where it has several repre-
sentations identical to CEMIG Power stations, where they are used for different
purposes, such as comparisons, training or carrying out maneuvers, adequacy of bus
bar arrangements, building works among other infinite possibilities.
In the case of this self-guided visit, the tool of this virtual environment that was
used was called the Routine Editor, where it is possible, through different methods,
to replicate routines within the environment, either for training or to simulate a
specific event. Events that happened in the field, it is possible to be revived and thus
understand better, thus being able to develop more effective, economical and rapid
solutions (Fig. 3).
The target of the construction of this self-guided tour are new power station
operators, who, due to problems such as the pandemic, have not yet carried out
on-site visits, therefore, they do not yet have practical experiences. In the future,
after having a real contact, comparisons will be made with the training and results
obtained by operators who have gone through different processes, and who have
more experience in the field.
Fig. 3 Routine editor

Fig. 4 Goal of the running routine
A routine was created, where the operator will pass on certain equipment in the
power station, and when he gets close to it, he will see a video explaining about
it and giving certain details of the use in that specific power station. At the end of
meeting all the equipment, an evaluation questionnaire will be carried out in order to
encourage the operator to focus on the activity and increase his immersion (Fig. 4).
To measure learning and compare as mentioned above, the Kirkpatrick model
will be used in the future, with the objective of demonstrating in a practical way the
benefits and gains with the use of the virtual environment for the company as an
initial part of the operators’ learning (Fig. 5).
4 Conclusion
As it was possible to observe, the use of virtual reality for the training of operators is
something palpable and with wide use for the most diverse situations, ranging from
use for the most experienced to the youngest.
The use of the routine demonstrated in this paper using RVCEMIG can be used
to adequately and reputably measure the knowledge of new operators, for future
comparisons with old operators who were trained only with the use of a book and a
teacher.
For future work, it will be applied within the company CEMIG in order to demon-
strate to them the benefits of using the tool and providing them with the opportunity
to palpably visualize, through the Kirkpatrick model, all the objectives achieved and
future impacts. positive aspects that the use of the tool will cause in the training of
operators.
I would like to give special thanks to the Cemig GT 0618 project and also to
the National Electric Energy Agency (ANEEL), with all the support provided, it
was possible to create this article and the promotion of the Coordination for the
Fig. 5 Evaluation using Kirkpatrick model
Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES), the National Council for

Scientific and Technological Development (CNPQ) and the Foundation for Research
Support of the State of Minas Gerais (FAPEMIG).
Acknowledgements I would like to give special thanks to the Cemig GT 0618 project and also to
the National Electric Energy Agency (ANEEL), with all the support provided, it was possible to
create this article and the promotion of the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education
Personnel (CAPES), the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPQ)
and the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Minas Gerais (FAPEMIG).
References
1. Lambert, C.: Eric Mazur on new interactive teaching techniques harvard magazine. Harvard
Magazine (2012)
2. Namian, M., Albert, A., Zuluaga, C.M., Jaselskis, E.J.: Improving hazard-recognition perfor-
mance and safety training outcomes: integrating strategies for training transfer. J. Constr. Eng.
Manag. 142(10), 04016048 (2016)
3. Roberts, D.: Higher education lectures: from passive to active learning via imagery? Act. Learn.
High. Educ. 20(1), 63–77 (2019)
4. Azuma, R., Baillot, Y., Behringer, R., Feiner, S., Julier, S., MacIntyre, B.: Recent advances in
augmented reality. IEEE Comput. Graph. Appl. 21(6), 34–47 (2001)
5. Yoshimura, S., Ohtsuka, T., Itoh, J.I., Masuda, F.: An analysis of operator performance in plant
abnormal conditions. In: Conference Record for 1988 IEEE Fourth Conference on Human
Factors and Power Plants, pp. 509–512 (1988)
6. W.J. Waylett, Human factors in simulator instructor facility design. In: Conference Record for
1988 IEEE Fourth Conference on Human Factors and Power Plants, pp. 559–564 (1988)
7. Reyes, A., Sucar, L.E., Arroyo-Figueroa, G., Hernandez, Y.: Intelligent environment for
training of power systems operators. In: 2008 Electronics, Robotics and Automotive Mechanics
Conference (CERMA ‘08), pp. 27–32 (2008)
8. Arcos, J.L.L., Angulo, I., Sanchez, V., Sabugo, M.J., Burguera, E.: Power plant domain
representation for operator intelligent training systems. In: First International Conference on
Intelligent Systems Engineering, 1992 (Conf. Publ. No. 360), pp. 250–256 (1992)
9. IEEE Guide for Motor-Operated Valve (MOV) Motor Application, Protection, Control, and
Testing in Nuclear Power-Generating Stations. IEEE Std 1290–2015 (Revision of IEEE Std
1290–1996), 1–83 (2015)
10. Pu, Y., Luo, Y., Zhang, J., Liu, L., Yu, X., Yang, T.C.: An intelligent multimedia training
system for hydro-power plant operators, POWERCON ‘98. In: 1998 International Conference
on Power System Technology. Proceedings (Cat. No. 98EX151), vol. 2, pp. 1003–1006 (1998)
11. Chu, R.F., Dobrowolski, E.J., Barr, E.J., McGeehan, J., Scheurer, D., Nodehi, K.: The uses
of an operator training simulator for system restoration. In: [Proceedings] Conference Papers
1991 Power Industry Computer Application Conference, pp. 171–177 (1991)
12. Tam, E.K., Maurel, C., Desbiens, P., Marceau, R.J., Malowany, A.S., Granger, L.: A low-cost
PC-oriented virtual environment for operator training [for power stations]. In: Proceedings of
the 20th International Conference on Power Industry Computer Applications, pp. 358–364
(1997)
13. Tudevdagva, U., Heller, A., Hardt, W.: The evaluation report of the online training for CUT and
UJEP students during pandemic period. In: 2021 10th International Conference on Educational
and Information Technology (ICEIT), pp. 66–69 (2021)
14. Cecil, J., Kauffman, S., Gupta, A., McKinney, V., Pirela-Cruz, M.D.M.: Design of a human
centered computing (HCC) based virtual reality simulator to train first responders involved in
the COVID-19 pandemic. In: 2021 IEEE International Systems Conference (SysCon), pp. 1–7
(2021)
15. Hussain, W., Spady, W.G.: Industrial training courses: a challenge during the COVID19
pandemic. In: 2020 IEEE International Conference on Teaching, Assessment, and Learning
for Engineering (TALE), pp. 189–196 (2020)
16. Lepez, D.A.N., Gutierrez, N.F.: Training of human resources in electric energy distribution
under the restrictions of the COVID-19 pandemic. In: CIRED 2021—The 26th International
Conference and Exhibition on Electricity Distribution, pp. 3335–3338 (2021)
17. Lozada-Martinez, E., Naranjo, J.E., Garcia, C.A., Soria, D.M., Toscano, O.R., Garcia, M.V.:
SCRUM and extreme programming agile model approach for virtual training environment
design. In: 2019 IEEE Fourth Ecuador Technical Chapters Meeting (ETCM), pp. 1–5 (2019)
18. Stoyanova, D.V., Zlatanski, D.A., Mileva, N.S.: Enhancing Teaching–Learning in electrical
engineering course during COVID-19 pandemic. In: 2021 XXX International Scientific
Conference Electronics (ET), pp. 1–4 (2021)
19. Cardoso, A., Lamounier, E., Lima, G., Oliveira, L., Mattioli, L., Júnior, G., Silva, A., Nogueira,
K., Prado, P.D., Newton, J.: VRCEMIG: a virtual reality system for real time control of electric
substations. In: 2013 IEEE Virtual Reality (VR), pp. 165–166 (2013)
20. Zhang, S., Ying, S., Shao, Y., Gao, W., Liang, Y., Peng, P., Luo, X.: Design and application
of electric power skill training platform based on virtual reality technology. In: 2018 Chinese
Automation Congress (CAC), pp. 1548–1551 (2018)
21. Di, X., Tianqi, Y., Zhiwei, W., Jiang-Wen, X.: Simulation research on electric energy measure-
ment system based on virtual reality technique. In: Proceedings of the 31st Chinese Control
Conference, pp. 7658–7663 (2012)
22. Fodorean, D.: Study of electric propulsion by using virtual reality software. In: 2017 52nd
International Universities Power Engineering Conference (UPEC), pp. 1–5 (2017)
23. Bowen, Z., Jun, Y., Jia, G., Junbo, W., Yuxin, Z., Ming, Y.: Using virtual reality for the training
of physical protection system in nuclear power plant. In: 2018 International Conference on
Power System Technology (POWERCON), pp. 4806–4810 (2018)
24. Lima, G.R., Borges, T.T., Baptista, J.M., Monteiro, P.R.D., Lima, L.: Virtual reality as a tool
for electrical substations teaching. In: 2018 Simposio Brasileiro de Sistemas Eletricos (SBSE),
pp. 1–6 (2018)
25. Angelov, A.N., Styczynski, Z.A.: Computer-aided 3D virtual training in power system
education. In: 2007 IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting, pp. 1–4 (2007)
26. Li, G.X., Fengli, L.H.: Application of the virtual reality technologies in power systems. In:
2010 2nd International Conference on Future Computer and Communication, pp. V3-41–V3-44
(2010)
27. Liao, X., Niu, J., Wang, H., Du, B.: Research on virtual reality simulation training system of
substation. In: 2017 International Conference on Virtual Reality and Visualization (ICVRV),
pp. 413–414 (2017)
28. Ding, J.: Self-guided learning environment for undergraduate software engineering. In: 2014
IEEE 27th Conference on Software Engineering Education and Training (CSEE&T), pp. 188–
189 (2014)
29. Shen, P., Zhang, Y., Zhang, Y., Liu, Z.: Integration of fuzzy neural network algorithm and
Kirkpatrick model and its application on FFPL performance measurement. In: 2008 Second
International Symposium on Intelligent Information Technology Application, pp. 624–628
(2008)
30. Li, T., Yang, Y., Liu, Z.: An improved neural network algorithm and its application on enterprise
strategic management performance measurement based on Kirkpatrick model. In: 2008 Second
International Symposium on Intelligent Information Technology Application, pp. 861–865
(2008)
Digital Tools and methods to Enhance
Learning: The Digitools Project
Maria José Angélico Gonçalves, Célia Tavares, Ana Lúcia Terra,

Manuel Moreira da Silva, Óscar Bernardes, Iolanda Valente,
and Isabel Cristina Lopes
Abstract The use of distance education using digital tools in higher education has
increased over the last decade, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic. COVID-
19 has resulted in schools shutting down all across the world. This paper aims to
present a brief summary of the Digitools Project and a multicultural analysis of
the use of e-learning during Covid-19 in six countries. The methodology used was
a survey by questionnaire involving teachers, librarians and students. The analysis
of the questionnaire results allowed us to identify which dimensions to assess the
sustainability of eLearning namely the organizational, socio-cultural and technolog-
ical context. It also made it possible to assess the perceived usefulness, perceived ease
of use, intention to use, actual use and perceived satisfaction. Furthermore, personal,
technological and organizational dimensions are also valued for e-learning usage.
After reviewing the state of the art, there was a need to define a strategic training
plan for the acquisition of basic and advanced skills for eLearning’s implementation
and usage.
M. J. A. Gonçalves (B) · C. Tavares · M. Moreira da Silva · Ó. Bernardes · I. C. Lopes

Polytechnic of Porto, ISCAP, CEOSP.PP, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: mjose@iscap.ipp.pt
C. Tavares
e-mail: ctavares@iscap.ipp.pt
M. Moreira da Silva
e-mail: mdasilva@iscap.ipp.pt
Ó. Bernardes
e-mail: oscarbernardes@iscap.ipp.pt
I. C. Lopes
e-mail: cristinalopes@iscap.ipp.pt
A. L. Terra
University of Coimbra, CEOS.PP, Coimbra, Portugal
e-mail: anaterra@fl.uc.pt
I. Valente
Polytechnic of Porto, ISCAP, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: ivalente@iscap.ipp.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_36
400 M. J. A. Gonçalves et al.
Keywords Digitools · Virtual Learning Environment · Sars COVID 19 ·

Multicultural Analysis · TAM
1 Introduction
Education has been experiencing several transformations over the years, especially
due to the introduction of digital environments.
E-learning has become an important complementary or alternative method in
the education system, and e-learning technologies, namely learning management
systems (LMS), have been developed to support the learner in the learning process.
A web-based system is a valuable support for communication and a very resourceful
way of sharing learning materials. Furthermore, the pedagogical techniques that
emerge from virtual environments are also paramount and are expected to improve
learning efficiency and learner engagement.
Thus, Higher Education Institutions (HEI) have been challenged with the evolu-
tion of education and the appearance of teaching methods that differ from the tradi-
tional ones, making it necessary to follow the change and resort to virtual teaching
environments. These environments are based on online platforms containing tools
that enable the creation, tutoring and management of activities. The purpose of these
platforms is to provide content and create interactivity between people who are
part of them so that they can obtain knowledge [1]. The online tools are accessible
resources to be used, enabling easy communication and interaction among academic
communities and stimulating collaborative work and knowledge sharing [2].
Furthermore, the role of virtual and digital environments is even more relevant
due to the pandemic situation that the world was facing and still is, affecting almost
all activity sectors, education included. Thus, e-learning has been gaining a huge
acceptance among educators, demonstrating a clear need to determine how teaching
strategies are adapted to face unexpected situations like this. It is clear that HEIs “have
been, and continue to be, permanently confronted with a multiplicity of changes
that directly influence their institutional practices” [3] over the years, but these
circumstances were particularly different.
Thus, this research is part of on an European Project called DIGITOOLS that
analyses the current context and state of the art regarding e-learning in the partner
countries, bearing in mind that e-learning may be experiencing different maturity
stages depending on the country and also the role that COVID-19 has played in this
process.
Moreover, this research intends to reflect the strategy of all the project, starting
with a theoretical background, followed by a presentation of the project, its mate-
rials and methods, the strategic planning for e-learning implementation and the
DIGITOOLS Virtual Learning Environment.
Digital Tools and methods to Enhance Learning: The Digitools Project 401
2 Theoretical Background
2.1 e-Learning Definition
The term “e-learning” started to emerge around 1999 when the word was first used
at a CBT systems seminar [4]. After that, several other designations started to appear
as referred to by Alqahtani & Rajkhan when stating that “E-education, distance-
learning, and online learning are all different terminologies of E-learning” [5].
According to Abbas e-learning can be characterized by a “wide set of applications
and processes which use available electronic media and tools to deliver vocational
education and training” [6]. This distance learning model started gaining popularity
some years ago but had a greater focus in the last year due to COVID and all the
educational restrictions that were in place. In fact, these recent developments showed
that “One of modern higher education institutions’ key assets is its capability to
develop and sustain social and physical structures and capabilities which enable the
development and execution of high-quality e-learning.” [7].
Thus, it is paramount to mention some of the e-learning maturity models that exist
to frame and contextualize this report.
2.2 e-Learning Maturity Models
Besides analysing e-learning state of the art in the partner countries, it is also our aim
to identify the maturity of the institutions to undertake e-learning projects, to prepare
the organisations for these projects and to improve their strategy, and procedures in
terms of e-learning.
An e-learning Maturity Model is a structure that allows institutions to assess and
compare their capability to create, deploy and support e-learning. There are several
maturity models, but we can take the two following models as an example: Capability
Maturity Model (CMM), and the E-Learning Maturity Model (eMM).
The Capability Maturity Model (CMM) delivers “a conceptual framework for
improving the management and development of software products in a disciplined
and consistent manner, leading to the production of successful software products.
The CMM identifies the characteristics of an effective software process. However,
the institution addresses all the issues essential to a successful project in terms of
people and technology, as well as the process” [8].
The E-Learning Maturity Model (eMM) enables institutions to assess and compare
their capability to sustainably develop, deploy and support e-learning [9]. The eMM
is supported by the concepts of the CMM and SPICE (Software Process Improvement
and Capability Determination) methodologies.
What supports the “eMM is that the ability of an institution to be effective in any
particular area of work is dependent on their capability to engage in high-quality
processes that are reproducible and able to be extended and sustained as demand
grows.” [9].
In sum, “Maturity models, instead of specifying a checklist or hierarchy of "right"
activities, work to transform the institution’s ability to actively and continually
identify its priorities, ensure the quality standards and enact systems that support
continuous improvement” [8].
2.3 e-Learning During COVID-19
E-learning has been growing exponentially over the years. As stated by Alqahtani &
Rajkhan “Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, e-learning was growing approximately
15.4% yearly in educational institutions around the world without uncertainties or
pressure on those institutions or on students” [5]. However, e-learning had a consid-
erable peak with the spread of the covid 19 pandemic. Due to the high chances of
contamination, many countries have taken measures to limit face-to-face contacts
in educational contexts, switching from a face-to-face model to a full e-learning
methodology [10].
Thus, a considerable number of Institutions were forced to implement strategies
that would allow students to engage in a remote learning model with virtual classes.
Depending on the subjects, each lecturer or scientific area had to implement the most
adjusted strategies to their courses.
In this challenging context, it was important for students and teachers to rely on
educational tools like LMSs to support their strategies. Hence, LMSs like Moodle,
for example, were paramount to support the virtual strategy and other tools that
enabled synchronous communication. Platforms like ZOOM, Microsoft TEAMS, or
even Google Meet were some of these tools and allowed a more direct contact with
students in order to maintain their interest and engagement. In fact, these types of
platforms are fundamental when trying to communicate in a virtual format because
“Online education models require teachers to interact (communication) with their
students synchronously or asynchronously. Synchronous learning in real-time, or the
delivery of material is broadcast live, usually by using video conferencing facilities”
[11].
3 Project Presentation
The objectives of DIGITOOLS Project (Project Number: 2020-1-IE02-KA226-HE-

000781-European Commission), are established in order to forecast the needs of HEI
in the field of digital education and to develop relevant learning methodologies. Also
to identify the gap between skills acquired in higher education and the demands of
the real labour market, identify and implement best practices, and design methods
for delivering high-quality teaching courses in digital environments.
Thus, DIGITOOLS is supported by the following objectives: to improve the

current state of digital education in six HEIs; to strengthen the cooperation between
universities in order to facilitate the exchange, flow and co-creation of knowledge in
the field of digital education and digital content creation; to correlate the curricula
in for digital courses with the concrete needs of the students and the labour market;
to reduce the significant differences in the implementation of digital education and
learning management Systems, both at national and European level; to introduce
education in the field of digital content creation and copyright in HEIs; and to
contribute to the professional development of teaching staff and support staff (librar-
ians), in the field of digital education, through two Short-term joint staff training
events.
Finally, DIGITOOLS aims to involve librarians, to develop Resource Centres in
the field, which would be hosted by the HEI’s libraries. Their staff will be trained to
deliver both information on resources and initial training for students.
In order to be in line with the previous objectives, a model has was proposed with
three clear stages, as presented in the following figure. In each stage, several outputs
will be accomplished to create a new virtual learning environment (VLE) for higher
education institutions (Fig. 1).
The results of the project will have a beneficial impact for both the Consortium’s
partners and for many stakeholders. The online platform, as well as the other materials
published in open access, will ensure the access of interested parties to the materials
developed within DIGITOOLS, including after the completion of the project.
Fig. 1 Analytic program model

4.1 Research Question and Methodology
The following research question was proposed to understand the current state of
digital education in a multicultural context: How do higher education institutions
face and deal with current eLearning trends?
In order to answer it, three surveys were created, based on several technological
acceptance models. The three versions of the surveys were elaborated according to
the profile of each one of the target audiences: Teachers, students and librarians.
Adoption and implementation of learning information technology have been
the focus of several pieces of research in learning technologies. Two of the most
commonly used theories for this research are the Technology Acceptance Model
(TAM) [12, 13] and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology
(UTAUT) [14]. Both TAM and UTAUT suggest that the actual use of technology
is affected by one’s behavioural intention to use it. In TAM, the intended use is
determined by attitude toward using the technology, which is determined by two
perceptions of the system: perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. Various
external factors affect both perceptions. UTAUT builds on TAM, as well as seven
other theoretical frameworks. It proposes four constructs that affect usage inten-
tion—performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence and facilitating
conditions. Age, gender, experience, and voluntariness of use mediate the impact of
these expectancies and facilitating conditions on intention [14].
In addition, Guglielmo Trentin [15] defines a range of eight dimensions/context to
evaluate the sustainability of e-learning. We have selected the following four as the
most fundamental for the assessment of e-learning context in what higher education
institutions are concerned, as it is possible to verify in the following image (Fig. 2).
The following table presents the identified constructs and the definition of the
constructs used to analyse state of the art. Furthermore, in order to identify and adapt
questions related to each one of the constructs, we used available online surveys with
validated scales (Table 1).
The surveys were developed in Limesurvey, and were available from February to
June 2021. They were sent to teachers, students, and librarians from HEI from all
the partner countries.
5 Results1
In this section we will summarize the data already collected in some of the countries
involved in the project.
1 For this paper, we used the data available. As this is an ongoing project some countries are still
in the data collection procedure.
Fig. 2 Contexts analysed for the survey
The Croatian survey was answered by 34 students, 44 teachers and only three
librarians, mainly female (71%). Only 11% of the teachers have had training on the
use of ICTs for teaching and learning.
Students are moderately satisfied with their e-learning experience, despite feeling
confident with the contents and materials provided. They generally believe e-learning
can contribute to learning efficiency and intend to use it in the future. For teachers,
the reason most appointed to be pleased to use e-learning environments is the acces-
sibility, followed by the wide range of tools, the ease of use and the usefulness.
The surveyed Croatian librarians showed a moderately strong satisfaction with the
e-learning experience and believe e-learning is a useful tool for librarians to deliver
information literacy and research skills training for students and other library users.
The soft skills most used in e-learning environments by Croatian students
and teachers are Communication skills, problem-solving ability, flexibility and
independence.
The constructs computed for the students group achieved a high internal consis-
tency, with Cronbach’s Alpha over 0.9. A moderate significant positive correlation
between Actual use and the intention to use was found in the students’ group. For
the teachers group, the reliability of the constructs was good (over 0.8), and personal
factors were the construct with the highest scores and the perceived ease of use the
lowest.
Table 1 Constructs table

Constructs Definition
Organizational factors Sumner and Hostetler [16] categorized the organization factors that may
influence the use of technology in teaching in terms of
motivators/demotivates, training, technology alignment, organization
support and technical support
Technological factors Technology or Information systems factors can be related to the system
quality, information quality and service support quality [17]
Personal factors Bandura [18] defines self-efficacy as highly recognized as an important
issue in accepting any information system, including learning
management systems
Leidner and Jarvenpaa [19] refer to Instructor’s Attitude toward
e-learning as another issue related to the acceptance of LMS
Experience with the use of technology (EUT) also plays a major role in
the acceptance of technology, according to Venkatesh and Davis [14]
The instructor’s teaching style is rarely investigated, but it has been
highlighted in the literature. According to Webster and Hackley [20],
instructors with interactive teaching styles are critical to the learning
outcome
Furthermore, personal innovativeness is another important issue that has
been recently highlighted in the e-learning literature
Perceived ease of use “The degree to which a person believes that using a particular system
would be free from effort” [12]
Perceived usefulness “The degree to which a person believes that using a particular system
would enhance their job performance” [12, 21]
Use intention User’s propensity to adopt a certain technology. [13]
Actual use Level of user knowledge regarding eLearning applications [22]
Perceived satisfaction Level of satisfaction regarding the use of applications [23]
The Greek survey was answered by to 27 students, 34 teachers, 41 librarians.

For most of the Greek students, the e-learning experience was satisfactory. Simul-
taneously, they are satisfied with the e-learning contents/materials. Regarding the
notion that e-learning can help enhance motivation for learning, opinions are divided
between entire disagreement and total agreement. In terms of soft skills, students
agree or strongly agree that they have an extremely favorable attitude toward
communication, adaptability, and independence Students’ opinion.
Teachers believe that flexibility, a wide range of tools, usefulness, ease of use
and accessibility, encourage them to use e-learning environments. Further consider
that innovation and increased autonomy, motivation, etc. can strengthen the feelings
about e-learning. Most Teachers agree or strongly agree that the primary challenges
introduced by e-learning to the education field were motivating students, converting
activities/content for use in e-learning, increased workload and stress associated with
home working.
Over half of librarians agree or strongly agree that they are satisfied with the
e-learning experience and content, or materials made available through e-learning.
Most of them believe that e-learning can assist librarian-library user interaction,
contribute both to learning efficiency and increase learning motivation. Soft skills like
communication, desire to learn, work planning, and time management are favoured
by librarians’ extremely positive percentage (agreement or strong agreement).
Concerning to Regression models Students’ opinion that e-learning is a useful
learning option is correlated with their satisfaction with their e-learning experience
(r = 0.718), their intention to use e-learning to assist their own learning (r = 0.751)
or as an autonomous learning tool (r = 0.703) and with their belief that e-learning
can contribute to increase learning motivation (r = 0.712), students’ intention to use
e-learning in the future is significantly correlated with their belief that e-learning is a
useful learning option (r = 0.835) and with their intention to use e-learning to assist
their own learning (r = 0.832). Teachers believe that increasing student engagement
and enjoyment are well correlated with an improved relationship with students (r =
0.899). Among the three target groups (students, teachers, and librarians), librarians
rank highest in terms of positive association with the research, not only by completing
the entire survey but also by responding positively to the majority of items (0.8 ≤ r
< 0.9).
In Portugal, the survey was answered by 141 students, 60 teachers and 30 librar-
ians, most of them female (67.5%). The median age of the students was around
22 years old, while for the teachers’ and librarians’ target groups, the median age
was around 50 years old.
Students had an overall good experience with e-learning, reporting few difficulties
in adapting to it and high levels of intention to use it in the future. Librarians also
showed positive feedback about their experience with e-learning. The main reasons
to be pleased with e-learning environments stated by Portuguese teachers surveyed
were flexibility, utility and variety of tools, and the least appointed reasons were the
relationship with students and student engagement and satisfaction. This is the most
reported challenge for teachers and the increased workload and stress due to working
from home.
Portuguese students most appraised soft skills are flexibility and independence,
whereas librarians have the flexibility and desire to learn. For teachers, the most
valued skills are communication skills and work for planning and organisation.
The reliability of the survey and the constructs was analysed with the Cronbach’s
alpha measure, with all constructs reporting good or excellent reliability.
Regression models were estimated between the constructs separately for each
target group. For students, satisfaction with e-learning is explained in 91% by the
perceived usefulness, the actual use, and personal factors. For teachers, satisfaction
seems to depend mainly on perceived usefulness and ease of use (R2 = 0.947).
For librarians, perceived satisfaction is explained mostly by perceived usefulness,
the actual use, the ease of use and technological factors negatively impact it. The
actual use for students is 89% dependent on both organisational and technological
aspects, while for teachers seems to depend on personal and technological factors. For
librarians, the actual use is explained in 91.8% by organisational, personal and tech-
nological factors. Portuguese students’ intention to use e-learning environments can
be related in 77% to usefulness and personal factors, while for Portuguese librarians
is related in 91.6% to usefulness.
In Romania, the survey was answered by to 98 students, 26 teachers and 12
librarians, mostly females (78%). The average age of responding teachers was 47.65,
the librarians’ group is 49.7 years old, and in the students group is 22.6 years old.
Students appreciated their experience with e-learning and their intention of using
it in the future for their own learning. Teachers, on average, also appreciate the use
of an e-learning environment. The main challenges are access to technology, lack of
training for this teaching system, conversion of activities and content for e-learning,
and evaluation. Most librarians recognised e-learning advantages and declared they
had no difficulties using it. However, there is also some lack of experience in open
educational resources to support the e-learning system.
The soft-skills that students most recognise are flexibility, independence, self-
monitoring, and communication skills. Teachers’ most appreciated skills are commu-
nication skills, problem-solving ability, time management, flexibility and inde-
pendence. Among the most appreciated skills for librarians are perseverance,
self-confidence, problem-solving ability, and teamwork.
The question groups in the Romanian surveys for the three target groups showed
a good or excellent internal consistency (Cronbach’s Alpha values near or over 0.9).
There are strong correlations in the students’ group between the intention of using
e-learning and the appreciation of e-learning as a useful learning option (r = 0.718).
Regarding the soft-skills developed, time management is correlated with the ability to
plan work (r = 0.720), and self-monitoring (r = 0.731), the desire for learning is corre-
lated with perseverance (r = 0.819), and self-confidence (r = 0.734), self-confidence
is correlated with perseverance (r = 0.817) and independent with flexibility (r =
0.783).
For the teachers’ group, Flexibility in use is correlated with ease of use (r =
0.806) and the wide range of tools available (r = 0.875); Ease of use is correlated
with the wide range of tools available (r = 0.894), as well as innovation, seen as
freedom of experimentation in teaching practice (r = 0.867); The wide range of
tools available is correlated with the utility e-learning (r = 0.833), innovation, seen
as freedom of experimentation in teaching practice (r = 0.813) and accessibility (r =
0.889); Improved relationship with students is correlated with increased autonomy,
motivation, self-determination, and self-regulation (r = 0.936).
In Spain, the survey was answered by 3 Spanish students, 8 teachers and 4 librar-
ians. The device most used is the laptop. Teachers reported divergent positions about
being pleased to use e-learning environments. The surveyed Spanish librarians see
their role not only in working as instructors of technologies and delivering informa-
tion literacy and research skills training (for students and other library users) but also
in managing or supporting the e-learning infrastructure. The sample is too short to
make any further meaningful inferences about the perceptions of Spanish students,
teachers and librarians about the e-learning environments.
Finally, most participants agree that the e-learning environment is a challenge,

a valuable, efficient digital education instrument that requires unique competen-
cies, addresses current educational needs, and promotes learning solutions at Higher
Educational Institutions.
6 Strategic Planning for e-Learning Implementation

Training
After reviewing the state of the art, there was a need to define a strategic training
plan for the acquisition of basic and advanced skills for e-learning’s implementation
and usage.
All learning falls into three categories: knowledge, skill, and attitude. It means
that all teachers—either in an online, offline, or blended learning context—should
strive to improve students’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes. A teacher should consider
educational aims and the learning outcomes when designing a course.
Thus, a teacher should try to answer the following questions:
• How many units are you breaking the course into?
• Do you have working titles (topic titles) for each unit?
• What are the learning objectives you set for each unit?
• What measurable outcomes are expected from each unit?
• What educational resources are you putting into each unit?
• What educational activities are you arranging for teacher-student interaction,
student-student interaction, or student-TA interaction?
• How do you measure a student’s learning outcomes for each unit?
• What assessments do you have in each unit?
For the development of the training curriculum plan and the development of
learning activities (instructional events) we used MIPO and ADDIE methodologies
respectively.
According to Paula Peres and Pedro Pimenta “the MIPO model proposes the
integration of web technologies by learning objectives and relates, in a systemic view,
the elements that come up from the literature review and that were validated both
in a research and in a practical context. The expression “Integration by objectives”
enhances the importance of the integration of web technologies in the educational
context, supported by the learning objectives defined to the unit and the course. This
orientation intends to avoid the promotion of online activities without causing any
advantages in reaching learning objectives. Despite their importance, the lack of time
demands the main concern on the developing activities to reach one or more course
and unit objectives” [24]. To create effective learning experiences, which is reflected
in the next figure, the learning model ADDIE was used. The ADDIE Model means
“Assess, Design, Develop, Implement and Evaluate”.
Fig. 3 Implementation strategy
The ADDIE model is an instruction design model conceived by Florida State

University’s Center for Educational Technology in 1975 [25]. At first, it was projected
to be used by the US armed forces that needed more effective learning programs, but
it soon started to be used in other contexts until the present day.
Thus, six course modules were designed and developed after a context assessment
to give the necessary resources and knowledge to implement e-learning courses
presented in Fig. 3. These modules intend to train the partners that will subsequently
train their colleagues in their respective higher education institutions.
7 DIGITOOLS Virtual Learning Environment (VLE)
This stage will reflect the concretization of stage 2—Strategic Planning for e-
Learning implementation—with a VLE (DIGITOOLS) fully implemented in Higher
Education Institutions, with Libraries having a fundamental role in it.
This VLE expects to improve the current state of digital education in all the six
HEIs involved in this project; to strengthen the cooperation between universities, in
order to facilitate the exchange, flow and co-creation of knowledge in the field of
digital education and digital content creation; to correlate the curricula in for digital
courses with the concrete needs of the students and the labour market; to reduce
the significant differences in the implementation of digital education and learning
management systems, both at national and European level; to introduce education in
the field of digital content creation and copyright in HEIs; and to contribute to the
professional development of teaching staff and support staff (librarians), in the field
of digital education, through two short-term joint staff training events.
DIGITOOLS aims to involve librarians in the project, in order to develop Resource
Centres in the field. These Centres are expected be hosted by the HEIs libraries, and
the library staff will be trained to deliver both information on the documentation
resources and initial training for students.
8 Conclusion
This study was intended to reflect the strategy of the e-learning implementation,
where librarians will play a leading role. As mentioned before it started with an
analysis of the current state of the art regarding e-learning in all partner countries.
Then, an e-learning implementation strategy was defined, and the basic skills and
training needed for e-learning implementation were identified.
The analysis of the survey results allowed us to identify which dimensions to
assess the sustainability of e-learning namely the organisational, socio-cultural and
technological context. It also made it possible to assess the perceived usefulness,
perceived ease of use, intention to use, actual use and perceived satisfaction.
In general, personal, technological and organizational dimensions are valued for
e-learning usage.
Concerning cyber security, we were also able to conclude that most of the partner
countries value security aspects, namely through the use of reliable software and the
use of anti-virus and anti-spyware software. However, most countries also identify
a lack of training in this area.
Regarding the evaluation of soft skills, we also found that it varies from country
to country. Still, regarding the Portuguese students we were able to analyse that
they value more flexibility and independence, whereas librarians have flexibility and
desire to learn. For teachers, the most valued skills are communication skills and
also planning and organisation.
The Croatian students value more communication skills, problem-solving ability,
flexibility and independence. The first three were also the most appointed soft skills
by teachers, and the work planning, flexibility and independence were the most used
soft skills by librarians. For Greece, communication abilities are highly valued by
students, teachers, and librarians. On the contrary, teamwork and cooperation are
less valued. Regarding the psychological field, students state that they have received
little emotional support from chat groups or forums devoted to e-learning during the
COVID era. At the same time, teachers concur that they experienced stress while
working from home.
For Romania the soft-skills that students most recognise are flexibility, indepen-
dence, self-monitoring, and communication skills. Teachers’ most appreciated skills
are communication skills, problem-solving ability, time management, flexibility and
independence. Among the most appreciated skills for librarians are perseverance,
self-confidence, problem-solving ability, and teamwork.
According to this information, six course modules were designed to give the
necessary resources and knowledge to implement e-learning courses namely: Peda-
gogical Approach in Digital Education; Introduction to LMS; The process of e-
Learning Implementation; Introduction to Digital Content Creation and Smart Tools
for Digital Content Creation and Copyright in Digital Single Market. These modules
are intended to train the partners’ members that, subsequently, will train their
colleagues in their respective higher education institutions.
DIGITOOLS really aims to set out and forecast the needs of Higher Education
Institutions in the field of digital education and to develop relevant learning method-
ologies, to identify the gap between skills acquired in higher education and the
demands of the actual labour market, to identify and implement best practices and to
design methods for delivering high-quality teaching courses, in digital environments.

para a Ciência e Tecnologia, under the project UIDB/05422/2020 and the project UIDB/04011/2020.
References
1. de Souza Rodrigues, M.A., Chimenti, P., Nogueira, A.R.R.: An exploration of e-learning

adoption in the educational ecosystem. Educ. Inf. Technol. 26(1), 585–615 (2021)
2. Pombo, L., Morais, N.S., Batista, J., Pinto, M., Coelho, D., Moreira, A.: The use of commu-
nication technologies in higher education in portugal: best practices and future trends. In:
Marcelino, M.J., Mendes, A.J., Gomes, M.C.A. (eds.) ICT in Education: multiple and Inclu-
sive Perspectives [Internet], pp. 1–20. Springer International Publishing, Cham (2016). https://
doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-22900-3_1. Accessed 19 Dec 2021
3. Monteiro, J.J.P.O.: E-learning nas instituições de ensino superior público em Portugal: análise
dos fatores críticos associados à dimensão organizacional (2016). https://repositorio.ul.pt/han
dle/10451/25077. Accessed 19 Dec 2021
4. The Evolution and History of eLearning [Internet]. TalentLMS. https://www.talentlms.com/
elearning/history-of-elearning. Accessed 19 Oct 2021
5. Alqahtani, A.Y., Rajkhan, A.A.: E-learning critical success factors during the COVID-19
pandemic: a comprehensive analysis of E-learning managerial perspectives. Educ. Sci. 10(9),
216 (2020)
6. Abbas, Z., Umer, M., Odeh, M., McClatchey, R., Ali, A., Farooq, A.A.: Semantic grid-based
e-learning framework (SELF). In: CCGrid 2005 IEEE International Symposium on Cluster
Computing and the Grid, 2005 [Internet], vol. 1, pp. 11–18. IEEE, Cardiff, Wales, UK (2005).
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1558528/. Accessed 19 Oct 2021
7. Haukijärvi, I.: E-learning maturity model—Process-oriented assessment and improvement of
e-learning in a Finnish University of applied sciences. In: Passey, D., Tatnall, A. (eds.) Key
Competencies in ICT and Informatics Implications and Issues for Educational Professionals
and Management, pp. 76–93. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg (IFIP Advances in Information and
Communication Technology) (2014)
8. Peñafiel, M., Luján-Mora, S., Vásquez, S., Zaldumbide, J., Cevallos, A., Vásquez, D.: Appli-
cation of e-learning maturity model in higher education. In: EDULEARN 2017 Proceedings
[Internet], pp. 4396–404. IATED, Barcelona, Spain (2017). http://library.iated.org/view/PEN
AFIEL2017APP. Accessed 19 Oct 2021
9. Marshall, S.: E-learning Maturity Model [Internet]. http://e-learning.geek.nz/emm/. Accessed
2 Nov 2021
10. Tavares, C., Silva, M.: The Challenges of teaching and learning translation and languages during
a pandemic: a case study with two courses in a business school. In: INTED 2021 Proceedings
[Internet]. Online Conference: IATED, pp. 3553–3559 (2021). http://library.iated.org/view/
TAVARES2021CHA. Accessed 19 Oct 2021
11. Nugroho, R.A., Basari, A., Suryaningtyas, V.W., Cahyono, S.P.: University students’ perception
of online learning in Covid-19 pandemic: a case study in a translation course. In: 2020 Interna-
tional Seminar on Application for Technology of Information and Communication (iSemantic)
[Internet], pp. 225–231. IEEE, Semarang, Indonesia (2020). https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/doc
ument/9234251/. Accessed 19 Oct 2021
12. Davis, F.D.: Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information
technology. MIS Q. 13(3), 319–340 (1989)
13. Davis, F.D., Bagozzi, R.P., Warshaw, P.R.: User acceptance of computer technology: a
comparison of two theoretical models. Manag. Sci. 35(8), 982–1003 (1989)
14. Venkatesh, V., Morris, M.G., Davis, G.B., Davis, F.D.: User acceptance of information
technology: toward a unified view. MIS Q. 27(3), 425–478 (2003)
15. Trentin, G.: La sostenibilità didattico-formativa dell’e-learning: social networking e apprendi-
mento attivo. Franco Angeli, Milano (2008)
16. Sumner, M., Hostetler, D.: Factors influencing the adoption of technology in teaching. J.
Comput. Inf. Syst. 40(1), 81–87 (1999)
17. Delone, W.H., McLean, E.R.: The DeLone and McLean model of information systems success:
a ten-year update. J. Manag. Inf. Syst. 19(4), 9–30 (2003)
18. Bandura, A.: Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychol. Rev. 84(2),
191–215 (1977)
19. Leidner, D.E., Jarvenpaa, S.L.: The use of information technology to enhance management
school education: a theoretical view. MIS Q. 19(3), 265–291 (1995)
20. Webster, J., Hackley, P.: Teaching effectiveness in technology-mediated distance learning. AMJ
40(6), 1282–1309 (1997)
21. Volman, M., van Eck, E.: Gender equity and information technology in education: the second
decade. Rev. Educ. Res. 71(4), 613–634 (2001)
22. Ashcroft, L., Watts, C.: ICT skills for information professionals in developing countries:
perspectives from a study of the electronic information environment in Nigeria. IFLA J. 31(1),
6–12 (2005)
23. Nielsen, J.: Usability Engineering. Morgan Kaufmann, 382 p (1994)
24. Peres, P., Pimenta, P.: Thinking over b-learning strategy: the MIPO model approach. In:
Proceedings of the First Ibero-American Symposium on Project Approaches in Engineering
Education (PAEE’2009), 2009 [Internet] (2009). https://recipp.ipp.pt/handle/10400.22/227.
Accessed 5 Jan 2022
25. Kurt, S.: ADDIE model: instructional design [Internet]. Educ. Technol. (2017). https://educat
ionaltechnology.net/the-addie-model-instructional-design/. Accessed 5 Jan 2022
Management of Economic Development
and Principles of Environmental
Sustainability
Gheorghe-Cosmin Manea and Andreea Cozea
Abstract The concept of current economic development, called sustainability, aims

in particular to increase the quality of life by capitalizing all the existing resources.
This paper discusses in particular the approach of liberal policies applied in society,
adapted to the new challenges, in order to support economic growth, related also
with economic development integrating sustainability with all its components. The
paper begins by presenting the principles of economic sustainability and it gets to
the adoption of some national strategies and the introduction of the “sustainability”
factor in order to progressively reduce social inequalities and to reduce the gaps of
regional disparities. It uses techniques and concepts specific to the bio economy,
approaching the concept of the “U-inverted” relationship, concept also known as the
“environmental Kuznets curve”. At the end of the paper are mentioned different stages
of economic development that promote sustainability policies; policies that lead to
improving environmental performance, by moving to a new development model
based on rational and responsible use of resources by introducing some elements of
circular economy.
Keywords Economy · Development · Economic growth · Innovation ·

Resources · Sustainability
G.-C. Manea (B)

The Bucharest University of Economic Studies-E.A.I, Tache Ionescu Street, 52632 Bucharest,
Romania
e-mail: maneacosmin37@gmail.com
A. Cozea
National Research and Development Institute for Industrial Ecology ECOIND, 57-73 Drumul
Podu Dambovitei Street, District 6, 060652 Bucharest, Romania
GLEARN & RESEARCH, 201 Fullwell Avenue, IG5 0RA, Ilford Essex, UK
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_37
416 G.-C. Manea and A. Cozea
1 Introduction
Environmental sustainability is not just a conservation concept, which is the meeting

of services and resources of present and future generations without affecting the
health of the ecosystems that provide them, it is also the meanings of the definitions
that make sense in the context of their respective areas of expertise and contribution.
A general definition of “environmental sustainability” can now be crafted in recog-
nition of these linkages between human well-being and ecosystems and, in particular,
“ecosystem goods.” Understanding and the use of the word “environmental” is quite
often associated with some kind of human impact on natural systems.
This seems inappropriate in that the general perception of the word “ecological”
is that it implies a broader context than just the human experience.
Understanding and use of the word “sustainable” or “sustainability” endured a
period of accelerated evolution since 1987 with the publication of Our Common
Future, which was then followed by a more recent decline in coherency to become
an often abused term simply meaning “good” and sometimes used even without a
connection to the natural environment or ecological health [1].
In terms of sustainability and environment, our study bring the latest research on
climate change, natural resources, sustainable energy, and business and development
to a global audience of researchers, students, sustainable practitioners and anyone
interested in creating a sustainable future for all.
The need to live in a sustainable environment has been identified in the burdens
and efforts regarding this process. Both individuals by changing well-established
habits in their daily routine and entrepreneurs by making more careful decisions
about their business can become more environmentally responsible [2].
Sustainability is the process by which the needs of people living today can be met
without affecting the resources of the future generations. It is important to recognize
that this definition applies to the whole economy, not just to organizations. It is a goal,
an ideal, and its achievement can only be reached through a concept of sustainable
development, consisting of three pillars: economic, environmental and social, also
known as profit, planet and humans [3].
In the same direction, governments must pay special attention, by continuing to
maintain a higher annual GDP growth rate and also by promoting the policies of
sustainable economic development, either them or private entities [4].
1.1 The Importance of Environment
Although many economists disagree on the importance of the environment in terms

of economic activity, the following facts are rarely discussed [5]:
– Extraction and depletion of natural resources, as well as environmental pollution
and permanent changes in the landscape, are caused by economic activities and
can affect the environment.
Management of Economic Development and Principles … 417
– Many of the costs of the damage caused by economic activities are not borne
by those who cause it, but by other people who do not obtain the benefits of the
economic activity or do not agree to pay those costs related to it.
This contamination can have serious effects on health, which can reduce the
quality of life and the health of the population.
– Humans live in an ecosystem and cannot survive without it. If we destroy the
environment, we will eventually destroy ourselves.
1.2 Principles of Environmental Sustainability
More and more organizations are starting to make their own commitments to sustain-
ability and take action to reduce the amount of waste they produce. They also invest
in renewable energy and support organizations that fight for this cause. Entrepreneurs
need to adopt sustainable development goals, such as a commitment to reduce
emissions and packaging with reusable or biodegradable materials [6].
A single enterprise cannot ensure the prosperity of future generations. Every
company uses resources and generates a negative impact on the environment or
society. However, collectively, organizations can ensure that their products are
sustainable. For example, their waste becomes a raw material for other industrial
processes—what is often called circular economy. This concept is based on the
production and reuse of all recyclable raw materials.
Extending the life cycle of products and, in particular, the packaging, is an effective
solution for any company to enjoy an ethical and legal activity.
Sustainable development practices support ecological, human and economic
health and vitality. The concept of sustainability is based on the fact that resources
are finite and should be used conservatively and wisely.
In principle, sustainable development needs to be applied in all areas of activity,
in order to meet basic material needs, in order to provide resources for optimizing the
quality of life in terms of health and education. Economic development in particular,
like any other type of development, requires measures to streamline human resources
especially, but also other types of resources in general. One of the major challenges
of sustainable development is to find ways to encourage environmentally friendly
economic activities and to discourage activities that cause environmental damage
(air, water and soil pollution, respectively subsoil) [7].
This ecological principle has been extended to all types of resources and ecosys-
tems, in all areas, so that, at present, sustainable development refers to three essential
aspects embodied in the following phrases: ecological balance, economic security
and social equity.
In opposition to these views, sustainable development aims to show that profit
is not everything, that it involves capitalizing on the resources of a society on all
levels, that it itself means highlighting one’s personality, asserting one’s spiritual,
cultural identity, etc. that, in the last resort, development must ensure satisfaction
and wellbeing, but that this also means something other than the consumption of
goods and services of some quality and in abundant quantity.
Environmental economics is a challenge for the theory of sustainable develop-
ment insofar as it seeks, among other things, the attempt to humanize and green
the economy. And if it sets goals, then it faces a problem—that of integrating the
environment and its problems into the structure and philosophy of the neoclassical
economic theory.
2 Strategic Measures in Resource Management
Innovation is a key strategic component of the ongoing process of improving sustain-

ability. The results in the “sustainable innovation” section show that innovations have
been made for products, processes and models.
First and foremost, the sustainability strategy needs to gradually mature and move
from the narrow egocentric goal of market dominance, gaining first place in terms of
size, and maximizing revenue efficiency to higher, more important sustainable goals.
Economic sustainability is the use of different strategies to utilize, protect and
maintain human and material resources in an optimal way, in order to create a respon-
sible and beneficial balance, sustainable in the long run, through recovery and recy-
cling. An economy operates in an ecosystem. The ecosystem provides the production
factors that support economic growth: natural resources, labour and capital (which
is generated from labour and natural resources) [8].
Economic sustainability offers a broader goal and a few new products that compa-
nies can aspire to, helping them to renew their commitments to key goals such as
efficiency, sustainable growth and shareholder value. Sustainable development is an
integrated concept that:
– It requires the satisfaction of the basic needs of the human being in order to aspire
to a better quality of life.
– It is based on democracy, where the rule of law is based on meeting the fundamental
rights of the human being.
– Promotes employment in an economy based on education, innovation, social
cohesion and the protection of human health and the environment.
The main pillars of sustainability:
It has three main pillars: economic, environmental and social. These three pillars
are informally known as profitability, planet and humans.
For a company to be economically sustainable, it must be profitable. However,
making a profit at any cost is not the basis of the economy.
The activities that comply with the economic pillar include compliance, good
direction and risk management. The inclusion of the economic pillar and profitability
is what makes it possible for companies to adhere to sustainability strategies. In order
to achieve economic sustainability, a balance must be struck between the three pillars
in relation to the fact that they are viable, fair and tolerable.
Through economic sustainability, poverty reduction, gender equality, skills devel-

opment, clean technology, a clear institutional framework, economic growth and
development are promoted. In turn, this will help a nation to develop and to achieve
its short-term goals with a long-term vision.
2.1 Economic Sustainability Strategies
Sustainability strategies generate significant economic and jobs growth, as well as

sustainable business and community development.
Innovation, efficiency and conservation in the use and reuse of all natural and
human resources are the best ways to increase employment, income, productivity
and competitiveness. Economic sustainability strategies are the most cost-effective
way to promote renewable energy and clean technologies, protect the environment
and prevent the harmful effects of climate change [9].
An economic sustainability strategy has key elements:
Savings
Reducing costs for businesses, families, communities and governments through the
efficient use of renewable resources, in addition to reducing and reusing waste.
Opportunities
More jobs and revenue due to business development and market expansion due to
efficiency, sustainability and clean resource technology.
Investments
Investing in critical assets such as education, research, technological innovation and
modern business skills and workforce. People are now the most vital economic
resource in the world.
Transport and infrastructure
Implement sustainable transport and infrastructure, protecting and improving both
the natural and the built environment.
This makes communities and areas more attractive, healthy, prosperous, produc-
tive, and resource efficient.
The end strategy is to increase resource efficiency. While this is clearly important
for sustainable development, it is all too often assumed that using fewer resources
means a lack of growth or development.
More efficient use of resources is a strategy in a competitive business environment
because it reduces the cost of inputs. In some cases, such as energy efficiency, this
may mean “more with less”.
The energy efficiency model can be extended to other everyday office products.
For example, the efficient use of paper products and related equipment.
Recycling and reuse

This type of strategy can also mean reusing or recycling waste from other processes.
Recycling is a well-known strategy for recovering waste that was previously taken
to landfills. Materials saved by recycling make up what needs to be extracted from
the Earth.
However, other strategies include business development based on the reuse of
materials before recycling.
Businesses re-add value to discarded products, such as refillable bottles, dirty rags
or tires, through activities such as cleaning, sorting, packing and rebuilding.
Finally, on a larger scale, companies can form networks, using waste from one
process as input for another.
While this is often done internally, more complex networks can be coordinated
between companies to use more and more waste, using an eco-industrial park strategy.
Exports
Traditionally, local economic development has focused heavily on the production
of goods and services for sale outside the community. This brings money into the
community, which is then filtered through it to support other jobs.
Export bases can be considered sustainable if they produce goods or services
that use environmentally neutral processes or that will be used for environmentally
friendly purposes.
Finally, ecotourism, while not exporting a service, imports money from outside
the local economy and uses at least some of that money to protect the local natural
features on display.
In this context, this paper deals with the complicated issue of balancing two
contradictory dimensions of the prosperity of civilization: economic growth and
ecological sustainability. Thus, the paper includes a background section where the
significance of economic competitiveness in relation to prosperity is analyzed from
a niche angle.
2.2 Basic Aspects of Economic Competitiveness
Economic competitiveness is a major indicator for nations, regions and companies

in terms of their ability to operate successfully in global markets. There is no unan-
imously accepted definition of economic competitiveness [10]. For example, the
National Competitiveness Council of Ireland considers economic competitiveness
to be the ability of a nation to succeed in international markets in order to improve
the quality of life of the whole nation.
There are other similar definitions of economic competitiveness, but they are
not mentioned in this paper because they do not bring new perspectives on the
concept. An important aspect that is not explicitly highlighted by any of the definitions
of economic competitiveness is the ethics of governments and multinationals in

international politics.
According to this, several aspects create barriers in the economic development of a
nation. These include the protectionism of national markets, the health of the national
economic environment, national and international law, trade wars, and the ethics of
powerful governments and multinational corporations in international politics.
The presence of these barriers requires extra-innovation among smaller firms
operating in a given economic environment to ensure and maintain attractive levels
of labour productivity and wages for workers [11].
3 Research Methodology
Given the desire to balance economic growth with sustainability, this paper proposes
a more nuanced definition of economic competitiveness. It defines the economic
competitiveness of a nation as the measure of happiness, well-being, health,
ethics, morality and social status of ordinary citizens and its capacity to preserve,
refresh, diversify and sustainably develop human, natural, financial and technolog-
ical resources through the development of initiatives. of social entrepreneurship and
the medium and long-term economic viability of domestic companies in national
and international competition constrained and distorted by selfish interests such as
“zerosum results”, corruption, imperialism, economic stability treaties and political
manipulation.
This perspective on economic competitiveness emphasizes that a high and rising
level of gross domestic product per capita (GDP/capita) does not necessarily mean
an automatic increase in the well-being of the population [12].
Is it possible to define a framework for manifestation in global competition so
that all countries win? In theory, this requires smart ways to increase GDP/capita,
taking into account both the moral, social and environmental perspectives and the
best economic approaches (observation: maximizing the effects in a given area of
action). Thus, to ensure social prosperity, extra-innovations are needed in the equation
of economic competitiveness.
In recent years, the relationship between economic growth and the environment
has increasingly attracted the attention of economists as well. Most studies refer to
the evidence that there is a relationship between environmental quality and economic
growth of the kind that environmental quality worsens at early periods of growth and
improves at later periods as the economy develops.
Another paper reaches a similar conclusion [13], which introduces the concept
of the U-inverted relationship between environmental degradation and economic
growth, a concept also known as “The environmental Kuznets curve” (see Fig. 1).
The environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) is a relationship between environmental
quality and economic development. According to this theory, many indicators of
environmental degradation tend to get worse as modern economic growth occurs
until average income reaches a certain point over the course of development. In
Fig. 1 Environmental Kuznets curve
other words, the environmental Kuznets curve suggests that economic development
initially leads to deterioration in the environment, and levels of environmental degra-
dation reduce. The EKC suggests that the solution to pollution is the economic
growth.
The Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) emerged as the main notion to define
the relation between income and environmental degradation at the start of the 1990s.
It was Beckerman [14] who first voiced “too poor too green” which implies that poor
countries do not have the resource to protect the environment, only rich countries
have the resources to implant green technologies to tackle the environment issues.
The EKC led many commentators of economic development to believe those envi-
ronmental problems associated with the economic growth are automatically solved
at the later stages of economic development [15].
The global pollutants like CO2 are not detrimental to the area where they are
being generated, rather they are considered responsible for global warming. Owing
to the transboundary effect of global pollutants, the governments do not take actions
to control these pollutants. Furthermore, there is also a chance for the states to be
benefited from the environmental actions of other countries against global pollutants.
The studies of some researchers show us that EKC for global pollutants like CO2 and
did not find that the EKC turned at very income level. The developing countries are
well below to the income level; therefore, they would increase the emissions with
further economic growth.
It highlights significant deviations between market outcomes and social optimum,
as well as between environmental quality and economic development in uncontrolled
socio-economic ecosystems [16].
An important consideration for economic growth is its moral consequence in the
society. By analyzing the economic growth in direct relation to the living standards of
the citizens, empirical studies have found that people are oriented towards democrati-
zation, tolerance, diversity and mobility in growing economies, while the stagnation
of the economy works against these values [17].
Thus, the challenge is not to build prosperity without economic growth, but to
find solutions to grow without affecting sustainable development. The key aspect
lies in the direct correlation between economic growth and the need for energy
for mobility, production, housing, education, etc. and it could be considered also a
tool for progressively reduce social inequalities and to reduce the gaps of regional
disparities.
The intelligent use of the innovation vectors proposed in the “Research Method-
ology” section can bring valuable ideas for the proper design of public policies in
order to balance economic development with the preservation of the environment.
Optimal allocation and distribution of the budget based on criteria related to pros-
perity and sustainability. Optimal distribution of the public budget to the various
areas of interest so as to maximize social prosperity and minimize the impact on
the environment. The distribution refers to the individualized provision of each
piece of the limited budget based on criteria of efficiency and effectiveness. There
are various indicators to measure social prosperity. This paper encourages the use
of the following metrics for social prosperity: family ties; charitable intent; trust
between people; personal freedom; personal safety; personal security; women’s
rights; quality of care; quality of education; opportunities for education; support
for entrepreneurship; level of democracy; level of corruption. For sustainability, the
following metrics are considered: air quality; water quality in rivers and lakes; emis-
sions/capita; emissions/energy generated; carbon intensity in industry; increasing
the forest reserve; irrigation stress; agricultural subsidies; burnt land areas; trophic
level in rivers and lakes; pesticide levels; Sulphur dioxide emissions; ozone at the
regional level; protected land areas. Social prosperity metrics can be ranked through
extensive sociological surveys. Sustainability metrics can be ranked by experts.
Some unconventional public policies are proposed to overcome the contradictions
between economic growth and sustainable development. It is important to emphasize
that a number of topics already promoted in the public space such as circular economy,
collaborative consumption and co-opposition, life-cycle investment models, smart
specialization, etc. are also validated following a structured analysis of the problem.
Circular economy could be used for reach the sustainability target and has become
part of the definition of the future in market. The purpose of the circular economy is to
break the classic cycle of: production—raw materials—processing—consumption—
waste. Specifically, it aims to take the waste and put it back into production. Thus, the
cycle looks something like this: raw materials—processing—consumption—reuse
of waste in production. And then the process restarts.
The results of the research in this paper show that prosperity can be achieved by
implementing new policies that are aligned with sustainability in its broadest sense
(economic, social and environmental).
But it is also the case that very few companies have committed to integrate
sustainability principles such as the circular economy into the core of their business
strategy—that is, to contribute to a sustainable society.
At a time when we need to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to zero and
each approach is characterized by distinct micro-strategies individuals employ to
scale up sustainability across their company.
1. Those adopting an assimilation approach focused simply on conforming to
the existing organizational mind-set focused on profit: examining how sustain-
ability contributed to costs savings, efficiencies or sales. With this approach,
sustainability remained peripheral to the organization’s core strategy.
2. People who adopted a mobilization approach continued to conform to the existing
mind-set in some ways, but also began leveraging pockets of the organization,
such as “warming up” specific senior executives, exciting interested departments
like research and development, or initiating pilot sustainability projects. They
achieved greater integration of sustainability than the assimilation approach, but
still not wholesale transformation.
3. Those adopting a transition approach continued to conform to some elements of
the existing mind-set and leverage specific pockets, but also focused on shaping
policies, processes and attitudes towards sustainability principles. They did this
through organization-wide training, communication and recruitment. These indi-
viduals achieved a high level of integration of sustainability within their organi-
zations. In other words, they ensured sustainability became a central element of
their business model and approach, affecting key decisions and future direction
of the company—they made it mainstream.
4 Conclusions
One of the findings of the study indicated that there exists a long run relationship
between environmental pollution and economic growth in the classic way of natural
resources exploitation, referring at traditional markets.
In the context of exponential population growth in some parts of the world, visible
climate change and the saturation of many traditional markets, to which the brutal and
immoral exploitation of natural resources, the exponential growth of energy needs
in some parts of the world, the globalization of financial and business capital, the
growing disparities between rich and poor can be added, the call for rapid action
towards sustainable development is fully justified. However, the fear of a difficult
transition that could lead not only to economic problems, but especially to social
problems, leads politicians to approach sustainability in a very timid way.
The initial step in time series analysis is testing for stationarity, generally, the
results of our empirical analysis suggest that there exists a co-integrating relationship
between income and the CO2 emission.
The study concludes that EKC growth strategy “grow now clean later” is too much
resource intensive and has huge environmental cost that this planet may not be able
to absorb in future.
The assumption of the EKC that environment losses of economic growth can be
recovered at later stages of the economic development is also criticized by many
researchers.
These pollutants are considered irreparable and remained unregulated almost
everywhere.
References
1. Kiss, K.: Rise and fall of the concept sustainability. J. Environ. Sustain. 1(1) (2011)
2. Leicht, A., Heiss, J., Won, J.B.: Issues and trends in education for sustainable development.
UNESCO Publishing, France (2018)
3. Randall, A.: How strong sustainability became safety. Sustainability 14(8), 4578 (2022)
4. Bell, K.: Working-Class Environmentalism: an Agenda for a Just and Fair Transition to
Sustainability. Publisher Palgrave Macmillan (2020)
5. Popescu, G.H., Ciurlau, F.C.: Can environmental sustainability be attained by incorporating
nature within the capitalist economy? Econ. Manag. Financ. Mark. 11(4), 75–81 (2016)
6. Maor, M., Tosun, J., Jordan, A.: Proportionate and disproportionate policy responses to climate
change: core concepts and empirical applications. J. Environ. Policy Plann. 1–13 (2017)
7. Klinsky, S., et al.: Why equity is fundamental in climate change policy research. Glob. Environ.
Chang. 44, 170–173 (2017)
8. Calvin, K., et al.: The SSP4: A world of deepening inequality. Glob. Environ. Chang. 42,
284–296 (2017)
9. Hess, J.J., Ebi, K.L: Iterative management of heat early warning systems in a changing climate.
Annal. New York Acad. Sci. 1382(1), 21–30 (2016)
10. Doorey D.J.: A Law of Just Transition? Putting Labor Law to Work on Climate Change.
Osgoode Hall Law School Legal Studies Research Paper (2016)
11. Goodman, J., Salleh, A.: The green economy: class hegemony and counter-hegemony.
Globalizations 10(3), 411–424 (2013)
12. Beckerman, W.: Sustainable development is it a useful concept? Environ. Values 3(3), 191–209
(1994)
13. Panayotou, T.H.: Economic Growth and the Environment. CID Working Paper Series 56.
Harvard University, Cambridge (2000)
14. Beckerman, W.: A Poverty of Reason: sustainable Development and Economic Growth.
Independent Institute (2002).
15. Van Alstine, J., Neumayer, E.: The Environmental Kuznets Curve (2012)
16. Patterson, J. et al.: Exploring the governance and politics of transformations towards
sustainability. Environ. Innov. Soc. Trans. 1–16 (2016)
17. Jacobs, M.: Sustainable development, capital substitution and economic humility: a response
to Beckerman. Environ. Values 4 (1) (1995)
Corporate Governance Performance
and Performance Comparison Between
Two Groups of Banking Institutions
in Portugal
Ângela Vaz and Adalmiro Pereira
Abstract The term appears for the first time in the literature introduced by Richard
[11] emphasizing the analysis of the structure and functioning of corporate policies.
Habib [6] argued that Corporate Governance in the banking sector plays a significant
role in protecting the interests of the stakeholders of financial institutions. As in any
other economy, banks operating in the Portuguese market play a key role in financing
the country’s economy and growth. Corporate Governance in banking institutions
in Portugal serves to meet the objectives of designing and implementing strategies
that they consider appropriate to the interests of stakeholders and their sustainability
regardless of economic circumstances. However, the financial collapse of 2007–2009
and the Portuguese sovereign debt crisis in 2011 affected the Portuguese banking
system in a profound way, in such a way that many did not fulfill these objectives. This
article aims to compare two groups of banking institutions (entities with and without
Corporate Governance problems). The comparison is performed using a multiple
regression, with eight independent variables, ranging from the economic situation to
the structural and management context of the banks. Of the applied techniques, the
difference between the groups is consistent with their intrinsic contextualization.
Keywords Corporate governance · Multiple regression · Levene test ·

Mahalanobis distance
1 Introduction
Banking activity in Portugal is part of the EU system, namely in a joint action

between the central banks of each country and the ECB (European Central Bank),
whose purpose is to guarantee the stability of the system.
Â. Vaz (B)
U. VIGO, Spain, ISCAP. P.Porto, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: angelavaz@andradevaz.pt
A. Pereira
ISCAP P.Porto, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: adalmiropereira@mail.telepac.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_38
428 Â. Vaz and A. Pereira
Over the past few years, there have been several failures in the governance of
financial institutions in Portugal that have shaken confidence in the sector and its
integrity. At this point we will address the cases of BPP—Banco Privado Português,
Banif—Banco Internacional do Funchal, BES—Banco Espírito Santo, BPN—Banco
Português de Negócios.
For this work, a quantitative methodology was followed, carrying out the formula-
tion of an explanatory econometric model of the reality in question. The main objec-
tive is to define the difference between the two groups when the same explanatory
model is applied.
Investigators and Investigation Committees have provided definitions of corporate

governance over the years. The Report of the Committee on the Financial Aspects of
Corporate Governance in the UK (Committee on the Financial Aspects of Corporate
Governance) defines corporate governance as the system by which companies are
directed and controlled [2]. In 2000, Cadbury (chairman of the Committee above),
in another report, provides a broader definition, in which corporate governance is
centered on maintaining a balance between economic and social goals and between
individual and community goals. The governance structure exists to encourage the
efficient use of resources, in which the objective is to align the interests of individuals,
corporations and society as closely as possible.
In a more restricted perspective, corporate governance focuses on the relation-
ships between managers, administrators and shareholders with a view to minimizing
conflicts of interest between shareholders and managers [12]. This vision is funda-
mentally geared towards shareholders and aims to respond to financial concerns, such
as the assessment of the risk associated with the investment made by shareholders
and its return and monitoring.
According to [5], corporate governance can be defined as a set of mechanisms—
both institutional and based on the market—that induce stakeholders interested in a
company to make decisions that maximize the company’s value for its shareholders.
In other words, corporate governance deals with the ways in which company investors
ensure the intended return on their investments [14].
According to [17], corporate governance is the set of restrictions that shape nego-
tiationex poston the profits generated by the company. This author thus refers to the
definition to the need to efficiently and effectively apply the profits generated by the
entities, that is, their consequent self-financing.
Larcker et al. [10] defines corporate governance as the set of mechanisms that
influence the decisions taken by administrators when there is a separation of owner-
ship and control. Rezaee [12] considers corporate governance as the set of legal
and institutional mechanisms that aim to protect shareholders’ interests and reduce
agency costs due to the separation between ownership and control.
Corporate Governance Performance and Performance Comparison … 429
Shleifer and Vishny [14] state that corporate governance concerns the way in
which organizations’ investors ensure the return on their investment. These authors
in their article address the importance of governance mechanisms existing in the
market, confronting opinions about it.
Besides the authors’ definitions, it is also interesting to see some definitions of
international organizations. According to the OECD—Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development, “corporate governance involves a set of relation-
ships between the management of a company, the board of directors, shareholders
and other constituents. Corporate governance also provides a framework through
which the company’s objectives are established and the means of achieving them
and monitoring performance are determined”, Esperança et al. [6].
In Portugal, the IPCG—Portuguese Institute of Corporate Governance (private,
non-profit association, created in 2003), has as its mission “to establish itself as a
center of reflection of excellence for matters related to corporate governance, dissem-
inating and debating ideas and concepts on good corporate governance practices and
contributing to the reinforcement of ethics, accountability and transparency in their
application.” (IPCG 2020 website).
It should be noted that these definitions of corporate governance are strictly linked
to the Anglo-Saxon reality, specifically characterized by the dispersion of ownership.
From the point of view of performance measurement, the main objective of a company
in this type of system is to create value for the shareholders (the so-called shareholder
approach, according to Rappaport, 1986). This connection is related to the theory of
agency from which a potential conflict of interest between managers and shareholders
derives.
According to Demsky [4], other agents in the activity of organizations must be
taken into account, such as: auditors, consultants and line managers. Especially in
non-Anglo-Saxon countries, relationships with the main stakeholders are particularly
significant for companies and the company is seen as an entity—useful for the whole
society—that must operate considering all the interests of those involved in the
company itself. (the so-called stakeholder approach).
3 The Work Methodology
The case of Banif appears after the inability of the bank’s management to guarantee
its liquidity. In 2012, the Portuguese State was forced by the very poor financial
situation of the bank to intervene and become a shareholder. It then holds 60% of
the Bank’s capital.
Thus, the government injected 700 million euros into the bank, which would have
to be returned by March 2017. In addition to this amount, Banif received 400 million
in CoCos (debt convertible into shares), of which 275 million were returned. The
remaining 125 million should have been paid by 2014, but that did not happen, with
the institution becoming increasingly fragile.
On December 13, 2015, TVI reported that Banif would be the target of a public
intervention. The following Monday there was a run on the bank, and e960 million
was withdrawn, equivalent to 16% of deposits. TVI’s news was “catastrophic” for
Banif and contributed to its demise.
In December 2015, Banif underwent a resolution process. As part of this process,
assets considered to be of good quality were sold to the Banco Santander Totta,
an affiliation of the Santander Group in Portugal for 150 million euros. Among the
amounts required for the level of liquidity and the devaluation of certain assets (which
reached 66% in some cases) the “accounting hole” amounted to 2.25 billion euros.
The BES case is based on a series of irregularities practiced by the directors that
severely damaged the structure, leading the State and the financial system to intervene
with losses in the order of billions of euros.
It all starts in 2012 when the main administrator, Ricardo Salgado, joined the tax
amnesty in the scope of the so-called “Monte Branco” case, making three corrections
to the 2011 income statement and paying another 4.3 million euros in IRS.
The “Monte Branco” investigation focuses on crimes of money laundering and
tax fraud, a scheme that originated in Akoya, a Swiss wealth management company
owned by two of the defendants in this case, Michel Canals and Nicolas Figueiredo,
former staff of the bank. Swiss UBS, in addition to Álvaro Sobrinho, former non-
executive chairman of BES Angola.
At issue is a set of financial transactions, which took place between 2006 and
2012, carried out within the framework of an alleged scheme to conceal the origin of
the funds and their conversion into cash, covering amounts, in total, “over 30 million
euros”.
In 2013, Espírito Santo Financial Group (ESFG) and the French group Crédit
Agrícole announced to the market the dissolution of the holding company BESPAR,
through which they controlled BES, with direct holdings in the bank. The dissolution
of BESPAR was the starting point for the end of the alliance between the Espírito
Santo family and the historic partner French bank.
The audit requested by Banco de Portugal (BdP) of the accounts of ESI (Espírito
Santo Internacional), of 30 September 2013 and 31 December 2013, “found irregular-
ities in its accounts and concluded that the company has a serious financial situation”.
The internal audit also “identified materially relevant irregularities in the accounts”
of the ‘holding’.
As required by the BdP, the ESFG recorded an extraordinary provision of 700
million euros in the 2013 accounts.
The prospectus for BES’s capital increase in 2013 refers to the alleged involvement
of the Florida bank (USA) in “illicit activities” and alleged violations of the money
laundering law for which the bank was fined 1.2 million euros and which contested.
Added to these are the “need to review procedures” in the prevention of money
laundering at the BES London branch and the Competition Authority’s searches
of several banks in Portugal to collect evidence about the exchange of sensitive
information.
The document addresses ‘inside trading’ processes involving BES’s managers
and staff, without mentioning names.
According to Expresso, which had access to the internal audit report, ESI did not
record 1.2 billion euros of debts in its 2012 accounts. In addition, it had negative
equity of 2.5 billion euros, that is, was in technical bankruptcy.
In 2014, the governor of BdP says in parliament that the irregularities in the
accounts of GES companies were only discovered because the regulator left its
restricted area of supervision and reveals that the new managers of BES were chosen
by the main shareholders, without intervention of the supervisor.
Ricardo Salgado is made an accused and heard by the Central Criminal Investi-
gation Court, within the scope of the Monte Branco operation, which investigates
the largest money laundering network in Portugal, after being arrested at his home
in Cascais.
The suspicions focus mainly on the transfers of 14 million euros that were made by
the builder José Guilherme to offshore companies in Salgado and which he justified
as a gift.
Also during 2014, the newspaper O Expresso Diário reported, at the end of the
afternoon, that BES’ losses could reach three billion euros in the first half of the year,
due to the discovery of more debt from BES’s customers to GES than previously
thought. According to the newspaper, in view of this, the “financial cushions [of
2.1 billion euros from the bank] are no longer enough” and a capital increase is
“inevitable”, it remains to be seen whether it will be private or public.
BES reported a historic loss of 3,577.3 million euros between January and June
this year, a figure that compares with the loss of 237.4 million euros recorded in the
first half of 2013.
The bank justified the result with “factors of an exceptional nature” that led to
a cost with impairments and contingencies reaching 4,253.5 million euros. Just to
cover possible losses that it may incur with companies of the Espírito Santo Group
(GES), BES set up provisions for impairments of 1,206 million euros.
Also in 2014, Banco de Portugal issues a statement in which it says that facts
recently discovered at BES point to the “practice of seriously harmful manage-
ment acts” and admits administrative and even criminal consequences for the former
management team led by Ricardo Salgado.
Novo Banco, SA (NB) is a bank Portuguese, established at August 4 in 2014,
in an emergency intervention of the Portugal’s bank to save the good assets of the
formerly bankrupt Espírito Santo Bank (BES). The rescue of BES was precipitated
by the historic losses of 3,577 million euros. On the other hand, BES’s toxic assets
were transferred to a “bad bank”.
Novo Banco was capitalized in 4900 million euros by the Resolution Fund, created
by the Portuguese state together with the financial sector that contributed to make
the necessary amounts for the capitalization of Novo Banco. Novo Banco was thus
capitalized with resources from the troika (intervention in Portugal following the
2011 sovereign debt crisis). The 380 million that were already in the fund were also
used. The remainder was placed by private banks in Portugal, totaling 635 million
euros. This fund, which has three directors, is the sole shareholder of Novo Banco,
until a sale operation is carried out.
The research process comprises a series of phases: problem formulation, specifica-

tion of research objectives, choice of research formulation, data collection, sampling,
data analysis and research report [3, 11].
The main objective of the research is to analyze the impact of variables associated
with governance, structure and economy on the economic and financial performance
of banking institutions in Portugal.
For this work we will compare two study groups for the same multiple linear
regression. In view of the above, the following table shows several entities in each
of the groups, due to the governance failure scheme, creating a group II for Banif
and BES institutions, for the reasons described above, and a group I for those that
did not have governance problems that jeopardized its viability (Table 1).
To conclude our analysis, we will try to determine whether there are differences
between group I and group II of Banking Institutions.
The following table presents the study variables as well as the impact on the study
in question. It should be noted that one of the dependent variables is itself the result
of the sum of a set of binary variables (Tables 2 and 3).
Corporate Governance Variable
CGit =1IND_CAit + 2ADM_CAit + 3CEOit

+4ACI_CAit + 5ACI_ESTRit + 6AUDITit
Generic model option 1:
LNZS = c + β1 LNAT + β2 LNDEP + β3 CG + β4 CPAT

+ β5 TXPIB + β6 TXINF + β7 TXJUR + β8 ROAA.
Generic model option 2:
Table 1 Groups of banking

Sample
institutions
Caixa Geral de Depósitos (Group I)
Millennium BCP Bank (Group I)
Banco Santander Totta (Group I)
Banco Espírito Santo/Novo Banco (Group II)
Banco Português de Investimento (BPI) (Group I)
Montepio Geral (Group I)
Central Mutual Agricultural Credit Bank (CCAM) (Group
I)
International Bank of Funchal (BANIF) (Group II)
BIC Bank (Group I)
People’s Bank (Group I)
Table 2 Criteria for defining variables

Characteristics Criteria
1IND_CA If the CA is composed of 25% or more independent directors = 1; Otherwise
=0
2ADM_CA If the CA has 12 or fewer members = 1; Otherwise = 0
3CEO If there is separation of duties between the CEO and the Chairman of the CA
= 1; Otherwise = 0
4ACI_CA If the CA managers hold 10% or more of the share capital = 1; Otherwise = 0
5ACI_ESTR If there are foreign shareholders = 1; Otherwise = 0
6AUDIT If the external auditor (Big Four) does not change compared to the previous
semester = 1; Otherwise = 0
Table 3 Expected impact on

Dependent variables
variables in multiple
regression (LNZS)
Z-score natural logarithm
(IMPAT)
Impairment Ratio for Loans to Customers
Independent variables
(CG) Corporate Governance Index Positive impact
(LNAT) Bank Size Positive impact
(CPAT) Financial autonomy Positive impact
(ROAA) Return on Average Assets Positive impact
(LNDEP) Customer deposits Positive impact
(TXPIB) GDP Rate Variation Positive impact
(TXJUR) Interest rate Positive impact
(TXINF) Inflation rate Negative impact
RAC_IMPAT = c + β1 LNAT + β2 LNDEP + β3 CG + β4 CPAT + β5 TXPIB

+ β6 TXINF + β7 TXJUR + β8 ROAA.
3.1 Comparison of Two Sample Groups
The following table shows the comparison between two groups at the level of the
six explanatory variables of the Corporate Governance index, mainly interested in
analyzing the impact on the mean and standard deviation (Table 4).
Table 4 Group statistics

Group No Average Standard deviation Standard mean error
1IND_CA 1 184 0.33 0.472 0.035
Two 37 0.43 0.502 0.083
2ADM_CA 1 184 0.57 0.496 0.037
Two 37 0.73 0.450 0.074
3CEO 1 184 0.59 0.493 0.036
Two 37 0.68 0.475 0.078
4ACI_CA 1 184 0.18 0.385 0.028
Two 37 0.00 0.000 0.000
5ACI_ESTR 1 184 0.71 0.454 0.033
Two 37 0.49 0.507 0.083
6AUDIT 1 184 0.98 0.127 0.009
Two 37 0.97 0.164 0.027
The previous table demonstrates the calculation of the mean of the standard devi-
ation for the first group and second group of observations. The biggest difference
can be seen in the 4ACI_CA variable, which indicates the percentages of shares
held by the directors, which means that in the banking institutions that became unvi-
able in recent days, the directors did not own shares in the institution in question,
which becomes relatively strange in view of the created problems. It should also be
added that in terms of averages, we found some differences, namely in the variable
previously indicated and in the variable 5ACI_ESTR, which means that the weight
of shares held by foreign shareholders, that is, foreign entities therefore had less
influence on the institutions in question here (Table 5).
The previous table reflects the difference between the mean level and the standard
deviation level in relation to groups 1 and 2 associated with the main regression vari-
ables under study. Regarding the observed averages, I highlight the ROAA variable
in which for group 1 it assumes a positive value although of reduced size, while for
group 2 the average value is even negative. The timing of the change in the name of
BES to NOVO BANCO significantly contributed to this, with the consequent with-
drawal of control from the Espírito Santo family. The impact of the recognition of
potential losses and impairments led the institution to assume record losses, having
received a capital injection by the State and the Resolution Fund. The main function
of this fund in the context of the resolution measure applied to Banco Espírito Santo,
SA.
Table 5 Group statistics

Group No Average Standard deviation Standard mean error
CG 1 184 3.3700 0.8520 0.0630
Two 37 3.3000 0.6610 0.1090
CPAT 1 184 0.0670 0.0204 0.0015
Two 37 0.0728 0.0203 0.0033
LNAT 1 184 17.0714 1.0757 0.0793
Two 37 17.3681 0.7072 0.1163
LNDEP 1 184 16.4724 1.2247 0.0903
Two 37 16.6564 0.6843 0.1125
ROAA 1 183 0.0015 0.0059 0.0004
Two 37 -0.0061 0.0147 0.0024
TXDPIB 1 184 0.0052 0.0206 0.0015
Two 37 0.0036 0.0165 0.0027
TXINF 1 184 100.1893 3.4168 0.2519
Two 37 99.4711 3.5274 0.5799
TXJUR 1 184 0.3539 0.6695 0.0494
Two 37 0.5062 0.6827 0.1122
3.2 Levene Test for Groups
Then, the Levene test was performed for the variables of the first regression and for the
variables of the main regression. The first and second tables that follow demonstrate
the results obtained.
Levene’s test shown in the following two tables concerns the first regression of
the Corporate Governance index model and the regression of the main model under
study (Tables 6 and 7).
In statistics, Levene’s test is an inferential statistic used to assess the equality of
variances of a variable calculated for two or more groups. Some common statistical
procedures assume that the variances of populations from which different samples
are drawn are equal. Levene’s test evaluates this assumption. It tests the null hypoth-
esis that the population variances are equal (called homogeneity of variance or
homoscedasticity). If the resulting p-value of Levene’s test is less than some level of
significance (typically 0.05), the differences obtained in sample variances are likely
not to have occurred based on random sampling from a population with equal vari-
ances. Thus, the null hypothesis of equal variances is rejected and it is concluded
that there is a difference between the variances in the population.
Decision rule for Levene’s test (for s = 0.05).
If p ≤ 0.05, the variances are significantly different.
If p ≥ 0.05, the variances are not significantly different.
Table 6 Independent sample test

Independent sample test
Levene’s test for equality of variances
Z Sig
1IND_CA Assumed equal variances 3,193 0.075
Equal variances not assumed
2ADM_CA Assumed equal variances 25,246 0.000
3CEO Assumed equal variances 5,342 0.022
4ACI_CA Assumed equal variances 52,486 0.000
5ACI_ESTR Assumed equal variances 7.959 0.005
6AUDIT Assumed equal variances 0.782 0.378
Table 7 Independent sample

Independent sample test
test
Levene’s test for equality of variances
Z Sig
CG Assumed equal variances 3,526 0.062
LNAT Assumed equal variances 4,006 0.047
CPAT Assumed equal variances 0.455 0.501
LNDEP Assumed equal variances 2,216 0.138
ROAA Assumed equal variances 20.028 0.000
TXDPIB Assumed equal variances 0.078 0.780
TXINF Assumed equal variances 0.361 0.549
TXJUR Assumed equal variances 0.282 0.596
In view of the results obtained, we conclude that:

(a) Regression associated with the Corporate Governance index;
We conclude that the variance is significantly different for the vari-
ables2ADM_CA, 4ACI_CA and 5ACI_ESTR. In view of the above, we
conclude that half of the variables have statistically different variance between
groups 1 and 2.
(b) Main regression;
In view of the results of the previous table, we conclude that the variances
are significantly different for the LNAT and ROAA variables. The disparity
associated with the size of institutions and the disparity in net returns justify the
conclusions we have reached.
3.3 Distance from Mahalanobis
In statistic, the Mahalanobis distance is a measure of distance introduced by

mathematician Indian Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobisin1936.
It is based on correlations between variables with which different patterns can be
identified and analyzed.
The data in both groups to be compared must have the same number of vari-
ables (that is, the same number of columns) but not necessarily the same number of
elements (the number of rows may be different).
Formally, the Mahalanobis distance between a group of values with mean μ =
(μ1 μ2 μ3,…μp)T and covariance matrix S for a multivariate vector x = (×1 × 2
× 3,…μp)T is defined as:
/
D M (x) = (x − μ)T S −1 (x − μ).
The Mahalanobis distance can also be defined as a measure of dissimilarity

between two −
→
x e−
→
y and with the same distribution with the covariance matrix S:
/
(→ − ) (− )T (→ − )
d −
x ,→
y = →
x −−
→
y S −1 −
x −→
y
If the covariance matrix is the identity matrix, the Mahalanobis distance coincides
with the euclidean distance. If the covariance matrix is diagonal, then the resulting
distance measure is called normalized Euclidean distance:
⎡
| p
(−→ −
→ ) |∑ (xi − yi )
d x, y =| ,
i=1
σi2
Where σ is the standard deviation of Xi in the sample set.

Table 8 Number of
Group 1 Two
observations before and after
using the distance from Sample universe 184 37
Mahalanobis Remarks after Mahalanobis 147 23
If the covariance matrix is the identity matrix, the Mahalanobis distance coincides
with the euclidean distance. If the covariance matrix is diagonal, then the resulting
distance measure is called normalized Euclidean distance (Table 8).
The previous table shows the number of observations recalculated after applying
the technique of Mahalanobis.
We can observe that about 20% of the observations of the first group and about
38% of the observations of the second group are taken.
The observations taken lead to the coherence of the two series/panels as we are
excluding severe outliers. Regarding group 2, the number of validated observations
becomes quite small, calling into question the significance of the model. Harrell [9]
indicates that the minimum number of observations to not jeopardize the consistency
of the model will be 10 for each variable. In view of this, it is understood that the
continuation of this analysis is not justified.
4 Conclusions
Today it is relevant to explore important and emerging issues regarding corporate

governance, both in developed and developing economies. The importance of this
study highlights the following points:
(a) Analyzing the bases of failures in corporate governance, resulting from deficien-
cies in procedures, such as the board of directors, audit functions and internal
control and risk management;
(b) Review the main methodological approaches;
(c) Establish the link with social responsibility and sustainability.
The economic success of an organization does not only depend on efficiency,
innovation and quality management, but also on compliance with the principles
of Corporate Governance. Implementing standards improves financial performance
[15] in developed economies.
Object of study were the reports and accounts of banking institutions in Portugal
between 2009 and 2020. In order to increase the number of observations, each variable
was measured twice each year, using the first semester and annual reports. Two
analysis groups were created. The first one in which we include the Institutions that
in the period under analysis did not have facts that put their viability or their image
with the investors in question. Group II is where this condition is already verified.
Novo Banco/BES and Banif Institutions are included here for the reasons explained
in the respective chapter.
The empirical process consisted in the establishment of a multiple regression,
trying to explain the dynamics of economic and financial evolution and in the
construction of a Corporate Governance index.
The main model was built in which the independent variables were selected from
the model used by Wang [16], namely: Corporate Governance, bank size, finan-
cial autonomy, return on average assets, customer deposits, variation in the Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) rate, inflation rate and interest rate.
On the dependent variables, two working hypotheses were tested. One was the Z-
Score, which is a variable widely used in the literature to measure banking risk [1, 5].
More specifically, this indicator measures the proximity to insolvency of a particular
bank, which becomes insolvent when the value of its assets is not sufficient to meet
its obligations [16]. The second working hypothesis was the impairment ratio for
loans granted, which reflects the bank’s credit quality.
References
1. Beltratti and Stulz.: The credit crisis around the globe: why did some banks perform better? J.
Financ. Econ. 105 105, 1–17 (2012)
2. Cadbury, A.: The Financial Aspects of Corporate Governance (Cadbury Report). The
Committee on the Financial Aspect of Corporate Governance (The Cadbury Committee) and
Gee and Co, Ltd, London, UK (1992)
3. Cooper, Shindler and Emory.: Business Research Methods, Irwin Ed (2002)
4. Demski, Joel, S.: Corporate conflicts of interest. J. Econ. Perspect. 17(2), 51–72 (2003)
5. Denis, D.K., McConnell, J.J.: International corporate governance. J. Financ. Q. Anal. 38, 1–36
(2003)
6. Esperança et al.: Corporate governance—In the Lusophone space. José Esperança, Ana Sousa,
Elisabete Soares, Ivo Pereira (2011)
7. Fu, X. M., Lin, Y. R., & Molyneux, P.: Bank competition and financial stability in Asia Pacific.
J. Bank. Financ. 38, 64–77 (2014)
8. Habit.: Privatization of Habib Bank: Corporate Governance Compliance. The IUP J. Corpor.
Govern. XII(4), 26–29 (2004)
9. Harrell Jr., F.E.: Ordinal logistic regression. In: Harrell Jr., F.E., Regression Modeling Strate-
gies, Springer Series in Statistics, Springer International Publishing, Switzerland 311–325
(s)
10. Larcker, D. F., Richardson, S. A., Tuna, İ.: Corporate Governance, accounting outcomes, and
organizational performance. Account. Rev. 82(4), 963–1008 (2007)
11. Malhotra, N.K., Rocha, I., Laudisio, M., Altheman, E., Borges, F.: Introduction to Marketing
Research. Pearson Prentice Hall, Sao Paulo (2005)
12. Rezaee, Z., Riley, R.: Financial statement fraud: prevention and detection, 2nd edn. Wiley,
Hoboken (2009)
13. Richard, E.: The Meaning of Modern Business: an Introduction to the Philosophy of Large
Corporate Enterprise, pp. xi, 427. Columbia University Press, New York (1960)
14. Shleifer, A., Vishny, R.W.: A survey of corporate governance. J. Financ. LII (1997)
15. Tadesse, S.: The allocation and monitoring role of capital markets. Theory and International
Evidence. J. Finan. Quantitat. Anal. 39, 701–730 (2004)
16. Wang, C.: The role of bank governance: Evidence from market discipline, capital structure,
ownership structure, risk taking and political connection. Tese de Douturamento em Filosofia.
University of Sussex. (2018)
17. Zingales, L.: Is the US capital market losing its competitive edge?. ECGI-Finance Working
Paper (2007)
Organizational Climate and Its
Importance for Organizational Success:
A Literature Review
Emanuel Bohórquez, Maritza Pérez, Arturo Benavides, and Eduardo Pérez
Abstract History demonstrates the great importance of the organizational climate

to achieve employee satisfaction and long-term organizational success. The main
objective of this work is to review the dimensions used to measure the organizational
climate in scientific studies published in the last decade and to propose. The method-
ology used is based on an exhaustive bibliographic search strategy in recognizable
scientific databases using as keywords: organizational climate, work environment,
work environment, job satisfaction, organizational culture, leadership, motivation
and organizational commitment; and subsequently an analysis of published and
selected scientific documents that met the inclusion criteria: non-experimental and
transactional studies between 2010 and 2019 whose main objective is to measure the
organizational climate. As a result of this study, 82 documents were analyzed, with
39 scientific documents selected for meeting the inclusion criteria, highlighting with
32% the tendency of researchers to develop their own questionnaire to measure the
organizational climate, based on recognized authors: Litwing and Stringer, Camp-
bell et al., Likert, Koys and DeCottis and Sonia Palma Carrillo. In conclusion, 9
dimensions are proposed for the measurement of the organizational climate, which
are: interpersonal relationships, motivation, leadership, autonomy, support, physical
conditions, conformity to work, commitment and innovation.
Keywords Organizational climate · Human talent · Dimensions
E. Bohórquez (B) · E. Pérez

Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED), madrid, España
e-mail: ebohorque7@alumno.uned.es
E. Pérez
e-mail: eperez@cee.uned.es
M. Pérez · A. Benavides
Universidad Península de Santa Elena (UPSE), Libertad, Ecuador
e-mail: mperez@upse.edu.ec
A. Benavides
e-mail: abenavides@upse.edu.ec
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_39
442 E. Bohórquez et al.
1 Introduction
In the era of the information society, highlighting [1], he mentions that although it
is true, on the one hand, it seeks to improve human actions, however, on the other,
it is creating a great deterioration of humanity due to the deficient practice of values
and inadequate interpersonal relationships, leading to an unfavorable organizational
climate. This is how the presence of authentic and effective leaders is required, who
have the qualities of knowing, communicating, convincing, and building meaning.
Thus [2], indicates that human resources management has become of great impor-
tance for organizations, especially for public services. In this way, the generation of
research that considers variables such as the organizational climate, job satisfaction,
or performance take on special relevance, contributing transversally to HR manage-
ment and people’s well-being; being in consultancy, one of the most demanded
activities the studies of organizational climate.
In this sense [3], mention that the work environment is a concept with extensive
studies and research on the human factor in companies and organizations. Being
evident that the work environment is a relevant indicator in the life of the company.
A meta-analysis carried out by [4] on 40 theses found that the organizations where
this research is mostly applied are companies, educational institutions, and health
institutions.
The organizational climate pointed out by [5] highlights that it has become the
instrument par excellence for change in search of achieving greater organizational
efficiency, being an essential element for the intense competition at the national and
international levels in the real world.
The study of [6] indicates that at the University of Minnesota in 1993 the study was
carried out “Relationships between the congruence of the personal environment and
organizational effectiveness” was carried out, carried out in 29 secondary schools
in four states, and the following dimensions were used: development, innovation,
autonomy, achievement, hierarchy, participation, cooperation, and friendliness.
At the American level [7], highlights that the permanent concern of the directors
of the organizations has always been how to satisfy their collaborators to achieve
greater productivity.
This is how [8], mentions that a key element for Technological Universities to be
effective is that their directors have tried to use their human, technological and finan-
cial resources to the maximum, in addition to strategically directing the institutions
they lead.
In short, the usefulness and importance of maintaining a good organizational
climate is clear, in this way, multiple studies have been carried out, having as a result
different conceptualizations and proposed dimensions. Consequently, it is considered
necessary to carry out bibliographic review articles that analyze the definitions and
dimensions used regarding the organizational climate.
The main objective of this work is to review the dimensions used to measure the
organizational climate in scientific studies published in the last decade and to make
a proposal to be applied in both public institutions and private companies.
Organizational Climate and Its Importance for Organizational Success … 443
This research is structured as follows: the second section presents the principles
and theories regarding the organizational climate; the third section describes the
methodology used; the fourth section presents the results. Finally, the fifth section
shows the conclusions.
2 Organizational Climate
2.1 Origin and Evolution of the Organizational Climate
The organizational climate has been investigated by various authors many decades
ago, that is how in this first section a chronology of the appearance of the organiza-
tional climate will be detailed according to the studies of different authors, described
below.
Highlighting the contributions of [9], mention that the organizational climate has
been studied and defined by various authors worldwide, having the recognition of the
importance they occupy in the subject, in terms of its evolution during the first four
decades, the authors are distinguished: Lewin, Argyris, Halpin and Croft, Forehand
and Gilmer, Litwing and Stringer, Tagiuri, James and Jones, Dessler, Flippo, Brunet,
Reichers and Schneider, Chiavenato, Peirot, Katz and Kahn, among others.
Bordas [10] details that the theoretical background for the study of climate in
organizations began with the studies of Lewin et al. during the year 1939, who
carried out field research on social processes during a summer camp in a group of
participating children, where it turned out that the behavior of the individual in the
group does not depend exclusively on their characteristics, but also on the social
climate in which the group is immersed, with this the climate that is perceived by
the individual influences your behavior; emphasizing that a large part of said social
climate was related to the leadership styles that were used in each context.
Finally [11], mention that the pioneers of the term organizational climate were
Lewin, Lippitt and White, Fleishman and Argyris between 1939 and 1958. From
those times to date, research has been carried out with definitions very diverse and
related; however, it describes a general definition where the work environment is
a complex construct, of a multidimensional nature, related to culture, which can
be approached as a cause, as an effect or as an intermediate condition and which
perennially refers to the cognitive representation that individuals that they cement
starting from the collective realities in which they find themselves.
2.2 Concept of Organizational Climate
We begin with the contribution of [12] who in their study indicates that there is
no consensus on the meaning of this term. Definitions range from purely objective
organizational factors (structure, policies, and rules) to highly subjective perceived

attributes (support and friendliness).
Quintero and Sánchez [13] citing Halpin and Crofts who in 1963 refer to the orga-
nizational climate from the qualitative aspect as the opinion that the worker represents
of the organization, of his peers, of his managers. On the other hand, quantitative
research approaches the structuralist approach of Forehand and Gilmer in 1964 who
describe it as the set of permanent characteristics that define an organization, differen-
tiating it from another and influencing the behavior of its collaborators. Thus, Litwing
and Stringer in 1968 propose a third approach of a mixed nature, expressing it as the
perceived subjective results of the formal system, the informal style of managers,
and other relevant environmental components on the beliefs, attitudes, motivation,
and values of employees. Employees working in an organization.
In this way [14] defines the work environment as the collective perception of the
organizational environment in which a group of workers interacts; results from the
influence of various factors that act in a work environment and can be objective that
respond to observable and quantifiable concrete situations, or can be subjective based
on the perception of a reality that varies from the point of view of each individual.
2.3 Dimensions of the Organizational Climate
We begin with [15] who indicated that until now a consensus has not been achieved
on the multiple dimensions that make up the organizational climate.
However, in the study by [16], citing Litwing and Stinger, who were the first
to define that nine components should be considered in the organizational climate:
structure, reward received, the challenge of goals, responsibility or autonomy in the
decision-making, relationships and cooperation among its members, productivity
standards, conflict management and identification with the organization.
Likewise [17], applied the Koys and DeCottis organizational climate measurement
scale adapted and validated in Chile by Chiang et al. in 2008, which consists of
eight summarized dimensions that are: cohesion, pressure, autonomy, trust, support,
recognition, fairness, and innovation.
Alva and Domínguez [18] applied the technical sheet called organizational climate
(CO-SPC) of the author, Sonia Palma Carrillo, from the year 2004, where the degree
of global and specific perception of the work environment is valued, whose dimen-
sions studied were: supervision, communication, self-realization, involvement, and
working conditions.
Jaramillo [19] describes that for the evaluation of the organizational climate,
seven dimensions were considered: leadership, identification with the organiza-
tion, communication, recognition, interpersonal relationships and infrastructure, and
motivation.
The study by [6] citing Hernández (1989) who assessed the organizational climate
in the educational field, distinguishes two types of elements: the objectives are
leadership, decision-making and communication, structure, and teamwork; and the
subjective ones are: motivation, participation, responsibility, meaningful work and

conflict.
Considering the evaluations of [20], the organizational climate variable has
the following dimensions: administration, communication, supervision, teamwork,
personal work, physical and cultural environment, training and development, salaries
and benefits, promotion and career, and pride of belonging.
In this sense [21] their instrument to measure the work environment considered
eight dimensions, such as management, organization, self-realization, relationships,
innovation, information, conditions, and involvement.
In the investigation of [22], they used a questionnaire developed by Bustamante
et al. in 2016, who established ten dimensions: participatory initiative, profes-
sional development, support for entrepreneurship, collaboration and good treatment,
work motivation, teams and distribution of people and material, organization and
performance, job stability, communication and development, and autonomy and
professionalism.
3 Methodology
In the present investigation, the bibliographic search strategy has been used and for
the identification of the studies we have divided it into three phases.
Phase I. Detailed search in recognized scientific databases: Scopus, Emerging
Sources Citation (Web of Science), Scielo, Dialnet, Redalyc, Latindex, DOAJ,
REDIB, EBSCO, and Google Scholar. The keywords used were: organizational
climate, work environment, work environment, job satisfaction, organizational
culture, leadership, motivation, and organizational commitment.
Phase II. Analysis of the bibliographic citations of the scientific documents
selected in the first phase.
Phase III. Analysis of the scientific documents published and selected in the
second phase that met the inclusion criteria.
The determining inclusion criteria for the selection of scientific documents were
the following:
• Scientific articles and postgraduate theses on non-experimental and transactional
studies in the period 2010–2019, with a sample belonging to one or several orga-
nizations or case studies where the main objective is to measure the organizational
climate.
• Literature review articles.
• Studies in which the validity and usefulness of the data are still valid today.
Exclusion criteria: descriptive studies that did not offer relevant information in
their conceptual framework and precise information on the methodology used and/or
results obtained. In addition, the scientific document contains the organizational
climate variable.
The studies analyzed were tabulated and organized in a descriptive table, regis-
tering the most relevant elements such as author, year of publication, topics of publi-
cations according to the bibliographic search related to the organizational climate,
distribution of publications according to the context of the study (education, health,
business), methodology, authors selected in the studies to prepare the organizational
climate measurement questionnaire and the dimensions proposed in the different
studies about to the organizational climate.
Initially, after the three phases of bibliographic search, 82 documents have been
retrieved, of which only 39 scientific documents have been selected for meeting the
inclusion criteria.
In Fig. 1, about the years of publication of studies of the organizational climate,
it can be seen that there was a greater production from the year 2015 with 15% and
practically maintaining this way until the year 2019; however, in the first years (2010–
2014) of the study period, there was a lower level of production with an average of
5% per year. Being able to deduce that 75% of the publications were given in the
last study period (2015–2019), demonstrating on the part of the researchers the
interest in studying the organizational climate and its importance for the progress of
organizations.
In Fig. 2, about the themes of publications related to the organizational climate
according to the literary review, it was obtained that 40% of the themes study only the
organizational climate; on the other hand, 23% concern studies on the organizational
climate and leadership, and with 21% on organizational climate and job satisfaction,
finally the remaining 15% is about research on the organizational climate with other
Fig. 1 Year of publication

factors such as organizational culture, strategic management, organizational commit-

ment, emotional intelligence, innovation, and emotional salary. In conclusion, most
of the reviewed studies focus 85% on three themes, which are: organizational climate,
leadership, and job satisfaction.
In Fig. 3, regarding the distribution of publications according to the context of the
study, it is distinguished that 54% have been made in contexts related to the field of
education; followed by 31% that were carried out in Public Institutions or Companies
not related to the field of education, finally, the remaining 15% has been in the field
of Health. In short, there is a strong motivation to study the organizational climate in
educational contexts, probably because of the positive impact it has on its teachers,
administrative staff, and students.
Figure 4 analyzes the authors selected by the various investigations to develop
the organizational climate measurement questionnaire so that 32% are the authors
Fig. 2 Topics of publications according to bibliographic search related to organizational climate
Fig. 3 Distribution of publications according to the context of study

Fig. 4 Authors selected for the elaboration of the organizational climate questionnaire
themselves who, based on a bibliographical analysis, have decided to develop their

instrument, followed by studies whose authors affirm with 16% and 14% to have
selected the instruments proposed by Koys and DeCottis in 1991 adapted and vali-
dated by Chiang et al. and by Sonia Palma Carrillo in 2008 and 2004 respectively,
while with 8% they find the use of the proposal of Litwing and Stringer of the
year 1968, while the remaining 30% are studies where the proposal of other authors
has been used but individually they do not exceed 1%. In conclusion, the trend and
interest that researchers had in carrying out their organizational climate questionnaire
are determined, being worth mentioning some classic and contemporary authors who
have served as a foundation for that, such as Litwing and Stringer, Campbell et al.,
Pritchard and Karasick, Moos et al., Likert, and Koys and DeCottis.
In Fig. 5, related to the analysis of the dimensions of the organizational climate
proposed in the various studies according to the bibliographical review, it can be
mentioned that before a rigorous descriptive analysis where dimensions that were
described differently but that meant the same were related and grouped. Same, it is so,
that 9 dimensions were obtained, where 5 main dimensions that reach 64% and that
according to their level of importance are: interpersonal relationships, motivation,
leadership, autonomy, and support.
5 Conclusions
Currently, in a globalized, changing, and competitive world, it is essential that

managers recognize the importance of strategic management of the organizational
climate in their institutions or companies, becoming an essential factor for the moti-
vation and good performance of their employees; The main conclusions are detailed
below:
Fig. 5 Analysis of organizational climate dimensions according to literature review
• There is a significant increase in studies in recent years, 75% of the publica-

tions focus on the period 2015–2019, demonstrating the interest in studying the
organizational climate.
• Most of the studies reviewed are grouped with 85% in three themes, which are:
organizational climate, leadership, and job satisfaction.
• There is a strong motivation with 54% to study the organizational climate in
educational contexts, probably due to the positive impact it has on its teachers,
administrative staff, and students.
• The results show 32% the tendency of researchers to develop their questionnaire to
measure the organizational climate, based on recognized authors, such as Litwing
and Stringer, Campbell et al., Likert, Koys and DeCottis and Sonia Palma Carrillo.
• To date, no consensus has been achieved on the multiple dimensions that make
up the organizational climate, however, based on the bibliographic review of
this study, 9 dimensions are proposed for the measurement of the organiza-
tional climate that They are: interpersonal relationships, motivation, leadership,
autonomy, support, physical conditions, conformity to work, commitment and
innovation.
For future research, they could rely on the literature of this study, as well
as compare and contribute to the discussion of the results presented in terms of
the construction of dimensions for the strategic management of the organizational
climate, hoping that the proposal allows its analysis and application in other contexts
for the benefit of achieving long-term organizational success.
References
1. Gonzales, F.: Liderazgo Directivo y Clima Laboral de la Municipalidad de Cumba. Universidad

César Vallejo, Chiclayo (2018)
2. Rodríguez, A., Retamal, M., Lizana, J., Cornejo, F.: Clima y satisfacción laboral como
predictores del desempeño: En una organización estatal chilena. Salud & Sociedad, 219–234
(2011)
3. Gan, F., Triginé, J.: Manual de instrumentos de gestión y desarrollo de las personas en las
organizaciones. Ediciones Díaz de Santos, Madrid (2012)
4. Orbegoso, A.: Meta-análisis de investigaciones sobre clima organizacional en el Perú. Revista
de Psicología, 137–147 (2015)
5. Moreira, L.: Clima Organizacional en la Educación Superior, Ecuador. Dominio de las Ciencias,
296–307 (2016)
6. Rambay, M., San Miguel, E., Duque, E.: Análisis Comparativo del Clima Organizacional en
Dos Instituciones Particulares de Educación Superior en Ecuador. PODIUM, 79–100 (2017)
7. Loli, A.: Compromiso organizacional de los trabajadores de una universidad pública de lima y
su relación con algunas variables demógraficas. Revista de investigación en psicología, 37–67
(2006)
8. Velázquez, E., Cruz, M., López, J.: La dirección estratégica en la universidad pública: una
investigación en las universidades tecnológicas de México. Universidad & Empresa, pp. 87–104
(2015)
9. Zambrano, J., Ramón, M., Espinoza, E.: Estudio sobre el clima organizacional en los docentes
de la Universidad Técnica de Machala. Revista Científica de la Universidad de Cienfuegos,
163–172 (2017)
10. Bordas, M.J.: Gestión estratégica del clima laboral. Universidad Nacional de Educación a
Distancia, Madrid (2016)
11. Uribe, J.: Clima y ambiente organizacional: trabajo, salud y factores psicosociales. Editorial
El Manual Moderno, México (2015)
12. Iglesias, A., Torres, J., Rodríguez, F.: Un acercamiento al clima organizacional. Revista Cubana
de Enfermería (1), 34 (2018)
13. Quintero, L., Sánchez, A.: El clima organizacional como factor para la calidad en Instituciones
de Educación Superior. Atenas, 47–68 (2018)
14. Rodríguez, H.: Propuesta de mejora del clima laboral y cultura organizacional en el Ministerio
de Coordinación de Desarrollo Social. Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas (ESPE), Sangolquí
(2015)
15. Millán, J., Montero, M.: Clima organizacional y satisfacción laboral de los colaboradores de
la empresa Oncorad de Chiclayo del 2016. Universidad Católica Santo Toribio de Mogrovejo,
Chiclayo (2017)
16. Segredo, A.: Clima organizacional en la gestión del cambio para el desarrollo de la organización.
Revista Cubana de Salud Pública, 385–393 (2013)
17. Montoya, P., Bello, N., Bermúdez, M., Burgos, F., Fuentealba, M., Padilla, A.: Satisfacción
Laboral y su Relación con el Clima Organizacional en Funcionarios de una Universidad Estatal
Chilena. Ciencia & Trabajo, 7–13 (2017)
18. Alva, J., Domínguez, L.: Clima organizacional y satisfacción laboral en los trabajadores de la
universidad San Pedro de Chimbote, 2013. In: Crescendo. Institucional, pp. 90–102 (2015)
19. Jaramillo, C.: La gestión universitaria basada en el clima organizacional utilizando principios
del modelo de la endocalidad. Revista Sur Academia, 62–70 (2014)
20. García, Y., Mendoza, J.: Influencia de los estilos de liderazgo en el clima organizacional de una
institución educativa de nivel medio superior. Administración para el desarrollo, 21–50 (2015)
21. Morales, H., Torres, A., Zapata, E.: Clima laboral dirigido a docentes del colegio Luis Carlos
Galán Sarmiento de Inírida – Guainía. Universidad cooperativa de Colombia, Colombia (2017)
22. Guzmán, L.: Análisis comparativo de la caracterización del clima organizacional en hospitales
públicos y privados. Universidad Católica de Santiago de Guayaquil, Guayaquil (2018)
Is There a Gender Relationship Between
Outdoor Activities and Well-Being?
Empirical Study in Northern Portugal
Alcina Nunes , Maria Isabel Vieira, and Paula Odete Fernandes
Abstract The definition of tourism has undergone significant changes, and what
was previously meant by tourism has been seen from a different perspective in recent
decades. For example, new definitions of tourism have emerged, including the devel-
opment of types of tourism associated with nature-motivated outdoor practices that
constitute alternative escape strategies for everyday life. Indeed, the demand for
such activities promotes healthier lifestyles and personal well-being and is a way
of getting around stress and a sedentary lifestyle. Literature refers to the contact
with the natural environment offers numerous benefits, including reducing and
preventing hypertension, developing a more remarkable ability to concentrate, satis-
fying emotional needs, and reducing stress. For women, in particular. Therefore, all
the present research is designed to identify the outdoor activities practised in the
North of Portugal, the reasons for their practice, and the possible benefits of these
outdoor activities to self-perceived health by gender. To this end, a questionnaire
survey has been elaborated and applied to the resident population and those visiting
the region to practice outdoor activities. The results reinforce previously published
results and consolidate the existing theory regarding the type of activities practised
and the inherent health benefits. The outdoor activity that respondents mostly practice
is walking, and they believe it reduces stress and improves physical and psycholog-
ical states. However, no statistical differences among gender were found, even if the
sample descriptive statistics seemed to follow the direction of the literature results.
Keywords Outdoor tourism · Health · Well-being · Gender · North Portugal
A. Nunes (B) · P. O. Fernandes

UNIAG, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Sta Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança,
Portugal
e-mail: alcina@ipb.pt
P. O. Fernandes
e-mail: pof@ipb.pt
M. I. Vieira
Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Sta Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal
e-mail: a30385@alunos.ipb.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_40
452 A. Nunes et al.
1 Introduction
Over time, tourism has constituted an opportunity for local, regional, and national
development, providing the promotion of deprived areas that preserve their cultural
heritage and landscape [1]. In recent years, outdoor tourism has gained more and
more fans, being one of the tourism types with the highest growth from year to year
[2]. It is characterised by activities that define active tourism, involving interaction
with the natural environment and travel outside the residence areas [3]. At the same
time, leisure, being previously understood as doing nothing, begins to be seen by
people to occupy their free time as a form of distraction, evasion, physical exercise,
simple entertainment or personal development [4]. Therefore, the demand for outdoor
activities translates into promoting healthier lifestyles and well-being, being a way to
circumvent everyday life’s stress and sedentary lifestyle [5]. Indeed, there is growing
recognition of the positive benefits of outdoor recreation and nature-based tourism
[6]. Recent literature considers that being outdoors is significant for improving human
health and well-being, enhancing social connections, and linking people with their
natural and cultural heritage [6–9]. Moreover, recent research believes there are some
gender differences, which transcend geographical and cultural contexts, regarding
participation in various outdoor recreation and tourism activities and how these
activities are described and felt from a gender perspective [10, 11].
In Portugal, the north region offers an enormous diversity of resources, products
and activities due to its geographical position since it presents noteworthy natural
contrasts. It includes mountain and coastal areas, satisfying the different motivations
of its visitors. Nature tourism and cultural and landscape touring are anchor products
of the destination. Also highlighted is the importance of sports and outdoor activities,
followed by religious tourism, city and short breaks, gastronomy, and wines as highly
relevant resources and products for the region. Finally, health and wellness are also
considered relevant in attracting visitors [12].
Since outdoor tourism is a growing study topic and considering the tourism sector
evolution in Portugal—namely in the country’s northern region—it is vital to under-
stand the type of activities practised in this region and what benefits the practitioners
feel regarding their health and well-being. Therefore this paper presents the results of
an empirical research work that collected primary data using a survey of people aged
over 18 years living or visiting the north of the country. A descriptive statistical treat-
ment and an applied multivariate inferential analysis have been carried out to reach
the proposed objectives. Structurally, this paper is divided into five sections. After the
introduction, the first section presents the literature review on the topics in analysis.
The third section presents the methodology focusing on the study hypothesis, the
instrument for data collection and the statistical methods applied. The fourth section
offers and discusses the results. The paper ends with a section of final remarks.
Is There a Gender Relationship Between Outdoor Activities … 453
The term outdoor in the literature is still unclear due to the great diversity of terms
with which it is associated. Indeed, outdoor tourism is a complex area lacking a
clear definition and often overlaps with adventure, leisure and recreation [13]. In
this sense, a terminology associated with the world of activities practised in nature
was developed [14]. Since tourists are more proactive and seek more authentic and
diverse experiences, destinations have been rethinking and restructuring what they
have to offer [15, 16]. Thus, nature tourism receives attention as a complementary
product to the sun and beach, especially during the lower season [17]. Nature tourism
allows discovering the natural heritage, landscapes and traditions of a given area,
respecting the natural values that exist in it [18]. It is based on contact with the
environment, being considered by the World Tourism Organization (WTO) [19]
as a critical, dynamic, and attractive tourism segment, being able to be combined
with other types of tourism such as “active tourism”, “sports tourism”, “business
tourism”, “cultural tourism” and “rural tourism” [3]. For Cunha [4], nature tourism
can be expressed differently. First, environmental tourism is related to land, sea and
sky and their state of purity. Second, ecological tourism or ecotourism includes travel
to natural areas to understand the nature and natural history of the environment, not
altering the ecosystem’s integrity. So, it is possible to distinguish two types of nature
tourism. Soft nature tourism involves calmer and lower risk activities, such as visiting
protected areas or natural spaces with cultural and natural value, fauna observation,
and hiking. Hard nature tourism includes more radical and challenging activities,
such as rafting, birdwatching, and climbing [3].
Outdoor, leisure, health and wellness, spa, and medical tourism have been consid-
ered five health-related components [20]. Indeed, according to several studies, it can
be stated that the practice of outdoor tourism has benefits for health. Several authors
cited by [21] studies have concluded that contact with the natural environment, plants,
animals and landscapes offers numerous medical benefits for people in connection
with this environment. The benefits include reducing and preventing hypertension,
developing a more remarkable ability to concentrate, satisfying emotional needs,
and reducing stress. Tourism has come to be considered mentally and physically a
healthy pursuit. Taking a holiday contributes to subjective well-being. People have
more opportunities to get away from the work environment, try new things and
control what they want to do during their holiday [22]. Although quality of life
is considered a subjective and complex concept, its demand is a human need that
motivates tourism activity, more specifically associated with the practice of outdoor
activities. These activities promote rejuvenation and relaxation to balance physical
and mental health [23]. Over the years, physical activities have diminished in the
general population’s daily routines. For instance, a study developed by Nordh and
co-authors [24] concluded that walking is the most practised type of outdoor activity
since it is an activity that can be adapted to various daily situations.
454 A. Nunes et al.
3 Methodology
This research aims to identify the outdoor activities practised in Northern Portugal,
the reasons for their practice, and the perceived health and well-being benefits. As
the gender of individuals is a determinant of their self-perceived health, and the
practice of outdoor activities may be defined by gender [11, 12], this research work
combines the gender and outdoor recreation domains. The following hypothesis are
then formulated:
• H1 : The motivation in choosing the North Region as a tourism destination depends
on the gender of the practitioner;
• H2 : The motivation to choose the North Region for the practice of outdoor
activities depends on the practitioner’s gender;
• H3 : The agreement concerning the benefits that outdoor activities bring to health
and well-being is independent of the practitioner’s gender;
• H4 : The probability of repeating the practice of outdoor activities depends on the
practitioner’s gender.
A survey was used as an instrument for statistical data collection to pursue the
objectives described above. This questionnaire was applied to people over 18 years
old who practised outdoor activities in the North region of Portugal and informedly
consented to answer it. The delivery of the questionnaire was carried out in person
during the months between July and October 2019. The northern region of Portugal
comprises 86 municipalities, organised in 8 NUT III: Alto Minho, Cávado, Ave,
Área Metropolitana do Porto, Alto Tâmega, Tâmega e Sousa, Douro, and Terras de
Trás-os-Montes.
Since outdoor tourism is a subject that has not yet been widely studied in the
Portuguese context, there were no validated questionnaires at the time of this work.
For this reason, it was necessary to design a questionnaire from scratch with the
questions that were considered most relevant to analyse the hypotheses. The ques-
tionnaire is structured into two groups. The first group includes sociodemographic
questions aimed at characterising the respondent—age, gender, place of residence,
academic qualifications, profession, average monthly household income, and the
frequency with which the respondent practices outdoor activities. The second group
of questions focuses on the study’s primary objective—to understand what outdoor
activities are performed and how this influences the (self)perceived health. Here are
found questions about the reason and frequency of the visit to the Northern region, the
type of accommodation and mode of travel, outdoor activity habits, type of outdoor
activity practised, knowledge about outdoor tourism, reasons for practising outdoor
activities and the inherent benefits.
The validation of the questionnaires is based on an analysis of each question or
assessment. Internal consistency estimation was performed for the questions related
to motivation, agreement, and probability (Table 1). Cronbach’s α was calculated to
estimate the internal consistency of questions with the same scale.
Table 1 Internal consistency of the motivation, agreement and probability variables

Variables Cronbach’s α
Motivation for choosing the North Region as a tourist destination 0,813
Motivation in choosing the North Region as a destination for outdoor activities 0,749
Agreement on the benefits of outdoor activities for health and well-being 0,793
Likelihood of repeating outdoor activities 0,896
The degree of consistency for the group of motivation variables for choosing
the north region as a tourist destination and the likelihood of repeating outdoor
activities is good. A reasonable internal consistency is observed concerning the latent
variable that measures the motivations for choosing the region as a destination for
outdoor activities and the latent variable measuring agreement regarding the benefits
of outdoor activities to health and well-being.
Since this empirical work constitutes an exploratory study, it will be based
on an exploratory, descriptive statistical analysis—mean, standard deviation (SD),
minimum (Min) and maximum (Max). Additionally, since the aim is to know the
profile, in terms of gender, of those who practise tourism activities, an inferential
analysis will also be presented. Parametric and non-parametric tests will be applied
to compare means, namely the t-student test for independent samples, following
the assumptions of the number of sample observations n ≥ 30 for each of the two
groups studied and Levene’s test to test the homogeneity of the population. The
Mann-Whitney test will be used when a violation of one of the assumptions above
is verified.
The sample comprises 200 individuals, 101 of whom are female (50.5%) and 99 are
male (49.5%). The practitioners are between 18 and 78 years old, and, on average, the
respondents are approximately 36 years old. Men have around 37 years. In this group,
the minimum age is 18, and the maximum is 78. Regarding women, the average age
is approximately 35 years. The younger woman has 18 years old, and the older has
70. Out of the total, 95 of the respondents are single (47 men and 48 women), 90
are married or cohabiting with someone (49 men and 41 women), and three men
and eight females are divorced. Four women are widows. Most of the respondents
have a higher education degree. Out of 76 answers, 47.4% (36 respondents) are
male, and 52.6% (40 respondents) are female. In the remaining sample, 70 have
secondary education, predominantly females (36 women), 12 males and 16 females
have basic education, 20 respondents have a professional qualification, and only
two women and two men have no qualifications. Out of the total, 63.5% of the
respondents (127 individuals) are employed, 18% are entrepreneurs (36 individuals),
12% are students (24 individuals), 4.5% are unemployed, and 1.5% are retired (9
456 A. Nunes et al.
Table 2 Relationship between gender and frequency of outdoor activities practice

Frequency of outdoor activity Gender Total
Male Female
n % n % n %
Occasionally 31 31.31 47 46.54 78 39.00
1 to 2 times per week 28 28,28 16 15.84 44 22.00
3 to 5 times per week 16 16.16 10 9.90 26 13.00
1 to 3 times per month 11 11.11 14 13.87 26 13.00
Every day 7 7.07 6 5.94 13 6.50
None 6 6.06 8 7.92 14 7.00
Total 99 100.00 101 100.00 200 100.00
and 3 individuals, respectively)—most of the ones in the labour market work on

services, followed by manufacturing and agriculture. Finally, 41% of the sample (82
individuals) have an average monthly income between e601 and e1,200, followed
by respondents with an income between e1,201 and e1,800, which represents 41%
of the sample (48 respondents), 33 respondents receiving up to e600, the lowest
percentage corresponding to respondents with an average monthly income between
e3,601 and e4,200.
Moving on to the practice of outdoor activities is important to understand the
regularity of its practice (Table 2).
A total of 40% of the sample practice outdoor activities occasionally. In the male
group, 31.3% and in the female group, almost 47%. Only 6.5% of the total sample
practise it every day, with men (7.07%) practising more than women (5.94%) daily.
Women are those who confess never had practised before in a more considerable
percentage (9.92% compared to 6.06% of men). Indeed, as the literature suggests,
men tend to practise more and more frequently outdoor activities.
To draw conclusions on the outdoor activities practised in northern Portugal as
well as the reasons for their practice and the benefits they bring to the health of each
respondent was important to understand which are the most important aspects for
each respondent that led them to choose the North region as a tourist destination in
terms of outdoor activities. A question including 14 items, using a Likert scale from
1 to 5, where 1 = Not important; 2 = Less important; 3 = Indifferent; 4 = Very
important; 5 = Extremely important, has been used for the purpose. The items are
(1) accommodation, (2) gastronomy, (3) weather, (4) hospitality, (5) environmental
resources, (6) local/regional history and culture, (7) touristic attractions, (8) safety,
(9) nature/landscape, (10) new experience, (11) adventure, (12) events/festivities,
13 tourism entertainment activities, and (14) outdoor activities. The most important
motivation for men when choosing the northern region as a tourist destination is
gastronomy, followed by outdoor activities, nature, tourism attractions and hospi-
tality. The accommodation is the reason that least leads males to choose this region.
For females, nature, gastronomy, climate, safety, and outdoor activities are the reasons
that most lead women to choose the northern region. Events and festivals are the least
motivating factors for selecting the region.
Nature and outdoor activities are a motivation for the choice of the North region as
a tourist destination for the practice of outdoor activities. Therefore, being a signifi-
cant motivation should also be understanding the degree of respondents’ knowledge
about outdoor activities. In general, respondents have some knowledge regarding
outdoor activities. The majority of the sample (52.5%) have medium knowledge
about these activities. Only 2.5% confessed no knowledge regarding outdoor activ-
ities. Out of the possible outdoor activities, walking is the primary choice for both
genders, followed by running (athletics) for men and circuits/tourism routes for
women. Activities such as horse riding, surfing, downhill, climbing and canyoning
are preferred by men only. In contrast, women prefer activities such as stand-up
paddle, kayaking, canoeing, and paintball. In addition to the answers given, some
respondents chose the option “other”, indicating for this purpose, activities such as
motocross and gym as the type of activity they practice even if gym should not be
considered a type of outdoor activity.
A question was prepared to identify what respondents consider more important
when choosing the North Region as a tourist destination for the practice of outdoor
activities. Out of 190 responses, even if all mentioned aspects are very important
for practitioners, health and well-being matter most to the population under study,
followed by sociability and beauty/landscapes. For this sample, the least important
aspect for choosing the region regards cultural attractions and nightlife and entertain-
ment. The importance varies by gender. For women, the most important is socialising,
followed by health and well-being and the beauty/landscape. What least motivates
women to choose the northern region to practice outdoor activities is the nightlife.
On the other hand, health and well-being and beauty and landscapes are the most
important for men. As with the women, nightlife and fun are also what least motivate
the men gender to practice outdoor activities in the northern region.
As health and well-being are very important factors to practise outdoor activities in
the north Portuguese region, it should be understood why. Table 3 helps to understand
the agreement on the benefits.
Table 3 Agreement regarding the practice of outdoor activities on health and well-being
Benefits n Mean SD Min Max
Improves physical condition 190 4,73 0,55 1 5
Decreases stress 189 4.72 0.56 1 5
Improves psychological state 188 4.69 0.63 1 5
Self-esteem 188 4.44 0.74 1 5
Self-confidence 189 4.41 0.70 1 5
Addictions reduction 189 3.96 1.16 1 5
Other 1 – – – –
458 A. Nunes et al.
Table 4 Respondents’ opinions on each of the items presented

Probability items n Mean SD Min Max
Likelihood of recommending the North region for outdoor 186 4.56 0.67 1 5
activities
Likelihood of recommending the outdoor activity 186 4.46 0.7 1 5
performed
Likelihood of speaking positively about the outdoor activity 186 4.42 0.73 1 5
Likelihood of repeating outdoor activities 187 4.39 0.80 1 5
The practitioners, independent of gender, consider that outdoor activities improve

the physical and psychological state and decrease stress. The respondents do not agree
so much that the practice of outdoor activities leads to addiction reduction, such
as smoking and drinking. Another factor was mentioned by one respondent—the
opportunity to socialise with new people. A table was prepared (Table 4) containing
four parameters to know what each respondent thinks about the outdoor activities
practised. They had to answer in terms of probability using a scale of 1–5, where 1
= Definitely not; 2 = Probably not; 3 = Neutral; 4 = Probably yes; 5 = Definitely
yes.
As for the health and well-being benefits, there is no difference by gender regarding
the probability of recommending the North of Portugal to practise outdoor activities,
the specific outdoor activity practised, advising the activities to others, and the prob-
ability of repeating it. Both genders agree on the high likelihood of recommending
the North Region for the practice of outdoor activities and the specific activity prac-
tised. Even though it is probable the activity would be repeated, this item presents
the lowest average for both genders.
After the descriptive statistical characterisation of the practice of outdoor activities
and the health benefits, the inferential analysis compares the means of the two gender
groups to understand if there are statistical differences between them. Therefore, to
test if an association between motivations to choose the North region as a tourist
destination for the practice of outdoor activities and gender exists, hypothesis 1
(H1 )was defined. The Mann-Whitney test allows verifying that motivations regarding
accommodation, weather and nature/landscape to choose the northern Portuguese
region as a tourism destination depend on gender (Table 5).
There is no statistical difference between men and women for all the other moti-
vations, including outdoor activities. This question was just answered by those not
residents of the North region—tourists. Since the sample size in both groups was
less than 30 cases, it was unnecessary to use the homogeneity of variance test.
Additionally, to understand whether the motivation in choosing the North region
for outdoor activities and the variable gender are associated, H2 was formulated. The
results are presented in Table 6.
In this case, since the sample size in both groups was big than 30, a variance test
had to be performed, i.e., to test whether the population variances were homogeneous.
For that purpose, the Levene test was performed. Assuming a significance level of
Table 5 Mann-Whitney test for the association of gender with the motivations for choosing the
North region as a tourism destination
Motivations to choose the North region U de Mann-Whitney p-value
Accommodation 7.000 0.042
Gastronomy 17.500 0.429
Weather 5.000 0.015
Hospitality 19.500 0.931
Environmental resources 11.500 0.151
Local/regional history and culture 19.500 0.931
Touristic attractions 19.500 0.932
Safety 12.000 0.149
Nature/landscape 12.000 0.062
New experience 15.500 0.447
Adventure 14.000 0.340
Events/festivities 19.000 0.874
Touristic entertainment activities 19.000 0.875
Outdoor activities 19.000 0.841
Table 6 T-test for the association of gender with motivations to practice outdoor activities in the
North region
Motivations for practising outdoor activities Levene’s test t-student gl p-value
Natural beauty/landscapes 0.250 0.123 188 0.902
Cultural attractions 0.822 −2.275 188 0.024
Practise outdoor or sports activities 0.305 0.093 188 0.926
Socialisation 0.339 −0.539 188 0.591
Adventure 0.695 0.342 188 0.733
Leisure 0.117 0.202 188 0.842
Health and well-being 0.529 0.657 189 0.512
Nightlife and entertainment 0.900 −0.137 187 0.891
Rest 0.298 −1.079 188 0.282
Stress reduction 0.100 −0.817 188 0.415
5%, there is not enough statistical evidence to state that the variances are significantly
different, so it was possible to conclude that population variances estimated from the
two samples are homogeneous.
Concerning the motivations presented to the practitioners for performing outdoor
activities in the country’s northern region, only the one concerning cultural attractions
shows a statistical difference among gender. For all the other motivations, including
the practice of outdoor activities, it seems gender does not differ when considering
its importance.
460 A. Nunes et al.
Table 7 T-test for the association of gender with health and well-being benefits
Benefits Levene’s test t-student gl p-value
Decreases stress 0.450 −0.222 187 0.824
Improves physical condition 0.164 0.993 188 0.322
Improves psychological state 0.044 −1.088 186 0.278
Addictions reduction 0.272 −0.687 187 0.493
Self-confidence 0.302 −1.401 187 0.163
Self-esteem 0.322 −1.073 186 0.285
Table 8 T-test for the association of gender with the probability of practising outdoor activities
Probability items Levene’s test t-student gl p-value
Likelihood of recommending the North region for 0.739 0.829 185 0.408
outdoor activities
Likelihood of recommending the outdoor activity 0.203 −0.087 184 0.931
performed
Likelihood of speaking positively about the 0.436 0.930 184 0.354
outdoor activity
Likelihood of repeating outdoor activities 0.482 −0.354 184 0.723
Moreover, since health and well-being were pointed to as very important motiva-
tions to practice outdoor activities, it was tested whether there are differences between
genders regarding the agreement on the benefits that outdoor activities bring to health
and well-being. The results that test H3 are shown in Table 7.
The individuals in the sample agree with the benefits of outdoor activities on
health and well-being. There is no statistically significant difference among genders
on this topic.
Finally, regarding whether there is an association between the probability of
repeating the practice of outdoor activities and the practitioners’ gender, the research
hypothesis (H4 ) was developed: the probability of repeating outdoor activities
depends on the practitioner’s gender. The results of the statistical test are presented
in Table 8.
Also, for this hypothesis (H4 ), no association between the gender of practitioners
and the probability of recommending the region, the particular case of outdoor activ-
ities or speaking positively about it exists. The same goes for the likelihood of
repeating the activity.
5 Final Remarks
From the empirical research, it is possible to conclude that although a small minority
of respondents are not yet familiar with outdoor tourism, the vast majority (some
more than others) are familiar with outdoor activities. This number tends to increase
since more people seek alternative types of tourism to escape the routine of daily life
to reduce stress and everyday concerns. Indeed, what most motivates respondents
to visit the North Portuguese region are the landscapes and nature, gastronomy,
tourist attractions and the practice of outdoor sports activities, which reinforce the
literature evidence. Regarding the motivations for choosing the North to practise
outdoor activities, the most important for respondents, regardless of gender, are
health and well-being, natural beauty and landscapes and socialising. Respondents
also agree on the benefits that the practice of outdoor activities brings to health. These
benefits include the improvement of the physical and psychological state and the
reduction of stress. These results corroborate studies previously made [21, 24]. Some
gender differences have been found when describing the sample. As the literature
results foresaw, men engage in outdoor activities more frequently than women and
prefer different activities. Moreover, although both genders agree on some aspects
when choosing the North region as a tourist destination, they differ in others. Women
give importance to safety and climate. Men give more importance to gastronomy, for
example. However, when trying to find statistically significant differences was not
possible to find many. Motivations to choose the North as a tourism destination may
depend on gender, but both genders agree on the benefits for health and well-being.
Acknowledgements This project is being carried out within the scope of the TURNOUT Project-
Development of Outdoor Tourism of Northern Portugal, POCI-01-0145-ERDF-032289, financed by
the European Investment Fund Regional Development (ERDF) through the Operational Program
of Competitiveness and Innovation (POCI) and the Foundation for Science and Technology, IP
(OE). The authors are also grateful to the UNIAG, R&D unit funded by the FCT—Portuguese
Foundation for the Development of Science and Technology, Ministry of Science, Technology and
Higher Education. “Project Code Reference: UIDB/04752/2020”.
References
1. Gannon, A.: Rural tourism as a factor in rural community economic development for economies
in transition. J. Sustain. Tour. 2(1–2), 51–60 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1080/096695894095
10683
2. Ribeiro, V.: Turismo Baseado na Natureza: Motivação e escolha de um destino. O caso de
Gullfoss, Islândia. Dissertação de Mestrado em Turismo e Ambiente. Instituto Politécnico de
Leiria, Leiria (2017)
3. Santos, J.: Turismo de natureza: procura turística e imagem dos espaços naturais. Dissertação
de Mestrado em Gestão Turística. Instituto Politécnico de Viseu, Viseu (2018)
4. Cunha, L.: Economia e Política do Turismo. Editora Verbo, Lisboa (2006)
462 A. Nunes et al.
5. Silva, M.: Modelos de Formação em Turismo e Desporto de Natureza, Estudo de Caso do

Canyoning. Dissertação de Mestrado em Turismo. Escola Superior de Hotelaria e Turismo do
Estoril, Estoril (2010)
6. Winter, P.L., Selin, S., Cerveny, L., Bricker, K.: Outdoor recreation, nature-based tourism, and
sustainability. Sustainability 12, 81 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/su12010081
7. Frumkin, H., Bratman, G.N., Breslow, S.J., Cochran, B., Kahn, P.H., Jr., Lawler, J.J., Levin, P.S.,
Tandon, P.S., Varanasi, U., Wolf, K.L.: Nature contact and human health: a research agenda.
Environ. Health Perspect. 125(7), 075001 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP1663
8. Hartig, T., Mitchell, R., de Vries, S., Frumkin, H.: Nature and health. Annu. Rev. Public Health
36, 207–228 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032013-182443
9. Wolsko, C., Lindberg, K., Reese, R.: Nature-based physical recreation leads to psychological
well-being: evidence from five studies. Ecopsychology 11(4), 222–235 (2019). https://doi.org/
10.1089/eco.2018.0076
10. Kling, K.G., Margaryan, L., Fuchs, M.: (In)equality in the outdoors: gender perspective on
recreation and tourism media in the Swedish mountains. Curr. Issues Tour. 23(2), 233–247
(2020). https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2018.1495698
11. Rosa, C.D., Larson, L.R., Collado, S., Cloutier, S., Profice, C.C.: Gender differences in connec-
tion to nature, outdoor preferences, and nature-based recreation among college students in
Brazil and the United States. Leisure Sci. 1–21 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1080/01490400.2020.
1800538
12. Araújo, S.: Rotas turísticas e sistemas de recomendação no norte de Portugal uma análise do
perfil do visitante. Dissertação de Mestrado em Gestão do Turismo. Instituto Politécnico do
Porto, Porto (2017)
13. Hanna, P., Wijesinghe; S., Paliatsos, I., Walker, C., Adams, M., Kimbu, A.: Active engagement
with nature: outdoor adventure tourism, sustainability and well-being. J. Sustain. Tour. 27(9),
1355–1373 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2019.1621883
14. Martín, P., Encinas, V.: Turismo activo y outdoor training. Revista Cientifica de Actividad
Física y Deport 5(9), 45–53 (2006)
15. Sedmak, G., Mihalic, T.: Authenticity in mature seaside resorts. Ann. Tour. Res. 35(4), 1007–
1031 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2008.07.004
16. Gale, T.: Modernism, post-modernism and the decline of British seaside resorts as long holiday
destinations: a case study of Rhyl North Wales. Tour. Geograp. 7(1), 86–112 (2005)
17. Agapito, D., Valle, P., Mendes, J.: The sensory dimension of tourist experiences: capturing
meaningful sensory-based themes in Southwest Portugal. Tour. Manag. 42(22), 224–237 (2014)
18. ICNF Homepage.: http://www2.icnf.pt/portal/turnatur. Accessed 20 Sep. 2019
19. WTO.: Cumbre mundial del ecoturismo: informe final. Organização Mundial del Turismo,
Madrid (2002)
20. Hall, C.: Health and medical tourism: a kill or cure for global public health? Tour. Rev. 66,
4–15 (2011)
21. Romagosa, F., Eagles, P.F.J., Lemieux, C.J.: From the inside out to the outside in: exploring
the role of parks and protected areas as providers of human health and well-being. J. Outdoor
Recreat. Tour. 10, 70–77 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jort.2015.06.009
22. Chen, C.-C., Petrick, J.F.: Health and wellness benefits of travel experiences: a literature review.
J. Travel Res. 52(6), 709–719 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287513496477
23. Quintela, J.A., Costa, C., Correia, A.: Health, wellness and medical tourism—A conceptual
approach. Enlight. Tour.: Pathmaking J. 6(1), 1–18 (2016)
24. Nordh, H., Vistad, O.I., Skår, M., Wold, L. C.: Magnus Bærum, K. Walking as urban outdoor
recreation: public health for everyone. J. Outdoor Recreat. Tour. 20, 60–66(2017). https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jort.2017.09.005
The Intervention of Local Authorities
on the Management of Outdoor Tourism:
The Case of Northern Portugal
Paula Odete Fernandes , Patrícia Anjos, Alexandra Correia ,

and Alcina Nunes
Abstract Portuguese municipalities—local public authorities—face several chal-

lenges in supporting outdoor tourism. This type of tourism, associated with nature,
adventure, religion, culture, health and wellness, represents an alternative to the
traditional tourism supply that, together with a high potential to promote the
regional economic development overcome seasonality or overtourism phenomena.
The northern region of Portugal includes a vast set of municipalities rich in the
supply of outdoor tourism activities, which contribute from the financial contribu-
tion to private touristic firms to the promotion of local events and traditions and
the preservation of the local heritage. This research intends to understand how the
northern Portugal municipalities support and manage outdoor tourism, assuming
local authorities’ key role. In particular, it aims to understand the importance of
this type of tourism on regional governance, how the local heritage contributes to
and benefits from the development of outdoor activities, and how are promoted local
public policies on this topic. A survey has been prepared and sent to all municipalities
in the North of Portugal. The results allow an understanding that not all municipalities
are fully aware of the importance of outdoor tourism to local development. However,
local authorities have started to find that suitable outdoor tourism governance may
positively impact the local economy by promoting the notoriety of the municipality,
creating new jobs, fixing the population, and preserving local traditions and heritage.
P. O. Fernandes · A. Nunes (B)

UNIAG, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança,
Portugal
P. O. Fernandes
e-mail: pof@ipb.pt
P. Anjos
Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal
e-mail: a37416@alunos.ipb.pt
A. Correia
UNIAG, CITUR, Instituto Politécnico de Viana Do Castelo, Rua Escola Industrial e Comercial
Nun’Alvares, no 34, 4900-347 Viana Do Castelo, Portugal
e-mail: acorreia@estg.ipvc.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_41
464 P. O. Fernandes et al.
Keywords Outdoor tourism · Public governance · North of Portugal
1 Introduction
In the past decade, the world code of ethics for tourism has strengthened the global
importance of tourism. The code argues that responsible conduct will allow recon-
ciling, in a sustainable way, the economy, the environment, the globalisation process,
the growth and development of nations and the protection of social and cultural iden-
tities [1]. However, tourism activity is affected by “population growth and regional
shifts in demographics and distribution (e.g., urbanisation), as well as socio-economic
trends, such as changes in culture and consumption patterns” [2].
In a country like Portugal, tourism is a socio-economic sector of particular rele-
vance giving it tourism potential (beaches, museums, history, nature, wines, regional
products, culture, among others) with a consequent vast offer. So, outdoor tourism
offers a set of new strategic opportunities. Critical requirements for the strategic
success of outdoor tourism include the creation of competitive advantages to increase
the value of endogenous resources and tourism heritage with the guarantee of unique-
ness of the experiences offered and the quality of the services or the creation of
better conditions for the discovery, knowledge and enjoyment of local tourism attrac-
tions. The development of such a strategy and its governance is therefore also vital.
However, governance within the tourism sector is recognised in the literature as a
challenging task. It involves various players who are sometimes only weakly aware of
what tourism is. Tourism is often not recognised as a priority area requiring effective
policy, governance, and coordination [3]. Moreover, “the complexity of sustainable
outdoor recreation and tourism may suggest a need for different approaches to service
delivery, culture change among service providers and managers of natural spaces,
and novel approaches to inclusive governance and shared stewardship” [2].
The development of tourism results in investment opportunities, better infrastruc-
ture and local economic growth—it offers cultural exchanges and increases oppor-
tunities for local communities. In this sense, local authorities should include in their
primary objectives the enhancement of the quality of life for their community through
the economic benefits of tourism activities. This objective may be achieved, among
others, by (i) the development of infrastructure, facilities and recreational equip-
ment and services for visitors and residents; (ii) the guarantee of proper develop-
ment of visitor centres, resorts and other areas; (iii) the establish a development
programme consistent with the cultural, social and cultural philosophy adopted by
both the national and regional governments and the resident community itself; and,
(iv) the optimisation of the visitor’s satisfaction [4, 5]. “Tourism planning constitutes
a tool to safeguard natural and historical-cultural resources, of which the activity of
tourism depends, and at the same time on promoting greater efficiency and efficiency
in the public and private investments to be made in a given region” [6].
Outdoor tourism is a type of tourism that, if it is not new, is now attracting more
attention from the tourism stakeholders, namely the entities that should manage
The Intervention of Local Authorities on the Management of Outdoor … 465
it as the local authorities. In this sense, the current research is a first approach to
understanding how the authorities who take local decisions on outdoor tourism issues
perceive and value it and manage the activity sector. The paper is structured as
follows. Outdoor tourism is defined and contextualised in the next section regarding
the literature on the topic. After the methodology adopted to collect and treat the
data is presented. Section 4 describes, analyses and discusses the results. The work
ends with a section containing the final remarks.
The literature puts forward different terms referring to diverse activities in open-air
contexts, enabling contact and interaction with nature in urban and rural environ-
ments. Some of these concepts are outdoor recreation and nature-based tourism [7],
ecotourism [8], nature tourism [9], adventure tourism and recreation [10], active
outdoor tourism [11] or outdoor adventure tourism [12]. These terms sometimes
overlap [12], leading to some terminological confusion [13]. However, despite
each term’s specificities, key common ideas can be aggregated into a single all-
encompassing term, Outdoor Tourism, which allows uniformity. Thus, as a wide-
ranging concept, outdoor tourism involves diverse activities that people undertake
and enjoy while on holiday, focusing on engagement with nature and usually includes
an overnight [8]. These activities occur in outdoor settings in urban and rural envi-
ronments [7], including in biosphere reserve areas [14]. Outdoor tourism activities
are nature-based and include physical exercises. They range from a slow pace to high
intensity, such as yoga or mindfulness, nature exercises, guided nature walks, biking,
surfing, windsurfing, kayaking, scuba diving, rappelling, tree-top climbing, rock
climbing, fishing, boating, guided boat tours [15], backpacking, wildlife viewing,
camping, and off-road driving, rock climbing and diving [16].
Outdoor tourism-related activities are increasingly important [17], not only for
health promotion and welfare [18, 18] but also to motivate tourists to travel to desti-
nations [20] and to offer opportunities to enjoyment and appreciation of natural
environment [12] and cultural heritage [21]. Furthermore, outdoor tourism-related
activities have economic and environmental implications [8], specifically for job
creation and rural development [15], and are an essential source of monetary income
for many local communities [20]. Therefore, they are increasingly getting attention
from public organisations regarding public strategies [15].
The growing demand for more “environmentally friendly” activities [9] and the
rising visitation to recreation and protected areas are increasing globally and in
many regions causing detrimental impacts on the natural environment [19]. Indeed,
a higher number and visitors’ concentration might put places at risk due to the
destruction of natural and cultural resources while compromising sustainability [22].
Thus, there is a need to manage outdoor tourism-related activities [21] to minimise
the impact of tourism activities on the natural environment degradation [23], to
contribute to sustainable development [17], and to differentiate a particular nature-

based tourism destination [20]. A clear understanding of changes impacting the sector
and its implications for business or destination management is critical to formulating
strategies that are particularly relevant in a time of increased competition between
tourism businesses and domestic and international destinations [24].
Visitor management and monitoring are critical to responding to the challenges
and opportunities of outdoor tourism-related activities [19]. However, and despite the
recognition of its importance, management and governance are still a challenge for
many tourism destinations around the world, particularly in natural-based areas, not
only due to the recognition of negative impacts (e.g. destruction, pollution, population
growth, and species loss), but also because of the multiple, and often competing,
stakeholder groups involved in producing and delivering the tourism products and
services, along with reduced cooperation and coordination among stakeholders of
diverse policy and sector domains [25].
Therefore, given the above, there is a need to understand how outdoor tourism can
be supported and managed by public organisations and how outdoor tourism-related
activities can be managed to minimise the potential negative impacts on nature-based
areas.
3 Methodology
The empirical presented in this chapter is based on a questionnaire survey that aims
to identify and understand the policies and measures adopted by the municipalities
in the northern Portuguese region as drivers of outdoor tourism activities. The ques-
tionnaire was developed based on a previously validated questionnaire elaborated
by [26]. Since the original questionnaire questions were dichotomic and ordinal, the
instrument was adapted for the present study. It was decided to measure the study’s
relevant issues on an ordinal scale using a 5-point Likert scale, where 1 was the least
important and 5 the most important. This amendment made it possible to collect
more detailed and complete data. The survey was applied between May 2019 and
August 2019 to the 68 municipalities that compose the North Region of Portugal,
comprised of Braga, Bragança, Porto, Viana do Castelo and Vila Real districts. All
the municipalities were contacted to participate in the study, but only 32 answered
the questionnaire, generating a response rate of 47.1%.
The questionnaire is divided into parts that focus on understanding the different
aspects related to the management of outdoor tourism by a northern Portuguese
municipality. After a part that will help to characterise the person that is answering
the questionnaire on behalf of the municipality, the survey intends to understand
the importance given by the local authorities to the ten tourism products defined in
the tourism marketing strategy of Porto and Northern Portugal, from 2015 to 2020,
and find out if the municipality considers more products. It also gathers information
on the type of tourism information disseminated by the municipality and how it is
disclosed. Since outdoor tourism is an alternative to massed tourism, it is also essen-

tial to determine its importance concerning local authorities’ objectives. Questions
regarding seasonality, the valuation and the protection of tourism heritage are present
in the survey after a session that concerns the impacts of outdoor tourism activities.
The investment in infrastructure/equipment and how it is performed is also an
issue. The management of outdoor tourism implies a given set of measures that
should be addressed, from the local authorities’ perspective, trying to understand the
degree of agreement with each of them. Follows the issues referring to the planning
of the outdoor tourism, i.e. whether the municipality has any long-term plan or
strategic plan strategy and how it was created and the coordination structures of the
outdoor tourism. Finally, with the survey, it was possible to collect data on what
kind of promotion the municipality develops and which additional actors beyond the
municipalities, both internally and externally, are important. The survey concludes
with the information regarding the amount (in euros) the municipality predicted in
its 2019 budget to promote and manage outdoor tourism.
Since this is an exploratory work in outdoor tourism governance by Portuguese
municipalities, data treatment is very unpretentious. It serves the intention of under-
standing what is being done by local authorities. Moreover, the analysis depends
on a sample of almost 50% of the population, which is not enough to make infer-
ences for all municipalities in north Portugal but allows some exploratory conclu-
sions. Therefore, data analysis relies upon descriptive statistical measures like central
trend measures (mean), dispersion measures (standard deviation, minimum, and
maximum), and frequency measures.
4 Results
The questionnaire was sent to all municipalities in the Northern region of Portugal,
asking for a responsible person to answer it. So, before presenting the results, it
is important to describe the profile of the respondents. Thirty-two municipalities
returned the questionnaire. In 29 municipalities (90.7%), the technician responsible
for the tourism area answered the questionnaire. A politician responded to only three
questionnaires (9.3%). Men represent 46.9% of the respondents. On average, they
have around 43 years old. Still, their age ranges between 27 and 60 years old, and
they held their position (seniority) for an average of 14 years, even if this period
may vary between 1 and 48 years. Most of the respondents (65.6%) have a higher
education degree, and just 20% have specific training in tourism.
All municipalities disclose their tourism information in Portuguese (100%), while
just 87.5% disclose their tourism information in English, 71.9% in French and
Spanish, 12.5% in German, 6.3% in Italian, and 3.1% in Dutch. A municipality
(Braga) disseminates its tourist information in 14 foreign languages. This infor-
mation is spread through several channels. It should be stressed the following:
tourist maps (96.9%), tourist signs (96.9%), virtual social networks (93.8%), tourist
brochures (93.8%), tourist routes (87.5%), ICT tools for tourism (84.4%), and the
municipality institutional website (87.5%). Moreover, 40.6% of municipalities use

a website specifically dedicated to tourism, and 71.9% hold corresponding tourist
information points distributed by the main points of public interest. Unfortunately,
71.9% of municipalities don’t have a municipal tourist office, and 75% reported they
do not have an official tourist information network involving non-tourist entities.
The Porto and the Northern Portugal Tourism, as a regional tourism agency entity
concerned with sustainable tourism, has developed, on a promotional basis, a set
of tourism products relevant to the economy and capable of enhancing respect for
the environment and social, regional and national growth. These products include:
(1) health and wellness, since the North of Portugal is a non-mass destination that
comprises urban, mountain, city and resort spas; (2) city and short breaks, that include
thematic itineraries and personalised services; (3) gastronomy and wines, with the
promotion of the quality of raw materials and the ancestry of forms of food confection
and production; (4) nature Tourism, enhanced by the dissemination and promotion
of the city and nature together with the modernity and tradition; (5) religious tourism
that includes the dissemination of art and the divine as a foundation or manifesta-
tion, namely through sanctuaries and sacred places and a high number of religious
constructions; (6) cultural and landscape touring, boosting the region, where multiple
routes are offered with themes that enhance the discovery of the heritage of Porto
and the North; (7) Business tourism by encouraging the organisation of congresses,
meetings, and launch of products from the region, combining them with the dissem-
ination and promotion of heritage; (8) Sun and sea; (9) Nautical tourism, and, (10)
Golf.
The study needed to understand which products are considered more relevant in
municipalities’ tourism activity, having as a starting point the Porto and the Northern
Portugal Tourism Marketing Strategy (2015–2020). The questionnaire results indi-
cate that the tourist products "sun and sea", "nautical tourism", and "golf" are the ones
with the lowest importance attributed to the municipalities that collaborated with this
study. These tourism products present a low degree of importance in the municipal-
ities’ tourism activity (2.0, 2.3 and 1.8 points, respectively). The tourism products
"city and short breaks", "health and wellness tourism", and "business tourism" occupy
an intermediate position in the degree of importance even if these tourism products
are considered important for developing the tourism activity of municipalities (3.6,
3.3 and 3.1 points, respectively). Finally, the tourism products of "cultural and land-
scape touring", "religious tourism", "nature tourism", and "gastronomy and wines"
are the ones that the municipalities of the northern region find the most important
for tourism development. The average importance values calculated seem to prove
this importance (4.7, 4.6, 4.3 and 3.8 points, respectively). These results are possible
because the north part of Portugal has a strong cultural heritage and a peculiar charm.
Municipalities were questioned about the possible consideration of other strategic
tourist products and those provided for in the current classification of Tourism
Marketing Strategy of Porto and North of Portugal (2015–2020). Only 31% of
the municipalities identified other tourism products, namely: (1) rural tourism; (2)
creative tourism; (3) design and architecture tourism; (4) sports tourism (including
surf and cycling); (5) geomine heritage; (6) Santiago’s Paths Route; (7) cross-border
tourism; (8) family tourism; (9) educational tourism; and, (10) event tourism. Given
the Tourism Marketing Strategy guidelines of Porto and Northern Portugal, many
of these products constitute segments of the defined strategic tourist products. Rural
tourism, sports tourism, educational tourism and family tourism, for example, are
considered strands of "nature tourism". The product "Santiago’s Paths Route" is
integrated into "religious tourism". Some products above-mentioned are specific to
a small set of municipalities and cannot be considered strategic products.
Within this topic, outdoor tourism was presented, and the issue of outdoor tourism
activities was approached, offering a list of such actions to understand if the munic-
ipalities know them. The results highlight some of the most well-known options:
tourism circuits/routes, pedestrian tours, cycling, interpretative paths or observation
of wildlife. The least known options are outdoor sea and water activities, in line with
the least important referred strategic products mentioned.
It was also essential to understand if municipalities can identify the high season
period for the previously defined activities. On average, the municipalities identify
six months associated with a high season for outdoor tourism activities. Still, some
identified just two months, and others consider outdoor tourism activities covering
the whole year. Almost 19% of the municipalities indicate the months from April to
October as the high season months, followed by the ones which mention the months
from March to October, May to September and June to September (12.5%, each) as
the peak season for outdoor tourist activity. The remaining municipalities (almost
44%) mark other months of the year as a high season.
Since outdoor tourism is an alternative to mass tourism, it is essential to understand
how such tourism type is included in their strategic objectives in the tourism area. On a
scale of importance from 1 to 5, the municipalities indicated the degree of importance
foreseen. It is possible to conclude that outdoor tourism is extremely important to
boost cultural and landscape potential, fight seasonality, dynamise the economy,
preserve cultural resources, attract tourists, and protect the environment. They also
consider the potential to create new jobs, personalised services, outdoor activities,
and overcoming health issues. Similarly, municipalities believe the activities related
to Santiago’s Paths Route itineraries encourage economic, social and environmental
development in the regions crossed by a historically identified path.
Indeed, seasonality may be a problem when managing tourism activities in a
local context. When considering outdoor tourism, seasonality may negatively impact
during the high season. Structurally, the economic, environmental and socio-cultural
effects are the three critical areas that should be considered and addressed by manage-
ment mechanisms used to maximise positive impacts and minimise negative ones.
The municipalities that answered this question consider the "local economy" impact
caused by the arrival of tourists and visitors with a moderate degree of importance.
This effect causes positive multiplier effects, also mentioned by municipalities since
tourists will spend money, generate business creation and, therefore, new employ-
ment opportunities. Moreover, municipalities also refer to the importance of outdoor
tourism to preserve the historical heritage and cultural identity. This may result from
the fact that, on the one hand, tourists see it as a sustainable type of tourism, and
by another hand, there is an awareness of residents and tourists to preserve the
region’s heritage. Negative impacts are considered moderate. With tourists’ arrival
come issues like delinquency and crime, conflicts among people, noise, waste, and
road traffic, which is added to house speculation. Moreover, it is considered a nega-
tive impact to ponder the possible extinction of fauna and flora and all the natural
landscape. In overcoming such impacts, municipalities think in a way to protect the
environment and not harm it, namely with the creation of protected areas.
As recognised by the participant municipalities, outdoor tourism positively
impacts the conservation and enhancement of cultural heritage. All participant munic-
ipalities value it. They also understand the opposite can happen. Cultural heritage
can be the object of commercial interest existing the risks of abuse and its loss. In
this sense, policies should balance outdoor tourism and cultural heritage. Outdoor
tourism allows the contemplation, appreciation and enjoyment of the natural, scenic
and cultural heritage and involves recreational and sporting activities, playful, and
tourist interest in the region [27].
All municipalities value their tourism heritage, but they attribute different levels
of importance to different aspects (goals) related to it. On average, municipalities
safeguard their significant heritage. The most important element they consider is
preserving their heritage by enhancing their natural resources. It follows the protec-
tion of their heritage values, the improvement of the municipality’s image, and visi-
tors’ awareness. They also agree on creating plans to raise awareness among resi-
dents and manage heritage to keep it untouched and preserve its sustainability. They
consider that excessive tourist load leads to erosion of natural resources and a loss
of cultural heritage.
The municipalities use other measures to overcome market failures in tourism. The
investment in infrastructures and specific equipment of public interest are included
in these additional measures. The way it is done differs from municipalities that
agree more or less with the study’s particular procedures presented. The results show
that some municipalities do not agree with one or more of the suggested actions,
and others agree with at least one. On average, municipalities partially agree to use
community funds to invest in infrastructure and equipment of public tourism interest.
This procedure is followed by the charge of a usage fee, the grant of tax exemptions,
the provision of such infrastructures/equipment in the municipal budget, or the avail-
ability of a structure to support the touristic investment’s promoter. On average, the
municipalities agree less on an action that allows preparing and providing guides and
manuals to support the touristic investment promoter. Several municipalities do not
agree or disagree with procedures that offer incentives or imply banking protocols
with financial institutions. Finally, it should be noticed that municipalities partially
disagree with executing processes that demand the collection of an entrance fee,
for example, in municipal museums. Municipalities believe the free entrance to a
municipal place of tourism interest attracts more tourists, making it more dynamic
and allowing the economy to grow.
Another issue raised by tourism policies, in general, and outdoor tourism activities,
mainly, is the coordination and planning of such activities. Gunn [28] considers that in
tourism planning, there is a set of critical elements in developing a global approach to
planning tourist destinations: (i) only planning can avoid negative impacts, although
for this to be effective, all agents must be involved; (ii) tourism shows a symbiosis
between conservation and recreation and not a conflicting use for purposes or effects
irremediably incompatible; (iii) planning must be pluralistic, involving the economic,
social and environmental dimensions; (iv) planning is a political activity and, there-
fore, there is the need to take into account the objectives of society in general
and balance it with other aspirations, often divergent; (v) tourism planning must
be strategic and integrative; and, (vi) the tourism planning must have a perspective
of spatial planning [26].
Almost 47% of the participating municipalities have a structure for coordinating
the tourism activity, which includes the participation of several local agents, public
and private. Around 41% of them have a network composed of local tourist agents
independent of local authorities. Approximately 81% of the municipalities do not
have an external structure created by themselves, an advisory tourism coordination
system, or another type of coordination procedure. Therefore, it is vital to understand
whether municipalities in the country’s northern region can assume a central role in
coordinating the municipal outdoor tourism activity.
As the municipalities are integrated into a political-administrative organisation,
which comprises several government levels, it was expected to observe some degree
level of coordination of the outdoor tourism activities between the municipalities and
these other organisations. On average, municipalities report moderate coordination
between them and the regional tourism authority and with agents of local touristic
attractions. The coordination level of outdoor tourism activities is even lower with
Turismo de Portugal, IP, the public’s local tourist agents, and the regional tourism
promotion agency. Overall, it doesn’t seem very easy for these municipalities to
coordinate the outdoor tourism activity between the municipalities and the various
tourism management structures.
Stating understanding that the planning measures and coordination structures
are not as strong as Gunn suggested [28]. The research also wanted to determine
what is happening with elaborating plans oriented to the outdoor tourism field. The
Municipal Master Plan is the main instrument of the tourism planning process for
most municipalities (almost 44% of the sample). Most of them (56.3%) do not have a
long-term tourism development or a strategic plan. In what concerns creating a long-
term tourism development plan or strategic plan, most of the municipalities (40.6%)
developed an internal municipal structure. In comparison, 31.3% made it according
to the strategic guidelines provided by the Marketing Strategy of Porto and Northern
Portugal (2015–2020). Only near 19% of municipalities created an external entity to
plan tourism activities.
The tourism activities planning relies on a large scale upon the Municipal Master
Plan. It is relevant to identify a municipal budget that covers tourism activities (either
outdoor or not). In 2019, around 19% of the participants had a municipal budget of 20
thousand euros, 12.5% predicted to spend between 21 and 40 thousand euros, 9.4%
had estimated amounts between 41 to 60 thousand euros and near 6% an expenditure
between 81 and 100 thousand euros. Three municipalities (9.4% of all participants)
will spend more than 201 thousand euros. However, only a small part was devoted
to outdoor tourism from the total budget. Several municipalities did not mention a
particular municipal budget for tourism.
Another important issue related to tourism, and therefore outdoor tourism activi-
ties, is its promotion. The outdoor policy promotion policy is relevant for the gover-
nance of this type of activity. The results highlight that 100% of the municipalities
prepare promotional materials (offered in brochures or social networks). Around
78% and 62.5% of the municipalities participate in international and national fairs
to promote outdoor tourism. Moreover, 75% of the municipalities in the Northern
Region of Portugal use community funds in this promotion, and almost 66% provide
logistical support to private agents on various promotional actions. Only 37.5% of
the municipalities (12 in absolute values) foresee a specific item for outdoor tourism
in the municipal budget. In comparison, 53% of them do not think it is necessary
to have a particular item devoted to outdoor tourism. As the promotion of this type
of tourism is related to marketing strategies, it was found that almost 41% of the
participant municipalities benefit from a tourism promotion plan, around 28% have
a tourism marketing plan directed to this particular type of tourism and near 31%
have a tourism brand for outdoor tourism.
Municipalities understand they should be the leading players in the planning
of outdoor tourism activities, but when questioned about the importance of public
sector organisations in northern Portugal, with operations in the tourism area and
the municipalities’ work for tourism promotion. It was also tried to identify whether
municipalities consider it essential to create municipal companies, associations, or
other forms of organisations to design and develop tourism promotion. Therefore,
internal (domestic) and external tourism promotion were divided. Regarding the
context of the internal tourism promotion was found that, on average, for munici-
palities, the existence of an internal municipality structure is very important. After,
the municipalities consider important the regional tourism entity’s intervention for
the domestic promotion of activities. Lastly, it should be noted the municipalities
seem not to think of very relevant external structures (or another type of structure) to
ensure domestic tourism promotion. On average, a very similar degree of importance
for the various structures is presented concerning the external tourism promotion.
5 Final Remarks
The northern region of Portugal is a very diverse region, which makes available to
those who visit a wide variety of tourist products, ranging from the beach to the
mountains, passing by the thermal resorts, not forgetting rural tourism, which has
had a significant increase in recent years. It is a region that offers a wide variety of
tourism supplies available to the tourists, in terms of resources and tourist products.
This tourist destination offers an exciting alternative to the so-called “tourism of
masses”, which is usually associated with more significant environmental impacts
and has been more competitive than other Portuguese tourist destinations. Outdoor
tourism is a different approach to tourism, proving crucial in combatting negative
tourism impacts like seasonality and overtourism. It generates local effects such as
the growth and development of the local economy by generating new businesses and
jobs, retaining local people, and attracting new inhabitants besides the tourists. Still,
it lacks information on it, namely in the Portuguese economy. The municipalities
themselves also do not know about some outdoor tourism activities and therefore do
not support it much, as concluded by the amounts (in euros) foreseen in the budgets.
The exploratory results of the municipalities of the northern region of Portugal
show that a long way should be run in promoting tourism activities, the design of
tourism marketing plans or even in the creation of an own tourism brand. That aligns
with the conclusions presented by Winter et al. [2] that refer to "governance and
institutional change will be necessary on all scales to align the promise and reality
of sustainable outdoor recreation and tourism systems". Furthermore, it is vital to
notice the public sector plays an essential role in the development of tourism, having
the ability to influence this activity in various ways: promoting and supporting the
construction of infrastructure/equipment, regulating and legislating, promoting and
planning, showing knowledge, creating incentives for investment, preserving the
historical and cultural heritage and, finally, promoting the image of tourism.
Following the Tourism Strategy 2027 aimed at the Portuguese tourism sector, local
authorities are encouraged to combat seasonality, enhance their heritage and culture,
qualify and value human resources, and stimulate innovation and entrepreneurship.
With outdoor tourism, local authorities may raise awareness among residents and
tourists to preserve their natural and logistical resources and their tourism heritage
while preserving and sustaining local assets and cultural identity. Hence, it is essen-
tial the municipalities in the north part of the country bet on this tourism strand by
designing and implementing a strategic plan that covers all the year with outdoor
activities. The municipalities understand the positive impacts, and adverse effects are
known. Therefore could be fought using the appropriate instruments. With outdoor
tourism activities has been observed a moderately decreasing trend regarding noise,
pollution, and problems such as delinquency and crime. At the same time, the munic-
ipalities keep an increasing interest in the protection of species fauna and flora and
the preservation of historical heritage and cultural identity. Of course, implementing
such a plan cannot be made without investment in tourism promotion and evolving
other regional tourism stakeholders.
(OE). The authors are also grateful to the UNIAG, R&D unit funded by the FCT – Portuguese
Higher Education. "Project Code Reference: UIDB/04752/2020".
References
1. UNWTO: Global code of ethics for tourism (for responsible tourism). United Nations and the
World Tourism Organization (2020)
2. Winter, P.L., Sellin, S., Cerveny, L., Bricker, K.: Outdoor recreation, nature-based tourism, and
sustainability. Sustainability 12(1), 81 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/su12010081
3. Scott, N., Marzano, G.: Governance of tourism in OECD countries. Tour. Recreat. Res. 40(2),
181–193 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2015.1041746
4. Goeldner, C., Ritchie, J.: Tourism: Principles, Practices, Philosophies. Wiley, New Jersey
(2009)
5. Nunkoo, R., Smith, S.L.: Political economy of tourism: trust in government actors, political
support, and their determinants. Tour. Manag. 36, 120–132 (2013)
6. Fazenda, N., Alegria, E., Braga, T., Gomes, J.: Agenda Regional do Turismo: Plano de ação
para o desenvolvimento turístico do Norte de Portugal – Pacto regional para a competitividade
da Região do Norte de Portugal. Comissão de Coordenação e de Desencolvimento Regional
do Norte (CCDR-N) (2008)
7. Margaryan, L., Fredman, P.: Bridging outdoor recreation and nature-based tourism in a commer-
cial context: insights from the Swedish service providers. J. Outdoor Recreat. Tour. 17(July
2016), 84–92 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jort.2017.01.003
8. Bell, S., Tyrvainen, L., Sievanen, T., Probstl, U., Simpson, M.: Outdoor recreation and nature
tourism: a European perspective. Living Rev. Landsc. Res. 1(2), 2 (2007). https://doi.org/10.
12942/lrlr-2007-2
9. Chiu, H.Y., Chan, C.S., Marafa, L.M.: Local perception and preferences in nature tourism
in Hong Kong. Tour. Manag. Perspect. 20, 87–97 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2016.
07.007
10. Beedie, P., Hudson, S.: Emergence of mountain-based adventure tourism. Ann. Tour. Res.
30(3), 625–643 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-7383(03)00043-4
11. Buckley, C.: Ecotourism: Principles and Practices. CABI, Oxford, UK (2009)
12. Hanna, P., Wijesinghe, S., Paliatsos, I., Walker, C., Adams, M., Kimbu, A.: Active engagement
with nature: outdoor adventure tourism, sustainability and wellbeing. J. Sustain. Tour. 27(9),
1355–1373 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2019.1621883
13. Fennell, D.A.: What’s in a name? Conceptualising natural resource-based tourism. Tour.
Recreat. Res. 25(1), 97–100 (2000)
14. Beery, T., Jönsson, K.I.: Outdoor recreation and place attachment: exploring the potential of
outdoor recreation within a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. J. Outdoor Recreat. Tour. 17, 54–63
(2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jort.2017.01.002
15. Broegaard, R.B.: Rural destination development contributions by outdoor tourism actors: a
Bornholm case study. Tour. Geogr. 0(0), 1–21 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2020.
1795708
16. Priskin, J.: Assessment of natural resources for nature-based tourism: the case of the central
coast region of Western Australia. Tour. Manag. 22(6), 637–648 (2001). https://doi.org/10.
1016/S0261-5177(01)00039-5
17. Pröbstl, U., Haider, W.: Challenges for outdoor recreation and nature based tourism. J. Outdoor
Recreat. Tour. 1–2, iii–iv (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jort.2013.05.001
18. Mackenzie, S.H., Son, J.S., Eitel, K.: Using outdoor adventure to enhance intrinsic motivation
and engagement in science and physical activity: an exploratory study. J. Outdoor Recreat.
Tour. 21, 76–86 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jort.2018.01.008
19. Pickering, C., Rossi, S.D., Hernando, A., Barros, A.: Current knowledge and future research
directions for the monitoring and management of visitors in recreational and protected areas.
J. Outdoor Recreat. Tour. 21, 10–18 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jort.2017.11.002
20. Adeleke, B., Ogunsusi, K.: Evaluation of factors evaluation of factors enhancing effectiveness
of destination management of nature based tourism. Int. Tour. Hosp. J. 9, 61–75 (2019)
21. Manning, R.E.: Research to guide management of outdoor recreation and tourism in parks and
protected areas. Koedoe 56(2), 1–7 (2014). https://doi.org/10.4102/koedoe.v56i2.1159
22. Milano, C., Novelli, M., Cheer, J.M.: Overtourism and tourismphobia: a journey through four
decades of tourism development, planning and local concerns. Tour. Plan. Dev. J. 1–4, 353–357
(2018). https://doi.org/10.1080/21568316.2019.1599604
23. Ghazvini, S.A.M., Timothy, D.J., Sarmento, J.: Environmental concerns and attitudes of tourists
towards national park uses and services. J. Outdoor Recreat. Tour. 31, 1–10 (2020). https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jort.2020.100296
24. Dwyer, L., Edwards, D., Mistilis, N., Roman, C., Scott, N.: Destination and enterprise manage-
ment for a tourism future. Tour. Manag. 30(1), 63–74 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.
2008.04.002
25. Islam, M.W., Ruhanen, L., Ritchie, B.W.: Adaptive co-management: a novel approach to
tourism destination governance? J. Hosp. Tour. Manag. 37, 97–106 (2018). https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jhtm.2017.10.009
26. Costa, C.: Instrumentos de Políticas Públicas do Turismo: Uma Análise Empírica dos Municí-
pios Portugueses. Tese de Doutoramento em Ciências da Administração. Universidade do
Minho-Escola de Economia e Gestão, Braga (2015)
27. Laranjeiro, M.: Campismo e atividades de lazer e turismo – Eventos e redução da sazonalidade:
o caso da Praia de Mira. Dissertação de mestrado em Turismo, especialização em Turismo,
Território e Patrimónios. Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra (2018)
28. Gunn, C.A.: Tourism Planning: Basics, Concepts, Cases, 3rd edn. Taylor & Francis, Wash-
ington, D.C. (1998). https://doi.org/10.1177/004728759403200371
Adaptive Control of a Mobile Robot
for Cargo Transportation in Industrial
Environments
Fidel N. Guerrero, Karen A. Proaño, Cesar A. Naranjo,
and Víctor H. Andaluz
Abstract This work focuses on the proposal of a cascade control scheme between a
kinematic controller and an adaptive dynamic compensator. By using the Hardware
in the Loop (HIL) technique, which allows the connection between hardware that
simulates a real system with a computer that emits control signals; in this case, the
hardware simulates the behavior of a robotic system with unicycle traction developed
in a virtual reality (VR) environment for a teaching–learning process. To represent
the behavior of this robotic platform, kinematic and dynamic models are found.; in
the case of the dynamic model, a robotic platform with unicycle traction is built to
estimate the dynamic parameters experimentally and validate the dynamic model
obtained. In turn, this constructed robotic platform allows comparing the behavior of
the controllers with those implemented in the HIL technique. The research demon-
strates the favorable behavior of the controller cascading a proposed trajectory and
changing the dynamics of the unicycle robot with different loads applied as in an
industrial environment. The objective is to replace the use of physical platforms
for the evaluation of new control algorithm proposals, reducing costs and even
being focused on educational environments where the acquisition of physical robotic
platforms is avoided.
Keywords Unicycle robot · Virtual reality · Education · Hardware in the loop
F. N. Guerrero (B) · K. A. Proaño · C. A. Naranjo · V. H. Andaluz

Universidad de Las Fuerzas Armadas, Sangolquí-Ecuador, Sangolquí, Ecuador
e-mail: fnguerrero@espe.edu.ec
K. A. Proaño
e-mail: kaproano3@espe.edu.ec
C. A. Naranjo
e-mail: canaranjo@espe.edu.ec
V. H. Andaluz
e-mail: vhandaluz1@espe.edu.ec
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_42
478 F. N. Guerrero et al.
1 Introduction
Currently, technological advances in the industrial field are focused on the fourth
industrial revolution known as industry 4.0 in terms of the benefits to be gained
from process automation: increased productivity and quality; detection of faults with
electronic systems; reduction in downtime in production lines [1]. Manufacturing
systems in Industry 4.0 are composed of sensors, intelligent machines and intelligent
robots, so it is necessary to manage, store and index data, together with technologies
that allow the grouping and interconnection of devices through an Internet network
giving way to the use of IoT platforms (Internet of Things), which interact with
humans in order to provide cyber-physical services such as object recognition for
detection of object failures in production lines [2–4].
Another booming technology today is Virtual Reality, which seeks to repre-
sent as much as possible real environments such as: the development of interactive
systems for the simulation and testing of control strategies in rehabilitation tasks and
robotic assistance for people with motor disabilities [5, 6]; linkage with SAR systems
(social assistance robots) for emotional relationship therapy with users [7]; indus-
trial processes, virtualizing the scenarios through the use of CAD software for both
industrial level purposes using as systems for testing control algorithms without
causing damage to the physical system, This is also applicable to the educational
environment, since it allows students to interact with a virtual system that simulates
the behavior of real plants [8, 9]. In these processes the inclusion of robotic systems,
belonging to the field of industrial robotics, is also very notorious. Commonly used
are those known as manipulators or robotic arms that by simulating the behavior of
a human arm, benefits are obtained in the manipulation of objects, positioning preci-
sion and repeatability, fundamental attributes when automating tasks in production
lines, manufacturing, assembly [10]. These robots have the peculiarity that most of
them, due to their large size and weight, have a fixed base, limiting their work space.
Therefore, mobile robotics are used for applications such as: tracking and trajectory
control [11]; execution of tasks in supervision of the elderly, telecare, provision of
medicines, accompanying dependent persons [12].
Mobile robotics in turn are classified according to the configuration of their drive
systems as follows: (i) omnidirectional, which stands out for the mobility obtained
from its wheels, which allow the movement of the robotic platform in all directions
[13]; (ii) car-like, which is the basis for the modern automobile model and there
are 2 front wheels for steering and 2 rear wheels for robot traction, widely used in
research applicable to real vehicles [14]; (iii) uniciclo, its simplicity in terms of its
traction system allows to automate wheelchairs or similar structures for the transport
of users with motor disabilities [5, 12], that allow the displacement between points or
to follow trajectories. And evaluation of different control algorithms and cooperative
work control strategies [15].
Therefore, the present work is focused on the development of a HIL environ-
ment for testing high-level control algorithms on a unicycle robotic platform in a
virtualized environment. For the simulation of the kinematic and dynamic behavior,
Adaptive Control of a Mobile Robot for Cargo Transportation … 479
mathematical modeling is developed; in the case of the dynamic model, obtaining

the validation of the dynamic constants is performed by means of a robotic platform
built. All this in order to achieve a model that resembles as closely as possible the
behavior of a real robot; the control algorithms are evaluated considering scenarios
similar to those that can be found in a real working environment. This allows them
to be targeted for educational environments in which students need to experiment
with these types of platforms.
The document is organized as follows: the formulation of the problem presented
at the time of evaluating control algorithms in order to strengthen the teaching–
learning process together with the mathematical modeling of the robotic platform are
in Sect. 2. The description of the virtualized environment where the robot performs its
tasks is in Sect. 3. The control scheme and the proposed control algorithms together
with the respective stability analysis of the proposed controllers are in Sect. 4. Finally,
Sect. 5 presents the results obtained in the present investigation.
2 Problem Formulation
Today’s automation by mobile robots is covering more functions in the industrial

sector for reasons of time, money and productivity. Similarly, in teaching and learning
of future professionals to solve solutions in this area. However, there have been draw-
backs in the consolidation of knowledge in a practical way and the study and imple-
mentation of new control algorithms; in the case of the present work, a unicycle-type
mobile robot can’t be easily purchased, thus losing the ability of logical reasoning in
the evaluation of such controllers in a practical form. Because the physical acquisition
of these devices has a high cost and there is a risk of damage during the respective
tests.
In order to strengthen the teaching–learning process, the construction of a
unicycle-type mobile robot with more accessible and low-cost elements and sensors
has been carried out, in which the kinematic and dynamic modeling of the robot has
been studied to evaluate advanced control algorithms.
2.1 Kinematic Modeling
This type of robotic platform with unicycle type traction has a lineal velocity u and
an angular velocity ω, in the axes from the reference frame of the unicycle robot rU
(see Fig. 1). Therefore, obtaining the kinematic model describing the robot’s position
involves analyzing the positions and velocities necessary for trajectory tracking.
The point of interest h is defined at any position of the robot, depending on the
displacements a on the axis xU and b on the axis yU , as is the case in Fig. 1 where
the point of interest is found displaced in the fourth quadrant of the robotic platform.
This results in the following geometric model:
Fig. 1 Reference frame for the movement of the mobile robotic platform
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x x a
= 0 + rUW (1)
y y0 b
By deriving (1), the instantaneous kinematic model of the unicycle robot with
respect to the reference frame rW is obtained. This model can also be expressed
in a matrix form in (2) in order to be used in control schemes considering that the
⎡ ⎤T
velocity vector of the mobile robot is defined by v = u w , the rotation matrix
rUW which rotates from the unicycle robot frame to the world inertial frame and the
⎡ ⎤T
position velocity vector ḣ = ẋ ẏ .
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
ẋ u cos(ψ) d U a cos(ψ) − sin(ψ)
= + rW with, rW (ψ) =
U
(2)
ẏ u sin(ψ) dt b sin(ψ) cos(ψ)
2.2 Dynamic Modeling
When considering the dynamic model of the robotic platform, the control algo-
rithms consider the effects of the intrinsic and extrinsic forces of the system. All
this by means of the analysis of the relationships between the movements, forces
and torsional moments that cause them. This is how the dynamic model (3) of the
robotic platform with unicycle type traction obtained from the [16], In this project
the dynamic model is based on this platform. This model has 8 dynamic parame-
ters because it considers the displaced center of mass, which allows to represent the
behavior when handling loads that are not located in the center of the robot, or due
to the shape of the load.
vr e f (t) = M(ς )v̇(t) + C(ς, v)v(t) (3)

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
ς1 − ς7 ς4 − ς3 ω
M(ς ) = C(ς, v) =
−ς8 ς2 ς5 ω ς6
where, vr e f is the vector of control signals or reference velocities of the robot; v̇(t)
robotic platform accelerations; M is the mass matrix; C the matrix of centrifugal
forces; and both matrices contain the dynamic parameters ς ∈ rl with l = 8, which
will be calculated for each sampling period.
3 Virtual Environment
In teaching–learning, virtual environments should consider human–robot interaction

with situations that arise in the industry. Therefore, this section describes the develop-
ment of a virtual environment that allows observing the behavior of a unicycle robot
in a simulated industrial environment. With the objective of evaluating advanced
control algorithms when considering real situations, by considering the mathemat-
ical models obtained in previous sections inside the virtual environment; since this
is how represent the behavior of the unicycle-type robotic platform.
The scheme for virtualization of the environment (see Fig. 2), consists of 4 blocks:
(i) External Resources, using software CAD the 3D elements are represented based
on real elements, both the robot and different objects that are located in the virtual
environment developed in the Unity 3D platform, to increase the immersion of an
industrial environment; (ii) Scripting, the programming scripts allow the emulation of
the robot in a virtual environment by including the mathematical models obtained,
in this block also includes the management of the resources with which the user
interacts; (iii) Device Virtual, these input–output devices are tools that increase user
immersion and interaction with the virtual environment by directly contacting the
visual and auditory senses; (iv) Controler, allows the implementation of advanced
control algorithms through a low-cost Raspberry-Pi board, closing the control loop by
wireless communication. Matlab software that enables the exchange of data with the
virtual environment by including Dynamic Link Library (DLL). In order to establish
a link for the exchange of information without using an additional program, in this
case the link between Matlab and Unity3D is created.
4 Control Algorithm
The control scheme (see Fig. 3) is designed so the unicyle robot trajectory tracking
and consists of two blocks: (i) the kinematic controller in charge of calculating the
position errors in each sampling period and are used to drive the mobile robot in a
direction that decreases these errors; (ii) adaptive dynamic compensation, to calculate
Fig. 2 Proposed diagram of the virtual environment
the new parameters necessary for the compensation of the dynamics of the mobile
platform in each sampling period.
4.1 Kinematic Control
The kinematic controller is based on the calculated kinematic model and is

represented as follows:
( ( ))
vc = J−1 ḣd + κh̃ tanh κ2 h̃ (4)
where, vc represents the velocities calculated by the kinematic controller, J−1 the
Jacobian matrix containing the inverse kinematics of the mobile robotic platform,
hd the matrix of desired velocities for trajectory compliance, κh̃ > 0, κ2 > 0 are the
weight or gain matrices positive defined to compensate for control errors and h̃ the
position error matrix itself which is saturated by the hyperbolic tangent.
Fig. 3 Control scheme for the unicycle robotic platform using HIL
4.2 Dynamic Adaptive Control
The adaptive dynamic control allows to calculate the dynamic parameters in each
sampling period, as robotic platforms tend to work in variable conditions. Both for
transporting loads with different weights and working on different surfaces. This
is omitted when calculating the dynamic constants with weights and under specific
conditions only once, therefore, the design considers the dynamic model expressed
as follows:
⎡ ⎤
ς
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ 3
ur ς1 − ς7 u̇ −ω2 u 0 0 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ς4 ⎥
= + ⎢ ⎥ (5)
ωr −ς8 ς2 ω̇ 0 0 uω ω ⎣ ς5 ⎦
~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~
ς6
vr e f M v̇
~ ~~ ~
η
and compactly (5) is represented by: vr e f = Mv̇+η which results from considering
(3) in its parametric form and then the control law (8)
vr e f = Mσ + η (6)
where, σ = [σ1 σ2 ]T with the following conditions:
σ1 = u̇ c + ku ũ, ku > 0,
σ2 = ω̇c + kω ω̃, kω > 0,

with velocities errors ω̃ = ωc − ω y ũ = u c − u. Next, rewrite (6) in (7):
vr e f = Ω(σ1 , σ2 , u, ω)ς (7)
where,
⎡ ⎤
σ1 0 − ω2 u 0 0 − σ2 0
Ω= , ς = [ς1 ς2 ς3 ς4 ς5 ς6 ς7 ς8 ]T
0 σ2 0 0 uω ω0 − σ1
Due to the uncertainties at the time of calculating the control actions caused by the
parameter values used and the dynamic effects not considered in the modeling. In
order to solve these problems and improve the performance of the controller, the
values of the parameters used in the controller are adapted to reduce the errors. In
the case of any uncertainty in the unicycle robot parameters, the control law:
vr e f = Ως̂ = Ως + Ως̃ = Mσ + η + Ως̃
where, ς y ς̂ are the actual dynamic parameters and estimated parameters of the
unicycle-type robotic platform, and the vector of errors of the dynamic parameters
is represented by ς̃ = ς̂ − ς .
4.3 Stability Analysis
By considering (5) in a compact form it follows Mv̇ + η = Mσ + η + Ως̃ and is

equivalent to M(σ − v̇) = −Ως̃ . In which the following are σ − v̇ = ṽ˙ (+ Kṽ, where )
the velocities errors are ṽ = vc −v y K = diag(ku , kω ) > 0 to obtain M ṽ˙ + Kṽ =
−Ως̃ , same that represents the equation of the controller’s errors. Then propose a
Lyapunov candidate function V (ṽ, ς̃ ) = 21 ṽT Mṽ + 21 ς̃ T ρ ς̃ and its partial derivative
V̇ (ṽ, ς̃ ) = −ṽT MKṽ − ṽT Ως̃ + ς̃ T ρ ς̃˙ . where, ρ ∈ r8x8 is a positive definite
diagonal matrix, the matrix M > 0 must be greater than zero and the vector of the
real dynamic constants is considered constant with the errors ς̃˙ = ς̂˙ .
By means of the law for updating parameters ς̃˙ = ρ−1 Ωṽ to substitute in the
derivative of the Lyapunov candidate function V̇ = −ṽT MKṽ ≤ 0, The same
that allows to verify the stability with the control errors as bounded signals. For
{T
integration, V (t) − V (0) = − 0 ṽT MKṽdt and without considering V (t) is
{T
obtained V (0) ≥ 0 x ṽ T MKṽdt. With MK defined positive and symmetrical
λmin (MK)||ṽ||2 ≤ ṽ T MKṽ ≤ λmax (MK)||ṽ||2 , where λmin (.), λmax (.) are the
minimum and maximum eigenvalues of the matrix. Finally, there is (8) after the
conditions analyzed in [17] considering the constants α1 = χ (MK) and μr = χ (Γ).
V̇ ≤ −α1 ||ṽ||2 − μr ||ς̃||2 + τ, τ = μr ||ς̃ ||||ς ||. (8)

In the analysis of control errors, considering the position error is determined by

proposing a candidate Lyapunov function of quadratic errors (9) and its respective
derivative (10)
1 T
V(h̃) = h̃ (t)h̃(t) (9)
2
˙
V̇(h̃) = h̃T (t)h̃(t) (11)
˙
By considering velocities errors h̃(t) = ḣd (t)− ḣ(t) and equalize with the control
law (4) and the kinematic model results in a negative definite function
( )
V̇(h̃) = −h̃T (t)κh̃ tanh κ2 h̃(t)
Therefore, in order to guarantee the stability of the control law, the condition must
be fulfilled that κh̃ > 0, κ2 > 0, to ensure that h̃ → 0 when time tends to infinity.
5 Results
This section presents the results obtained from the implementation of the control
algorithms, using the Hardware in the Loop technique through the development of
the virtual environment where the mathematical models obtained from the unicycle
robot are included to represent its behavior. In addition, a unicycle-type mobile robot
with proprioceptive sensors was built to evaluate the proposed controller, (see Fig. 4).
5.1 Construction Description
This subsection details the construction of a unicycle type mobile robot which is
divided into 4 blocks (see Fig. 5).
(i) Power supply: A LiPo battery (11.1 V–800 mA) provides power for the system;
(ii) Control module: there is an Arduino Uno, which transmits and receives the control
signals; the controllers (PID) are used to compensate the internal dynamics of the
mobile robot; (iii) Communication: coordinates the connection between the robot
and the Raspberry Pi board, considering a wireless transmission that allows high-
speed data transmission over long distances, based on the IEEE 802.15 standard; (iv)
Actuators, DC motors with their respective velocity sensor to close the control loop
and are also connected to a controller that supports a constant current of 1.2 A for
each motor.
Fig. 4 Mobile unicycle robot built
Fig. 5 Hardware block diagram of the unicycle mobile robot hardware

Fig. 6 Validation of dynamic parameters. The subscript ref represents desired value to the robotic
system; m represents current velocity of the system; ident represents velocity calculated by the
dynamic model
5.2 Identification and Validation
In the identification of the parameters of the dynamic model of the unicycle mobile
robot, it is considered signals in the form of steps as excitation signals of each velocity
performed by the unicycle robot.
The Fig. 6 shows the results obtained in the process of identification and validation
of the computed dynamic model. The maximum interactions are applied to these data
and the following parameters are obtained:
ζ1 = 0.3163, ζ2 = 0.2978, ζ3 = 0.0012, ζ4 = 0.9949, ζ5 = 0.0035, ζ6 = 1.0033,
ζ7 = 0.0020, ζ8 = 0.0316
These values were taken on a tile floor.
5.3 Virtual Hardware in the Loop Implementation
The implementation of the HIL technique in a virtual environment (see Fig. 7) tries to
resemble as much as possible an industrial environment where these types of robots
are used for logistics; robots in these areas handle loads of different weights while
following certain trajectories, which is one of the applications of adaptive dynamic
control. The developed system allows the evaluation of the proposed controllers for
Fig. 7 Virtual environment of the unicycle mobile robot
the unicycle robot by observing the compliance of the trajectory assigned to the
robotic platform in the virtual environment, including sounds and visual effects that
increase the immersion in the virtualized environment. Control system is located in
the Raspberry Pi card to perform the autonomous trajectory tracking; on the other
part, the dynamic and kinematic models is located in the Unity3D software, which
allows to simulate the behavior of the mobile robot. Finally, everything is linked
through a wireless communication that allows to close the control loop.
Then, when implementing the proposed control scheme, the following results
were obtained (Fig. 8). The trajectory consists of three parts; section A-B shows the
behavior of the robot without load; In section B-C a load is added to the robotic
platform and finally section C-A is the return without load.
The Fig. 8 shows the control errors of the proposed scheme considering a sampling
period of 100 ms, h̃x defines the position error in meters that the robotic platform
has with respect to the reference plane. rW on the axis X; while h̃ y defines it with
respect to the axis Y. In the tests performed. The adaptive dynamic compensator
is activated between 20 and 40 s and shows that in both cases the control errors
decrease considerably, tending to zero in compliance with the assigned trajectory.
Furthermore, it is remarkable the similarity of the behavior in the two graphs, due to
the fact that the HIL technique considers both kinematic and dynamic mathematical
models obtained and validated through the use of the built robotic platform.
6 Conclusions
Considering the kinematic and dynamic model allows us to simulate the behavior
of the robotic platform more accurately; all this because the dynamic constants are
obtained experimentally using a real robot, making the use of the HIL technique
feasible; the behavior of the mathematical model obtained and the reading of the
sensors located on the robotic platform have a high percentage of similarity in the
validation process. This technique in conjunction with the virtual environment devel-
oped provides an immersive environment in which the operation of the virtualized
a) Constructed Robot
b) HIL Environment
Fig. 8 Control errors in experimental trajectory tracking tests
robot and the operation of the control scheme in the fulfillment of the assigned
trajectory can be observed in great detail, this is of great help for use in teaching–
learning processes where, due to high costs, experimentation with new proposals for
advanced control algorithms is limited. Finally, the adaptive dynamic compensator
in conjunction with the kinematic controller in cascade control mode shows a good
performance in this type of unicycle type traction robotic platform focused on the
work of handling loads on different media or surfaces, since the dynamic parameters
are calculated in each sampling period adapting to the changes that the robot may
present, such as increased loads or change in the displacement Surface.
References
1. Webert, H., Döß, T., Kaupp, L., Simons, S.: Fault handling in industry 4.0: definition, process
and applications. Sensors 22(6) (2022)
2. Tsanousa, A., Bektsis, E., Kyriakopoulos, C., González, G.A., Leturiondo, U., Gialampoukidis,
I., Karakostas, A., Vrochidi, S., Kompatsiaris, I.: Review of multisensor data fusion solutions
in smart manufacturing: systems and trends. Sensors 22(5) (2022)
3. Fortino, G., Guerrieri, A., Pace, P., Savaglio, C., Spezzano, G.: IoT platforms and security: an
analysis of the leading industrial commercial solutions. Sensors 22(6) (2022)
4. Jian, M.-S., Pan, C.-J.: Blockchained industry information handoff based on internet of things
devices with intelligent customized object recognition. Sensors 22(6) (2022)
5. Ortiz, J.S., Palacios-Navarro, G., Andaluz, V.H., Guevara, B.S.: Virtual reality-based frame-
work to simulate control algorithms for robotic assistance and rehabilitation tasks through a
standing wheelchair. Sensors 21(15) (2021)
6. Caporaso, T., Grazioso, S., Di Gironimo, G.: Development of an integrated virtual reality system
with wearable sensors for ergonomic evaluation of human–robot cooperative workplaces.
Sensors 22(6) (2022)
7. Cohavi, O., Levy-Tzedek S.: Young and old users prefer immersive virtual reality over a social
robot for short-term cognitive training. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 161 (2022)
8. Wang, J., Qi, Y.: A multi-user collaborative AR system for industrial applications. Sensors
22(4) (2022)
9. Cueva, C.A., Erazo, K.G., Naranjo, C.A., Saá, F., Andaluz, V.H.: Virtual environment of
an industrial process for learning and teaching. In: Mesquita, A., Abreu, A., Carvalho, J.V.
(eds.) Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology. Smart Innovation, Systems and
Technologies, vol 256. Springer, Singapore (2022)
10. Kana, S., Gurnani, J., Ramanathan, V., Turlapati, S.H., Ariffin, M.Z., Campolo, D.: Fast
kinematic re-calibration for industrial robot arms. Sensors 22(6), (2022)
11. Mu, S., Shibata, S., Yamamoto, T.: Development of a user-following mobile robot with a
stand-up assistance function. In: Cognitive Robotics, pp. 83–95 (2022)
12. Pallares, B., Rozo, T., Camacho, E., Guarnizo, J., Calderon, J.: Design and construction of
a cost-oriented mobile robot for domestic assistance. IFAC-PapersOnLine 54(13), 293–298
(2021)
13. Gallo, L.V., Paste, B.D., Ortiz, J.S., Andaluz, V.H.: Control of an omnidirectional robot based
on the kinematic and dynamic model. In: Botto-Tobar, M., Montes León, S., Camacho, O.,
Chávez, D., Torres-Carrión, P., Zambrano Vizuete, M. (eds.) Applied Technologies. ICAT 2020.
Communications in Computer and Information Science, vol. 1388. Springer, Cham (2021)
14. Qadeer, N., Shah, J.H., Sharif, M., Khan, M.A., Muhammad, G., Zhang, Y.-D.: Intelligent
tracking of mechanically thrown objects by industrial catching robot for automated in-plant
logistics 4.0. Sensors 22(6) (2022)
15. Quispe, M.A., Molina, M.C., Ortiz, J.S., Andaluz, V.H.: Unicycle mobile robot formation
control in hardware in the loop environments. In: Botto-Tobar, M., Montes León, S., Camacho,
O., Chávez, D., Torres-Carrión, P., Zambrano Vizuete, M. (eds) Applied Technologies. ICAT
2020. Communications in Computer and Information Science, vol. 1388. Springer, Cham
(2021)
16. Ortiz, J., Palacios, G, Andaluz, V.H. Recalde, L.: Three-dimensional unified motion control of
a robotic standing wheelchair for rehabilitation purposes. Sensors 21(9) (2021)
17. Martins, F., Celeste, W., Carelli, R., Sarcinelli-Filho, M., Bastos-Filho, T.: An adaptive dynamic
controller for autonomous mobile robot trajectory tracking. Control Eng. Pract. 16(11), 1354–
1363 (2008)
Assessment of Digital Teaching
Skills—A Pilot Study Based
on the Precepts of Digcompedu
Gustavo de Oliveira Andrade , Sani de Carvalho Rutz da Silva ,

Manuel Florindo Alves Meirinhos , and Alessandra Dutra
Abstract This study aimed to evaluate the level of digital competence of a group of
17 teachers by applying a questionnaire of the European Digital Competence Frame-
work for Educators DigCompEdu [1]. With this information, we aimed to evaluate
which are the areas of mastery and use of digital technologies in which there is less
development of skills and use of these technologies when these professionals work
in the classroom. This diagnostic will be part of a pilot study that will be the mate-
rials and methods of a study of bigger proportions, with a larger number of teachers.
Therefore, the participants accessed the questionnaire on the DigCompEdu plat-
form, and we collected their answers. The answers were analyzed and the teachers’
scores allowed to classify them into six levels of digital competence based on the
metrics proposed by DigCompEdu questionnaire. The results allowed us to identify
that most teachers present intermediary levels of digital competence development,
being classified with the general score B2 and present a good comprehension of the
use of technological resources in the classroom. However, they not always show the
necessary criticism and history of experimentation to dare to implement different
tools. Finally, it was possible to identify the existing gaps in the digital competence
of teachers, making it possible to map the points that need to be worked on, thus
allowing these teachers to make autonomous and assertive decisions regarding their
professional training.
Keywords Digital compentece · DigCompEdu · Pilot study
G. de Oliveira Andrade (B) · S. de Carvalho Rutz da Silva · A. Dutra

Universidade Tecnológica Federal Do Paraná. R. Doutor Washington Subtil Chueire, 330 - Jardim
Carvalho, Ponta Grossa, PR, Brasil
e-mail: profgoandrade@gmail.com
M. F. A. Meirinhos
Instituto Politécnico de Bragança. Alameda de St.ª Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_43
492 G. de Oliveira Andrade et al.
1 Introduction
From 1990, with the progressive integration of technological innovation into the
school environment and the pedagogical practices, there was a significant change in
the educational context. In fact, internet, and the use of computers, when used as peda-
gogical tools integrated into the teacher’s methodological resources, can propitiate
changes in the teaching and learning processes, which will count on the availability of
multimedia resources, and access to different databases and online libraries. Further,
it will allow the student to know other cultures and favor digital inclusion [2]. But for
this to happen, it is necessary to improve the digital skills of teachers and students,
so that everyone can enjoy access to these goods.
Digital competencies can be understood as the group of skills and attitudes when
using technological and digital resources, that allow the teacher to be proficient and
autonomous to evaluate, select and apply these technologies to the education. There-
fore, it also allows mobilization of knowledge, propose of strategies and rethinks
pedagogical practices through digital technologies in the context of the classroom
[3, 4].
Many Brazilian teachers do not show a satisfactory development of digital skills.
Therefore, it is important to search for theoretical sources and practical experi-
ences that serve as a basis or example for the development of teaching digital
skills. Among the proposals for mapping the digital competence of teachers, one
of the most successful and that is already implemented is the European Framework
of Digital Competence for Educators—DigCompEdu. In addition to mapping the
level of competence of teachers, the DigCompEdu questionnaire also assesses how
teachers can collaborate in the development of students’ digital skills and make
the process of applying digital technologies for learning increasingly critical and
contextualized [1].
The implementation of such a situation in Brazilian territory will allow a diag-
nostic of the level of teachers’ digital competence, besides triggering a thought about
the formative curriculum, opening a debate about the purposes of formation for the
development of teacher’s digital competence. Guided by this finding, the present
research starts with the following question: “How can the DigCompEdu European
Framework questionnaire contribute to the mapping of the level of digital competence
of a group of teachers chosen for a pilot study?”.
To answer this question, the present study aims to assess the level of digital
competence of a group of 17 teachers from the application of the DigCompEdu
Framework questionnaire (2018), in order to assess which are the areas of use and
mastery of technologies in which there is a lower development of skills and use of
digital technologies in teaching when these professionals work in the classroom. This
diagnosis will be part of a pilot study that aims to function as a test for a study that
will later be carried out with a larger number of teachers.
The results can show the alternatives of teachers’ training and capacitation to help
to solve possible lacks.
Assessment of Digital Teaching Skills—A Pilot Study Based … 493
2 Theory
A study conducted by Silva and Behar, in 2019, made a literature review of 20 years
of publication (from 2007 to 2017), compiling national and international journals,
about the concept of digital competence. After that, the researchers were able to
find a common description: “It is understood that Digital Skills are linked to the
technological domain, mobilizing a set of knowledge, skills and attitudes with the
aim of solving or solving problems in digital media” [3].
This definition is aligned with what is proposed by the United Nations Educa-
tion, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 2015), which comprehends
digital competence as a group of skills, knowledge and attitudes regarded digital
technologies that allow their use critically and contextualized. Therefore, from these
two first perspectives presented, we can notice that the idea of digital competence
presupposes not only the knowledge of digital tools but also knowing how to use
them critically and consciously so that the use of technologies has a contributory and
ethical application in the teaching and learning process.
It can be said that these definitions converge with the idea of digital competence
adopted by most researchers. Dias-Trindade and Ferreira [5], for example, developed
a study that understands digital competence as the ability that a person has to deal
with digital environments whether at work, in studies or in social interactions, and,
in the specific case of the teacher, being also able to associate the pedagogical and
technological aspects in the exercise of their profession.
One can also cite a survey carried out in Spain by Gálvez-de-la-Cuesta et al. [6],
who also adopt the concept of digital competence as the one linked to the creative,
critical and safe use of ICT to achieve objectives related to work, employability,
learning, free time, inclusion and participation in society.
From the comprehension of what is digital competence, we need to list the studies
that approached the mapping of teachers’ digital competence by using a questionnaire
of the European Framework of Digital Competence for Educators: DigCompEdu [1].
According to Loureiro et al. [7], the European Framework emerged in 2017, at the
initiative of the European Commission to develop a project to expand the digital skills
of teachers in Europe as a way of promoting greater digital inclusion in education,
signifying and innovating teaching and learning practices. In an attempt to achieve
this objective, the Framework presents a structure that focuses on digital competences
based on three modules, subdivided into six thematic areas: module of Professional
Competences of Educators (with the thematic area Professional Involvement); Educa-
tors’ Pedagogical Competencies module (with the thematic areas Digital Resources,
Teaching and Learning, Assessment and Training of Learners); and Learners’ compe-
tences module (with the thematic area Promoting learners’ digital competence [1].
From these modules and areas, we seek to have a global view of the mapping of digital
skills of teachers both in their teaching process and in what they seek to provide their
students in terms of promoting these skills.
Regarding the use of the DigCompEdu questionnaire for the diagnosis of digital
teaching skills, Sales et al. [8], in their study on the training of higher education,
teacher in Bahia justify the choice of this data collection instrument by stating that
if it is a very complete model, already validated, and that “offers individualized
feedback to support processes of competence development from the identification of
training needs” [8].
Corrêa et al. [9] show the utility of the questionnaire as a diagnostic when the
goal is to offer proposes for teachers’ training. The researchers affirm that the ques-
tionnaire, when allowing the user’s classification into one of the six thematic areas,
“stablish a specific score for each competence, and when adding the questions, it
is possible to identify the level of the user. Therefore, it can suggest actions and
activities to upgrade the level of the user” [9].
Therefore, we can say that one of the main contributions of the European Frame-
work of Digital Competence for Educators is to allow that the professor get to know
their digital competence level and, with this knowledge, be able to undertake, in
an autonomous, critical and conscious way, the search for the necessary training
proposals so that he can reach the level of competence he wants.
A pilot study was carried out with to improve knowledge about the main instrument
of this research: European Framework of Digital Competence for Educators (2018).
According to [10], the pilot study is characterized by being a small test of the proce-
dures, materials and methods that is aimed to carry out in a larger scale study. Still
according to the author, the main goals of the pilot study are, besides elaborate a
protocol of investigation, and to anticipate possible results and test data collection
instruments, enabling the discovery of weaknesses and potential problems. Further,
it allows possible failures can be corrected before proceeding with the larger study.
From this assumption, the current study considered 17 teachers that teach in
public and private schools and different levels of teaching. The main goal of the pilot
study was to do a test of the procedures that will be used for the application of the
questionnaire to the participants of the larger scale study, that will be carried out
considering about 100 teachers that teach in middle school in state public school.
Furthermore, the pilot study also allow the teachers to practice their reading and
interpretations of the results obtained from the answers, so they can appropriate of a
larger knowledge of the material and its details, verifying which are the points that
require better attention.
With this goal, the pilot study was conducted on the answers of the teacher in
the questionnaire DigCompEdu, which is freely available for online access on the
DigCompEdu1 website. Of the 17 invited teachers, only 16 replied to all the questions
on the questionnaire. Therefore, one teacher was excluded from our sample.
Before the application of DigCompEdu questionnaire, some personal informa-
tion was collected to profile the participants. After obtaining these data, the teachers
1 Available on: https://ec.europa.eu/eusurvey/runner/DigCompEdu-S-PT.

accessed the questionnaire on the DigCompEdu platform. The questions on the ques-
tionnaire were related to six thematic areas approached by the Framework and are
linked to the development of educational digital competencies, the way the teacher
comprehends and uses digital technologies in the classroom and to communicate
with the students and other members of the school community.
The answers were compiled into excel. Measures of central tendency (mean,
median, mode) of participants’ scores were analyzed. The relative frequencies (total
and percentage) of the participants’ scores were also evaluated.
With these data, it was possible to classify and identify the level of competence
of the participants, using as a reference the scores delimited on DigCompEdu own
material, which provides the user with a parameter for the classification. According
to the minimum and maximum scores, this classification is done in six score levels,
between A1 and C2, from the following reading: A1—Newcomer; A2—Explores;
B1—Integrator; B2—Specialist; C1—Leader; and C2—Pioneer [1].
After the classification of the participants, a critical evaluation of the results was
carried out.
About the profile of the 17 participants, 10 are women and 7 are men. Regarded to
age, 4 are between 40 and 45 years old, 4 are between 35 and 40, 8 are between 30
and 35 years and only one is younger than 30.
When questioned about the institutions they work, 9 of them give classes in only
one institution, 6 teach in two schools at a time, 1 teaches in three schools and 1 in
four schools. About what level they teach, 6 teachers give classes in more than one
level, being 9 of them teach for graduate degree, 8 for middle school and 6 teach for
the final year of elementary school.
Finally, the highest level of training of teachers was asked and it was found that
all of them have a master’s degree. It was also asked if the teachers had already taken
a course and/or specialization focused on informatics, educational informatics, or
related areas. Thirteen of the 17 participants stated that they had already participated
in some type of training/specialization in the area.
4.1 Analysis of the Questionnaire Digcompedu
After organized and analyzed the data of general scores, it was possible to characterize
the level of competence of the participants of the study, as Table 1 shows:
As it is possible to observe, no participant was registered as having the competen-
cies classified at the Newcomer level (Score < 20). Most participants were classified
Table 1 Summary of the

Participant General pointing General score Total
scores obtained by the 16
participants of the study, the 3 23 A2 2
correspondent competence 12 27 A2
pointing and the number of
14 49 B1 1
participants with each score
1 51 B2 9
4 57 B2
8 60 B2
10 61 B2
11 61 B2
16 61 B2
7 63 B2
6 64 B2
9 64 B2
13 71 C1 2
5 74 C1
2 82 C2 2
15 85 C2
Source Elaborated by the authors based on research data (2021)
as having intermediate skills, totalling 62.5% of the sample between scores B1 (Inte-
grator—6.25%) and B2 (Specialist—56.25%, the largest share of participants). The
scores A2, C1 and C2 had two participants categorized in each.
Analyzing the distribution of scores obtained by the participants, the analysis
that the skills are at intermediate levels is corroborated. The lowest score recorded
was 23.0, while the highest corresponded to 85.0 on a scale ranging from 00.0 to
88.0 points. The median and mode coincided in the grade 61.0 (score B2) and the
arithmetic mean was 59.6 (score B2).
These general data of sample characterization show that the interviewed teachers
already have some degree of knowledge and mastery of digital skills, with recog-
nition of the importance of such instruments for the teaching and learning process.
Within the group, even though the classified teachers as Leaders and Pioneers is
small, their presence can represent a source of inspiration for the professors, since
these professionals, with C1 and C2 scores on the competence scale, can positively
influence the choice of new and better technologies for the mediation of pedagogical
practices.
Analyzing the frequencies of distribution of participants in each thematic area of
DigCompEdu, between scores A1 and C2, it was found that most respondents are in
score B2 in thematic areas 1, 3, 5 and 6 (Fig. 1). Regarding Area 1, the result makes
clear the interest and engagement of the professionals interviewed with the use of
technologies in their pedagogical practices, demonstrating an interest in promoting
meaningful and contextualized teaching and learning in an increasingly technological
Fig. 1 Frequency of distribution of respondents by competency score and by assessment area,

according to the DigCompEdu questionnaire applied. Source Done by the authors based on research
data (2021)
world, which is a fundamental attitudinal component for the progressive development

of such competences.
In the background, concerning the greater presence of intermediate levels in areas
5 and 6, the data make evident the intention to train and provide students with
autonomy in the use of technological and digital resources to mediate learning.
However, this can occur in a non-critical way in relation to the instrument used,
considering that the teacher is still in the experimentation phase of the technolo-
gies and can use them in a mechanical, reproductive way, without a real context or
application in the face of other tools and practices available. Especially because the
students included in area 6 are not only susceptible to the attitudinal characteristics
of the teacher but are also likely to reproduce mechanical behaviors of those who
teach, with less critical discussion about what and how to learn. Therefore, a future
investigation with the teachers interviewed becomes valid to verify the effectiveness
of their practices in the learning of their students.
It is also worth noting that areas 2 (Digital Resources) and 4 (Assessment)
presented the most equitable distributions between scores B1 and C1 (Fig. 1). These
scores and distribution were decisive in the classification of the teacher as inter-
mediate development scores since they represent the largest portion of the sample.
Both the selection of digital resources and alternative ways of evaluating learning
are dependent on each other, as they indicate new methodologies and pedagogical
practices put to experimentation by teachers. Therefore, the result obtained for these
areas is consistent with the other results obtained.
An analysis of the scores per question was also carried out, in order to identify
those points in which the educators present the lowest and the best performance,
respectively, among the items evaluated in the questionnaire. The questionnaire is
designed in such a way that each question has four alternatives, with grades assigned
between one (lowest level of competence/frequency of technology use) and four
(higher level of competence/frequency of technology use. By fashion, it was possible
Tabel 2 Question with worse personal performance of the interviewed people, by DigCompEdu
thematic area
Area Question Affirmatives
2 3 I protect with success any sensible content, for example: exams,
classifications, and student personal data
3 3 When my students work in group, they use digital technology to acquire and
document knowledge
3 4 I use digital technology to allow my students to plan, document and monito
their learning. For example: auto questionnaires, eportfolios for documentation
and dissemination, online diaries/blogs for reflection
4 3 I use digital Technologies to provide efficient feedback
5 3 I use digital Technologies so the students can actively participate in the
classroom
Source Done by the authors based on research data (2021)
to observe that most of the participants have individual scores for each question in
the 75% ranking since score of three was the most frequent for 14 of the 22 questions
presented.
The questions that had a mode less than or equal to two, or an average equal to
or less than 2.5, are summarized in Table 2. These were the questions in which the
teachers presented the worst average individual performance.
According to the selected questions, it is possible to notice that even though the
professors have some mastery over the use of technologies, and even the usability of
networks, such as email accounts and social networks, for example, their application
is not secure. There was a low performance in terms of data protection, which is
fundamental, especially when working with children and teenagers, whose intellec-
tual production must be preserved in addition to being a point provided for in the
relevant legislation [11].
In area 3—Teaching and Learning, it is possible to see that the use of technologies
is not well used in terms of self-assessment of learning progress, according to the low
performance of questions 3 and 4 (Table 2). The use of technologies for documenting
learning is still not well used by teachers. Possibly it is necessary that new tools for this
purpose be acquired so that the teacher can apply them effectively and relevantly in the
discussions with their students. This reality is also reflected in area 4—Assessment,
since teachers also do not use digital instruments for feedback to students. This
gap in intercommunication must be addressed, as the instrument is not only for
application and learning, but also must promote more effective and constructive
dialogues between the parties involved.
Last, it is important to highlight that question 3 of area 5 (Table 2) obtained a
mode equal to two. If the teachers had a low performance in this regard, it may be
an indication that technologies are only mediators of learning, but not stimulators
of critical thinking or the development of other skills. Therefore, it is necessary to
consider the best teacher training, at higher levels of digital skills, so that the use
of such technologies also stimulates critical attitudes and questioning postures in

students.
This scenery seems to be changing since the issue of area 1—professional involve-
ment, “I participate in online training opportunities, p. ex. online courses, moocs,
webinars, virtual conferences” obtained a high score among teachers (with mode 4
and mean 3.4). Thus, it can be seen in the group of teachers interviewed that there
is already a well-founded complementary training concern, which is the first step
towards a greater development of digital skills.
The pilot study developed in this research aimed to map the level of digital compe-
tence of a group of 17 teachers using the questionnaire of European Framework of
Digital Competence for Educators (2018).
It was possible to verify that most of them have intermediate degrees of digital
competence development being most of them classified with the general score B2.
This score is perpetuated in the individual analysis by thematic area, indicating an
evenness between the evaluation axes. From this result, it was possible to identify
the most recurrent gaps in the development of the level of digital competence of
the teachers in the sample, making it possible for them, in case they are interested,
to seek teacher training courses in order to fill precisely the gaps presented, being
able to choose for more targeted and assertive courses according to their needs and
focusing on the main points to be worked on.
Still in this regard, the research revealed that the teachers participating in the study
have a good understanding of the use of technological resources in the classroom,
but they do not always demonstrate the necessary criticality and history of exper-
imentation to dare to implement different tools. However, participants with lower
levels of digital competence (A2 and B1) may be inspired by participants who are at
the “leader” and “pioneer” levels, which can be seen as role models to be achieved,
in addition to the fact that they are capable of positively influencing the choices
and decision-making of other teachers in relation to pedagogical practices that use
technologies.
Regarding the development of the pilot study itself, it can be said that it was
productive to test the application of the questionnaire, which proved to be extremely
useful in mapping the level of digital competence of the teachers participating in the
sample. It can also be said that there were no difficulties in relation to the use of the
tool, nor doubts that made it difficult for the researcher to read and interpret data.
Finally, it is worth bringing here some of the reflections of [12] that discuss the
fact that for the teacher, acquiring digital skills is not only a way of transforming
and re-signifying their pedagogical practices but also of recognizing the power that
technologies exert in society and in the lives of students. The knowledge and use of
technologies constitute a form of appropriation of knowledge and, this, as a tool of
power and opinion formation. Thus, providing the student with the opportunity to
only have contact with digital technologies does not guarantee that he will be truly
digitally included for the exercise of this right and his citizenship. It is necessary
that teachers and students critically appropriate these technologies, which, under
the power of dominant groups, function as tools of domination and manipulation of
the masses. And that’s where the role of education comes in, with its emancipatory
capacity, avoiding mass alienation and promoting critical thinking in relation to the
use of technological resources.
Acknowledgements This research was developed with the support of the Brazilian Council for
Scientific and Technological Development, Brazil.
References
1. Lucas, M., Moreira, A.: Quadro europeu de competência digital para educadores. 1a. Aveiro:
Editora Universidade de Aveiro, 2018. https://area.dge.mec.pt/download/DigCompEdu_2018.
pdf. Accessed 10 Oct 2021
2. Souza, A.M.: As Tecnologias da Informação e da Comunicação (TIC) na educação para todos.
Educação em Foco, no. Edição Especial, p. 349, 24 May 2016. https://educacaoemfoco.ufjf.
emnuvens.com.br/edufoco/article/view/2975. Accessed 20 2021
3. da Silva, K.K.A., Behar, P.A.: Competências digitais na educação: uma discussão acerca do
conceito. Educ. Rev. 35, e209940 (2019). http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&
pid=S0102-46982019000100419&tlng=pt. Accessed 4 Nov 2021.
4. UNESCO. Educação para a Cidadania Global: preparando os alunos para o desafio do século
XXI. 1st ed. Brasília, DF: UNESCO, 2015.
5. Dias-Trindade, S., Ferreira, A.G.: Competências digitais docentes: o DigCompEdu CheckIn
como processo de evolução da literacia para a fluência digital. Icono 14 18(2) (2020)
6. Gálvez-de-la-Cuesta, M.C., Gertrudix-Barrio, M., García-García, F.: Datos abiertos y
educación: formación de docentes en la sociedad digital. Páginas de Educación 13(2), 01–20
(2020). https://doi.org/10.22235/pe.v13i2.1913
7. Loureiro, A.C., Meirinhos, M., Osório, A.J.: Competência digital docente: linhas de orientação
dos referenciais. Texto livre: linguagem e tecnologia. Belo Horizonte 13(2), 163–181 (2020);
mai.-ago. ISSN 1983–3652 DOI: https://doi.org/10.35699/1983-3652.2020.24401
8. Sales, M.V., Moreira, J.A.M., Rangel, M.: Competências digitais e as demandas da sociedade
contemporânea: diagnóstico e potencial para formação de professores do Ensino Superior da
Bahia. Série-Estudos, Campo Grande, MS 24(51), 89–120 (2019); maio/ago
9. Corrêa, I.A., da Costa Nunes, S.G., Dias-Trindade, S.: Uma análise do nível de proficiência
digital de professores do ensino médio de escolas públicas estaduais de Palmas – TO. Rev.
Obs. Palmas 6(1), 1–24 (2020)
10. Canhota, C.: Qual a importância do estudo piloto? In: Silva, E.E. (Org.). Investigação passo a
passo: perguntas e respostas para investigação clínica. Lisboa: APMCG, 2008
11. BRASIL. LEI No 13.709, DE 14 DE AGOSTO DE 2018. Brasil: [s. n.], 2019 http://www.pla
nalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2015-2018/2018/lei/l13709.htm. Accessed 20 Oct 2021
12. Basniak, M.I., da Silva, S.C.R., Almeida, A.C.S.: Tecnologia e educação: ferramentas de poder
no asseguramento do Estado moderno. Interciência 43(1) 2018
A Fuzzy Logic Implementation
to Support Second Language Learning
Through 3D Immersive Scenarios
Leidy Marcela Aldana-Burgos , Paulo Alonso Gaona-García ,

and Carlos Enrique Montenegro-Marín
Abstract This article suggests the implementation of Learning Analytics model

using an immersive scenario that seeks the user’s attention with gamification elements
to support the practice of English language in Latin American countries, finding fuzzy
logic as a solution in the analysis and evaluation part in the model.
Keywords Learning analytics · Fuzzy logic · English learning · Gamification ·

Education
1 Introduction
Education around the world varies according to factors such as geographic location,
historical context, economic resources, exclusion, among others; where the main
role [1] is an instructor who shares his knowledge and experience, thanks to the
advancement of technology that instructor can help himself with images, videos, and
platforms for obtaining and generating the content, in these platforms the informa-
tion obtained from students keeps stored, and two fields of research can be applied to
this kind of information, in one hand Educational Data Mining [1] focuses on more
automated methodologies (for instance Machine learning and Bayesian modeling),
in the other hand Learning analytics focuses on the application of data measurement,
collection, analysis, and reporting [2] keeping in mind always it has three main axes:
learning, teaching and the educational environment. Besides, several of these plat-
forms seek to become interactive to draw the user’s attention through gamification,
always maintaining a fixed objective [3, 4], becoming a serious game where learning
analytics can be applied [5].
L. M. Aldana-Burgos (B) · P. A. Gaona-García · C. E. Montenegro-Marín

Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas, Bogotá, Colombia
e-mail: lmaldanab@correo.udistrital.edu.co
P. A. Gaona-García
e-mail: pagaonag@udistrital.edu.co
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_44
502 L. M. Aldana-Burgos et al.
Freire [6] proposes a conceptual architecture for a game learning analytics system
on which this article is based to support the learning of the English language, taking
into account various contributions [7] in the evaluation of the language and rubrics of
the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) [8]; thus, in the implemen-
tation of this architecture, the part that analyzes and evaluates within the model uses
fuzzy logic. Zadeh [9] explains fuzzy logic as a methodology where computation is
done with words, in a meaningful representation of natural language, using fuzzy
sets which are classes of objects characterized by membership functions [10].
2 Literature Review
There are different applications of technology applied to learning process, specifically

in the treatment of educational information, for instance [11] shows implementation
models and existing challenges in Learning Analytics, [12] proposes a prediction
of the dynamic learning path using Parallel Particle Swarm Optimization (PPSO) as
a solution for Learning Analytics, this author also mentions in the literature review
other techniques such as Ant Colony Optimization (ACO), Neural networks, Support
vector machines, etc. Similarly Ahmed Ali Mubarak et al. [13] propose a predictive
model through an artificial neural network known as Long Short-Term Memory
Networks, which is tested on videos from Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC)
such as Coursera, Edx, and Udacity. There are implementations of hybrid mecha-
nisms between artificial neural networks and fuzzy logic (ANFIS) [14], which take
advantage of both concepts, fuzzy logic has been used in different fields of knowledge
such as Biology, Civil Engineering [15], the diagnosis of tuberculosis [16], signals
to control traffic [17], learning of languages such as English and French [18] also in
educational field [19] makes a systematic literature review about the prediction of
the performance of the students.
3 Methodology
After looking for different technology approaches in the learning process and all
existing issues in latin america education such as economic failures, lack of interest,
lack of context to practice what has been learned, etc. Fuzzy logic in this article is
implemented as a technological algorithm to understand inputs and outputs in an
educational context, it uses all the mathematical theory to be a system composed by
twenty five fuzzy inference rules that can be understood in a simple linguistic way.
So, an observation research method was used in the testing process to analyze how
the system could be used and fix all the issues that it can present, always with the
final purpose to check if Learning Analytics is the optimal field research to apply in
educational scenarios.
A Fuzzy Logic Implementation to Support Second Language Learning … 503
4 Proposed Model
The proposed model focuses on the section that evaluates the implementation
of Learning Analytics to support the learning process, keeping in mind learning
analytics models such as [6]. Figure 1 shows the immersive scenario as a source
of information and the Learning Analytics model has three parts: collector, infor-
mation reporter and evaluator of the information received, which implements fuzzy
logic, each one described in the following sections, thus this model has a modular
architecture.
4.1 Immersive Scenario
Immersive scenario has eight levels and it has the architecture exposed in [20], in
addition, it has grammar topics and gamification elements exposed in Table 1, the
player can move when he selects between two options as in Fig. 2, in one hand with
the mouse for everyone with an internet connection, in the other hand with controls
for virtual reality devices, shown in Fig. 3, user selects the correct option and that
choice costs 1 point of energy, when the energy reaches zero it is game over and the
level must be restarted. When a user completes all eight levels, the total time points
earned for selecting the correct grammar, a nickname and energy are stored.
4.2 Collector
First part of the Learning Analytics model collects and stores information in a rela-
tional database, according to the mentioned architecture in the immersive scenario,
this part allows data persistence to be maintained, keeping in mind confidentiality,
integrity and availability of information.
Fig. 1 Proposed learning analytics model

Table 1 Description per level within the immersive scenario

Level English topics Gamification elements
1 Verb to be, present simple, can, verb Select the correct grammatical form in blue
forms, object pronouns and present options and be able to advance to the level
continuous
2 Going to, simple past, there is, there are Obstacle: Robot that can take 1 energy
and if and when point from the player, it rotates 360
degrees to increase the difficulty
3 Actually and really, aches and pain, Reward: Robot that can give the player
vague expressions, can and determiners energy points
4 Possessive pronouns, past continuous, New color of options, green, that when
comparative adjectives, prepositions, selected hides other options of the same
should, infinitives for reasons color and there are options that appear
vertically
5 Future, present perfect, would like, real New color of options, red, that when
conditional, phrasal verbs selected hides other options of the same
color and there are options that appear
vertically
6 Past continuous questions, guess, have Door to go to the next hidden level
got to describe people, quantifiers, use (without robot) with blue, green and red
to, participial adjectives options
7 Gerunds and infinitives, passive voice, Door to go to the next hidden level (with
unreal conditional, tag question, past robot) with blue, green and red options
perfect, modals, causative
8 Must, passive causative, perfect modals, Door to go to the next hidden level (with
past unreal conditional robot) with blue and red options
4.3 Reporter
Second part shows the information that exists in the database, showing the time and
the different statistics collected from the immersive scenario as shown in Fig. 4.
4.4 Evaluator
Section that evaluates the reported data is a fuzzy logic system based on the fuzzifica-
tion process of the score metrics proposed by [21] with the Mamdani-type inference
mechanism described by [22], where input is an integer and fuzzy prepositions can
be established with an antecedent and a consequent having a total of 60 participant
interactions, these 60 data being a zero or one that determines if the correct option
has been selected.
To carry out the evaluation, 5 categories of interaction associated with the gram-
matical part are established: to improve (0 to 12), satisfactory (13 to 24), good (25
to 36), very good (36 to 48), excellent (48 onwards), defined by the membership
Fig. 2 Level 4 of the immersive scenario seen from a web browser
functions of Eqs. (1).

−1 7
λ I mpr ove (x) = 1i f x < 10; x+ i f 10 ≤ x ≤ 14; 0i f 14 < x < 60
4 2

1 5
λ Satis f actor y (x) = 0i f x < 10; x− i f 10 ≤ x ≤ 14;
4 2

−1 19
1i f 14 ≤ x ≤ 22; x− i f 34 ≤ x ≤ 38; 0i f x > 26
4 2

1 11
λGood (x) = 0i f x < 22; x− i f 22 ≤ x ≤ 26; 1i f 26 ≤ x ≤ 34;
4 2

−1 19
x− i f 34 ≤ x ≤ 38; 0i f x > 38
4 2

1 17
λV er yGood (x) = 0i f x < 34; x− i f 34 ≤ x ≤ 38; 1i f 38 < x ≤ 46;
4 2
Fig. 3 Level 1 of the immersive scenario seen from a virtual reality device
Fig. 4 Viewing the data that a user can see after using the immersive scenario
Fig. 5 The plot of membership functions by grammar interaction points
Fig. 6 The plot of membership functions by time

−1 25
x+ i f 46 < x ≤ 50; 0i f x > 50
4 2

1 23
λ E xcellent (x) = 0i f x < 46; x− i f 46 ≤ x ≤ 50; 1i f x > 50 (1)
4 2
Total time in minutes is also evaluated, establishing 5 categories: few (0 to 18),

short (19 to 36), middle (37 to 54), normal (55 to 72), long (72 onwards), defined by
the membership functions of Eqs. (2).

−1
φ Few (x) = 1i f x < 16; x + 5 i f 16 ≤ x ≤ 20; 0i f x > 20
4

1
φ Shor t (x) = 0i f x < 16; x − 4 i f 16 ≤ x ≤ 20;
4

−1 19
1i f 20 ≤ x ≤ 34; x+ i f 34 ≤ x ≤ 38; 0i f x > 38
4 2

1 17
φ Middle (x) = 0i f x < 34; x− i f 34 ≤ x ≤ 38; 1i f 38 ≤ x ≤ 52;
4 2

−1
x + 14 i f 52 ≤ x ≤ 56; 0i f x > 56
4

1
φ N or mal (x) = 0i f x < 52; x − 13 i f 52 ≤ x ≤ 56; 1i f 56 < x ≤ 70;
4

−1 37
x+ i f 70 < x ≤ 74; 0i f x > 74
4 2
Table 2 Fuzzy associative matrix

λ ToImprove λ Satisfactory λ Good λ Very Good λ Excellent
ϕFew 1 1 2 2 3
ϕShort 1 2 2 3 4
ϕMiddle 2 2 3 4 4
ϕNormal 2 3 4 4 5
ϕLong 3 3 4 5 5
Table 3 Established rules of inference

No Antecedent Consequent
1 If time is few and grammar is about to improve Level: insufficient
2 If time is short and grammar is satisfactory Level: acceptable
3 If time is middle and grammar is good Level: good
4 If time is normal and grammar is very good Level: outstanding
5 If time is long and grammar is excellent Level: excellent

1 35
φ Long (x) = 0i f x < 70; x− i f 70 ≤ x ≤ 74; 1i f x > 74 (2)
4 2
Keeping in mind the educational qualification system in Colombia, which can

take qualifications from one to five divided into five groups to classify and evaluate
knowledge and previous membership functions, a fuzzy associative matrix of Table
2 is established.
With fuzzy associative matrix the inference rules are established, Table 3 shows
five examples of the twenty-five established fuzzy rules, where the consequent is the
estimated level of the player and it is returned to the reporter, to inform the user of
his estimated level. Moreover, information on the topics with the lowest score is sent
to the reporter to show as a suggestion on which topics to study.
5 Preliminary Results
Figure 7 shows the graph of output surface for the fuzzy system, composed on X-
axis by points obtained by grammar and Y-axis the time spent using the immersive
scenario, in such a way that some of values in the database for the grammar are
[25, 43, 30, 55, 23, 27] and the corresponding values in time are [18, 35, 53, 57,
18, 74], after which these values are entered as inputs to fuzzy system the following
outputs are obtained [Insufficient, Good, Good, Excellent, Insufficient, Outstanding].
Model works according to the objective of being able to show a level according to
the time that the user has used the scenario and selected grammar, it can be adjusted
Fig. 7 Output surface for the fuzzy system
for specific cases where the user can spend a few minutes for quick reading and an
excellent level using of the stored gamification information, such as the energy level,
however, it was not implemented since the target audience of the scenario is an adult
population with a low level of English, estimated between A1 and maximum B1.
6 Conclusions
Proposed immersive scenario becomes more dynamic because users can use and
recognize different gamification elements, in addition the compatibility of the
scenario with virtual reality hardware and a common browser like Mozilla or Chrome
is an advantage to reduce economic limitations; about fuzzy logic in implementa-
tion of learning analytics makes an efficient solution to have two or more inputs to
make a complete, understandable and clear treatment of collected information. This
proposed Learning Analytics model presents independence in each of its parts, it
facilitates its editing and carrying out the future work proposed later for constant
improvement; however the immersive scenario building limitation is time to make a
more personalized by user interest implementation, and fuzzy logic implementation
limitation is computational resources, when a bigger quantity of variables want to
be analyzed it increments increasing response times to the user.
The implementation of fuzzy logic in Learning analytics facilitates the interpre-
tation of the results and makes it easier to understand the evaluation process of
educational information, so this mathematical discipline is useful for this learning
case in which the score obtained through the immersive scenario was evaluated to
support the English language learning, keeping in mind the advantage of flexibility
based on inference rules provided by fuzzy logic without neglecting the Learning
analytics approach, which seeks to present results for teaching, learning and educa-
tional environment; in this way, the user can have an initial idea of which level he
or she has, this level is a result of difficult modeling, with fuzzy logic it takes less
time than an Educational Data Mining implementation and it is less strict compared
to a certification exam, which simply provides an official, concrete and exact result,
moreover the certification exam becomes an alternative that presents a high cost for
many people in Latin America.
In future work, a more personalized adaptation is proposed according to the inter-
ests and knowledge of each participant, adapting the starting point of the immersive
scenario according to the level obtained, as well as adapting each of the questions
presented at each level to analyze strengths, weaknesses, and preferences of the
participants, thus presenting a more personalized and entertaining scenario that can
present a greater number of questions as the user advances in the knowledge acquired.
References
1. Calvet Liñán, L., Juan Pérez, Á.A.: Educational data mining and learning analytics: differences,
similarities, and time evolution. RUSC. Univ. Knowl. Soc. J. 12(3), 98–112 (2015). http://dx.
doi.org/https://doi.org/10.7238/rusc.v12i3.2515
2. What is Learning Analytics? (2021). Society for learning analytics research (SoLAR). https://
www.solaresearch.org/about/what-is-learning-analytics/
3. Vahldick A., Méndes A., Marcelino M. (2016) Learning analytics model in a casual serious
game for computer programming learning. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51055-2_6
4. Hamza M., Ahmad F., Ajmal M., Alam J.: LA-VIE: a serious game for cardiopulmonary
resuscitation (2017). https://doi.org/10.1109/SeGAH.2017.7939297
5. Petrov, E., Mustafina, J., Alloghani, M., Galiullin, L., Ying, S.: Learning Analytics and serious
games: analysis of interrelation. IEEE (2018). https://doi.org/10.1109/DeSE.2018.00037
6. Freire, M., Serrano-Laguna, A., Manero, B., Martínez-Ortiz, I., Moreno-Ger, P., Fernández-
Manjón, B.: Game Learning Analytics: Learning Analytics for Serious Games. Springer
International (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-17727-4_21-1
7. Ivanova, V., Zlatanov, B.: Application of fuzzy logic in online test evaluation in english as a
foreign language at university level. AMEE (2019). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5133519
8. Fleckenstein, J., Keller, S., Kruger, M., Tannenbaum, R.: Linking TOEFL iBT® writing rubrics
to CEFR levels: cut scores and validity evidence from a standard setting study (2020). https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2019.100420
9. Zadeh, L.A. et al. (eds.) Computing with Words in Information/Intelligent Systems 1 ©.
Springer, Berlin (1999)
10. Zadeh, L.A.: Fuzzy Sets (Information and Control, vol. 8, Issue 3, 1965), pp. 338–353
11. Ranjeeth, S., Latchoumi, T., Victer, P.: A survey on predictive models of Learning analytics
(2020). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2020.03.180
12. Govindarajan, K., Suresh Vivekanandan, K: Dynamic learning path prediction - a learning
analytics solution. IEEE (2016). https://doi.org/10.1109/T4E.2016.46
13. Mubarak, A.A., Cao, H., Ahmed, S.A.M.: Predictive learning analytics using deep learning
model in MOOCs’ courses videos. Springer Education and Information Technologies (2020).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-020-10273-6
14. Yanes, N., Bououd, I., Awadh, S., Fahad, A.: Fuzzy Logic Based Prospects Identification
System for Foreign Language Learning Through Serious Games (2021)
15. Thabit, T., Mohammed, P.: Measuring the cost and benefit of learning english at private
universities in Kurdistan. Int J Eng Sci Manag Res, Forthcoming (2017).
16. Sari, W., Wahyunggoro, O., Fauziati, S.: A comparative study on fuzzy Mamdani-
SugenoTsukamoto for the childhood tuberculosis diagnosis. In: Advances of Science and
Technology for Society (2016). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4958498
17. Mohanaselvi, S., Shanpriya, B.: Application of fuzzy logic to control traffic signals. In: The
11th National Conference on Mathematical Techniques and Applications (2019). https://doi.
org/10.1063/1.5112230
18. Troussas, C., Chrysafiadi, K., Virvou, M.: Machine learning and fuzzy logic techniques for
personalized tutoring of foreign languages. In: Artificial Intelligence in Education. AIED 2018.
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 10948. Springer, Cham (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/
978-3-319-93846-2_67
19. Namoun, A., Alshanqiti, A.: Predicting student performance using data mining and learning
analytics techniques: a systematic literature review. Appl. Sci. 11, 237 (2021). https://doi.org/
10.3390/app11010237
20. Aldana, L., Gaona, P., Restrepo, A., Montenegro, C.: Gamification: preserving cultural heritage
through immersive scenarios and second language strengthening. In: The Publication Process
(2021)
21. Ivanova, V., Terzieva, T.: Criteria for the construction of tests for language assessment and
evaluation. In: Doctoral Conference in Mathematics and Informatics MIDOC (2015). ISBN
978-954-07-4186-4
22. Samuel, S.: Sistemas de Control con Lógica Difusa: Métodos de Mamdani y de TSK. Universitat
Jaume, Grado en matemática computacional (2017)
A BERT-Powered Writing Assistant
for Academic Purposes in European
Portuguese
Sílvia Araújo , Micaela Aguiar , and José Monteiro
Abstract In this paper, we will present the process of developing a resource that we
consider to be useful for both native and non-native college students in the process of
writing Portuguese academic texts: a BERT-powered Writing Assistant for academic
purposes in European Portuguese. The Writing Assistant includes two main compo-
nents: a phrase bank, that will be created using open scientific data in the form of
scientific papers found in repositories, and a search engine, that uses BERT models for
semantic searches. To create the phrase bank we will loosely follow the methodology
developed by John Morley, creator of the Academic Phrasebank of the University of
Manchester. The phrase bank will be based on 40 scientific papers taken from the
repository of University of Minho. The corpus will be initially annotated, using some
of the categories proposed by Morley, then the categories will be revised to better
represent the reality of Portuguese academic discourse. The annotated phrases will
then be simplified and stripped of any particular academic content. This phrase bank
will “feed” the search engine. The search engine works with BERT machine learning
models that allow us to make semantic searches. Students would just have to write a
word, expression or sentence in the search bar to find equivalent or similar expres-
sions on our phrasebank, even if the user has little to no knowledge of the vocabulary
used in academic discourse, because Bert models are able to infer semantic context
and find relevant results.
Keywords Academic literacy · Search engine · Phrase bank · BERT
1 Introduction
Students (especially college students) struggle to write in academic contexts. This

has been well documented by researchers [1] and teachers [2, 3], and certainly felt
by the students themselves. In this paper, we will give an account of the process of
developing a BERT-powered Writing Assistant for academic purposes in European
S. Araújo (B) · M. Aguiar · J. Monteiro

Universidade Do Minho, Braga, Portugal
e-mail: saraujo@elach.uminho.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_45
514 S. Araújo et al.
Portuguese, an interactive phrase bank that aims to help native and non-native college
students in Portuguese academic contexts. We will describe the process of creating
the phrase bank for academic European Portuguese and then proceed to take a closer
look at the technology that will power the Writing Assistant.
1.1 The Problem
Academic literacy is rarely explicitly taught, and institutions struggle with changing
demographics, linguistic diversity [4] and an increase in students pursuing postgrad-
uate and doctoral studies [5]. The lack of academic literacy in higher education is
usually addressed through (more times than not, paid) academic writing courses,
typically too generic and superficial in nature to truly be useful. There is a consensus
that teaching academic literacy should start much earlier, before students even reach
college [6]; however, this is a policy and educational reform issue that is not easily
put into practice. Meanwhile, some students do manage to master academic writing,
but for most of them not having enough academic literacy ends up being another
inequality factor [7], because it is essential to know how to communicate in academic
contexts to participate and be a member of the academic community [8].
1.2 A Project Geared Towards Open Education
With this in mind, we are developing as part of PortLinguE, a portuguese project

financed by European funds, a tool that will assist students in the writing process
within academic contexts. This project is geared towards open education and open
science, from the perspective of open educational resources, as it uses open data
to create new resources, and from the perspective of open educational practices, as
we seek to “respect and empower learners as co-producers on their lifelong learning
paths” [9] by promoting open learning architectures and citizen science. Indeed, open
science practices promote a culture of education and scientific literacy [10].
1.3 The Goals
The starting questions that prompted this work were: How can open scientific data be
used to help students develop their academic literacy? And how can we accomplish
this goal in an engaging way? So, we set out to create a tool that would help students
write in academic contexts through an interactive interface which allows them to
search phrases and find similar expressions. Bearing this in mind, we conceptualize
a tool that we are currently developing. In this paper, we will give an account of the
development process of the Writing Assistant.
A BERT-Powered Writing Assistant for Academic Purposes … 515
Our Writing Assistant will be the first of its kind in European Portuguese: not only
the first phrase bank for the academic European Portuguese that uses scientific open
data, but also the first to be powered by a search engine. We believe that our Writing
Assistant will be a useful tool for both native college students and for Portuguese as
Foreign Language students, given the challenges they face when it comes to academic
writing.
We know, of course, that academic literacy does not stop at writing conventions,
and that is why the Writing Assistant is part of a larger set of resources we are
developing to aid academic literacy. For instance, a seven step method that guides
students through the process of preparing an academic paper, via informational texts,
videos and infographics, is also in preparation.
2 The Writing Assistant—A Methodology
The Writing Assistant includes two main components: a phrase bank that will be
created using open scientific data in the form of scientific papers found in repositories,
and a search engine that uses BERT models for semantic searches. The next sections
present the overall process of developing the phrasebank and the search engine.
2.1 The Phrase Bank
Formulaic Language and Academic Writing. Native speakers favor formulaic

language in their communication [11] and, in academic writing, “the absence of
such formulaic sequences” may actually be a signal of “lack of mastery of a novice
writer in a specific disciplinary community” [12]. However, the use of academic
formulas “is not part of the native writer’s innate language ability and is thus far
from being a linguistic universal skill” [13]. In the same way, formulaic nature is the
biggest barrier for L2 learners to sound native-like [11]. That is why an academic
phrase bank can be useful for both native-speakers and L2 learners.
A phrase bank is a set of expressions, commonly used in academic writing to
perform certain language acts, such as referring to sources, describing the results of
an experiment or stating the conclusions of a study.
There are some academic phrase bank available online, such as the Ref-N-
Write Academic Phrasebank (https://www.ref-n-write.com/academic-phrasebank/)
for English or the Dictionnaire des expressions from Base ARTES (https://artes.
app.univ-paris-diderot.fr/artes-symfony/web/app.php/fr) for French. In Portuguese,
Bab.la offers an English-Brazilian Portuguese phrase bank (https://pt.bab.la/frases/
academico/indice/portugues-ingles). However, the most popular phrase bank is
Manchester University’s Academic Phrasebank (https://www.phrasebank.manche
ster.ac.uk), developed by Morley [14].
Morley drew on the concept of ’move’ [15] as a section of text serving a partic-
ular communicative purpose to organize the phrase bank into its multiple categories
and subcategories. According to Morley, the Academic Phrasebank corpus origi-
nally consisted of 100 postgraduate dissertations from the University of Manchester,
and has since incorporated academic material from a variety of sources. The orig-
inal phrases were simplified and any particular academic content was removed or
replaced so that these expressions could be used freely by students without the risk
of plagiarism.
Our work departs from Swales’ socio-rhetorical approach and falls into an
enunciative-pragmatic perspective of Discourse Analysis [16, 17]. In this frame-
work, we consider the concept of discursive genre [18, 19], and, specifically, that
of the “scientific article” genre as essential to identify and categorise speech acts,
discourse markers and other phraseological units that occur in academic discourse.
Figure 1 shows the workflow for the creation of our phrase bank:
Compilation. The phrase bank we are developing is based on an initial corpus of
40 scientific articles, taken from RepositoriUM, the repository of the University of
Minho, and is divided into four scientific areas, as determined by the Foundation for
Science and Technology (FCT): Life and Health Sciences, Exact and Engineering
Sciences, Natural and Environmental Sciences, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
This division ensures the diversity of the textual materializations [20] from different
areas of the academic discourse. Subsequently, we would like to include sources
from other genres of academic discourse, such as, for example, dissertations and
book reviews. Articles were only included in the corpus if they were written in
European Portuguese and were available in open access.
Annotation. The annotation is being carried out using the qualitative data analysis
and mixed methods software, MAXQDA. We are using an enunciative-pragmatic
approach, that means, we will be annotating speech acts, discourse markers and
phraseological units typical in scientific and academic discourse. As a starting point,
we will build on the categories determined by Morley [13] and we will consider
the questions that the author defined for the inclusion of a given expression in the
phrase bank: does it serve a useful communicative purpose in academic text?; does
Fig. 1 Workflow for the Creation of the European Portuguese Phrase bank
it contain collocational and/or formulaic elements?; are the content words (nouns,
verbs, adjectives) generic in nature?; does the combination ’sound natural’ to a native
speaker or writer of English?
Categorization. After the initial annotation, we will review and refine the categories
since they were originally created as a result of analysing a different academic genre
(postgraduate dissertations) in a different language. This step is essential in order to
better account for the reality of academic discourse in scientific articles written in
European Portuguese.
Simplification. After determining the categories, we will perform the extraction of
the phrases and move on to the phrase simplification phase. In this phase, the phrases
will be stripped of any particular academic content. The result of the categoriza-
tion and simplification process will be the phrase bank that will “feed” the writing
assistant.
Using the writing assistant, students would just have to write a word, expression or
sentence in the search bar to find equivalent or similar expressions. The next section
will give a brief overview of the technology that will power our writing assistant.
2.2 The Search Engine
Interface. The Writing Assistant we are developing differs from other static phrase
banks, due to its interface and search engine, which makes the phrase bank dynamic
and interactive. The interface will have an intuitive and user-friendly design, similar
to other search engines, such as Google: the user enters a term, an expression or a
phrase in the search bar, and the results will be similar expressions.
Keyword-based search versus Semantic search. Phrase banks with similar inter-
faces exist, see for example Ref-N-Write Academic Phrasebank for English.
However, our Writing Assistant will be unlike these phrase banks, because of the type
of search it performs. Generally, other tools of this kind perform “keyword-based”
searches in their phrase banks: that is, when the user enters a term, an expression
or a phrase, they will get only templates that contain the words present in the user’s
search. For example, if we searched for the expression “in conclusion”, the results
would be restricted to the lemma of the word “conclusion”: we would get results
with the word in the singular form, such as “in conclusion, the results show that”,
and in the plural form, such as “the most important conclusions are”.
The Writing Assistant that we are developing will perform another kind of search:
semantic search. This type of search is unique given its use of machine learning
models capable of inferring the semantic context of the templates from the phrase
bank and from the user’s queries to present relevant templates as results, even if
they do not necessarily contain words present in the user’s query. For example, if we
searched for the expression “in conclusion”, the results could contain expressions
such as “in conclusion, the most pressing aspects identified in this study were”, “
we concluded that x has a significant effect on y”, but also results such as “In the
analysis of x, it was found that y can effectively replace z” or “In this study, x was
not associated with the emergence/aggravation of y”, which are commonly used in
the writing of conclusions in scientific papers, even though they do not include the
term “conclusion”.
BERT model. The Writing Assistant search engine works with a BERT machine
learning model [21]. BERT is a Natural Language Processing model that analyzes text
corpus in terms of similarities at word, collocation and sentence level and distributes
the processed data based on semantic similarity, thus generating semantic vectors.
Below (Fig. 2), we describe the BERT Model Workflow:
Our model will be pre-trained with a Portuguese corpus, so we opted for an open-
source model available at BERTinbau, a repository of pre-trained BERT models
in Portuguese. This model will process the templates in our phrase bank and the
queries entered by the user and it will create the corresponding semantic vectors as
a result. The phrase-templates, as well as their semantic vectors, will be stored in an
ElasticSearch database. After processing the queries and all the template-phrases,
semantic similarity mechanisms will be applied [22]. At the end of this process,
the search engine will provide users with the most relevant results. As the vectors
generated by Bert models are able to infer semantic context, the engine will be able
to find relevant results even if the user has little to no knowledge of the specific
vocabulary used in academic discourse.
Fig. 2 BERT model workflow

This paper set out to give an overview of the development process of the Writing
Assistant, a tool that is being created to help students write in academic contexts, as
part of a larger project of academic and scientific resources. We looked at the two main
components of the Writing Assistant—the phrase bank and the technology—and
outlined the different steps that their creation entails. We have presented the workflow
behind the creation of the European Portuguese phrase bank: compilation, annotation,
categorization and simplification. We have also highlighted the advantages of using
semantic search as opposed to keyword-based search and of using BERT models to
do so. We have outlined the BERT model workflow starting from the user’s search
query up to the search result.
Moving forward, the focus will be in testing the Writing Assistant for usability and
accuracy when it comes to the technological component. We will also be testing the
Writing Assistant for its effectiveness in improving academic writing among native
and non-native students. Furthermore, we would also like to build on the original
phrase bank to explore how to enrich the corpus with a diverse array of academic
genres, using a corpus linguistics approach.
Acknowledgements This work was carried out within the scope of the “PortLinguE” project
(PTDC/ LLT-LIG/31113/2017) financed by FEDER under Portugal 2020 and by national funds
through Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P. (FCT,I.P.).
References
1. Defazio, J., Jones, J., Tennant, F., Hook, S.A.: Academic literacy: the importance and impact
of writing across the curriculum – a case study. J. Sch. Teach. Learn. 10(2), 34–47 (2010)
2. Estrela, A., Sousa, O.: Competência textual à entrada no Ensino Superior. Rev. Estud.
Linguagem 19(1), 247–267 (2011)
3. Brandão, J.A.: Literacia Académica: Da Escola Básica ao Ensino Superior — uma visão
integradora. Letras & Letras (2013)
4. Purser, E.R., Skillen, J., Deane, M., Donohue, J., Peake, K.: Developing academic literacy in
context (2008)
5. Ferrão Tavares, C., Pereira, A.L.: Apresentação: Literacias académicas multimodais. Intercom-
preensão 16, 5–10 (2012)
6. Gouveia, C.M.: Como se faz uma disciplina: Mapas de conhecimento e distinções operacionais
sobre o que é o discurso académico enquanto objeto de estudo. In: Caels, F., Barbeiro, L.F.,
Santos, J.V. (eds.) Discurso Académico: Uma Área Disciplinar em Construção, pp. 19–43.
Universidade de Coimbra/ Escola Superior de Educação e Ciências Sociais, Politécnico de
Coimbra, CELGA-ILTEC (2019)
7. Preto-Bay, A.M.: The social-cultural dimension of academic literacy development and the
explicit teaching of genres as community heuristics. Read. Matrix 4(3), 86–117 (2004)
8. Neeley, S.D.: Academic Literacy. Addison Wesley Longman (2005)
9. Ehlers, U.D.: Extending the territory: from open educational resources to open educational
practices. J. Open Flex. Distance Learn. 15(2), 1–10 (2011)
10. Tennant, J.P., Waldner, F., Jacques, D.C., Masuzzo, P., Collister, L.B., Hartgerink, C.H.:
The academic, economic and societal impacts of open access: an evidence-based review’,
F1000Research 5(632) (2016)
11. Wray, A.: Formulaic Language and the Lexicon. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
(2002)
12. Li, J., Schmitt, N.: The acquisition of lexical phrases in academic writing: a longitudinal case
study. J. Second. Lang. Writ. 18(2), 85–10 (2009)
13. Pérez-Llantada, C.: Formulaic language in L1 and L2 expert academic writing: convergent and
divergent usage. J. Engl. Acad. Purp. 14, 84–94 (2014)
14. Academic Phrasebank. https://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk. Accessed 12 April 2022
15. Swales, J.: Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge (1990)
16. Adam, J.-M.: Discursivité, généricité et textualité. Distinguer pour penser la complexité des
faits de discours. Recherches 56, 9–27 (2012)
17. Charaudeau, P.: La situation de communication comme fondatrice d’un genre: la contro-
verse. In: Monte, M., Philippe, G. (eds.) Genres et Textes: Déterminations, Évolutions,
Confrontations, pp. 49–57. Presses universitaires de Lyon, Lyon (2015)
18. Bakthine, M.: Esthétique de la Création Verbale. Gallimard, Paris (1984)
19. Maingueneau, D.: Discours et Analyse du Discours. A. Colin, Paris (2014)
20. Coutinho, M.A.: Descrever géneros de texto: resistências e estratégias. In: Proceedings of
the IVth International Symposium on Genre Studies (SIGET), pp. 639–647. Tubarão, Santa
Catarina (2007)
21. Devlin, J., Chang, M.-W., Lee, K., Toutanova, K.: BERT: pre-training of deep bidirectional
transformers for language understanding. NAACL (2019)
22. Varun. Calculating Document Similarities using BERT, word2vec, and other models. Towards
Data Science (2020)
App and Classroom Instruction
for Better Pronunciation: Some Results
Adelina Castelo
Abstract Various studies show the positive impact of computer-assisted training

on pronunciation, but it is important to evaluate how the use of mobile apps, easily
available online, can influence pronunciation development. If helpful, the use of these
gamified tools could boost the time-on-task and the effects of classroom instruction.
Consequently, the goals of this study are (1) to assess the impact on pronunciation of
a teaching strategy that combines the use of a mobile app and classroom instruction,
and (2) to propose an improved model of the strategy “App + Class = better pronun-
ciation”. The effects, on pronunciation, of using the app “Fun Easy Learn Euro-
pean Portuguese—6000 Words” as an informal learning activity outside the class-
room—combined with face-to-face classroom instruction—over a 2-week period
are observed. The participants are 12 Chinese native speakers learning Portuguese
as a Foreign Language as 1st year undergraduate students majoring in Portuguese
Language. A pretest and a posttest assessed the participants’ pronunciation of words
included, and non-included, in the app. A questionnaire presented after the posttest
explored the users’ views and experience on this learning activity and the properties
of the app. The main findings show a significant improvement in the pronunciation
of the words “App + Class” and “App-only” but not in the “Class-only” ones, and
the students’ belief that using the app promotes pronunciation learning. Considering
the results, several recommendations are proposed for an improved model of the
strategy “App + Class = better pronunciation”.
Keywords Pronunciation learning · Mobile-assisted language learning ·

Portuguese as a foreign language
A. Castelo (B)
Departamento de Humanidades, Grupo EL@N, LE@D-Laboratório de Educação a Distância e
eLearning (UID 4372/FCT), Universidade Aberta, Rua Almirante Barroso, No. 38, 1000-013
Lisbon, Portugal
e-mail: adelina.castelo@uab.pt
Centro de Linguística da Universidade de Lisboa (UIDB/00214/2020/FCT), Faculdade de Letras
da Universidade de Lisboa, Alameda da Universidade, 1600-214 Lisbon, Portugal
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_46
522 A. Castelo
1 Introduction
Since learning a foreign language demands much practice and time (e.g. [1]), all
strategies to increase students’ time-on-task are very useful. One of the strategies
available nowadays is to promote the use of mobile language-learning apps. These
are valuable tools to increase language practice and time, namely through chunking
knowledge, gamification, and mobility (e.g. [2–4]), and they can be applied to pronun-
ciation learning in several ways (e.g. [5]). CAPT (Computer-Assisted Pronunciation
Teaching), in general, has already proved efficient, as different types of software
and ways of using them have been associated with positive effects on pronunciation
(e.g. [6–8]). However, it is still necessary to evaluate specifically the mobile apps’
effects on learning outcomes (e.g. [9]) and to know the “views of clients [teachers
and learners] about what works” in pronunciation teaching [10: 1] (see also [11–13]).
Assuming that CAPT is normally efficient and that mobile apps can be a good
complement to classes, in this pilot study there is a combination of the use of a mobile
app with the classroom instruction, by adopting a strategy which can be named “App
+ Class = better pronunciation”. This pilot study is a classroom study, which was
conducted with beginning learners of Portuguese as a Foreign Language (PFL) and
aims at contributing to answer the previously mentioned questions (what are the apps’
effects on the learning outcomes, namely in terms of pronunciation, and what are the
clients’ views on different strategies for pronunciation teaching). More specifically,
this work pursues two goals:
• to assess the impact on pronunciation of a teaching strategy that combines the use
of a mobile app and classroom instruction (by evaluating both learning outcomes
and students’ views on the strategy);
• to propose an improved model of the strategy “App + Class = better pronun-
ciation”. This paper will include: the description of the methods, namely the
properties of the chosen app, the participants, and the used procedure (Sect. 2);
the presentation of the results in terms of both learning outcomes and app assess-
ment by the students (Sect. 3); the discussion of the results related to goals (1)
and (2) (Sect. 4); the conclusion (Sect. 5).
2 Methods
2.1 The App
The app chosen for this study was FunEasyLearn Português (Portugal)—6000 Words,
version 5.6.5 for Android [14]. It presents three levels—Beginner (1,000 words,
free use); Intermediate (2,000 words); Advanced (3,000 words)—and the students
used the (free) Beginner level of the EP (European Portuguese) course for Chinese-
speakers, where all the titles, instructions and translations are in Chinese. Basically,
App and Classroom Instruction for Better Pronunciation: Some Results 523
this app allows the users to learn news words in terms of meaning, phonological
form, and spelling.
The app is organized into 15 lexical topics (e.g. HEALTH, FOOD, TRANSPORT).
Each topic has 8 to 10 subtopics (e.g. TRANSPORT has the subtopics of Roads, Bus,
Car, Bicycle…), and each subtopic—corresponding to a short lesson—has 7 different
activities to learn 4 to 15 words (e.g. the subtopic Roads includes words such as map,
traffic jam, to drive, to park). The activities consist of the following: 1. Vocabulary
(flash cards with an image, meaning translation into Chinese, written and oral word,
as a tool to memorize the new words); 2. Find Image (exercise to match 1 out of
4 translations to a given word and then see its image); 3. Choose Word (activity to
choose 1 out of 2 written words according to the image and translation previously
given); 4. Listen and Choose (exercise to choose 1 out of 4 images and translations
according to the heard word); 5. Match Words (activity of approximately 6 written
words to match to their corresponding translations); 6. Write Word (exercise to
use the given letters to complete the written word whose image and translation are
presented); 7. Listen and Write (exercise to write a target word with the given letters
according to the image and the heard word).
The version used is not so complete as others that embed an Automatic
Speech Recognition system (actually, later versions of FunEasyLearn Português
(Portugal)—6000 Words include such a tool). However, the version 5.6.5 still allows
the users to learn new words (in terms of sound, spelling, and meaning) and to prac-
tice several skills related to them (listening comprehension, reading, translating, and
writing). Some of these skills (especially listening) are crucial to develop a phono-
logical form for the new words and sounds (see the importance of perception in a
paradigm like the High-Variability Phonetic Training, e.g. [15], and a model like the
Second-language Speech Learning model, e.g. [16]).
2.2 Participants and Context
The participants in this study were 12 native speakers of Chinese, who were attending
the 1st year of the bachelor’s degree in Portuguese as a Foreign Language. The data
were collected in the context of the course Language Laboratory II (year 1, semester
2). The classroom instruction in this course is composed of phonetics of Portuguese
(phonetic transcription, word stress, etc.), listening comprehension, speaking and
pronunciation activities. The course contents include vocabulary and grammar also
addressed in other courses (e.g. festivities, gastronomy, different verb tenses…).
524 A. Castelo
2.3 Procedure
This study comprised three moments. The first part (Time 1) took place during one
class. There was a pretest which consisted of reading 18 words. This reading was
not previously practiced and was recorded in a Language Lab Sanako system.
The second part was a 2-week period, during which two different tasks were
accomplished. At home, the students did the homework assignment, which consisted
of using the app as much as they wanted to learn the vocabulary under the 6 subtopics
identified by the teacher (corresponding to 36 new words in total, retrieved from the
app’s Beginner level). The students were told that their learning of these words would
be assessed in class after the 2-week period. Simultaneously, during the classes, the
learners studied the same subtopics and similar vocabulary, having used both words
that were also in the app and items that were not present in the app (see Appendix
1).
In the third part (Time 2), the students made a posttest in the class and replied to
a questionnaire on the app assessment at home. For the posttest the same procedure
was used as for the pretest, and it included 6 words for each of 3 main conditions:
App + Class words (3 items used in the pretest + 3 words different from the pretest);
App-only words (3 already used in the pretest + 3 different from the pretest); Class-
only words (3 used in the pretest + 3 different from the pretest) (see Appendix
2). As for the questionnaire, the participants answered it online (through Survey
Monkey), and it included six questions: question 1 asking them to show their level
of agreement with 8 sentences with a scale of 1 (totally disagree) to 5 (totally agree);
open questions 2 to 5 requiring their views on the app’s use (learning experience,
strengths, shortcomings, and suggestions to improve the app); and question 6, to
choose the average interval of minutes corresponding to the daily amount of time
they used the app.
Table 1 lists the main procedures adopted in each of the three moments of this
study.
Table 1 The three moments of the pilot study

Time 1 Period of 2 weeks Time 2
Pretest: pronunciation in Homework assignment: use Posttest: similar to the pretest
reading 18 words, recorded in of the app, to be assessed later (class)
Language Lab Sanako system, on vocabulary learning Questionnaire on the app
in class; later marked by the • SHOPPING: Shopping assessment: on Survey
researcher as: centre, Other shops Monkey (homework
• Totally correct: 1 point • ENVIRONMENT: Town, assignment); responses to
• Only 1 segmental/stress Architecture open questions later
error: 0,5 points • TRANSPORT: Roads, categorised according to a
• > 1 error: 0 points Bus content analysis
(total: new 36 words)
Classes: about the same
subtopics & similar vocabulary
The pronunciation in word reading in the pretest and posttest was later evaluated
by the teacher/researcher in terms of segments and word stress. The scoring system
presented only three possibilities: 1 point for each totally correct word; 0,5 points for
each word produced with only one segmental or stress error; 0 points for words with
more than one pronunciation error. The sums of points obtained by each participant
in each test and condition (maximal number of 18 points for each test and of 6
points for each condition of App + Class, App-only, Class-only) were converted
into percentages. The statistical significance of the differences between the scores
in pretest and posttest was assessed through the Related-Samples Wilcoxon Signed
Rank Test (a nonparametric test was used since the number of participants is very
low), computed in SPSS. A two-tailed significance level of 0.05 (α = 5%) was
adopted as a basis for the statistical decision rule: the null hypothesis of existing
no ‘real’ difference among the samples was rejected if the p-value was equal to or
smaller than 0.05. This is a significance level very frequently adopted in the literature
(e.g. [17]).
The responses given by the participants to the open questions (i.e. 2 to 5) in the
questionnaire were included in a category, after a process of content analysis, and
the frequency of each category was registered.
3 Results
3.1 Pretest and Posttest
As already mentioned, each of the two pronunciation tests (pretest and posttest)
included three different conditions: 6 words studied in the app and the class; 6 words
approached only in the app; 6 items dealt with only in the class. Table 2 exhibits the
performance levels showed in all conditions of these two pronunciation tests, as well
as the p-value of the difference between the two moments (according to the results
of the Related-Samples Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test).
The comparison of the pronunciation performance in the pretest and posttest
shows an improvement in all three conditions (App + Class words, App-only words,
and Class-only words), laying the highest increase in App + Class words and the
lowest in Class-only words. This improvement reaches statistical significance in the
Table 2 Pronunciation in
Pretest (%) Posttest (%) Difference
word reading without
previous practice: results in App + Class (6 words) 56 74 p = 0.011 *
pretest and posttest App-only (6 words) 49 65 p = 0.041 *
Class-only (6 words) 52 60 p = 0.194
Total (18 words) 52 66 p = 0.009 *
Note * statistically significant, p ≤ 0.05
526 A. Castelo
pronunciation of App + Class words and App-only words, but not in Class-only
words.
3.2 Questionnaire on the App Assessment
The responses to the questionnaire evaluating the app and the experience of using it
also reveal important facts. Table 3 presents the results obtained in the first question,
in which the participants had to indicate the level of their agreement with a positive
statement about the app by choosing from 1 (totally disagree) to 5 (totally agree).
Table 4 exhibits the results obtained in questions 2 to 6. The items 2 to 5 are open
questions and the answers given by the students were integrated into a category after
a process of content analysis; the number of occurrences of each category is given
in parentheses. Question 6 includes several options, and the participants just chose
the mean amount of time they spent using the app daily.
The students declared to have used the app between 6 and 30 min a day (question
6), and the app was generally well appreciated, with a mean of 4 out of 5 points
in different evaluation criteria such as design and images, interest, and usefulness
(question 1). According to the participants, the most positive properties of the app
are the interest and engagement promoted by it as well as its usefulness to learn
vocabulary, but the students also consider it useful to develop pronunciation and
listening comprehension (question 1). Convenience and content constitute strengths
of the app (question 3), while the small amount of vocabulary, the images and other
properties of the app are deemed as less satisfactory (questions 4 and 5).
Table 3 Questionnaire on the app assessment: results

Questions Mean Mode
1. Do you agree with the sentences? 4.00 5.00
1.1. The design and images are pleasant
1.2. It is easy to use 3.92 5.00
1.3. It is interesting and stimulates the desire to continue using 4.08 5.00
1.4. The images and information on the words are clear 3.92 5.00
1.5. I have learned much by using this app 3.92 5.00
1.6. It is useful to learn vocabulary 4.08 5.00
1.7. It is useful to learn pronunciation 4.00 5.00
1.8. It is useful to develop listening comprehension 4.00 5.00
Note 1 totally disagree—5 totally agree
Table 4 Questionnaire on
Questions Responses (Absolute
the app assessment: results
Frequency)
(continued)
2. What did you learn with the Vocabulary (10),
app? pronunciation (5)
3. Strengths of the app Convenience (5), content (4),
simplicity (2)…
4. Shortcomings of the app Few vocabulary (3), images
(2), dictation (2), none (2)…
5. Suggestions to improve the More vocabulary (4), images
app (2), none (2)…
6. Approximately how much 6–10 min (4), 11-20 min (3),
time did you use the app per 21-30 min (5)
day?
4 Discussion
4.1 Impact on Pronunciation of This Teaching Strategy
Considering the initial goals of this pilot study, it is possible to discuss its results.
Goal 1 is to assess the impact on pronunciation of a teaching strategy that combines
the use of a mobile app and classroom instruction. Both the students’ pronunciation
performance in the posttest and students’ views conveyed in the questionnaire show
that the app has a positive impact on words’ pronunciation in terms of segments and
word stress.
This improvement can in all likelihood be (partially) attributed to:
• More time on task (related to the convenience of using a mobile app);
• Higher level of motivation for using a mobile app in the homework assignment
and for having immediate feedback on word knowledge (which also relates to
gamification—e.g. [18]);
• Awareness that their learning would be evaluated after this homework.
4.2 An Improved Model of “App + Class = better

Pronunciation”
This paper’s goal 2 is to propose an improved model of the strategy “App + Class =
better pronunciation”. Considering what was done in this pilot study and the results
obtained, it is possible to propose a guiding model for using this strategy. Such a
model coincides in the main with the procedure adopted in this study, as the results
show it was generally effective; however, a few features are improved in the new
proposal.
So, this model presents three parts.
528 A. Castelo
In the first part, in class, the teacher should introduce the chosen topic (lexical field,
specific communicative task, specific phonological structure…) and give specific
instructions on the homework assignment. By means of these instructions, it is very
important to guarantee that the students quickly grasp how the app works (so that
they consider it user-friendly), and that they recognize the purpose of that homework
assignment as meaningful for them (for instance, preparing for a specific task to be
done in class or for an assessment).
The second part can include only homework or homework plus classwork on
the same topic. In terms of homework, it should have properties like a defined and
balanced duration (neither too long, nor too short, being a 2-week period a good
choice), an engaging app (concerning images, design, gamification strategies, etc.),
and content in the app delimited by the teacher. The establishment by the teacher of the
content (lessons of the app) to use is important, as it guides students’ activity, helping
them not to feel overwhelmed with so much offer and simultaneously allowing them
to explore whatever draws their attention in an autonomous way. Whenever possible,
it is also advisable to try to monitor and increase the amount of time the students
use the app, for example by encouraging them to share their achievements; this way,
the teacher can follow their progress, and take the best of the gamification strategies
(e.g. [18]).
In the third part, again in class, the students should have the opportunity to show the
pronunciation skills developed through the homework assignment, either in different
activities (namely activities of controlled or spontaneous speech, focused on general
pronunciation or a specific sound/structure) or in assessment tests.
5 Conclusion
Some properties of this pilot study limit a more exact understanding of the app’s
impact on students’ pronunciation: the small number of participants, the short inter-
vention period, the lack of strict control of the (phonological, lexical, and frequency)
properties of the used words, the ignorance of the exact time spent with the app by
the students, the inexistence of assessment of spontaneous speech (only a reading
task is used). Despite these limitations (which should be addressed in future works,
as far as possible considering the constraints associated with classroom studies), this
pilot study already shows that the combination of classroom instruction with the use
of an app guided by the teacher can be useful for the pronunciation development.
A more exact understanding of the extent and causes of this usefulness should be
pursued in future works.
The mobile apps’ impact in pronunciation development definitely needs to be
further investigated, namely which properties of the apps (pedagogical use) more
actively contribute to their effectiveness in pronunciation learning and how teachers
and learners can take the best of these tools. However, the strategy proposed in this
pilot study, “App + Class = better pronunciation”, already showed positive results
in a pedagogical context, which are especially relevant in a foreign language (in this
case, PFL) for which the number of available apps with the needed quality and tools
for practicing pronunciation is very scarce.
Appendix 1: Words Used in the App and in the Class
36 new words present in the 36 new words present in the classroom

app
App-only words App + Class words Class-only words
1 templo [temple] 1. motorista [driver] 1. berma [berm]
2. catedral [cathedral] 2. trânsito [traffic] 2. chegar [to arrive]
3. arranha-céus [skyscrapers] 3. rua [street] 3. partir [to depart]
4. fábrica [factory] 4. castelo [castle] 4. montra [storefront]
5. conduzir [to drive] 5. igreja [church] 5. praça [square]
6. camião [truck] 6. torre [tower] 6. avenida [avenue]
7. mapa [map] 7. escadas (rolantes) [stairs, 7. andar de carro [to drive a
8. saída [exit] escalators] car]
9. engarrafamento [traffic jam] 8. loja [store] 8. andar a pé [to walk on foot]
10. semáforo [traffic lights] 9. edifício [building] 9. atravessar [to cross]
11. bilhete de autocarro [bus 10. parque de estacionamento 10. desvio [detour]
ticket] [car park] 11. universidade [university]
12. paragem de autocarro [bus 11. estacionar [to park] 12. rio [river]
stop] 12. teatro [theater] 13. museu [museum]
13. botão de paragem [stop 13. escola [school] 14. palácio [palace]
button] 14. livraria [bookstore] 15. ponte [bridge]
14. miniautocarro [minibus] 15. mercado [market] 16. atração [attraction]
15. loja de artigos de oferta 16. padaria [bakery] 17. parar [to stop]
[gift items store] 17. cliente [customer] 18. apressar [to hurry]
16. produtos de beleza [beauty 18. perfumaria [perfumery]
products]
17. confeitaria [confectionery
shop]
18. aldeia [village]
Appendix 2: Words Read in the Pretest and in the Posttest
App-only App + Class Class-only

Same Different Same Different Same Different
Pretest aldeia catedral castelo trânsito berma museu
templo fábrica escadas rua montra ponte
conduzir mapa torre mercado apressar desvio
(continued)
530 A. Castelo
(continued)
App-only App + Class Class-only
Same Different Same Different Same Different
Posttest aldeia camião castelo loja berma rio
templo chegar escadas teatro montra partir
conduzir saída torre escola apressar chegar
References
1. Ellis, R.: Principles of instructed language learning. System 33(2), 209–224 (2005). https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2004.12.006
2. Kukulska-Hulme, A.: Will mobile learning change language learning? ReCALL 21(2), 157–
165 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1017/S0958344009000202
3. Reinders, H., Pegrum, M.: Supporting language learning on the move: an evaluative frame-
work for mobile language learning resources. In: Tomlinson, B. (ed.) Research and Materials
Development for Language Learning, pp. 219–232. Routledge, New York, NY (2016)
4. Rosell-Aguilar, F.: State of the app: a taxonomy and framework for evaluating language learning
mobile applications. CALICO J 34(2), 243–258 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1558/cj.27623
5. Castelo, A.: FunEasyLearn: an app for learning pronunciation? In: Mesquita, A., Abreu, A.,
Carvalho, J.V. (eds.) Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology. Smart Innovation,
Systems and Technologies, vol 256, pp. 395–405. Springer, Singapore (2022). https://doi.org/
10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_32
6. Thomson, R.I.: Computer assisted pronunciation training: targeting second language vowel
perception improves pronunciation. CALICO J. 28(3), 744–765 (2011). https://doi.org/10.111
39/cj.28.3.744-765
7. Liakin, D., Cardoso, W., Liakina, N.: Learning L2 pronunciation with a mobile speech
recognizer: French /y/. CALICO J. 32(1), 1–25 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1558/cj.v32i1.25962
8. O’Brien, M.: Why train pronunciation with computer technology? (2018). http://www.pronun
ciationforteachers.com/key-concepts.html. Accessed 07 April 2021
9. Heil, C.R., Wu, J.S., Lee, J.J., Schmidt, T.: A review of mobile language learning applications:
trends, challenges, and opportunities. Eurocall Rev. 24(2), 32–50 (2016). https://doi.org/10.
4995/eurocall.2016.6402
10. Levis, J.M.: Evidence-based pronunciation teaching. A pedagogy for the future. J. Second
Lang. Pronunciation 3(1), 1–8 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1075/jslp.3.1.001evi
11. Alghazo, S.M.: Advanced EFL learners’ beliefs about pronunciation teaching. Int. Educ. Stud.
8(11), 63–76 (2015). https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v8n11p63
12. Couper, G.: Teaching word stress: learning from learners’ perceptions. TESOL in Context.
Special Edition S3 (2012). https://tesol.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/TiC_S3_graeme_
couper.pdf. Accessed 22 April 2022
13. Tergujeff, E.: Learner perspective on English pronunciation teaching in an EFL context. Res.
Lang. 11(1) (2013). https://doi.org/10.2478/v10015-012-0010-z
14. FunEasyLearn Homepage. https://www.funeasylearn.com/. Accessed 28 March 2021
15. Barriuso, T.A., Hayes-Harb, R.: High variability phonetic training as a bridge from research
to practice. The CATESOL J. 30(1), 177–194 (2018). https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1174
231.pdf. Accessed 22 April 2022
16. Flege, J.E.: Second-language speech learning: theory, findings, and problems. In: Strange,
W. (Ed.), Speech Perception and Linguistic Experience: Issues in Cross-language research,
pp. 229–273. York Press, Timonium, MD (1995). http://jimflege.com/files/Flege_in_Strange_1
995.pdf. Accessed 22 April 2022
17. Marques de Sá, J.: Applied Statistics using SPSS, STATISTICA, MATLAB and R. Springer,
Berlin, Heidelberg (2007)
18. Chou, Y.K.: The octalysis framework for gamification & behavioral design. https://yukaichou.
com/gamification-examples/octalysis-complete-gamification-framework/. Accessed 14 May
2021
Appreciation of ICT Tools in Higher
Education in Times of Pandemic
Pierina D’Elia Di Michele , Angel Higuerey Gómez ,

Reinaldo Armas Herrera , and Félix González Pulido
Abstract The use of technologies in education has been occupying important

spaces. In the time of pandemic that was experienced worldwide, these became more
important and even essential. In university education, some actors were prepared
while others had a hard time adapting to this environment. Some students were
attracted to its use, and it helped facilitate their education, while others were not
benefited by such attraction. At the Private Technical University of Loja, Ecuador,
education is taught both in distance and face-to-face mode. In the case of the latter,
students are more attracted to traditional education. This research seeks to deter-
mine the relationship between satisfaction with the use of technological resources
and satisfaction with the knowledge acquired using technological tools. Students of
the face-to-face modality are taken as a sample, in which different ICT tools are
incorporated in the teaching and evaluation process. To determine this relationship,
non-parametric tests are applied and interpreted for the analysis of correlations and
variances. The results obtained show a relationship between satisfaction with the
use of technological resources and satisfaction with the knowledge acquired using
technological tools.
Keywords ITC’s · Higher education · Face to face modality
P. D. Di Michele · F. G. Pulido
Department of Philosophy, Arts and Humanities, Private Technical University of Loja,
Loja 110150, Ecuador
e-mail: pdelia@utpl.edu.ec
F. G. Pulido
e-mail: fjgonzalez88@utpl.edu.ec
A. H. Gómez (B) · R. A. Herrera
Department of Business Studies, Private Technical University of Loja, Loja 110150, Ecuador
e-mail: aahiguerey@utpl.edu.ec
R. A. Herrera
e-mail: ahreinaldo@utpl.edu.ec
A. H. Gómez
Economic and Social Research (IEXIHES), Experimental Institute for Humanistic, Universidad
de Los Andes, Trujillo 3150, Venezuela
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_47
534 P. D. Di Michele et al.
1 Introduction
The pandemic changed the way of teaching in universities as well as many aspects
of life. Mobility and concentration restrictions made all forms of education virtual.
Passive virtual education such as the master class has been replaced by techno-
logical strategies and tools to make these more enjoyable and participatory. Students
who before the pandemic were accustomed to face-to-face classes and to interacting
with other members of the university community lost those networks of contact and
those informal forms of learning.
To alleviate these handicaps, universities have used personalized learning envi-
ronments that adapt to the student’s pace. Personalized learning environment (PLE)
can be defined as a set of technological tools that allow the development of the
teaching–learning process and the management of the information inherent to it [1].
The interaction of the students within the PLE allows them to manage the infor-
mation in such a way that new forms of knowledge and knowing are created. The
PLE can be seen as a way to democratize knowledge and learning where the teacher
is part of the learning, but not the only source of it.
The objective of this work is to verify if the use of these technological tools such as
Kahoot, Google Drive, Socrative, Zappar, Mentimeter, Padlet, Genially, Classroom,
Quizizz, Teams and Lucca accounting software, improves student satisfaction in the
process of teaching learning during the pandemic.
The rest of the article is made up as follows. In section two there is a review of the
literature on the PLE and the different tools that make up the PLE. In section three
are the data, variables and hypotheses, while in section four are the results and their
discussion. Finally, the conclusions are added.
2 Literature Review
2.1 Personalized Learning Enviroment
PLEs are relatively new in the educational field. Among their advantages are person-
alized learning according to the tools used, better student performance and facilitating
cooperation in the learning community [1, 2].
The analysis of the PLE literature indicates that its application can be carried out
in a variety of university degrees such as nursing [3], in education [4], in tourism [2],
although its application in secondary education has also been studied [5].
But like any technological tool, it also has its limitations and problems such as
the use of technology, the time spent, the generation of content or the necessary
reflection within the teaching process [6].
However, it should be noted that the experiences in its application are mostly
satisfactory in the literature. Thus, the articles from [1] [7] among others stand out.
Appreciation of ICT Tools in Higher Education in Times of Pandemic 535
2.2 Tools for PLE
For the configuration of a PLE learning environment there are several tools that can
be implemented. Among the tools used in the proposed PLE is Kahoot. The use of
this tool as part of learning has been documented by [8] during the pandemic period.
This tool was classified as useful by students within their educational process during
the pandemic period. [9] studied this tool in New Zealand in university education
and concluded that the educational experience had improved.
The use of Socrative as an educational tool has been studied by [10]. Chemistry
students improved their results and encouraged their participation in class. These
results have been corroborated by [11] in high school education in the subject of
physics.
The Padlet in university education has been studied by [12] where the relation-
ship between the use of the tool and academic performance in a higher education
institution in southern Ecuador was established.
The Mentimeter in higher education has been used by [13] during the Covid
19 pandemic, highlighting that it favored interaction between students and teachers
during the pandemic and that students were more participatory.
The use of Quizizz has been studied by [14] during a pandemic, detecting an
improvement in the willingness of students to participate in classes.
The pandemic has promoted the use of these tools because, due to health restric-
tions, all classes have been taught virtually for almost two years, which has made it
necessary to use these tools to encourage student participation and attention.
3 Methodology
This research seeks to relate the level of satisfaction with the use of ICT tools
with the learning obtained in the time of the pandemic. For this, the students of
the Private Technical University of Loja (UTPL) of Ecuador are analyzed, and a
relational methodology is used, to determine the relationship between the use of
ICT tools and the level of satisfaction with the knowledge acquired. The technolog-
ical tools used were Kahoot, Google Drive, Socrative, Zappar, Mentimeter, Padlet,
Genially, Classroom, Quizizz, Teams and Lucca accounting software. In this sense,
non-parametric tests will be applied and interpreted for the analysis of correlations
and variances of the main variables.
The population used in this study were students enrolled in the academic cycle
October 2020–February 2021, in face-to-face modality of the components Basic
Anthropology, Spiritual Development II and International Financial Reporting Stan-
dards (IFRS); the first two are transversal in the degrees taught at this university
(Psychopedagogy degree, Environmental Engineering degree and Accounting and
Auditing degree), and the last one is taught in the Accounting and Auditing degree.
The Basic Anthropology course provides the theoretical, philosophical and

anthropological foundations for the study of the development of the human person in
the events of its existence, for this it focuses its attention on the psychosomatic and
psychospiritual dimensions for its integral development. For its part, the Spiritual
Development II component visualizes anthropology and ethics; to ensure that the
student reaches a broad and comprehensive knowledge of himself. Regarding the
subject International Financial Reporting Standards, its objective is to instruct future
accountants on the standards accepted by Ecuador for the realization of the different
financial statements of organizations.
The information was obtained from an instrument that was applied at the beginning
of the academic course to detect the initial level of knowledge of the participating
students; and another at the end of the academic course to the same students to
determine the level of use of technological tools, as well as their contribution to
the learning process for the participants in each subject. Both instruments had an
identification part, the working conditions and the last ones assessed the level of
knowledge of the ICT tools that can be used in the teaching–learning process in the
face-to-face modality, using Likert-type rating scales.
Most of the students enrolled in the study components are under 20 years of age,
and a large part of them are enrolled in the Spiritual Development II component (see
Fig. 1). These components are taught in the first courses of the degrees, while the
IFRS subject is taught in the eighth cycle of the degree.
The sample selected for this research was 45 students who gave their answers to
two instruments, one at the beginning and one at the end of the course. Although the
instruments were applied to all the students, this sample was the one that answered
both questionnaires. In this case, the largest number of students are from the Basic
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Basic Anthropology Spiritual Development II IFRS
18-20 21-23 24-26 >26
Fig. 1 Distribution of enrolled students, by component and age

IFRS
Spiritual Development II
Basic Anthropology
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Woman Man
Fig. 2 Distribution of the sample by component and sex
Anthropology component; and the majority of the entire sample are women (see
Fig. 2).
The assessment of the responses of the level of satisfaction with the use of ICT
tools and their contribution to learning, became binary variables, favorable or unfa-
vorable. The answers of the first option are those who answered the last two levels (4
and 5); while, for the unfavorable ones, those who answered the last three evaluation
levels were considered.
The variables used were as follows.
• Level of satisfaction with the use of technological resources (NSRT): it is a binary
variable, 1 and 0, where 1 represents that the students in the sample are satisfied
with the use of technology in the learning process and 0 that they are not.
• Level of satisfaction with the knowledge acquired using technological tools
(NSCA): it is a binary variable, 1 and 0, where 1 represents that the students
in the sample are satisfied with the knowledge acquired using technological tools
and 0 that they are not.
To determine the relationship between satisfaction with the use of technological
resources (NSRT) and satisfaction with the knowledge acquired using technological
tools (NSCA), non-parametric tests are applied and interpreted for the analysis of
correlations and variances of the main variables, respectively. Spearman’s correlation
coefficient [12, 15 –17]. The system used was Stata S/E 15.0.
4 Results
The initial assessment regarding knowledge about ICT tools could be said to be
average, and which was surpassed at the end of the academic year, since most of the
students assessed that their knowledge was between 4 and 5, according to the rating
scale (see Fig. 3). Only one lag can be seen in the IFRS course, in which a student
rated his knowledge of ICTs at 2.
Regarding the different ICT tools used, these were different since their selection
oversaw the teacher and the type of subject. On the other hand, at the beginning of
the cycle, not all the tools were known and used by the students (see Table 1), since
the most modern tools were little known, and much less used, as is the case by Genial
Ly, Mentimeter, Quizz and Zappar.
On the other hand, tools such as Power Point and/or Prezzi, as well as Socrative,
were the best known and used, followed by Google Drive and Kahoot. These data
show the level of knowledge about most of the tools that would be used in the
component. A special case is the accounting software, which is only used by students
of the IFRS course since it is a specifically accounting software.
However, when asked about the level of satisfaction with the use of ICT tools in the
acquisition of knowledge, it is observed that most students felt satisfied, surpassing
it by more than three quarters, in all subjects., being the lowest in the IFRS matter
(see Table 2). This may be because this subject is more practical and it was a bit
difficult for them to see the subjects through tools; specifically, the LUCA software
that required more dedication from them, to detect and learn about the different
functions of this software.
Now, the results of the application of Spearman’s correlation to determine the
relationship between satisfaction with the use of all technological resources (NSRT)
and satisfaction with the knowledge acquired using all technological tools (NSCA),
can be seen in Table 3. A low t is appreciated, less than 5%; therefore, the alternative
hypothesis is accepted; that is, there is a significant relationship between satisfaction
Fig. 3 Initial and final assessment of preparation in ICTs to face the teaching–learning process
Table 1 Initial knowledge about ICT tools

I know it and I I know it, but I I have heard of it Ido not know it
have used it (%) have not used it (%) (%)
(%)
Classroom 20,0 20,0 24,4 35,6
Genial Ly 26,7 13,3 11,1 48,9
Google drive 57,8 26,7 13,3 2,2
Kahoot 51,1 20,0 11,1 17,8
Mentimeter 2,2 4,4 8,9 84,4
One drive 40,0 22,2 26,7 11,1
Padlet 31,1 15,6 11,1 42,2
Luca accounting 33,3 6,7 6,7 53,3
software
PowerPoint y/o 93,3 4,4 0,0 2,2
Prezzi
Quizizz 22,2 24,4 13,3 40,0
Socrative 77,8 13,3 4,4 4,4
Teams 37,8 15,6 20,0 26,7
Zappar 0,0 6,7 13,3 80,0
Table 2 Distribution of the sample by level of satisfaction with the use of ICT tools and the
knowledge acquired
Academic component Satisfied No satisfied Total
Fa (%) Fr (%) Fa (%) Fr(%) Fa (%) Fr (%)
Basic Anthropology 15 88,24 2 11,76 17 100,00
Spiritual Development II 11 91,67 1 8,33 12 100,00
International Financial Reporting Standards 12 75,00 4 25,00 16 100,00
Note Fa is absolute frequency and Fr is relative frequency
with the use of technological resources (NSRT) and satisfaction with the knowledge
acquired using technological tools (NSCA).
Therefore, the results show the significant contribution of technological tools in
the education process, and the level of satisfaction with the knowledge acquired
Table 3 Spearman
Number of obs = 45
correlation NSRT and NSCA
Spearman’s rho = 0.4925
Test of Ho: NSRT and NSCA are independent
Prob > t = 0.0006
during the time of the pandemic, in which most classes were taught online, and the
teachers saw the need to use technology to motivate and teach in their components.
These results are consistent with [12, 17], who show similar results in terms of
level of satisfaction, but only with the use of a tool.
5 Conclusions
The research was carried out to determine the relationship between satisfaction
with the use of technological resources (NSRT) and satisfaction with the knowl-
edge acquired using technological tools (NSCA), in which the students enrolled in
the components of Basic Anthropology, Spiritual Development II and International
Financial Reporting Standards were selected as a sample, at the Private Technical
University of Loja (UTPL), in Ecuador corresponding to the academic period October
2020-February 2021.
It was observed that most of the students expanded their knowledge about the
different technological tools, when comparing them with their initial situation. On
the other hand, it was appreciated that, at the beginning, not all the tools were known
and used, and that throughout the cycle, they felt motivated to learn about them, even
though some had a higher degree of complexity.
On the other hand, the results show that there is a relationship between satisfac-
tion with the use of technological resources (NSRT) and satisfaction with the knowl-
edge acquired using technological tools (NSCA) by the students of the Universidad
Técnica Particular de Loja (UTPL), in the academic period October 2020- February
2021, in which a forced situation was being experienced in terms of virtualized
classes.
These results should be compared with future research in which classes are no
longer forced, to see if this level is maintained and students remain motivated and
satisfied with the use of technological tools in their teaching–learning process.
References
1. Kompen, R.T., Edirisingha, P., Canaleta, X., Alsina, M., Monguet, J.M.: Personal learning
environments based on web 2.0 services in higher education. Telemat. Inform. 38, 194–206
(2019)
2. Wei, W., Mejia, C., Qi, R.: A personal learning environment (PLE) approach to mobile teaching
and learning on a short-term study abroad. J. Hosp. Leis. Sport Tour. Educ. 29, 100296 (2021)
3. Ros-, R.: Diseno˜ e implementación de un entorno personal de aprendizaje en línea para una
Unidad de Cuidados Intensivos Neonatal. Enferm Intensiva 32, 111–112 (2021)
4. Marín-Díaz, V., López-Pérez, M., Sampedro-Requena, B.E.: Personal learning environment
within the lecture room: a contribution from the halls of childhood education degree. Procedia
Soc. Behav. Sci. 237, 360–364 (2017)
5. Rahimi, E., van den Berg, J., Veen, W.: Facilitating student-driven constructing of learning
environments using Web 2.0 personal learning environments. Comput. Educ. 81, 235–246
(2015)
6. Valtonen, T., Hacklin, S., Dillon, P., Vesisenaho, M., Kukkonen, J., Hietanen, A.: Perspectives
on personal learning environments held by vocational students. Comput. Educ. 58(2), 732–739
(2012)
7. Parra-González, M.E., Parejo-Jiménez, N., Conde-, A., Olmedo-Moreno, E.M.: Relationship
between the personal learning environment and the educational level of unaccompanied foreign
minors. Int. J. Intercult. Relat. 80, 17–26 (2021)
8. Toma, F., Diaconu, D.C., Popescu, C.M.: The use of the Kahoot! learning platform as a type of
formative assessment in the context of pre-university education during the COVID-19 pandemic
period. Educ. Sci. 11(10), 649 (2021)
9. Licorish, S.A., Owen, H.E., Daniel, B., George, J.L.: Students’ perception of Kahoot!’s
influence on teaching and learning. Res. Pract. Technol. Enhanc. Learn. 13(1), 1–23 (2018)
10. Frías, M.V., Arce, C., Flores-Morales, P.: Uso de la plataforma socrative. com para alumnos
de Química General. Educ. Quím. 27(1), 59–66 (2016)
11. Balta, N., Perera, V.H., Hervás, C.: Using Socrative as an online homework platform to increase
students’ exam scores. Educ. Inf. Technol. 23(2), 837–850 (2018)
12. Pardo-Cueva, M., Chamba, L.M., Gómez, Á.H., Jaramillo-, B.G.: Las TIC y rendimiento
académico en la educación superior: Una relación potenciada por el uso del Padlet. Rev. Ibérica
Sist. Tecnol. Informação E28, 934–944 (2020)
13. Pichardo, J.I., López-Medina, E.F., Mancha-Cáceres, O., González-Enríquez, I., Hernández-
Melián, A., Blázquez-Rodríguez, M., Borrás-Gené, O.: Students and teachers using
mentimeter: technological innovation to face the challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic and
post-pandemic in higher education. Educ Sci 11(11), 667 (2021)
14. Toledo Soto, M.J., Díaz Larenas, C.H.: Quizizz and smartphones: warm-up strategy for
improving university students’ class participation [Internet]. SciELO Preprints. 2020 [cited
2022 Mar. 31]. https://preprints.scielo.org/index.php/scielo/preprint/view/1124
15. Zempoalteca Durán, B., Barragán López, J.F., González Martínez, J., Guzmán Flores, T.:
Formación en TIC y competencia digital en la docencia en instituciones públicas de educación
superior. Apertura (Guadalajara, Jal.), 9(1), 80–96 (2017)
16. Alves, P., Miranda, L., Morais, C., Melaré, D.: Estilos de aprendizaje de los estudiantes de la
educación superior y el acceso a las herramientas de entornos virtuales. Tendencias Pedagógicas
(2018)
17. Pardo-Cueva, M., Chamba-Rueda, L.M., Rios-Zaruma, J., Higuerey, A.: Information and
communication technologies and their relationship with academic performance in higher educa-
tion. In: 14th Iberian Conference on Information Systems and Technologies (CISTI), Coimbra,
Portugal, 2019, pp. 1–6 (2019)
Exploring the Role of Emotional
Intelligence and Artificial Intelligence
on Luxury Value and Customer-Based
Outcomes
Sérgio Dominique-Ferreira, Helena Gomes, Pedro Quelhas Brito,

and Catherine Prentice
Abstract To strengthen theoretical and practical understanding of consumers’

perceptions of luxury brands, previous literature has scrutinized the financial, func-
tional, individual, and social dimensions of the luxury value construct. However,
few authors have focused on linking the antecedent dimensions of luxury value to
further attitudinal outcomes, besides purchase intention. Also, the few studies consid-
ering both dimensions focused on age or culture as moderator dimensions between
such constructs. The gap identified in the literature constitutes the originality of the
present study. As a result, the main goal of the present work is to measure the impact
of luxury value perceptions in customer-based outcomes, as well as the possible
moderator effect of Artificial Intelligence and Emotional Intelligence in the relation-
ship between Owner Based Luxury Value and customer-based outcomes. Therefore,
a quantitative methodological approach will be employed, through the development
of a questionnaire.
Keywords Luxury · Owner Based Luxury Value (OBLV) · Service encounter ·

Service quality · Artificial Intelligence (AI) · Emotional Intelligence (EI) ·
Customer engagement · Customer satisfaction · Customer loyalty
S. Dominique-Ferreira (B)
Department of Marketing & Tourism, Applied Management Research Unit (UNIAG), Polytechnic
Institute of Cávado and Ave UNIAG, Barcelos, Portugal
e-mail: sergio.dominique@gmail.com; sdominique@ipca.pt
H. Gomes
Faculty of Economics, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
P. Q. Brito
Department of Marketing, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: pbrito@fep.up.pt
C. Prentice
Department of Marketing, University of Southern Queensland, Springfield, Australia
e-mail: cathyjournalarticles@gmail.com
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_48
544 S. Dominique-Ferreira et al.
1 Introduction
Previous literature on luxury value focuses on the dimensions that underlie the luxury
value construct but neglects relevant attitudinal outcomes of luxury value [1]. Besides
that, studies that consider genuine luxury brands and actual luxury brand owners
remain scarce [2]. In addressing this gap, studies must consider specific luxury
brands and genuine luxury brand owners, which bring us to the concept of OBLV,
that comprises both the ownership of luxury products and the direct experience
with luxury brands [2]. This construct includes four dimensions, namely: financial,
functional, individual, and social, having influence on key attitudinal outcomes [2].
In terms of luxury value construct measurement, marketing literature describes
several dimensions. Wiedmann et al. [3] introduced a framework, with four different
factors, such as: (1) financial, (2) functional, (3) individual, and (4) social. However,
most studies examine these dimensions conceptually, without empirically assessing
the related outcomes [1]. Therefore, a small number of authors tried to explore both
the dimensions of luxury value and resulting attitudinal outcomes, beyond purchase
intentions [4, 5]. However, besides exploring both the dimensions of luxury value
and the further attitudinal outcomes, it is also important to explore potential moder-
ators of the relationship between those constructs. When studies include any such
considerations, they tend to focus on a single moderator, such as culture [6].
Both service and luxury research have tended to view the service encounter as a
dyadic interaction between the customer and the frontline employee [7]. While luxury
research still focuses on the customer interaction with the employee [8], service
research has seen a rapid development in the understanding of multi-actor service
encounters [9]. Therefore, luxury brands have been reluctant to adopt technology-
enabled multi-actor interactions at the customer interface, even though they could
benefit from opening up their service encounters between the customer, employees,
technology, and other customers [10]. Consequently, this represents a challenge in the
luxury industry, which still focus on employees managing the customer experience,
during the service encounter [8].
Additionally, there’s an understanding that customers prefer to deal with
employees and tend to be frustrated by AI services [11], which may affect their overall
quality assessment of the firm, subsequent purchasing behavior and other dimensions,
such as: customer engagement, customer satisfaction and customer loyalty [12].
However, consumers’ reactions to AI-Assisted vs. Human-Assisted services have
received little attention [13], being crucial to incorporate these factors as modera-
tors between luxury value perceptions and customer-based outcomes. Consequently,
this study will incorporate AI and EI as moderators, focusing on the luxury fashion
industry and in customers’ evaluation of AI services and EI, through employee service
quality.
Exploring the Role of Emotional Intelligence and Artificial Intelligence … 545
2 Literature Review
2.1 The Concept of Luxury and Owner Based Luxury Value
According to Dubois et al. [14], six facets define and structure the concept of luxury,
namely: excellent quality; high price; scarcity and uniqueness; aesthetics and poly
sensuality; ancestral heritage and personal history; and superfluousness. Accord-
ingly, OBLV can be defined as the consumers’ perceptions and experiences with
luxury brands. This new definition of luxury value emphasizes two major features
of customer behavior: (1) ownership and (2) direct experience with luxury brands
[2]. Firstly, the ownership of a luxury product brings functional benefits as well as a
sense of prestige to the owner [15]. Secondly, the customer direct experience refers
to the overall experience a customer has with a retailer, based on their interactions
and thoughts about the brand [16].
2.2 The Antecedents of Owner Based Luxury Value
The consumer’s subjective expectations and individual perceptions of a luxury brand

are referred to as perceived luxury value [3]. Vigneron and Johnson [17] created
a brand luxury index to describe the decision-making process of luxury-seeking
customers, focusing on both non-personal (i.e., conspicuousness, uniqueness, and
social values) and personal oriented value perceptions (i.e., hedonism, and extended
self). This model was further improved by Wiedmann et al. [3], by adding a financial
value dimension to consumer perceived value. The resultant luxury value model has
four dimensions: financial (price value), functional (usability value, quality value,
uniqueness value), individual (self-identity value, hedonic value, materialistic value),
and social (conspicuousness value, prestige value).
In line with Wiedmann et al. [3], Bachmann et al. [2] also confirmed that luxury
value consists of four dimensions: financial, functional, individual, and social percep-
tions. However, this author explored a narrower conceptualization of luxury value,
i.e., OBLV, that focuses on two aspects: (1) ownership of luxury products and (2)
direct experience with luxury brands. It acknowledges that the perceptions of actual
owners of luxury brands are likely to be different from those of non-owners and
subjective expectations are not proxies for actual first-hand experiences with luxury
brands [3]. Accordingly, it is also relevant to understand specific luxury value percep-
tions when it comes to actual luxury brand owners. As such, besides considering the
dimensions of overall luxury value, it is relevant to study their impact in a new
narrower conceptualization, such Bachmann et al. [2] did. Therefore, the following
hypothesis are announced:
H1: Financial Luxury value perceptions have impact on OBLV.
H2: Functional Luxury value perceptions have impact on OBLV.
H3: Social Luxury value perceptions have impact in OBLV.

H4: Individual Luxury value perceptions have impact in OBLV.
2.3 The Outcomes of Owner Based Luxury Value
Relevant literature argues that luxury value can be measured using Wiedmann et al.
[3] four-dimensional scale when it comes to consumer’s perceptions of luxury value.
Accordingly, there are some studies that examine both the connections between
luxury perceived value and resulting attitudinal outcomes. However, few studies
consider attitudinal outcomes beyond the customer purchase intention [6, 15], such as
customer engagement, customer satisfaction and customer loyalty. In practice, Hung
et al. [18] studied the dimensions of self-perception and vanity in consumer purchase
intention for luxury handbags, in Taiwan. Findings indicated that social influence,
measured by conspicuousness and prestige value, is positively related to luxury brand
purchase intention, as well as functional and experiential self-perception. Addition-
ally, besides purchase intention as a possible attitudinal outcome, Shahid and Paul
[19] studied the attributes of internal motivation (Personal ‘self’ factors) that drive
the luxury experience. The results further support happiness and word of mouth as an
outcome of the enriched luxury experience, thereby showing the impact in customer
engagement. Therefore, it is relevant to make the connection between luxury value
perceptions and further customer-based outcomes, as we present below.
The impact of OBLV on Customer Engagement
Customer engagement includes the co-creation and social influence through
purchasing and referring a brand, as well as sharing brand experience and improving
the brand products through contributing to the brand community and giving feedback
[20]. Regarding luxury markets, this process starts with the desire to own some-
thing that is valuable in financial terms, but also in status and achievement, which
brings functional benefits as well as a sense of prestige to the owner [15]. Thus,
strong attitudinal connections are usually conditions for active brand engagement,
in which customers are willing to invest time, energy, money, or other resources
[21]. Thus, consumers that are engaged have improved relationships with brands,
as well as greater emotional bonds, trust and commitment, becoming brand ambas-
sadors, by communicating about the brands with other consumers [21]. For luxury
brands, in particular status-conscious contexts, loyal consumers are willingly to talk
about luxury brands and suggest them to other consumers [5]. Therefore, it is likely
that perceived luxury value drives customer engagement. As such, the following
hypothesis is announced:
H5: OBLV has positive effects on Customer Engagement.
The impact of OBLV on Customer Satisfaction

Customer satisfaction is proposed as a customer-based predictor of customer engage-
ment [22], being a universal antecedent of behavioral intentions and behaviors [23].
Relevant marketing and management literature show that a high level of satisfac-
tion influences customer patronage and retention. Following the previous discus-
sion, Shahid and Paul [19] studied the attributes of internal motivation, namely the
personal “self” factors—individual dimension of luxury value—in the luxury expe-
rience. The findings supported happiness and word of mouth—reflective of customer
engagement—as an outcome of the enriched luxury experience. Also, Prentice and
Loureiro [24] studied the individual dimension of luxury value on customer engage-
ment—assumed as a customer-based outcome predicted by customer satisfaction
[22]. The findings showed that social motives are indeed significantly related to
customer engagement which affects an individual’s subjective well-being. There-
fore, it is likely that perceived luxury value also drives customer satisfaction. As
such, the following hypothesis is announced:
H6: OBLV has positive effects on Customer Satisfaction.
The impact of OBLV on Customer Loyalty
Customer loyalty has been defined as repeat purchasing frequency or relative volume
of same-brand purchasing [25]. Numerous studies have provided empirical evidence
of a chain relationship between service quality, customer satisfaction, and loyalty
[26]. In their meta-analysis of consumer value perceptions, Smith and Colgate
[27] report that value perceptions strongly predict purchase intentions and actual
purchases. Similarly, Wiedmann et al. [3] found that consumers’ luxury value percep-
tions drive luxury purchase intentions. Considering luxury settings, Hennigs et al.
[5] found that desire for luxury brands involves several dimensions of luxury value
including financial, functional, individual, and social consumer perceptions, which
are related to the consumption of luxury goods in terms of purchase intention, recom-
mendation behavior and the willingness to pay a premium price, which translates
customer loyalty [28]. As such, the following hypothesis is announced:
H7: OBLV has positive effects on Customer Loyalty.
2.4 The Moderating Effect of Artificial Intelligence
Wixom and Todd [29] operationalized AI into nine different dimensions—that will
be further considered in the conceptual model—namely: reliability (the degree to
which system operation is dependable); flexibility (the degree to which systems
adapt to users’ changing demands); integrity (the degree to which systems integrate
data from different sources); accessibility (the degree which information can be
easily accessed; timeliness (the degree to which systems provide timely responses to
requests); comprehensiveness (the degree to systems provide needed information);
accuracy (the degree to which systems provide correct information); format (the
degree to which the information is well presented); and currency (the degree of
updated information).
AI services have progressively infiltrated the commercial world, in order to facil-
itate internal business operations for the organization and external transactions with
customers [12]. During those service encounters, companies may offer tangible and
intangible services. On the one hand, tangible services generally include impersonal
components such as facilities; whereas intangible services refer to services provided
by employees. Accordingly, AI services can be tangible (e.g., concierge robots)
or intangible (e.g., chatbots), functioning as part of service offerings provided to
customers to improve customer service experience [30].
While interacting with the customer, frontline employees may also cooperate
directly with technology, in order to enable the interaction [31]. Even though little
research has examined the role of new technologies in luxury, the use of digital
support to facilitate service employees’ interactions has become common in luxury
boutiques, in recent years. Furthermore, AI services can be applied in stores, being
used both by employees and customers, such as Farfetch “Store of the Future”. This
store is powered by AI services, since it features: (1) automatic customer recogni-
tion, as the shopper arrives at the store; (2) clothing racks; (3) interactive holograms;
and (4) AI mirrors. In addition to the AI services already presented, voice recogni-
tion is another tool that allows shoppers to search for items using speech. Besides
the direct interaction between customers, technologies, and employees, in physical
facilities, customers can also interact directly with technologies, in online settings,
using chatbots. This represents a challenge in the luxury industry, that still focus
on employees managing the service encounter [8]. However, the growth of AI tools
and new technologies is changing service encounters and giving rise to dynamic and
interdependent roles for technology, frontline employees and customers, allowing
customers to take on a more active role [31].
Moreover, recent literature suggests that AI plays an imperative role in influencing
customers’ service experience, being a cost-effective mean to enhance organizational
efficiency and improve service delivery [30]. In the service marketing literature,
service quality often reflects customers’ perceptions and value-judgments of a service
[32], capturing the service excellence that is deemed to meet or exceed customer
expectations [33]. Equally, the quality of AI services is manifested in customers’
perceptions and assessments. Unlike other services offered by organizations, AI is
a technology-based service, which involves information and system characteristics
that influence information and system quality perceptions and, ultimately, customer
satisfaction [29]. Therefore, services provided by machines or robots can contribute
to service quality perception, customer satisfaction and engagement, since customers
are now more technologically equipped, and their demands extend beyond tangible
and intangible services [34]. Although businesses use AI to improve efficiency and
customer service, a review literature review reveals that little academic research has
been done to evaluate how customers react to such services [10].
Consequently, AI services have impact in customer-related outcomes, such as:
customer satisfaction, loyalty and engagement [34]. These outcomes have been
analyzed in some sectors, such as in the hotel industry [10, 12], however, no research
to date has included the impact of AI services between luxury value dimensions
and customer-based outcomes, in the fashion luxury market. As such, the following
hypothesis are announced:
H8a. AI services have a positive moderating effect on the relationship between OBLV
and Customer Engagement.
H8b. AI services have a positive moderating effect on the relationship between OBLV
and Customer Satisfaction.
H8c. AI services have a positive moderating effect on the relationship between OBLV
and Customer Loyalty.
2.5 The Moderating Effect of Emotional Intelligence
There are various conceptualizations of EI in the literature, which may arise from one
of the two following perspectives: (1) as a form of pure intelligence, consisting of
cognitive ability only [35]; or (2) a mixed intelligence, consisting of cognitive ability
and personality aspects [36]. Therefore, a comprehensive theory of EI was proposed
by Mayer and Salovey [35], which described EI as the ability to monitor and manage
one’s and others’ feelings, as well as use those feelings to drive specific actions.
In the luxury industry, the direct dyadic interaction between frontline employees
and customers has not changed significantly, even with the growth of digitization
[7]. While face-to-face interactions are vital in most service encounters, in luxury
settings employees take on extra responsibilities, as they are the main point of
contact with customers—before, during, and after the service encounter—which
affects customers’ perceptions [33]. Since customer experience is mostly attributed
to employee service performance over the service encounter [30], EI arises as an
important feature for frontline employees [37].
Although, few studies have given attention to EI in the context of service encoun-
ters [10, 12]. Nevertheless, employees’ behavior and performance within the service
encounter form customers’ perceptions of service quality, which further leads to
customer satisfaction and retention [38]. Consequently, a happy encounter often
results in a happy customer, positive service evaluation, successful purchase or
loyalty behaviors [39]. Moreover, employee behaviors and performance over the
service encounter constitute the customer experience and form customers’ percep-
tions of service quality, which further leads to their involvement and commitment
with the firm and is manifested in their engagement and loyalty [26, 33, 38]. In
addition, during service encounters, it has been suggested that emotionally compe-
tent employees are likely to succeed in building a bond with their customers, which
in turn often leads to customer satisfaction and loyalty. Due to the assessment and
regulation of customer emotions, employees can customize the service offering to
better address customer needs [40], which makes employee EI directly and positively
affect customer satisfaction and loyalty.
Employees’ service quality and EI have a direct impact on customers’ experience
with the service organization, which affects customer attitudes and behaviors [33].
Similarly, Delcourt et al. [38] found that customer perception of employee EI influ-
enced customer satisfaction and loyalty, through the mediation of rapport. This way,
by encouraging employees to develop emotionally competent behaviors, companies
can promote customer satisfaction and loyalty. However, few studies have examined
how the level of EI exhibited by frontline employees may affect customer satisfac-
tion [41], service encounter, emotional labor performance [42], customer loyalty and
customer engagement [39, 43], specifically in the fashion luxury market. As such,
the following hypothesis are announced:
H9a. EI has a positive moderating effect between OBLV and Customer Engagement.
H9b. EI has a positive moderating effect between OBLV and Customer Satisfaction.
H9c. EI has a positive moderating effect between OBLV and Customer Loyalty.
(Fig. 1)
Fig. 1 Conceptual model

3 Proposed Methodology
3.1 Sampling and Data Collection Procedure
The study will be undertaken in the fashion luxury market, considering people who
have bought products from fashion luxury brands, in Portugal, or even in other coun-
tries. These fashion luxury brands use various AI tools to support their business
and provide services to customers. Examples include chatbots, image recognition,
voice recognition, AI mirrors, among others. As such, a quantitative methodolog-
ical approach will be employed, through the development of a questionnaire, using
SurveyMonkey platform, about customers’ luxury value perceptions and experiences
with AI-service tools and the employees of the fashion luxury brands.
Data will be collected only from customers that understand and had the opportu-
nity to interact with AI-powered services or the employees of those fashion luxury
brands. When structuring the questionnaire, each AI service will be explained in
detail with examples and appropriate weblinks so that the prospective respondents
had a better understanding of their AI service experience. Also, unlike studies
that investigate luxury brands in general or consider premium rather than luxury
brands, we pursue realistic results by featuring actual, explicit luxury brands, such
as Chanel, Prada, Dior, Hermès, Zegna, among others. In order to gather data only
from customers who have bought products from real luxury brands, researchers envi-
sion to use a database from a particular fashion luxury brand. Research participants
would be approached to participate in the study, either by getting an email or by
being approached in person, in physical stores.
3.2 Instruments
Multi-item scales will be employed to measure the study constructs of the proposed
model. All items are measured using a 5-point Likert scale, with 1 representing
strongly disagree and 5 representing strongly agree. The constructs of luxury value
are based on Wiedmann et al. [3] four dimensions model, considering the financial,
functional, social and individual dimensions. The measure that assessed the finan-
cial, functional, and social constructs was adapted from Hennigs et al. [4] (for more
details, see [3]). Finally, we will study two dimensions of the individual construct,
namely hedonism and self-identity. The measure that evaluated these dimensions
was adapted from Shahid and Paul [19] (for more details, see [3]). The measure that
assessed customer’s perception of AI was adapted from Prentice et al. [12] (for more
details, see [29]). This measure has multiple dimensions including comprehensive-
ness, format, accuracy, currency, reliability, accessibility, flexibility, integrity, and
timeliness. Each dimension has three items. In order to measure the impact of EI,
through the employee’s performance/service quality, the following constructs and
items are based on Prentice and Nguyen [43]. As such, four dimensions will be
considered, namely: reliability, assurance, empathy, and responsiveness. Six items

were used to measure responsiveness, five items were used to measure reliability,
eight items were used to measure assurance and five items were used to measure
empathy. The measurement scale that evaluated the customer loyalty dimension
was adapted from Deng et al. [44] (for more details, see [28]). The scale items
for measuring customer loyalty were: (1) customer intention to return (2) customer
intention to recommend the employee/AI service to others, and (3) customer will-
ingness to pay a premium price. The measurement scale that evaluated customer
satisfaction consists in a 3-item customer satisfaction scale adapted from Prentice
et al. [37] (for more details, see [45]). This scale measures overall satisfaction, confir-
mation of expectations, and ideal performance based on the perceived satisfaction
of needs and demands regarding employee’s service quality and AI service quality.
Finally, the measurement scale that valued the customer engagement dimension was
adapted from Prentice and Loureiro [24] (for more details, see [46]). This measure has
multiple dimensions including purchase, referral, influence, and knowledge. Three
items were used to measure purchase and referral, five items were used to measure
influence and four items were used to measure knowledge.
4 Implications
Theoretically, the present research should extend the literature regarding luxury
fashion markets and the role of EI and AI as moderators, since we conceptualize
and measure luxury value, regarding customers that bought, at least, one product
from the surveyed fashion luxury brands. Second, we will investigate the direct
impact of luxury value perceptions in customer-based outcomes. Third, we will
examine the moderating effect of AI, through AI services, between the perceptions of
luxury value and further customer-based outcomes, namely, customer engagement,
customer satisfaction and customer loyalty. Fourth, we will offer a better under-
standing of the moderating effect of EI, especially through employee service quality,
between the customers’ perceptions of luxury value and the cited customer-based
outcomes. In terms of managerial implications, this study should allow managers to
better understand and manage the impact of AI Services and EI, through employee’s
service quality, during the service encounter, considering in-store or online settings,
in the fashion luxury industry.
Acknowledgments UNIAG, R&D unit funded by the FCT – Portuguese Foundation for the Devel-
opment of Science and Technology, Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education. “Project
Code Reference: UIDB/04752/2020”.
References
1. Vigneron, F., Johnson, L.W.: Measuring perceptions of brand luxury. J. Brand Manag. 11(6),
484–506 (2004)
2. Bachmann, F., Walsh, G., Hammes, E.K.: Consumer perceptions of luxury brands: An owner-
based perspective. Eur. Manag. J. 37(3), 287–298 (2019)
3. Wiedmann, K.P., Hennigs, N., Siebels, A.: Value-based segmentation of luxury consumption
behavior. Psychol. Mark. 26(7), 625–651 (2009)
4. Hennigs, N., Wiedmann, K.-P., Behrens, S., Klarmann, C.: Unleashing the power of luxury:
antecedents of luxury brand perception and effects on luxury brand strength. J. Brand Manag.
20(8), 705–715 (2013)
5. Hennigs, N., Professor Alessandro, B., Dr Cecilia Maria Castelli, A., Wiedmann, K.-P., Klar-
mann, C., Behrens, S.: The complexity of value in the luxury industry. Int. J. Retail. Distrib.
Manag. 43(10/11), 922–939 (2015)
6. Bian, Q., Forsythe, S.: Purchase intention for luxury brands: a cross cultural comparison. J.
Bus. Res. 65(10), 1443–1451 (2012)
7. Surprenant, C.F., Solomon, M.R.: Predictability and personalization in the service encounter.
J. Mark. 51, 86–96 (1987)
8. Dion, D., Borraz, S.: Managing status: how luxury brands shape class subjectivities in the
service encounter. J. Mark. 81(5), 67–85 (2017)
9. Alexander, M.J., Jaakkola, E., Hollebeek, L.D.: Zooming out: actor engagement beyond the
dyadic. J. Serv. Manag. 29(3), 333–351 (2018)
10. Holmqvist, J., Wirtz, J., Fritze, M.P.: Luxury in the digital age: a multi-actor service encounter
perspective. J. Bus. Res. 121, 747–756 (2020)
11. E consultancy. https://econsultancy.com/robots-or-humans-which-provide-a-better-customer-
experience/. Accessed 07 April 2022
12. Prentice, C., Dominique Lopes, S., Wang, X.: Emotional intelligence or artificial intelligence–
an employee perspective. J. Hosp. Market. Manag. 29(4), 377–403 (2019)
13. Prentice, C., Dominique Lopes, S., Wang, X.: The impact of artificial intelligence and employee
service quality on customer satisfaction and loyalty. J. Hosp. Market. Manag. 29(7), 739–756
(2020)
14. Dubois, B., Laurent, G., Czellar, S.: Consumer Rapport To Luxury: Analyzing Complex And
Ambivalent Attitudes. Consumer research working paper, p. 736 (2001)
15. Shukla, P., Purani, K.: Comparing the importance of luxury value perceptions in cross-national
contexts. J. Bus. Res. 65(10), 1417–1424 (2012)
16. Verhoef, P.C., Lemon, K.N., Parasuraman, A., Roggeveen, A., Tsiros, M., Schlesinger, L.A.:
Customer experience creation: determinants, dynamics and management strategies. J. Retail.
85(1), 31–41 (2009)
17. Vigneron, F., Johnson, L.W.: A review and a conceptual framework of prestige-seeking
consumer behavior. Acad. Mark. Sci. Rev. 1, 1–15 (1999).
18. Hung, K.p., Iglesias, O., Huiling Chen, A., Peng, N., Hackley, C., Amy Tiwsakul, R., Chou,
C l.: Antecedents of luxury brand purchase intention. J. Prod. Brand. Manag. 20(6), 457–467
(2011)
19. Shahid, S., Paul, J.: Intrinsic motivation of luxury consumers in an emerging market. J. Retail.
Consum. Serv. 61, 102531 (2021).
20. Kumar, V., Pansari, A.: Competitive advantage through engagement. J. Mark. Res. 53(4),
497–514 (2016)
21. Keller, K.L.: Brand equity management in a multichannel, multimedia retail environment. J.
Interact. Mark. 24(2), 58–70 (2010)
22. van Doorn, J., Lemon, K.N., Mittal, V., Nass, S., Pick, D., Pirner, P., Verhoef, P.C.: Customer
engagement behavior: theoretical foundations and research directions. J. Serv. Res. 13(3),
253–266 (2010)
23. Yuksel, A., Yuksel, F., Bilim, Y.: Destination attachment: effects on customer satisfaction and
cognitive, affective and conative loyalty. Tour. Manag. 31(2), 274–284 (2010)
24. Prentice, C., Loureiro, S.M.C.: Consumer-based approach to customer engagement – the case
of luxury brands. J. Retail. Consum. Serv. 43, 325–332 (2018)
25. Tellis, G.J.: Advertising exposure, loyalty, and brand purchase: a two-stage model of choice.
J. Mark. Res. 25(2), 134–144 (1988)
26. Prentice, C.: Attitudinal and behavioral loyalty amongst casino players in Macau. Serv. Mark.
Q. 34(4), 309–321 (2013)
27. Smith, J.B., Colgate, M.: Customer value creation: a practical framework. J. Mark. Theory
Pract. 15(1), 7–23 (2014)
28. Fornell, C., Johnson, M.D., Anderson, E.W., Cha, J., Bryant, B.E.: The American customer
satisfaction index: nature, purpose, and findings. J. Mark. 60(4), 7–18 (1996)
29. Wixom, B.H., Todd, P.A.: A theoretical integration of user satisfaction and technology
acceptance. Inf. Syst. Res. 16(1), 85–102 (2005)
30. Xiang, Z., Schwartz, Z., Gerdes, J.H., Uysal, M.: What can big data and text analytics tell us
about hotel guest experience and satisfaction? Int. J. Hosp. Manag. 44, 120–130 (2015)
31. Larivière, B., Bowen, D., Andreassen, T.W., Kunz, W., Sirianni, N.J., Voss, C., Wünderlich,
N.V., De Keyser, A.: “Service Encounter 2.0”: an investigation into the roles of technology,
employees and customers. J. Bus. Res. 79, 238–246 (2017)
32. Yuan, J., Jang, S.: The effects of quality and satisfaction on awareness and behavioral intentions:
exploring the role of a wine festival. J. Travel Res. 46(3), 279–288 (2008)
33. Prentice, C.: Service quality perceptions and customer loyalty in casinos. Int. J. Contemp.
Hosp. Matellisnagement 25(1), 49–64 (2013)
34. Prentice, C., Weaven, S., Wong, I.A.: Linking AI quality performance and customer engage-
ment: the moderating effect of AI preference. Int. J. Hosp. Manag. 90, 102629 (2020).
35. Mayer, J., Salovey, P.: What is emotional intelligence? (1997)
36. Goleman, D.: Emotional Intelligence, 10 th edn. Bantam Dell (1998).
37. Prentice, C., Dominique-Ferreira, S., Ferreira, A., Wang, X.: The role of memorable experience
and emotional intelligence in senior customer loyalty to geriatric hotels. J. Retail. Consum.
Serv. 64, 102788 (2022)
38. Delcourt, C., Gremler, D.D., van Riel, A.C.R., van Birgelen, M.: Effects of perceived employee
emotional competence on customer satisfaction and loyalty. J. Serv. Manag. 24(1), 5–24 (2013)
39. Prentice, C.: Managing service encounters with emotional intelligence. J. Retail. Consum. Serv.
51, 344–351 (2019)
40. Mattila, A.S., Enz, C.A.: The role of emotions in service encounters. J. Serv. Res. 4(4), 268–277
(2022)
41. Kernbach, S., Schutte, N.S.: The impact of service provider emotional intelligence on customer
satisfaction. J. Serv. Mark. 19(7), 438–444 (2005)
42. Prentice, C.: Who stays, who walks, and why in high-intensity service contexts. J. Bus. Res.
67(4), 608–614 (2014)
43. Prentice, C., Nguyen, M.: Engaging and retaining customers with AI and employee service. J.
Retail. Consum. Serv. 56, 102186 (2020)
44. Deng, W.J., Yeh, M.L., Sung, M.L.: A customer satisfaction index model for international tourist
hotels: Integrating consumption emotions into the American customer satisfaction index. Int.
J. Hosp. Manag. 35, 133–140 (2013)
45. Anderson, E.W., Fornell, C., Rust, R.T.: Customer satisfaction, productivity, and profitability:
differences between goods and services. Mark. Sci. 16(2), 97–111 (1997)
46. Keller, K.L.: Strategic Brand Management: Building, Measuring, and Managing Brand Equity,
4th edn. Pearson Education, England (2001)
Perspectives of Media Competence
in Communication and Journalism
Careers in the Andean Area
Abel Suing, Juan Pablo Arrobo-Agila, and Verónica González-Rentería
Abstract The purpose of the research is to analyze the higher academic offerings in
communication and related fields in the Andean Community to determine if there is a
relationship with the potential demands of adolescents who developed competencies
to generate and exchange audiovisual content since the beginning of the Covid-19
pandemic. The research question is: should the academic curricula related to audio-
visual and media competence of Andean universities change or be updated to meet a
new profile of young people who know the audiovisual language? The methodology
is qualitative and descriptive through content analysis of the academic curricula of
the leading universities in the international rankings that classify Latin American
universities, as well as semi-structured interviews with experts in higher education
in communication in the region. In the case of communication studies and related
areas, it happens that young people, before entering university, learn autonomously
many of the techniques, processes and audiovisual languages that feed the contents
of the current offer, but it is an instruction acquired without the corresponding social
contexts, deontological senses and responsibilities. The denominations of the titles
of the careers are classic, the formation of media competence is not alluded to or
implicitly assumed, the same happens with the names of the courses taught, they
respond to common or generic programs of professional formation with emphasis
on journalistic production and audiovisual contents.
Keywords Higher education · Competencies · Audiovisual narrative · Curricular

design · Covid-19
A. Suing (B) · J. P. Arrobo-Agila · V. González-Rentería

Departamento de Ciencias de la Comunicación, Grupo de Investigación Comunicación y Cultura
Audiovisual, Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, 11-01-608, Loja, Ecuador
e-mail: arsuing@utpl.edu.ec
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_49
556 A. Suing et al.
1 Introduction
Since the beginning of the Covid-19 pandemic, many adolescents have had to
strengthen their self-learning skills in order to develop competencies that allow them
to participate in virtual and distance learning modalities. The distance from the class-
room and the absence of face-to-face contacts led to new perspectives and demands
in higher education based on the audiovisual skills that high school students showed
they possessed.
Communication through the Internet, the dimensions of distance and virtual
learning, as well as the emerging offer of online entertainment lead many children
and adolescents to learn in a self-taught way to manage information without control
or systematization [1], a situation that has increased since the beginning of Covid-19
and deepens the socio-cognitive deficiencies to understand the narratives and media
convergences [2].
The media, both traditional and online, influence audiences, which is why educa-
tional systems seek to develop skills for critical consumption; however, there are still
dilemmas regarding the poor understanding and use of media content.
At the beginning of the twenty-first century, experts in education anticipated that
“the power of communication” [3] should be taught as early as possible, that is, to
develop a media education that allows competences “to use and interpret the media”
[4].
The need for media competencies was anticipated by the Delors Report [5], which
stated that the education of the future would have “a double requirement, that of
transmitting, massively and effectively, an increasing volume of evolving theoret-
ical and technical knowledge, and that of defining orientations”; in a similar sense,
UNESCO, in the Education for All Global Monitoring Report, pointed out the need
to increase the fundamental competencies to communicate and understand the ideas
that circulate in technological environments.
Students in the twenty-first century must learn to function in an information-rich
environment, analyze and make decisions in a society characterized by multiple
screens, media, languages and new technologies [6].
Competency-based training is defined as a process of creative problem solving,
information search, task execution, analysis and reflection in response to the demands
of the environment [7, 8], “each competency, in addition to cognitive knowledge and
skills, also includes attitudes, willingness and ability to learn” [9].
There are specificities in competencies, but the global concept is communicative
competence or media competence understood as “the ability of an individual to
interpret and analyze from critical reflection images and audiovisual messages, and
to express him/herself with a minimum of correction in the communicative field”
[10].
A study by Ferrés and Piscitelli points out that media competencies are those
knowledge, abilities, skills and attitudes that the person uses when interacting “criti-
cally with messages produced by others, being able to produce and disseminate their
own messages” [11].
Perspectives of Media Competence in Communication and Journalism … 557
There are also audiovisual competencies, but they are subsumed in the definition
of media competency [12], in the same sense Pérez-Rodríguez and Delgado-Ponce
express that one should “consider the conceptual and terminological integration of
digital and/or audiovisual literacy in media literacy” [1].
The privileged places to lay the foundations for media competencies are schools
and universities [13], where critical thinking, creativity and citizenship awareness
are promoted [14]. Schools and universities “play a central role as disseminators of
media education by having to adapt […] the necessary skills for students to develop
in this media scenario” [15].
It is possible that there is a lack of commitment on the part of academic leaders
to media education, however, it is urgent to adopt mechanisms, tools and resources
to encourage a dynamic and current learning process [16].
The future vision for the formation of media and audiovisual competence is to
provide a humanistic education if society wants the citizen to have certain skills
and abilities to cope in a complex world in constant change [17]. The aim is to
achieve “a critical and reflective attitude, based on the participation and interrelation
of citizenship” [18].
The purpose of this research is to analyze the higher academic offerings in commu-
nication and related fields in the Andean Community [19], made up of Bolivia,
Colombia, Ecuador and Peru because it groups populations with similar cultural
traits, levels of development and trajectories related to audiovisual production, to
determine if there is a relationship with the potential demands of adolescents.
The research question is: should the academic curricula related to audiovisual
and media competence of Andean universities change or be updated to meet a new
profile of young people who know the audiovisual language?
2 Methodology
The methodology used was qualitative and descriptive through content analysis of
the academic grids of the leading universities in the international rankings that clas-
sify Latin American universities (Scimago Institutions Rankings, QS Latin America
University Rankings and Times Higher Education Latin America University Rank-
ings), as well as semi-structured interviews with experts in higher education in
communication in the region (Table 1).
558 A. Suing et al.
Table 1 Interviewee profiles

Identification Country Profile
Person interviewed 1 Ecuador PhD in Communication in the research line “Media
Literacy”, at the universities of Huelva, Seville, Malaga and
Cadiz. Researcher of the first university laboratory of games
in Ecuador (GAMELAB-UPS). Member of the Research
Group on Missions and Indigenous Peoples
(GIMPI)
Person interviewed 2 Ecuador Main teacher at the Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja,
in the subject of Television. Audiovisual producer. Doctor in
Communication and Journalism at the University of Santiago
de Compostela- Spain
Person interviewed 3 Colombia Sociologist from the Universidad Popular del Cesar (Co-
lombia) specializing in Observational Documentary Film,
Master in Visual Anthropology and Anthropological
Documentary by FLACSO and PhD in Social and Cultural
Anthropology from the Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona
Person interviewed 4 Bolivia Degree in Social Communication Sciences from Universidad
San Francisco Xavier de Chuquisaca. He has a master’s
degree in Educational Communication and Technology from
the Latin American Institute of Educational Communication
(ILCE), at the Universidad Andina Simón Bolívar. He has
also completed diploma and specialization courses in
communication and education
Person interviewed 5 Perú PhD. in Communication from the Universitat Pompeu Fabra
of Barcelona with a Master’s degree in Advanced Studies in
Social Communication. Master’s Degree in Communication
and Education from the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona
and Bachelor’s Degree in Communication from the
Universidad de Lima. Advisor for projects related to ICT and
education at Fundación Telefónica
Person interviewed 6 Perú Consultant in audiovisual marketing and brand management,
university professor and researcher in communication and
transmedia narratives. Coordinator of ComuniTEC—Center
for Technology Transfer in Audiovisual, Marketing and
Human Resources. Associate Director of FX MEDIA
Communications Agency. Member of the Ibero-American
Network of Audiovisual Narratives and the StoryCode Peru
Network
3 Results
The academic offerings in the Andean area are shown in Table 2. There are fewer
institutions from Bolivia because they are not included in the ranking of universities.
As of March 2022, 569 subjects related to the formation of media competencies
in communication and related careers were located. Of these assignments, the most
frequently repeated names and variants are:
Table 2 Interviewee profiles

No Universities Names of careers
Country: Bolivia
1 Universidad Mayor de San Andrés Ciencias de la Comunicación Social
2 Universidad Mayor de San Simón Comunicación Social
3 Universidad Privada Boliviana Comunicación
4 Universidad Católica Boliviana San Comunicación Social
Pablo
5 Universidad Autónoma del Beni José Ciencias de la Comunicación Social
Ballivián
6 Universidad Mayor de San Francisco Comunicación Social
Xavier de Chuquisaca
7 Universidad Privada de Santa Cruz de Comunicación Estratégica y Corporativa
la Sierra
Country: Colombia
1 Universidad Nacional de Colombia Cine y Televisión
2 Universidad de Antioquia Comunicaciones
Comunicación Audiovisual y Multimedial
Periodismo
Comunicación Social-Periodismo
3 Pontificia Universidad Javeriana Comunicación Social
Comunicación
4 Universidad de los Andes Narrativas Digitales
5 Universidad del Rosario Periodismo y Opinión Pública
6 Universidad del Tolima Comunicación Social-Periodismo
7 Universidad de la Costa Comunicación Social y Medios Digitales
8 Universidad de Cartagena Comunicación Social
9 Universidad ICESI Comunicación con Enfoque Digital
10 Universidad del Norte Comunicación Social y Periodismo
11 Universidad de Santander UDES Comunicación Social y Periodismo
12 Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira Tecnología con énfasis en Comunicación e
Informática Educativa
13 Universidad Tecnológica de Bolívar Comunicación Social
14 Universidad de la Sabana Comunicación Social y Periodismo
15 Universidad del Valle Comunicación Social
16 Universidad EAFIT Comunicación Social
17 Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana Comunicación Social-Periodismo
18 Universidad Externado de Colombia Comunicación Social-Periodismo
Country: Ecuador
(continued)
560 A. Suing et al.
Table 2 (continued)
1 Universidad UTE Comunicación
2 Universidad San Francisco de Quito Periodismo
Periodismo
3 Universidad de las Américas Comunicación
Multimedia y Producción Audiovisual
Cine
4 Universidad Central del Ecuador Comunicación Social
Énfasis: periodismo, educomunicación,
comunicación organizacional
5 Pontificia Universidad Católica del Comunicación Social
Ecuador
6 Universidad de Cuenca Comunicación
7 Universidad Técnica del Norte Comunicación Social
8 Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral Comunicación Social
9 Universidad de Especialidades Espíritu Comunicación
Santo Periodismo
Producción para Medios de Comunicacoin
10 Universidad Técnica de Ambato Comunicación Social
11 Universidad Católica de Cuenca Periodismo
12 Universidad Católica de Santiago de Comunicación
Guayaquil
13 Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja Comunicación
14 Universidad Nacional de Chimborazo Comunicación
15 Universidad Politécnica Salesiana Comunicación
Country: Perú
Comunicación Audiovisual
1 Pontificia Universidad Católica del Periodismo
Perú Comunicación para el Desarrollo
Publicidad
2 Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Comunicación Social. Especialidad de:
Marcos Periodista, productor audiovisual,
comunicador organizacional
3 Universidad de San Martín de Porres Ciencias de la Comunicación
4 Universidad San Ignacio de Loyola Comunicaciones mención en comunicación
empresarial, periodismo, publicidad,
comunicación audiovisual, comunicación
digital
Comunicación Audiovisual y Medios
Interactivos
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Comunicación e Imagen Empresarial
5 Aplicadas Comunicación y Periodismo
Comunicación y Publicidad
Comunicación y Fotografía
6 Universidad Continental Ciencias y Tecnologías de la Comunicacoin
7 Universidad Científica del Sur Comunicación y Publicidad
8 Universidad Nacional de San Agustín Ciencias de la Comunicación
9 Universidad de Lima Comunicación
Comunicación Audiovisual
10 Universidad de Piura Comunicaciones de Marketing
Periodismo
11 Universidad Nacional de Trujillo Ciencias de la Comunicación
12 Universidad Nacional Federico Ciencias de la Comunicación
Villareal-UNFV
• 49 Production (audiovisual, development, interactive media, audiovisual, audio-

visual, audio, radio content, television content, fiction, video, executive produc-
tion, graphic and multimedia, radio, video-graphic).
• 43 Photography (basic, B/W, digital, documentary and journalistic)
• 33 Language (audiovisual, corporal, scenic, image, radio, sound and digital co-
communication).
• 26 Narratives (audiovisual, cinematographic, multimedia, radio, transmedia,
digital, hypermedia, journalistic).
• 25 Communication (audiovisual, digital, photographic, multimedia, advertising,
radio, transmedia, and digital media).
• 16 Journalism (television, digital, specialized, multimedia, radio).
• 15 Scriptwriting (audiovisual, fiction, technical, documentary).
• 14 Design (digital, visual communication, sound, television, multimedia, editori-
alrial).
• 13 Audiovisual (media) production.
• 13 Radio (production, digital editing).
• 11 Video (experimental, web, storytelling, journalistic).
• 11 Image theory.
• 11 Cinema (digital, and society, cinematography).
• 11 Laboratory (audiovisual, creation, documentary, fiction, production, sound,
transmedia and multiplatform, visual).
The interviewees’ testimonies are grouped in the following paragraphs.
“There is a badly imported idea that assumes that people who have access to
technologies and who were born in a certain generation magically already have
some skills” (interviewee 5), “the fact that one develops some skills in a self-taught
562 A. Suing et al.
way does not make him/her immediately competent, competence must be seen as
an end, not as a means” (interviewee 5), “we continue to miseducate the student
while he/she requires other types of content” (interviewee 3). “There are teachers
who master the theory and referent authors, but in practice they do not know how to
apply it” (interviewee 2).
“The knowledge obtained is a tacit and disordered knowledge that seeks to satisfy
audiovisual competencies from immediacy. Therefore, it is necessary to start with the
orization for its empirical prospection” (interviewee 1). “It is necessary to restructure
the communicator’s profile, changes must be made in relation to traditional teaching,
now we are living an interdisciplinary perspective, we have to be in contact with
other professionals” (interviewee 6). “University education must combine theory
with experience. The University from its integral notion must value both within its
curriculum” (interviewee 1).
“It simply cannot be changed or updated, if it is not first massively included.
Media competence should be a core subject […] regardless of the career” (inter-
viewee 1). Another interviewee would propose “to prepare young people to use the
audiovisual media, the audiovisual language to generate their own companies and
provide from these platforms a type of advice to those who need it, linked to the
digital” (interviewee 3).
“We must differentiate between a technical career and a communication career,
if it is communication we learn how to create content, how to reach the audience.
You can know about editing programs, but that does not guarantee making good
content” (interviewee 2). “There are kids who come with a new idea and we look at
the framing or image, when there are different ways of presenting a story other than
the traditional ones” (interviewee 3).
“New narrative structures should be studied, but not leaving aside the basics”
(interviewee 2). “The subjects taught are the basis for new narratives on platforms.
If a student learns film, television in the communication career can turn it to the
digital world. Not only handling Facebook and the technical part but knowing how
to structure a story” (interviewee 2). “The university must transform itself, it has
always focused on the theoretical, purely on the academic part, it is important to
learn by doing” (interviewee 2).
It is necessary to “change the teacher and not the content around the audiovisual.
As teachers, we have a basic education and we think that this is as far as the language
goes” (interviewee 3). “The challenge is how to get teachers to educate from a
critical, comprehensive and sociocultural view of the media, not just a technological
view” (interviewee 5) “without neglecting the need to update the curriculum, improve
practices, improve the use of technology, we must start from the basics” (interviewee
4).
“In all subjects, although it is more noticeable in those related to audiovisuals,
an update is necessary. The cycles of technological innovation and confinement
have led to certain explorations” (interviewee 4). “I think it is important to make
prospective attempts, where to project the meshes for a greater possible validity”
(interviewee 4), “we should strengthen and blur these boundaries between television
and film and begin to appropriate the languages proposed by the series” (interviewee
3), “everything else should start from achieving mastery of elementary subjects. If
there is going to be a technological update, it should be oriented to the use of tools
that allow a better management, for example, of information, verification of false
news, tracing of sources” (interviewee 4).
“Today, talking about the metaverse, we cannot simply close ourselves to what
the book says” (interviewee 3).
In universities we should already be talking and experimenting with virtual reality, and the
metaverse, anticipating a little bit that in a few years we are already going to have commercial
or media experiences in a more extended way than the ones we have now. We should be
doing research so that when this becomes a common mode of audiovisual expression in
communication we know how we are going to approach it (interviewee 6).
4 Conclusions
Communication through the Internet, the dimensions of distance and virtual learning,
as well as the emerging offer of online entertainment result in many children and
adolescents learning in a self-taught way to manage information without control or
systematization [1], a situation that has increased since the beginning of Covid-19
and deepens the socio-cognitive deficiencies to understand the narratives and media
convergences [2].
In the case of communication studies and related areas, it happens that young
people, before entering university, learn autonomously many of the techniques,
processes and audiovisual languages that feed the contents of the current offer, but it
is an instruction acquired without the corresponding social contexts, deontological
senses and responsibilities. Social networks and the very demands of learning in
pandemic caused adolescents to develop skills and attitudes that do not become a
“media literacy” that contemplates comprehensiveness.
The adaptation to the emerging interests and demands of young people is one of the
challenges in an environment of communication technologies, internationalization,
new forms of consumption and relationships mediated by virtuality that increased
in the pandemic, it is expected a relevant education that emphasizes the promotion
of the human being and contributes to the consolidation of a more empathetic and
resilient citizenship.
The research question is answered from two perspectives. The names of the titles
of the degree courses are classic, there is no allusion to or implicit assumption of the
formation of media competence, the same happens with the names of the courses
taught, they respond to common or generic programs of professional training with
emphasis on journalistic production and audiovisual content. On the other hand, the
most frequent courses are instrumental and training in writing skills: language and
narration; there are no references to general culture and humanities.
There is a traditional or conservative perspective in higher education that risks
little or incorporates late the technological trends of popular dominance, so it is worth
questioning the relevance or harmonization between social and business demands and
the contents of university careers.
564 A. Suing et al.
For the experts, it is necessary to distinguish between the instrumental capacities

and the knowledge necessary to communicate; the mastery of editing tools or the
appreciation of audiovisual languages by adolescents does not imply that they possess
the media competence acquired in formal communication studies. There are contents
of culture, history, deontology that add to the skills in the attainment of the integral
competences that are achieved in the graduation profiles.
There is also a mismatch between the teaching environments known by teachers
and the virtual multidimensionality where students develop, to which it is proposed
to add the technological with the sociocultural.
Future lines of research are dialogue (discussion groups) with adolescents and
their families, participant and non-participant observations of young people to deter-
mine the effectiveness of their autonomous learning in emerging communication
environments.
Acknowledgements This paper presents some results of the project “Humanistic horizon in audio-
visual communication skills and new narratives of Ecuadorian adolescents” that the Research
Group “Communication and Audiovisual Culture” is carrying out to determine thecapabilities and
demands of Ecuadorian adolescents, between 12 and 18 years of age, in relation to their personal
and professional life projects.
References
1. Pérez-Rodríguez, A., Delgado-Ponce, A.: De la competencia digital y audiovisual a la

competencia mediática: dimensiones e indicadores. Comunicar 39, 25–34 (2012)
2. Mastens, M.: Transmedia teens: affect, in material labor and user generated content.
Convergence 17, 49–68 (2011)
3. Buitrago, A., Ferrés, J., García, A.: La educación en competencia mediática en el currículum
de los periodistas. Index Comun. 5(2), 101–120 (2015)
4. Buckingham, D.: Educación en medios: alfabetización, aprendizaje y cultura contemporánea.
Paidós (2005)
5. Delors, J.: La Educación encierra un tesoro, informe a la UNESCO de la Comisión Internacional
sobre la Educación para el Siglo XXI. UNESCO (1996)
6. Buckinham, D.: Digital Media Literacies: rethinking media education in the age of the Internet.
Res. Comp. Int. Educ. 1(2), 43–55 (2007)
7. Serrano, A., Biedermann, M., Santolaya, J.: Perfil, objetivos, competencias y expectativas de
futuro profesional de los estudiantes del Grado en Ingeniería en Diseño Industrial y Desarrollo
de Producto de la Universidad de Zaragoza. Rev. Docencia Univ. 14(1), 69–96 (2016)
8. Ramos, G., Chiva, I., Gómez, M.: Las competencias básicas en la nueva generación de estu-
diantes universitarios: una experiencia de Innovación. Rev. Docencia Univ. 15(1), 37–55
(2017)
9. Branekova, D.: Acquisition of digital competence in ICT courses for students in Pedagogy.
Trakia J. Sci. 13, 454–461 (2015)
10. Ferrés, J.: La competencia en comunicación audiovisual: propuesta articulada de dimensiones
e indicadores. Quad. CAC 25, 9–17 (2006)
11. Ferrés, J., Piscitelli, A.: La competencia mediática: propuesta articulada de dimensiones e
indicadores. Comunicar 19(38), 75–82 (2012)
12. García-Ruiz, R., Matos, P., Arenas-Fernández, A., Ugalde, C.: Alfabetización mediática en
Educación Primaria. Perspectiva internacional del nivel de competencia mediática. Pixel- Bit,
Revista de Medios y Educación 58, 217–236 (2020)
13. Gozálvez, V., García-Ruiz, R., Aguaded, I.L.: formación en competencias mediáticas: una
cuestión de responsabilidad ética en educación superior. Rev. Interuniv. Form. Profesorado
1(28), 17–28 (2014)
14. UNESCO: Media and Information Literacy. UNESCO, Curriculum for Teachers (2011)
15. Grandio-Pérez, M.: El transmedia en la enseñanza universitaria. Análisis de las asignaturas de
educación mediática en España (2012–2013). Palabra Clave 19(1), 85–104 (2016)
16. Fernández-Márquez, E., Ordóñez-Olmedo, E., Morales-Cevallos, M., López-Belmonte, J.: La
competencia digital en la docencia universitaria. Octaedro (2019)
17. Rodríguez-Sánchez, M., Revilla-Rodríguez, P.: Las competencias generales y transversales
del Grado en Logopedia desde la perspectiva del alumno. Educatio Siglo XXI 34(1), 113–136
(2016)
18. Caldeiro-Pedreira, M.C., Aguaded-Gómez, I.: Alfabetización comunicativa y competencia
mediática en la sociedad hipercomunicada. Revista Digital de Investigación en Docencia
Universitaria 9(1), 37–55 (2015)
19. Comunidad Andina (2022). https://www.comunidadandina.org/. Accessed 22 April 2022
Contribution of Social Networks
in Learning: A Study in Higher
Education
Laura Magali Chamba-Rueda , Reinaldo Armas ,
and Mariuxi Pardo-Cueva
Abstract Social networks are the most used technological platforms in the infor-
mation and knowledge society, and especially among young people. Due to their
importance, higher education educational units have considered them as strategic
learning tools. This article deals with the use of social networks and their relation-
ship with group work and academic performance. The methodological approach
used was quantitative, the data were contrasted through a descriptive study, where
a previously validated questionnaire was applied to 234 students from different
degrees in the administrative area of the Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja
with a Likert questionnaire (1–5). When analyzing the results through structural
equation modeling, this study found that there is a positive relationship between
the use of social networks and group work, in the same way between the use of
social networks and academic performance. Students use social networks mainly
because they are flexible, allow interaction with other people, share information,
achievements, strengthen motivation and develop the ability to work collaboratively.
Keywords Social networks · Group work · Learning · Higher education ·

Academic performance
1 Introduction
At the end of 2019 due to a virus named COVID-19, which was originated in the
city of Wuhan (China) and spread in most countries worldwide that threatened the
health of its inhabitants, the governments of each country implemented emerging
L. M. Chamba-Rueda (B) · R. Armas · M. Pardo-Cueva

Department of Business Studies, Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja 110150, Ecuador
e-mail: lmchamba@utpl.edu.ec
R. Armas
M. Pardo-Cueva
e-mail: mcpardo@utpl.edu.ec
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_50
568 L. M. Chamba-Rueda et al.
measures and among them the educational system was affected with the suspension
of face-to-face classes.
To continue with the teaching–learning process (PEA), the implementation of
virtual education was resorted to, presenting new challenges for educational admin-
istrators [1], which has caused challenges and opportunities on learning in higher
education [2].
According to [3], more than 1,186,101,728 students were affected, which repre-
sents 67.7% of the total number of students enrolled. The only answer for the conti-
nuity of education during the pandemic is the emergency adoption of the virtual
or online teaching method, becoming the new learning normal. Today, teachers use
technology to enhance their classes. For example, the use of social networks such as:
Facebook Live, YouTube, WhatsApp, Instagram or Tik Tok have made it possible
to create pleasant teaching–learning environments that have affected efficiency in
group and individual academic activities reflected in better academic performance,
[4, 5].
In Ecuador, the Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja (UTPL), a higher education
institution with more than six thousand students enrolled in face-to-face mode, had its
transition to virtuality, implementing information and communication technologies
(ICT). Among these, mention can be made of some digital platforms such as: Zoom,
EVA, Canvas, Genially, Socrative, Kahoot, use of social networks, so that teachers
and students can carry out their virtual classes interactively. In this sense, through
this research it is intended to analyze the use of social networks and relate them to
group work and academic performance.
2 Literature Review
2.1 ITC in the Higher Education
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), over the last few years, have
taken on great importance in the educational field since they have a range of applica-
tions and tools that can be used to make education dynamic [6]. Thus, when used in
higher education, they contribute to educational transformation and innovation and
enable the integration of new teaching–learning scenarios, [7, 8].
These tools facilitate the transformation of information and the obtaining of
knowledge, generating learning communities, various devices, elements, and char-
acteristics that support the development of skills autonomously by students [9], since
their inclusion in educational processes, it promotes and supports the PEA, because
they become complementary tools when executing them [10–12]. Also provide
adequate spaces for the continuous training of teachers with methodological and
innovative strategies that facilitate and improve the educational process [13].
On the other hand, it is important to mention that the use of ICT should be oriented
towards the development of curricular strategies that favor the training of students in
Contribution of Social Networks in Learning: A Study in Higher Education 569
accordance with the needs that arise in the society in which the higher education insti-
tution is immersed. According to [14], the articulation between the learning processes
and the appearance of technology, constitute transforming elements of the teaching
methodology, where special attention is paid to the advantages, opportunities, and
limitations that ICTs bring to the exercise of teaching.
For [15], ICTs strengthen communication and interaction with didactic activities
that promote greater motivation in students, among these tools are social networks,
digital platforms for videoconferences, which allow to put in contact with a group
of people through interactive sessions and with the support of the teachers’ interven-
tions. However, it should be considered that technological instruments by themselves
will not improve work in the classroom, a greater effort is required that considers
training and content aspects that involve teachers and students [16].
2.2 Social Networks and Education
Social networks are Internet-based applications that help consumers share infor-
mation, knowledge, experiences, and perspectives. Content is created, updated, and
maintained by individual Internet users and shared with others, usually free of charge
[17]; these platforms allow stakeholders from all over the world to connect with each
other and interact.
Some of the most popular social networks are Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn,
Pinterest together with Instagram [18]. These applications are characterized by
combining several audiovisual, information and communication technologies [19],
in addition, they are frequently used by young people because they facilitate
communication, information, knowledge creation and transfer [20].
Reference [21] argue that the use of social networks is mainly motivated by social
issues, maintaining, and making new contacts, as well as the desire to belong to a
community. Secondly, it is due to the degree of utility, that is, based on the benefit
they provide. Among them, the development of generic skills such as group work and
academic performance, as well as the degree of popularity, flexibility, and diversity
in interactions [22].
Starting from the affirmation that learning is a social, intercultural, and inter-
personal process, this article studies the contribution of social networks (Facebook,
Twitter, WhatsApp) with group work and academic performance [23].
In this line, the use of social networks in the educational environment favors
collaborative learning, encourages group work with which values such as solidarity
and commitment are developed [24]; encourages interaction and motivation [25,
26], by providing the student with diverse environments where the student can find
many teaching resources such as images, videos, sounds, files, etc. The purpose is to
go beyond teaching planning, thus providing strategies to improve performance or
academic performance [27, 28].
In the same way, studies such as those carried out by [28] argue that there is a rela-
tionship between social networks and academic performance, these tools contribute
positively to the academic performance of students, since they improve the devel-
opment of skills such as group work, motivation to learn, proactivity, tolerance
and decision making, elementary characteristics that professionals need to perform
adequately in society.
Faced with this scenario, there is an urgent need to explore the contribution of
social networks in learning in a Higher Education Institution such as the Universidad
Técnica Particular de Loja, located in southern Ecuador.
3 Data, Variables and Methodology
3.1 Data and Variables
The sample to analyze the relationship between student performance, the use of social
networks and teamwork is 234 students of business administration and accounting
and auditing from the Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja. The survey was
conducted in January 2022.
Table 1 collects the variables of teamwork, use of social networks and academic
performance, [29, 30].
The dependent variable to be explained by SEM (Structural Equation Modelling)
is academic performance (Performance). A Likert scale was used with values from
1 to 5, where 1 is totally disagree and 5 totally agree.
3.2 Methodology
Cronbach’s alpha was used to determine the existence of reliability in each

construct in terms of scale. To determine uniqueness, exploratory factor analysis
and confirmatory factor analysis were used. The hypotheses are the following:
H1. Teamwork is related to student achievement.
H2. The use of social networks is related to student performance.
4 Results
A reliability analysis of both constructs, teamwork and social networks, is performed.

Both are above 0.9 in terms of Cronbach’s alpha and the item correlation is above
0.3. This indicates that the constructs are consistent [31].
In the unidimensionality analysis, an exploratory analysis of factors is carried
out, which determines that there are two constructs, teamwork, and use of social
Table 1 Constructs, variables and questions

Construct Variable Question
Teamwork TG skills A good method to develop my social skills: argumentation,
dialogue, listening skills, debate, respect for differing
opinions
TG colleagues An opportunity to get to know my colleagues better
TG knowledge A way to better understand knowledge
TG share A way to share the work
TG exam A way to facilitate exam preparation
TG ideas Expose and defend my ideas and knowledge before other
people
TG learning Feeling an active part of my own learning process
TG knowledge2 Understand the knowledge and ideas of colleagues
TG coordination Understand the importance of coordinated work in the
learning process
TG opinions Reach agreements in the face of different opinions
TG autonomy Seek information, investigate and learn autonomously
Social networks R productivity The use of social networks increases my productivity in
my courses
R communication Social networks are used to communicate with more
people in a short time
R performance The use of social networks allows me to improve my
learning performance
R interaction My interaction with social networks is clear and
understandable
R flexibility Social networks are flexible to interact with them
R skills It’s easy to be skilled at using social media
R functionality I have no problem learning about the functions of social
networking sites
R use It is interesting to use social networking sites
R time When interacting with social networks, I did not realize
that time had passed
R academia I use social networks for academic purposes to discuss and
share my ideas with my classmates
R collaboration I use social networks to communicate and collaborate with
my classmates/colleagues in my course
R homework I use social media to complete my academic homework
Table 2 Unidimensionality
Factor 1 Factor 2 Uniqueness
R performance 0.841 0.388
R collaboration 0.840 0.358
R flexibility 0.832 0.305
R skills 0.803 0.375
R productivity 0.744 0.506
R interaction 0.740 0.371
R use 0.733 0.415
R academia 0.699 0.537
R comunicacion 0.663 0.501
R functionality 0.653 0.496
R homewok 0.635 0.598
R time 0.523 0.654
TG coordination 0.913 0.255
TG ideas 0.806 0.425
TG knowledge 0.789 0.401
TG skills 0.780 0.465
TG learning 0.751 0.392
TG exam 0.747 0.467
TG colleagues 0.739 0.463
TG knowledge 2 0.733 0.313
TG autonomy 0.703 0.445
TG opinions 0.691 0.446
TG share 0.635 0.513
networks. To determine the number of factors, a parallel analysis was performed in

JASP with a Promax oblique rotation, and the estimation method is principal axis
factorization. The factor loadings were greater than 0.5, so no item was discarded
(Table 2). In addition, the Bartlett test and the KMO were applied, the result being
that factor analysis is convenient.
After applying the exploratory analysis, the confirmatory analysis will be applied
to explore the constructs in greater depth. The criterion followed is that lambda
and square r are greater than 0.5, [32, 33]. When applying these criteria, the TG
items sharing, R tasks, R time, R academy, R productivity, R performance and R
communication are eliminated (Table 3).
Once the constructs have been refined, the SEM model is proposed, as shown in
Fig. 1. JASP was used with a robust estimate.
Figure 1 reflects two constructs, social networks (factor 2) and teamwork (factor
1), which are related to student performance (performance). Table 4 shows the regres-
sion of the latent variables (teamwork and use of social networks) with the student
Table 3 Confirmatory Factorial analysis

Factor Indicador Symbol Estimate Typical error Z value p R2
Factor 1 TG skills λ11 0.578 0.078 7.445 9.68E-14 0.519
TG collagues λ12 0.582 0.065 9.028 0 0.529
TG knowledge λ13 0.635 0.065 9.798 0 0.583
TG exam λ14 0.638 0.067 9.458 0 0.516
TG ideas λ15 0.624 0.055 11.351 0 0.589
TG learning λ16 0.59 0.062 9.46 0 0.606
TG knowledge2 λ17 0.57 0.058 9.868 0 0.663
TG coordination λ18 0.627 0.068 9.285 0 0.739
TG opinions λ19 0.515 0.075 6.887 5.71E-12 0.572
TG autonomy λ110 0.577 0.072 8.026 1.11E-15 0.554
Factor 2 R interaction λ11 0.668 0.058 11.589 0 0.689
R flexibility λ12 0.665 0.052 12.916 0 0.741
R skills λ13 0.65 0.042 15.344 0 0.729
R functionality λ14 0.578 0.046 12.588 0 0.613
R use λ15 0.604 0.056 10.856 0 0.563
R collaboration λ16 0.648 0.048 13.445 0 0.517
Fig. 1. SEM model from JASP
performance variable (performance). Hypotheses H1 and H2 cannot be rejected,

indicating that teamwork and the use of social networks explain student performance.
The model is good in terms of goodness of fit since the most common measures
such as the CFI or the TLI are above 90 percent. There is a positive relationship
between the proper use of social networks and group work, which affects academic
Table 4 Regression results

Predictor Result Estimate Typical error Z value p
Factor1 Performance 0.453 0.103 4.389 1.14E-05
Factor2 Performance 0.614 0.077 7.967 1.55E-15
performance, these results agree with the studies by [27], in which they empha-
size that social networks allow the creation of dynamic learning environments and
strengthen the motivation of students for self-training.
Considering the study modality, the group work in the classroom reached a score
of 4.48 and in the distance modality 4.45, it can be deduced that the students value
group activities and consider them as effective teaching–learning strategies. The
participants confirmed that sporadically group work has contributed to “sharing the
work” otherwise, through group work it has strengthened empathy and commitment
that can be evidenced with the indicator “reaching agreements in the face of different
opinions”.
Regarding the use of social networks in the distance modality, a score of 4.29
was obtained and in the face-to-face modality 4.34, the two modalities agree that
the use of social networks mainly allows contact with more people in the shortest
time (MAD 4.55 and MP 4.67), also ensure that they rarely use it to complete tasks
(MAD 4.11 and MP 4.05), with these results it is evident that students are motivated by
social issues, it is part of their idiosyncrasy. Regarding the academic performance, the
students of the distance modality 4.21 and face-to-face 4.32 confirmed that the use of
social networks allowed a better performance, due to its importance and accelerated
development, these platforms have managed to be recognized in a positive way by
the society and community. academic [34].
5 Conclusions
The incorporation of technology for the development of teaching–learning processes

in the university environment has become more important in recent years by having
a range of applications and tools to make higher education more dynamic, as they
are becoming more user-friendly, accessible, and adaptable to the tutor’s action, but
above all necessary in new contexts.
The use of ICT and social networks in higher education today is a reality, the
challenge lies in the combination of methodologies, pedagogical and learning strate-
gies promoted by the teacher, supported by gamification, collaborative work, and
others, as well as the use of online digital tools to respond to current educational
demands and improve educational quality. The student performance is influenced by
teamwork and the use of social network, so H1 and H2 cannot be rejected.
Higher education institutions are called to lead this paradigm shift between the
traditional teaching to virtuality and online with the use of ICT to improve commu-
nication and interactivity processes, allowing them to respond to the current needs
of pedagogical mediation in educational environments where digital interaction is
necessary, since the Covid19 pandemic has highlighted the need of HEIs for the
presence of ICTs in educational processes.
The benefits that ICTs bring in higher education have exposed the urgent need
for teacher training and updating regarding the use and exploitation of technological
resources, to face the new environments that Covid19 has brought to university
training processes, as well as the implementation of pedagogical methodologies
according to the current circumstances.
References
1. Bao, W.: COVID -19 and online teaching in higher education: a case study of Peking University.
Hum. Behav. Emerg. Technol. 2(2), 113–115 (2020)
2. Eli-Chukwu, N.C., Igbokwe, I.C., Ifebude, B., Nmadu, D., Iguodala, W., Uma, U., Onyeneke,
R.U., Akudo, F.U.: Challenges confronting e-learning in higher education institutions in Nigeria
amid Covid -19. J. Appl. Res. High. Educ. (2022)
3. OECD: El impacto del COVID-19 en la educación -Información del Panorama de la Educación
(Education at a Glance). Accessed 23 April 2022
4. Bordoloi, R., Das, P., Das, K.: Perception towards online/blended learning at the time of Covid-
19 pandemic: an academic analytics in the Indian context. Asian Assoc. Open Univ. J. 16(1),
41–60 (2021)
5. Hasan, N.: Online teaching-learning during covid-19 pandemic: students’ perspective. Online
J. Distance Educ. E-Learn. 8(4) (2020)
6. Vera, J.D., Gellibert Merchán, S.J., Zapata Mora, S.E.: Las TIC en la educación superior durante
la pandemia de la COVID-19. Revista Científica Sinapsis 1(19) (2021)
7. Meneses, K., Veytia, M.: El empleo de la TIC en la educación superior. Educando para educar
37 (2020)
8. Cortés, A.: Políticas públicas para la integración de las TIC en educación. Educ. Ciudad 33,
75–86 (2017)
9. Hernández, R.: Impacto de las TIC en la educación: retos y perspectivas. Propósitos y
Representaciones. Rev. Psicol. Educ. 5(1), 325–347 (2017)
10. UNESCO (Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Educación, la Ciencia y la Cultura,
2018).Construir sociedades del conocimiento (2018)
11. Sánchez, M., Añorve, J.R., Alarcón, G.: Las TIC en la educación superior, innovaciones y
desafíos. Revista Iberoamericana de las Ciencias Sociales y Humanísticas RICSH 12, 299–316
(2017)
12. Mendoza, H.H., Burbano, V.M., Valdivieso, M.A.: El Rol del Docente de Matemáticas en
Educación Virtual Universitaria. Un Estudio en la Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de
Colombia. Form. Univ. 12(5) (2019)
13. Aranguiz, M.S., Quintana, M.G.: ICT resources to improve learning in higher education. Int.
J. Knowl. Soc. Res. (IJKSR) 7(4), 1–11 (2016)
14. Poveda-Pineda, D., Cifuentes-Medina, J.: Incorporación de las tecnologías de información y
comunicación (TIC) durante el proceso de aprendizaje en la educación superior. Form. Univ.
13(6) (2020)
15. García, M., Reyes, J., Godínez, G.: Las TIC en la educación superior, innovaciones y retos.
RICSH Revista Iberoamericana de las Ciencias Sociales y Humanísticas 6(12), 17 (2018)
16. Ortega, M., Casillas, M.A.: Háblame de TIC. Tecnología digital en la Educación Superior
(2014)
17. Kaplan, A.M., Haenlein, M.: The fairyland of second life: virtual social worlds and how to use
them. Bus. Horiz. 52(6), 563–572 (2009)
18. Palacios-Marqués, D., Gallego-Nicholls, J. F., Guijarro-García, M. A recipe for success: crowd-
sourcing, online social networks, and their impact on organizational performance. Technol.
Forecast. Soc. Chang. 165(120566), 120566 (2009)
19. Fuchs, C.: Social Media: A Critical Introduction, 2nd edn. SAGE Publications (2017)
20. López-Hernández, F.A., Silva-Pérez, M.M.: Factores que inciden en la aceptación de los dispos-
itivos móviles para el aprendizaje en educación superior. Estud. Sobre Educ. 30, 175–195
(2016)
21. Roberts, J.A., David, M.E.: The social media party: fear of missing out (FoMO), social media
intensity, connection, and well-being. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Interact. 36(4), 386–392 (2020)
22. Serra, C., Martorell, C., Mantilla, J., Larrea, A.M., Mantilla, P.: El uso académico de Facebook
y WhatsApp en estudiantes universitarios: un estudio comparado entre España y Ecuador. Ecos
Acad. 6, 209–216 (2017)
23. Garrigós, I., Mazón, J.-N., Saquete, E., Puchol, M., Moreda, P. (n.d.).: La influencia de las
redes sociales en el aprendizaje colaborativo. Upc.Edu. Accessed 19 April 2022
24. Alemany Martínez, C.: Redes sociales: una nueva vía para el aprendizaje. En: Cuadernos de
Educación y Desarrollo, nº 1. [15-07-2013] (2009)
25. Meso, K.; Pérez, J.-A., Mendiguren, T.: La implementación de las redes sociales en la enseñanza
superior universitaria. En: Revista Tejuelo, nº 12 (2011)
26. Yanqui, F.E.T.: Influencia de las redes sociales en el rendimiento académico de los estudiantes
universitarios de la macro región sur del Perú. Rev. Investig. 6(4), 329–336 (2017)
27. Pavón, M.: El uso de las Redes Sociales y sus efectos en el rendimiento académico de los
alumnos del Instituto San José, el Progreso, Yoro-Honduras. (Tesis de maestría en Educación
y Aprendizaje). Guatemala: Universidad Rafael Landívar (2015)
28. Santillán-Lima, J.: Redes sociales y el rendimiento académico, caso de estudio ESPOCH,
UNACH, UEB. Universidades Ecuatorianas. IV Jornadas de TIC e Innovación en el Aula
29. Sarwar, B., Zulfiqar, S., Aziz, S., Ejaz Chandia, K.: Usage of social media tools for collaborative
learning: The effect on learning success with the moderating role of cyberbullying. J. Educ.
Comput. Res. 57(1), 246–279 (2019)
30. Cabrera, M.D.M.G., López, I.G., Serrano, R.M.: Validación del cuestionario de evaluación
ACOES. Análisis del trabajo cooperativo en educación superior. Rev. Investig. Educ. 30(1),
87–109 (2012)
31. García, J.Á., Alonso, M.V., Brea, J.A.F., del Río, M.D.L.C.: Análisis de las relaciones de
dependencia entre los factores críticos de la calidad y los resultados. Sector de alojamiento
turístico en España. Investigaciones europeas de dirección y economía de la empresa 19(2),
74–89 (2013)
32. Steenkamp, J.B.E., Van Trijp, H.C.: The use of LISREL in validating marketing constructs.
Int. J. Res. Mark. 8(4), 283–299 (1991)
33. Sharma, S.: Applied Multivariate Techniques. Wiley, New York (1996)
34. Gialamas, V., Nikolopouiou, K., Kutromanos, G.: Student teachers’ perceptions about the
impact of internet usage on their learning and jobs. Comput. Educ. 62, 1–7 (2003)
Technological Accessibility Plan
for Students with Disabilities:
An Experience in Inclusive Education
Karina Delgado Valdivieso and Janio Jadán-Guerrero
Abstract The Technological Accessibility Plan for Students with Disabilities

(TAPSD) arises from the analysis and identification of the technological equipment
needs of 212 children and adolescents with disabilities (CHAWD) from 5 educa-
tional institutions (regular and special) in Ecuador. 2.36% of CHAWD have mild
disability, 22.17% moderate disability, 13.21% severe disability and 14.15% very
severe disability. In addition, 32.54% use tablets, 23.58% smartphones and only
16.98% have a desktop computer. Due to the high percentages of students with
intellectual, physical and cerebral palsy disabilities, very few are able to turn on
the computer by themselves or use a tablet. TAPSD has been structured with these
limitations in mind and the technical specifications of equipment, accommodations,
and software to address learning and communication accessibility needs. It has been
structured by means of files that show six experiences with methodologies to be used
according to the different disabilities that they present.
Keywords Disability · Assistive technologies · Applications · Functional diversity
1 Introduction
Since the health emergency caused by pandemic, the students’ problems became
visible, particularly those who have a disability when changing their way of working;
in the same way, teachers do not know about technological tools to work through the
virtual modality. The educational institutions at all levels such as initial, basic, high
school and higher education, to change the classrooms with educational platforms
K. D. Valdivieso
Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, de La Educación Y Desarrollo Social, Universidad Tecnológica
Indoamérica, Quito, PC. 170103, Ecuador
e-mail: karinadelgado@uti.edu.ec
J. Jadán-Guerrero (B)
Centro de Investigación en Mecatrónica Y Sistemas Interactivos (MIST), Universidad
Tecnológica Indoamérica, Quito, PC. 170103, Ecuador
e-mail: janiojadan@uti.edu.ec
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_51
578 K. D. Valdivieso and J. Jadán-Guerrero
and videoconferencing sytems. In other cases, teachers were looking for ways to
connect with their students, especially those with limited connectivity, for which
they used social networks and even printed material to be delivered in person [1].
At government level, radio and television programs have been implemented to reach
remote locations. In Ecuador in 2020 there were 4,462,460 students in initial, basic
and high school education and despite all the efforts there were vulnerable groups
that faced a number of problems, such as students with disabilities [2]. Children
and adolescents with disabilities (CHAWD), have been particularly affected by the
deterioration of their life quality, illness, exclusion or limited access to technologies
that could make it easier their education, in addition to a worrying increase in the
neglect, violence and abuse. In this context, this article describes a study carried
out in Ecuador, which takes as a sample 212 CHAWD that are part of regular or
special educational institutions who have psychosocial, physical, intellectual, sensory
disabilities, infantile cerebral palsy, spectrum disorder autism, Down syndrome and
multi-disabilities, in order to identify their condition in the context of education in
times of pandemic [3].
This study shows the development of the Technological Accessibility Plan for
Students with Disabilities (TAPSD), which prepares a proposal for technical specifi-
cations of the equipment, adaptations and software to meet the accessibility needs of
technological equipment that facilitates participation, communication and learning of
students with functional diversity [4]. The study identified different ways of teaching
[5], taking into account their functional learning in order to develop their activities
of daily living [1].
As part of the study, the technological equipment in the 212 CHAWD homes
was determined, of which 32.54% make use of tablets, 23.58% smart phones and
only 16.98% have a personal computer. In addition, 164 CHAWD connect with
Wi-Fi service at home, in a lower percentage access to a mobile data plan or with
prepaid plans. Due to the high percentages of intellectual CHAWD, very few can
turn on the computer alone, raise or lower volume, or increase and decrease the
screen brightness. In other words, the TAPSD considers family members, guardians
or people who assist CHAWD intervention in the use of electronic equipment.
Facing this statistical data, the TAPSD has been structured taking into account
person-centered planning (PCP) and universal design for learning (UDL), which are
methodologies that will allow organizing the way of generating support strategies,
taking into account the different types of disability, as well as the competences that
they must develop through the search for computer applications, especially open
access.
2 Methodology
The methodology for the intervention is developed according to the specific compe-
tencies that characterize the abilities of each one of the CHAWD, related to the use
of technological equipment, the specific technological supports of the equipment,
Technological Accessibility Plan for Students with Disabilities … 579
adaptations and software to meet the needs of accessibility to learn and the commu-
nicate. Constituting an input that guided the technological equipment according to the
special educational needs associated with disability, related to: intellectual disability,
infantile cerebral palsy, multiple disabilities, Edwards Syndrome, sensory disability
and Down syndrome [7].
For its foundation, it was based on the approaches of the Universal Design for
Learning (UDL). The UDL arises in the field of architecture, it is a universal design,
whose objective is to personalize the educational journey through the creation and
development of a Personal Learning Environment (PLE) and intends to adjust the
principles of the curricular design of the different educational levels, this approach
was developed by the Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST), a center that
was born in 1984 in order to develop technologies that would support students’
learning with some type of disability, in such a way that they could access the same
curriculum as their peers [6]. It promotes flexibility in the curriculum, so that it
is open and inclusive, trying to minimize the necessary and inevitable subsequent
adaptations. In this way, equal opportunities in access to education are favored. Many
authors understand UDL as a set of principles focused on the purpose of inclusion
and accessibility.
UDL refers to the elements of the curriculum (goals, objectives, methods, mate-
rials, and evaluation) to modify or adapt them effectively and from the development
of guidelines and strategies derived from three principles: (i) Provide multiple forms
of representation. (ii) Provide multiple forms of action and expression. (iii) Provide
multiple forms of involvement.
2.1 Personal Design for Functional Learning
For the development of resources for learning (solutions), related to the use of techno-
logical equipment and technological adaptations for children and adolescents with
greater challenges, as part of the pilot sample, the use of resources for learning
according to the PCP, with the development of planning through the UDL.
UDL is a work strategy developed by CAST, an American research and develop-
ment organization concerned with working on inclusive education, it provides viable
action plans that benefit all students. UDL is based on three essential principles: (i)
Provide multiple forms of representation, respond to what to learn? Scientifically it
has been shown that not everyone processes the information received in the same way,
therefore, following this principle, the teacher should present the information to the
students using different resources and in different formats considering their ability
to perceive, understand or use language, among others; (ii) provide multiple forms
of action and expression, responds to the question of why learn? The teacher must
provide options that allow different ways to motivate students, to ensure their commit-
ment and cooperation; and (iii) provide multiple forms of involvement, responds how
to learn? establishes that there are multiple ways to express what has been learned.
Table 1 UDL principles and

PRINCIPLE I: Provide multiple forms of representation
guidelines
Guideline 1: Provide different options for perception
Guideline 2: Provide multiple options for language and symbols
Guideline 3: Provide multiple options for understanding
PRINCIPLE II: Provide multiple forms of action and
expression
Guideline 4: Provide options for physical action interaction
Guideline 5: Provide options for expression and communication
Guideline 6: Provide options for executive functions (activities
of daily living)
PRINCIPLE III: Provide multiple forms of involvement
Guideline 7: Provide options to capture interest
Guideline 8: Provide options to maintain effort and persistence
Guideline 9: Provide options for self-regulation
Source Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST)
In short, this teaching strategy proposes different options to demonstrate what has
been learned. Table 1 outlines an organization of UDL.
The UDL may be adapted to achieve functional learning, based on person-centered
planning and develop specific strategies, according to educational needs. This initia-
tive may be considered as part of a proposal called “Personal Design for Functional
Learning” (PDFL), which has resulted from previous studies applied in Specialized
Education Institutions, as well as the contribution of professionals with extensive
experience in the area.
For the sample under study, as part of the pilot plan, an analysis of the princi-
ples and guidelines that allow it to be applied according to the special educational
needs related to: intellectual disability, infantile cerebral palsy, multiple disabilities,
Edwards Syndrome and Down Syndrome is proposed being a sample of students
aged between 3 and 22 years, with a percentage of disability between 37 and 100%.
For the CHAWD of the pilot plan, it was necessary to present personalized
attention according to the PDFL, taking into account principles and guidelines that
allow work to be carried out according to the greatest challenges with the use of
technologies, which this study group merits.
To identify each of the person-centered plans, according to the educational needs,
the development of the accompanying sheets is shown, resulting from some previous
activities during the implementation of solutions of the Technological Accessi-
bility Plan for Students with Disabilities, based on the person-centered method-
ology and the application of UDL, which has been adapted according to the PDFL.
The aforementioned allowed the development of plans that guided teachers and
parents regarding the use of computer applications, as well as work strategies applied
according to the functional diversity of CHAWD, based on examples related to
learning proposed in the curriculum of the Ministry of Education and the approaches
of the National Management and Care Model for students with special educational
needs associated with disability in specialized education institutions [8, 9].
The methodological accompaniment sheets for teachers for the implementation of
the plan for accessibility to learning and communication have been outlined according
to each of the special educational needs of the CHAWD, in general they will guide
teachers regarding the use of computer applications, as well as work strategies applied
according to functional diversity [10]. Therefore, the scheme to be applied is detailed
below:
First: In order to identify each of the accompanying sheets, according to the different
conditions of the CHAWD, they have been numbered and described according to the
special educational needs associated with the disability, as well as icons that allow
their identification (see Fig. 1).
Second: Outline the organization of the PDFL according to special educational needs,
for whom it is necessary to propose technological equipment and the use of specific
computer applications according to the three principles proposed by UDL and certain
guidelines related to strategies that allow functional learning to be achieved with
the use of computer technologies and applications. The duration of the activities
for functional learning, will be according to the progress with the activities of the
CHAWD, they may last from one hour or more, depending on the required routines
allow functional learning. Table 2 evidences it.
For multi-disability: For infantile cerebral For intellectual disability:

palsy:
For Edwards Syndrome:

For sensory impairment: For Down Syndrome:
Fig. 1 Icons to identify the DPAF

Table 2 Outline of personal design for functional learning

Part I: Informational Data
1. Personal Data
Educational unit:
Name:
Age:
Type and degree of disability:
2. Area of Study (According to the curriculum of the level)
Ambit:
Objective of the sublevel:
Learning objective:
Skill with performance criteria:
Competencies required for the use of ICTs:
3. Resources for Functional Learning With the Use of ICTs
Technological equipment that could be used:
Programs to use for functional learning:
Materials:
Work team:
Part II: Planning Based on Personal Design for Functional Learning
PRINCIPLE I: Provide multiple forms of involvement
Guideline 1: Provide options to capture interest
Guideline 2: Provide options to maintain effort and persistence
Guideline 3: Provide options for self-regulation
PRINCIPLE II: Provide multiple forms of representation
Guideline 4: Provide different options for perception
Guideline 5: Provide multiple options for language and symbols
Guideline 6: Provide multiple options for understanding
PRINCIPLE III: Provide multiple forms of action and expression
Guideline 7: Provide options for physical action interaction
Guideline 8: Provide options for expression and communication
Guideline 9: Provide options for executive functions (activities of daily living)
4. Achievements
Note The principles and guidelines of the PDFL, will be selected according to strategies that allow
functional learning to be achieved for skills proposed by the Initial Education curriculum, with the
use of technologies and computer applications
3 Technological Accessibility Plan for Students

with Disabilities (TAPSD)
The TAPSD aims to identify the different technological applications related to educa-
tion that facilitate the link between teachers, students and parents, focused on the
212 CHAWD competencies. The Table 3 contains applications that could enhance
the social, communicational, physical and psychological area of students.
Table 3 Apps recommended to use with CHAWD

Disability Description App
Psychosocial Students need to develop skills to Speedstar, Comuicant, Picto Tea,
interact with others efficiently and Letra Kid, Iautism
consistently. In addition, students
must have the support of a
permanent tutor who gives simple
guidelines
Physical Students need assistance with Pushbutton, Cephalic/Mentonian
mobility, control with mouth or Pointer, Magnified Mice, Pad
head, speech recognition software, Mouse, Joystick Type Mouse
speech generating device
Intellectual Students need to perform different Pictosounds, Lim, Bedtime
activities necessary for their Math, Opposestolandia,
independence and daily living. It is Sonigram
necessary a permanent
accompaniment with instructions,
clear and simple
Infantile brain paralysis Students need therapies such as Hipscreen, Baby Moves App,
physical and language. They need Amialcance Saliva Tracker,
to work on posture depending on Sitplus
neuropsychomotor development
Autistic spectrum Students need to develop behavior Process, Piktopop, Appy Autista
patterns and social interaction and AutisMIND, Sequences
communication. They need to
know clear work routines and
achieve the same order of things
Down syndrome Students need permanent Picca, Skillz, Dibugrama, Soy
therapeutic support. They need to Cappaz, Jade
work through routines, with the
use of different applications
Visual disability Students need to carry out their Lazzus, Tie, Tap Tap See,
movements autonomously, Brailleback, Fingerreader
activities of daily living, or
accessing information
On the other hand, it is important to complement the technological support with

electromechanical equipment in severe cases of cerebral palsy. These supports are
summarized in Table 4.
The CHAWD must develop motor learning skills, based on technological acces-
sibility. In general, they should grasp objects, use the index finger to point or mark
objects, hold the index finger and thumb, have visual coordination with objects and
with the hand, focus their gaze, follow objects that have lights and shine, express plea-
sure or displeasure with visual and auditory stimuli, understand simple commands,
postural control and develop stimuli to carry out functional learning activities. These
Table 4 Technological support with electromechanical equipment

Equipment Description Link
GlassOuse It is worn like a pair of glasses to
control the mouse pointer and connects
to mobile phones, computers, tablets
and smart TVs via Bluetooth to
revolutionize the use of technology for www.amazon.com
those with restricted mobility
Tablet Stand Tablet Arm Mount Holder, Sturdy
Aluminum Arm Nintendo Switch
Holder for iPad, iPad Air, iPhoneX,
iPhone 8/7, Samsung Galaxy
www.amazon.com
Viozon Tablet stand, 360 degree rotation,
Flexible, Height and angle adjustable,
High-grade aluminum alloy compatible
with 4.5–13 cell phone and tablet,
iPhone, iPad (White)
www.amazon.com
AbleNet BIGtrack 2.0 Trackball Mouse for people with limited
Mouse disabilities
www.amazon.com
Tobii Eye Tracker 5 Eye tracker to move the mouse on a
computer
www.amazon.com
(continued)
competences are complemented with details for certain disabilities such as: multi-
disability, language disorder, Down syndrome, autism spectrum disorder, intellectual
disability and cerebral palsy.
Table 4 (continued)
Equipment Description Link
Runshuangyu Single foot action switch pedal control
foot pedal controller support disabled
people using HID computer keyboard
mouse laptop
www.amazon.com
ZALU Stylus for touch screens
www.amazon.com
AWAVO iPad stylus pen for all ages, compatible
with iPads and iPhones, capacitive
touch screen tablets, smartphones
www.amazon.com
4 Conclusions and Future Directions
This study presents a TAPSD to provide accessible learning. TAPSD provides guid-
ance on the different computer applications/software/hardware that could be used in
accordance with CHAWD functional diversity, which can be detailed according to
the principles and guidelines described in Table 5.
The TAPSD develops methodological accompaniment sheets for teachers and
parents or caregivers, according to: specific competencies that characterize the abili-
ties of each one of the CACD, related to the use of technological equipment, specific
technological support of the equipment, adaptations and software for meet the needs
of accessibility to learning and communication.
The accompanying files are an input that guides the technological equipment
according to the special educational needs associated with disability, related to: intel-
lectual disability, infantile cerebral palsy, multiple disabilities, Edwards Syndrome,
sensory disability and Down syndrome.
The authors consider the importance of using these cards, being a consulta-
tion input for teachers and parents or caregivers, when generating strategies to
achieve functional learning, according to the special educational needs associated
with disability.
References
1. Espinola, A.: Educación inclusiva e igualdad de las personas con discapacidad en la trans-
formación digital. Rev. Jurídica Valencia. Núm 35(1), 13 (2020)
2. Ministerio de Educación: Acuerdo Ministerial 00036, vol. 2020, no. 2, pp. 1–70 (2020)
3. Cobeñas, P.: Exclusión Educativa de Personas con Discapacidad: Un Problema Pedagógi-co,
REICE. Rev. Iberoamericana sobre Calidad, Eficacia y Cambio en Educación 11(1), 65 (2019).
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.0c00483
4. Zhang, X., Tlili, A., Nascimbeni, F. et al.: Accessibility within open educational resources
and practices for disabled learners: a systematic literature review. Smart Learn. Environ. 7, 1
(2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-019-0113-2
5. Dalimunthe, H., Dewi, S., Faadhil, F.: Pelatihan universal design for learning untuk
Meningkatkan Efikasi Diri Guru Sekolah Menengah Pertama Islam Terpadu dalam Mengajar.
Jurnal Diversita. (2020). https://doi.org/10.31289/diversita.v6i1.3784
6. Lagos, O.: Diseño universal para el aprendizaje: una experiencia innovadora en el aula
matemática de octavo año básico. Revista de Estudios y Experiencias en Educación J 18(36),
(2019)
7. Ministerio de Educación, Fe y Alegría y Organización de Estados Iberoamericanos.: Modelo
Nacional de Gestión y Atención para Estudiantes con Necesidades Educativas Especiales
Asociadas a la Discapacidad de las Instituciones de Educación Especializadas. https://edu
cacion.gob.ec/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2018/07/Modelo-IEE.pdf (2018)
8. Aguilar, M.A.: Guía de trabajo Adaptaciones Curriculares para Educación Especial e Inclusiva.
Ministerio de educación 81 (2013)
9. Delgado-Valdiviezo, K.: Diseño universal para el aprendizaje, una práctica para la educación
inclusiva. Un estudio de caso. Rev. Int. apoyo a la inclusión, Logop. Soc. y Multicult, 7(2),
14–25 (2021). https://doi.org/10.17561/riai.v7.n2.6280
10. Ramos-Galarza, C., Cóndor-Herrera, O., Arias-Flores, H., Jadán-Guerrero, J., Bolaños-
Pasquel, M., Cedillo, P.: Cognitive interventions based on technology: a systematic literature
review. In: Ayaz, H., As-gher, U., Paletta, L. (eds.) Advances in neuroergonomi, “Cognitive
interventions based on technology: a systematic literature review” (2021). https://doi.org/10.
1007/97-3-030-80285-1_30
Evaluation of the Use of ICT Tools
in Higher Education
Pierina D’Elia Di Michele , Angel Higuerey Gómez ,

Reinaldo Armas Herrera , and Félix González Pulido
Abstract Student performance is influenced both by the effort made by the student
to achieve their goals and by the strategies and tools used by the teacher to impart
their knowledge. At the time of the pandemic, teachers had to make use of the
different ICT tools that are available on the market, the preferred ones being those
that were available free of charge. In the face-to-face university sector, the virtual
treatment of students accustomed to face-to-face learning was difficult, in this sense,
teachers concerned about the decrease in average student performance used tools
that were adapted to the component and to the experience. The following research
was proposed, which is part of a larger project, which seeks to relate the level of
satisfaction with the use of technological tools with student performance. Three
courses from different degrees of the Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, in
Ecuador, are taken as a sample, to which an instrument was applied to see their level
of satisfaction. Using non-parametric statistics, specifically the Kruskal–Wallis Test
contrast, it was detected that there is no difference between the groups in the level of
satisfaction with the use of technological resources and the student performance. On
the other hand, it was observed that the level of satisfaction with ICT tools depended
on the difficulty of use.
P. D. Di Michele · F. G. Pulido
Department of Philosophy, Arts and Humanities, Private Technical University of Loja,
Loja 110150, Ecuador
e-mail: pdelia@utpl.edu.ec
F. G. Pulido
e-mail: fjgonzalez88@utpl.edu.ec
A. H. Gómez (B) · R. A. Herrera
Department of Business Studies, Private Technical University of Loja, Loja 110150, Ecuador
e-mail: aahiguerey@utpl.edu.ec
R. A. Herrera
A. H. Gómez
Economic and Social Research (IEXIHES), Experimental Institute for Humanistic, Universidad
de Los Andes, Trujillo 3150, Venezuela
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_52
Keywords Student performance · ICTs · University education
1 Introduction
The use of technological tools in higher education has been a constant in recent
years, but the pandemic triggered its use with the aim of making virtual classes more
entertaining and educational.
The non-interactive master class is being replaced by classes where the use of
applications favors a more interactive learning environment where the student is
empowered in the teaching–learning process.
The objective of this work is to verify if the use of educational tools such as
Kahoot, Google Drive, Socrative, Zappar, Mentimeter, Padlet, Genially, Classroom,
Quizizz, Teams and Lucca accounting software improve student performance in
terms of grades. The latter is only used in the subjects of the Accounting and Auditing
degree.
The article has the following structure: In section two there is a review of the
literature on the use of the different tools and academic performance. Section three
contains the data and methodology, while section four contains the results and their
discussion. Finally, the conclusions are included.
2 Literature Review
The use of ICT improves the performance of students in higher education [1]. These
authors studied the impact of ICTs on calculus through a quasi-experiment, reaching
the conclusion that the use of ICTs improved grades. This idea is endorsed in the
article by [2], which applied Kahoot to medical students in Egypt, highlighting those
academic results are improved by using the tool.
More specifically in business education, the Kahoot is a tool that improves the
academic performance of business administration students [3]. In this work it is
highlighted that the performance of the students improves when they use the tool
and when the evaluations are taken in it.
But apps are not only used to improve the academic performance of students.
The use of artificial intelligence is also gaining prominence. Thus [4] studied the
use of the GoKoan platform in psychology students, comparing students who used
e-learning and more traditional methodologies vs. students with more traditional
methodologies. Among its results, it stands out that the students who used e-learning
had better results than those who did not use it.
In the case of Ecuador, the use of technological tools and academic perfor-
mance has also been studied. Specifically, [5] have studied the behavior of students
at UTPL and their grades when using Padlet. The tool was used by students of
accounting and auditing, business administration and chemistry, improving their
Evaluation of the Use of ICT Tools in Higher Education 589
academic performance in 2018. This tool was highly valued by students of these
courses [6].
Outside of university education, the use of ICTs improves academic performance.
Thus [7] studied the use of ICTs and performance in reading tests in Colombia. The
use of computer media improved reading skill when compared to children who did
not use technological devices. For the use of ICTs to be an effective tool, it is not only
necessary to give the tool to the student, but also the teacher must be empowered to
make correct use of the tool that allows improving pedagogy [8].
3 Data and Methodology
To carry out this work, which seeks to see the relationship between the use of ICT tools
and the performance obtained, the students of the Universidad Técnica Particular de
Loja (UTPL) of Ecuador have been taken as a population.
A relational methodology is used, to determine the relationship between the use of
ICT tools and the performance obtained, measured through the final grade obtained
in the courses. To do this, we apply and interpret non-parametric tests and perform
an analysis of correlations and variances of the main variables.
The population is made up of students enrolled in the academic cycle October
2020 - February 2021, in face-to-face mode of the following subjects:
• Basic Anthropology: it is a transversal component that is taught in all the courses
at UTPL, and seeks to provide the theoretical, philosophical, and anthropological
foundations for the study of the development of the human person in the event of its
existence, for this focuses its attention on the psychosomatic and psychospiritual
dimensions for its integral development.
• Spiritual Development II: it is a transversal component that is taught in all the
courses at UTPL and visualizes anthropology and ethics; to ensure that the student
reaches a broad and comprehensive knowledge of himself.
• International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS): it is taught in the Accounting
and Auditing degree and aims to instruct future accountants on the standards
adopted by Ecuador for the preparation of the different financial statements of
organizations.
The number of students in the sample is 54 and is a very young population, with
the largest number of them in the Basic Anthropology component, as it is one of the
subjects taught at the beginning of degrees, when they are just entering university.
(See Fig. 1). While in the IFRS component, as it is a subject that is taught at the end
of the Accounting and auditing degree, the students are at an average age of 22 years,
which is when they are finishing their degree. Only one student is seen who is over
26 years, in the Spiritual Development II component, which may be due to the late
start of his studies.
The qualification of the subjects is with the scale of 0 to 10 points; and these are
carried out through three components: Learning in contact with the teacher (ACD),
Fig. 1 Distribution of students in the sample by component and age
Practical—Experimental Learning (APE) and Autonomous Learning (AA). In most

courses, the weight provided by each of these components is 35%, 35% and 30%,
respectively; and the evaluation is done every two months; each course has two
bimesters. The grades were obtained from the UTPL academic system for each of
the components.
The average grades by bimester decreased from Bimester 1 to Bimester 2 in
almost all courses. Being this decrease in a greater proportion in the component of
International Financial Reporting Standards (see Table 1). Only a small increase is
observed in Basic Anthropology, which favors the final grade obtained, to represent
the highest grade of the sample under study.
The tools used in each component depended on the adaptability of the tool and the
teacher’s expertise. Among the tools that were applied are: Canva, Emaze, Genially,
Google drive, Kahoot, LUCA, Mentimeter, Audiovisual Multimedia Tools, One
drive, Padlet, PowerPoint and/or Prezzi, Quizizz, ScreenCast, Socrative and Zapper.
Table 1 Grade point average for courses and learning

Component Bimester 1 Bimester 2 Total grade
ACD APE AA BIM1 ACD APE AA BIM2
Basic 3.08 3.30 2.86 9.25 3.42 3.30 2.60 9.32 9.31
anthropology
Spiritual 2.64 2.43 2.48 7.56 2.58 2.39 2.30 7.28 7.80
development
IFRS 3.08 3.37 2.91 9.37 3.1 2.68 2.73 8.52 8.96
Total average 2.99 3.14 2.80 8.94 3.15 2.93 2.58 8.67 8.90
Now, in the ICT tools that coincided in all these subjects is CANVA, Power Point
and/or Prezzi and Kahoot. The first was used for communication between teachers
and students since it served as a platform for supporting and sending information.
Power Point was used by teachers to teach classes and by students as a support tool
in some tasks they performed. On the other hand, the Kahoot was used as a tool to
check the knowledge taught on the day through Quizz-type exams, due to its easy
handling and versatility, which was very attractive to the students, since it motivated
the sense of competition.
The assessment of the responses of the level of satisfaction with the use of ICT
tools, became binary variables, favorable or unfavorable. The answers of the first
option are those who answered the last two levels (4 and 5); while, for the unfavorable
ones, those who answered the last three levels of evaluation were considered, leaving
this as follows.
• Level of satisfaction with the use of technological resources (NSRT): it is a binary
variable, 1 and 0, where 1 represents that the students in the sample are satisfied
with the use of technology in the learning process and 0 that they are not.
To analyze whether the students’ appreciation of ICTs and student performance,
inferential statistics was used. To verify normality, the Kolmogorov Smirnov test
was applied. As the data were not under a normal distribution, the Kruskal–Wallis
Test contrast was used [9] and [6], to test whether there is a difference in the grade
obtained by the students in the different satisfaction level rating groups with ICTs. It
is considered as a null hypothesis that the data come from the same distribution; that
is, there is no difference between the groups. Stata 15.0 was used in the statistical
calculations.
4 Results
In this section, first, an application of descriptive statistics was made on student

satisfaction regarding the use of ICTs. Inferential statistics was used to determine if
the students who felt satisfied with the use of TICs in their learning process obtained
better results in the final grade of the component.
According to the results of the survey, at the beginning the tools PowerPoint
and/or Prezzi, Socrative, Google drive and Kahoot were the most widely known and
applied; while Zappar, Mentimeter and the LUCA accounting software were less
known. The last is only used in the components that teach the accounting course.
Another of the advantages observed was that the tools that simulated competition
(Kahoot, Socrative, Quizzis) stimulated students to improve their knowledge and
they felt more attracted to them. Tools that were used as feedback in most of the
courses and in some cases to reinforce the knowledge acquired.
As mentioned, not all the tools were used in the components of the sample, and
to compare their appreciation, Table 2 shows three tools that coincided in their use
in the three components of the sample.
Table 2 Satisfaction and ITC tools

Canva Kahoot PowertPoint
Component Satisfied Not satisfied Satisfied Not satisfied Satisfied Not satisfied
Basic 26 1 24 3 27 –
Anthropology
Spiritual 10 1 8 3 8 3
Development
IFRS 16 – 15 1 15 1
In the case of Canva, it was the best rated tool by most of the students of all the
components, highlighting that in the IFRS component, all of them thought that they
felt satisfied with that tool.
On the other hand, the Power Point and/or Prezzi tool that was used in the online
teaching activity also received a high rating at the level of all the components, this
being higher in Basic Anthropology, who all thought that they felt satisfied with this
tool.
It is important to observe the descriptive statistics of the final grade, by component
(see Table 3). It is appreciated that the highest average grade is held by the students
of Basic Anthropology, followed by the students of the IFRS; and that the greatest
deviation is found in the students of Spiritual Development II, in whom they have
grades that exceed 9, while they also have a grade below 7, which is the minimum
passing grade.
To see the behavior of the satisfaction and non-satisfaction variable for the use of
all ICT tools in the learning process, the boxplot graph is shown (see Fig. 1.). The Y
axis shows the final grade obtained by the students, while the X axis shows the level
of satisfaction. The median of the satisfied group is higher than dissatisfied ones.
The Kruskal Wallis Test was used to compare the range sums (Fig. 2).
It should be noted that the comments regarding the ICT tools is that they felt more
satisfied with those tools that were easy to access and manage. In the case of the
Zappar tool, which required a higher level of understanding of its use, this was rated
by several participants as not satisfied with the use of that tool.
According to the results, it is observed that the value of p is greater than 5%,
therefore it is interpreted that there is no significant difference between the groups,
measured by the level of satisfaction with ICT and student performance. On this
basis, it can be concluded that measuring student performance through the final
Table 3 Descriptive statistics of the final grade

Component No. observations Mean Standard deviation Min Max
Basic anthropology 27 9.32 0.55519 7.6 9.9
Spiritual development 11 7.81 0.9289 6.1 9.2
IFRS 16 8.97 0.7263 7.1 9.9
Total 54 8.91 0.8939 6.1 9.9
10
9
Final_Grade
7
68
Not satisfied Satisfied
Fig. 2 Distribution
grade obtained by the students, there are no differences between the different groups
according to the level of satisfaction with ICTs in the learning process (see Table
4). In this sense, the information on satisfaction with the use of technology remains
questionable, therefore, without any doubt, it can be affirmed that there is still a
certain need to continue contributing to the subject.
Table 4 Kruskal Wallis test

Satisfied and grade Observations Rank sum
Not satisfied 10 208.5
Satisfied 44 1276.5
Chi-squared 2.193 With 1 d.f
Probability 0.1387
Chi-squared with ties 2.202 With 1 d.f
Probability 0.1378
5 Conclusions
This study analyzes whether there are differences in the level of satisfaction and
the use of ICT tools in the learning process of the students of the components of
Basic Anthropology, Spiritual Development II and International Financial Reporting
Standards in the Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja of Ecuador and if there are
differences between the use of ICT tools and academic performance.
According to the analysis of the results, individually the tools that had less diffi-
culty were rated better than those that had a higher degree of difficulty in their
application. On the other hand, it has been determined that there is no difference
between the satisfied and not satisfied groups, in the performance obtained in the
October 2020-February 2021 in the components of Basic Anthropology, Spiritual
Development II and International Financial Reporting Standards.
The results obtained motivate to continue studying this line of research, in coor-
dination with other components and other degrees, to determine if the students of
practical degrees may have a different opinion and that these tools help them improve
their qualification. In this sense, this work opens the doors to continue studying the
use of ICT tools in the university, but at the time that classes return to face-to-face,
we can compare these results with those obtained here, to have another vision of
these tools. They have become indispensable in the education process and that their
incorporation will enrich the teaching activity and that these will be part of the normal
work of the teacher in the future.
References
1. Zamora-Araya, J.A., Jiménez, J.R., Delgado-Navarro, F.: Uso de herramientas tecnológicas y su

impacto en el rendimiento en el curso de Cálculo II de la Universidad Nacional. Eco Matemático
11(1), 20–30 (2020)
2. Elkhamisy, F.A.A., Wassef, R.M.: Innovating pathology learning via Kahoot! game-based tool: a
quantitative study of students perceptions and academic performance. Alexandria J. Med. 57(1),
215–223 (2021)
3. Martínez-Jiménez, R., Pedrosa-Ortega, C., Licerán-Gutiérrez, A., Ruiz-Jiménez, M.C., García-
Martí, E.: Kahoot! as a tool to improve student academic performance in business management
subjects. Sustainability 13(5), 2969 (2021)
4. Nácher, M.J., Badenes-Ribera, L., Torrijos, C., Ballesteros, M.A., Cebadera, E.: The effective-
ness of the GoKoan e-learning platform in improving university students’ academic performance.
Stud. Educ. Eval. 70, 101026 (2021)
5. Pardo-Cueva, M., Chamba-Rueda, L.M., Gómez, Á.H., Jaramillo-Campoverde, B.G.: Las TIC y
rendimiento académico en la educación superior: Una relación potenciada por el uso del Padlet.
Revista Ibérica de Sistemas e Tecnologias de Informação E28, 934–944 (2020)
6. Pardo-Cueva, M., Chamba-Rueda, L. M., Rios-Zaruma, J., Gómez, A. H.: Information and
communication technologies and their relationship with academic performance in higher educa-
tion. In: 2019 14th Iberian Conference on Information Systems and Technologies (CISTI)
pp. 1–6. IEEE (2019)
7. Peñaloza, H.A.B., La Alba, A.L.: influencia de las TIC en el desempeño académico: evidencia
de la prueba PIRLS en Colombia 2011. Revista academia y virtualidad 7(2), 15–26 (2014)
8. Tovio, J.T., Velásquez, A.P.: Las Tecnologías de Información y Comunicación y su efecto en

el rendimiento académico de los estudiantes en las escuelas Secundarias del departamento de
Córdoba-Colombia. Ingeniería al Día 1(1), 15–23 (2015)
9. Ostertagova, E., Ostertag, O., Kováč, J.: Methodology and application of the Kruskal-Wallis
test. In: Applied Mechanics and Materials vol. 611, pp. 115–120. Trans Tech Publications Ltd.
(2014)
The Relationship Between Rural
Tourism, Sustainable Tourism
and Outdoor Activities: A Systematic
Literature Review
Jessica Ferreira , Ana Cristina Silvério , Márcia Vaz ,

Abstract A systematic literature review (SLR) was designed to analyse the current
state of knowledge on rural tourism development, sustainable tourism, and outdoor
activities to consolidate and interlink these three topics. For this purpose, 28 arti-
cles published in the Scopus and Web of Science databases were reviewed through
the Preferred Articles for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). This
research aims to develop a SLR to identify the association between rural tourism,
sustainable tourism, and outdoor activities, searching to answer the research ques-
tion (RQ): what is the relationship between rural tourism development, sustainable
tourism and outdoor activities for the scientific literature? First, through a qualita-
tive approach, this study considered 215 articles from the respective databases and
excluded 54 repeated articles, resulting in 161 articles for analysis. In a second step,
after conducting a more detailed analysis, 54 articles were excluded due to their
title and abstract, and 79 articles were excluded for not meeting the objectives. In the
end, 28 articles were considered for the SLR. This analysis provides knowledge about
sustainability, outdoor activities, and rural tourism from a co-occurrence perspective
to emphasise the valuable content addressed by the researchers. Hence, the main
results of this study highlight the relationship between rural tourism and sustainable
tourism as concepts that operate in partnership and simultaneously. In addition, there
were some references for outdoor activities about the participation of rural tourism
and sustainable tourism destinations in outdoor contexts.
J. Ferreira (B) · A. C. Silvério · M. Vaz · P. O. Fernandes

Portugal
e-mail: jessica.ferreira@ipb.pt
A. C. Silvério
e-mail: ana.silverio@ipb.pt
M. Vaz
e-mail: marciafvaz@ipb.pt
P. O. Fernandes
e-mail: pof@ipb.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_53
598 J. Ferreira et al.
Keywords Systematic review · Sustainable tourism · Rural tourism · Outdoor

activities · Scientific production
1 Introduction
Despite being disparate concepts, rural tourism, sustainable tourism, and outdoor
activities interrelate and complement each other. However, there are different
perspectives and views on these three topics and their developmental relationship
in the literature.
Specifically, tourism and its derivatives, such as ecotourism, rural tourism, soft
tourism, alternative tourism, and many other terms, are recognised as a sustainable
way to develop regions with abundant tourism resources [1, 2]. Therefore, several
authors study tourism in rural areas concerning matching the supply of tourism facil-
ities and experiences to the demand for tourism [2]. In concrete terms, scientific
research attempts to assess how rural tourism could be more sustainable when satis-
fying the demands of the local community and the environment and local suppliers
on the supply side of the tourism system, as well as tourists on the demand side, with
a focus on outdoor activities [2].
Thus, from this perspective, the need for research on the tourism literature arises.
For several authors, a literature review evaluates a body of research that addresses a
specific topic or RQ. Also termed a narrative review, this review has enormous scope
and uses a non-standardised methodology. Consequently, the research strategies,
scope, and period covered will vary and do not follow an established protocol. On the
other hand, a systematic literature review follows the same assumptions but attempts
to collect all empirical evidence that fits pre-specified eligibility criteria to answer a
specific RQ. In addition, it uses explicit and systematic methods that are selected to
minimise bias, thus providing more reliable results from which conclusions can be
drawn and decisions made [3].
Hence, this study aims to develop a systematic review to identify the relationship
between rural tourism, sustainable tourism, and outdoor activities using the Scopus
and Web of Science databases. Therefore, this article answers the RQ: what is the
relationship between rural tourism development, sustainable tourism, and outdoor
activities for the scientific literature?
Supported by PRISMA guidelines, 161 articles were studied, 61 were extracted
from the SCOPUS database, and from the Web of Science database, 100 articles were
extracted. After the exclusion and filtering of articles that respond to the objective
of an investigation, a total of 28 articles were considered (18 Scopus articles and 10
Web of Science articles).
From the analysis of the selected articles, proceeding to the SLR of these databases
on the topics under study, the aim is to answer the QR, and understand research trends
and future lines of thought for new studies.
The Relationship Between Rural Tourism, Sustainable Tourism … 599
2 Methodology
A systematic review requires a careful, objective and reproducible search across

various resources to identify as many studies as possible. Several sources can be
consulted for a systematic review. Bibliographic databases are usually the first choice,
as they index many scientific journals and can be easily searched [4].
The search for the bibliography should be systematic and aim to underline both its
relevance and completeness. An effort should be made not to overlook any material
that may be important for the analysis. The systematic review process starts from the
marks and elementary indicators understudy, extending to the complete analysis of
articles. The quality of the critical analysis of the bibliography is manifested, above
all, in its clarity and logical sequence [5].
To be systematic implies a focus on structure, organisation, and documentation.
As with all research, the review process should be transparently documented in all
parts, reproducible, and reported in the final publication [6].
For this analysis, three different dimensions of the databases were analysed, using
articles entitled rural tourism, sustainable tourism and outdoor activities, from the
Scopus - Elsevier and Web of Science—Clarivate databases, limiting the search for
documents to the following equations presented in Table 1.
Around the research methodology, only articles about rural and sustainable
tourism or rural and outdoor activities were refined. Furthermore, articles were
limited to the subject area of social sciences in English and included the following
categories: hospitality, leisure sport tourism, green-sustainable science technology,
or interdisciplinary social sciences.
After the research was carried out, 215 articles were extracted, of which 54 were
repeated. In the main database steps, 161 articles were analysed, of which 61 were
Scopus articles, and 100 were Web of Science articles.
In a systematic literature review, in contrast to traditional narrative reviews, the
routine processes of literature search, abstraction, and synthesis are emphasised,
reported, and justified. Several authors recommend developing a PRISMA reporting
flowchart to register included and excluded studies at different review stages [7].
Furthermore, some authors maintain that a systematic review in tourism compared
to the PRISMA review list contributes to a clearer understanding of systematic
Table 1 List of equations to the search for documents

Scopus Web of science
TITLE-ABS-KEY ((“rural tourism” AND (“rural tourism” AND “sustainable tourism”)
“sustainable tourism”) OR (“rural tourism” OR (“rural tourism” AND “outdoor activities”)
AND “outdoor activities”)) AND (LIMIT-TO Refined by - document types: articles,
(DOCTYPE, “ar”)) AND (LIMIT-TO languages: English, web of science categories:
(SUBJAREA, “SOCI”)) AND hospitality leisure sport tourism or
(LIMIT- TO green-sustainable science technology or social
(LANGUAGE, “English”)) sciences interdisciplinary
Fig. 1 PRISMA flowchart for the literature screening process
reviews’ execution, quality, and rigour [8]. In these outlines, the database analysis
and exclusion process can be analysed in Fig. 1.
After conducting a more detailed analysis, 54 articles were excluded due to their
title and abstract, and 79 articles were excluded for not meeting the objectives under
study. Finally, to answer the RQ understudy, the articles that corresponded to the
relation of the topics were analysed and analysed their development. After these
comprehensive stages, 28 articles were considered eligible and selected for the final
synthesis and analysis, of which 18 correspond to the Scopus database and 10 to the
Web of Science database.
Systematic reviews can include knowledge generated through qualitative and
quantitative approaches [9]. In addition, a systematic quantitative method is consid-
ered an appropriate method review tool since the review aims to trace the households
and sustainability research from multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary literature on
tourism [10]. In these terms, the following topics of this article are dedicated to the
systematic literature review of the dimensions.
3 Results
3.1 Relationship Between Rural Tourism, Sustainable

Tourism and Outdoor Activities
Cooperation between tourism and its derivatives, such as ecotourism, rural tourism,
soft tourism, alternative tourism, and many other terms, is a sustainable way to
develop regions with abundant tourism resources [1, 2].
Indeed, rural tourism is a complex and multifaceted activity; it is not just rural
tourism. There is also a large market of general interest for less specialised forms
of rural tourism. Rural tourism requires unique and carefully designed planning,
presentation, and organisational decisions [11, 12].
In a rural area, the most important tourism infrastructure is the past’s intangible and
tangible cultural heritage and the landscape and agricultural products. In addition to
maintaining the natural and cultural values of the area, this industry, in the concept
of sustainable tourism, is treated closely with economic, ecological, spatial, and
participatory processes [13]. Tourism is the main driver of local development [14].
Rural tourism has involved numerous entrepreneurs worldwide, working in rela-
tive isolation. Rural tourism research has followed the same pattern as workers oper-
ating in isolation. Also, rural tourism research has tended to follow change and react
to it [15].
In 2017, Butnaru and Haller presented a study of the United Kingdom (UK), which
addresses an essential topic for economic development: sustainable rural tourism.
They consider the UK one of the world’s leading tourism destinations with high
potential for development, including the rural environment. This study assumes that
rural tourism development is not very expensive, an incentive for the rural envi-
ronment. However, it is well known that tourism and its associated activities are
not isolated from the rest of the activities of local communities [16]. Another study
shows that for the Azores, the evolution registered shows the great potential for value
creation in this sector and the leverage of the regional economy, especially in rural
tourism [17, 18].
Still, in 2017, a study about sustainable rural development in post-socialist coun-
tries, comparing Serbia and Slovenia. These study results provide empirical support
for the proposed causal relationships between perceptions of community attachment,
rural tourism development, support for multifunctional agriculture, and residents’
well-being [19].
The need for economic revitalisation of rural areas, combined with the increasing
emphasis on sustainability, creates a new challenge for tourism as a potential means
to simultaneously achieve these two policy objectives. Sustainable rural tourism
development has become a priority of many countries’ national tourism policies
and/or strategies. Rural tourism development is associated with environmental and
social threats. To develop sustainable rural tourism, it is necessary to develop an
effective tourism strategy covering all aspects of sustainable tourism development
[20].
Local communities’ religious belief, commitment, and spiritual practices show

a significant and positive effect on the perception of the socio-cultural impact of
sustainable tourism by Pakistani residents [21].
The study highlighted the importance of the search for a sustainability perfor-
mance metric, also highlighted the importance and role of perceptions, primarily
customer perceptions, and demonstrated the tourist’s centrality in the adoption of
actions. Furthermore, they assume that the perceived sustainability of the guest expe-
rience, considering the brand personality and the value of a tourist destination, is still
understudied. The perceived sustainability concept can also be adapted to specific
tourism sectors such as hotels, parks, and equipment [22].
In 1994, Lane analysed that almost all successful businesses, and many prosperous
regions, develop according to carefully crafted business plans and strategies. The
plans seek to reconcile competing demands, avoid wasted investment and duplication
of effort, and investigate and seek niche markets where exceptional success can be
achieved. Sustainable Tourism Strategies should have all these attributes, but ten
special features should be noted [23].
Besides being a universal tourist segment, rural tourism is distinguished by its
rapid development. The relationship between tourism and the rural environment is
mainly observed in the wealth creation of tourism activities in farmers and agriculture
areas. However, the ability to maintain sustainable development is becoming a key
challenge. Another study observed that sustainable development of rural tourism
means that rural tourism resources can meet the needs of carefree tourists without
compromising the needs of future generations to satisfy their tourism. It promotes
rural economic development and maintains the rural environment, which helps rural
development in harmony with the city [24].
Sustainability is central to the destination’s competitiveness. The sustainable
development of tourism is remarkable for favouring the preservation of the ecologic
balance of a tourist destination, enhancing its competitiveness and cannot be achieved
without appropriate management of tourist demand. Another study discussed
sustainability tourism development and sustainable tourism practices in Romania.
Concretely they understood that, in the case of Romania, the post-communist and
post-conflict rebranding of the country involved the promotion of rural tourism and
the country’s unique rural heritage and traditions as a specific tourism product appro-
priate to the country’s self-image. Also, they consider that the success of tourism
destinations is linked to sustainable practices; hence, the analysis of Romania’s
rural tourism destinations must consider the country’s recent performance and
competitiveness in sustainable tourism.
Another study sought to study the implications for the future of sustainable tourism
development in Connemara, Ireland. The study revealed that the emphasis on sustain-
able development in European and national development policies is not reflected at
regional and local levels [25]. To marketers should focus more on encouraging the
sharing of tourism experiences, helping to grow sustainable tourism. In particular, the
authors assume that events leading to sustainable public benefits beyond personal
experience can encourage more powerful subjective normative effects [26] where
outdoor activities are included. If outdoor activities are related to environmental

behaviours, the emotions felt during these experiences matter.
Indeed, rural tourism can contribute significantly to rural economies and in the
context of sustainable rural development. Its contribution can be seen in financial
terms and terms of employment, nature conservation, adoption of new working
practices, and revitalisation of passive, poor rural areas [27].
Visitors’ pressure on rural areas in developed nations led to the development of
many of the first ideas about sustainable tourism. Therefore, several authors study
tourism in rural areas to match the supply of tourism facilities and experiences to the
character of the demand for tourism. Precisely, they assess how tourism in the coun-
tryside could be more sustainable when it meets the demands of the local community
and the environment and the local providers on the supply side of the tourism system
and the tourists on the demand side [28].
The opportunities for activating local culture interaction/engagement between
local communities and tourists and the connection between a rural tourism destination
and tourists could be fostered by organising cultural and historical activities and
events [29]. In addition, research also pointed out the influence of a slow environment
and local crafts/products in rural tourism areas. Therefore, tourists not only consider
the social atmosphere and travel environment [30–32], (but also note the unique local
crafts/events and special products [30].
3.2 Resident’s Perspective
Tourism is the main driver of local development for tourism planners and local supply
agents. The population is less enthusiastic, perceiving an unbalanced distribution of
economic benefits, yet recognising a more dynamic social life. However, all local
destination stakeholders understand that the village could improve its tourist attrac-
tiveness, especially if better use is made of endogenous resources and local products
[14, 33].
A study’s results indicate that rural residents positively perceive tourism develop-
ment. They assume tourism as sustainable development activity in the rural commu-
nity. The environmental component of sustainable development is the most impor-
tant, a fact that can be explained by the high natural tourism potential and residents’
awareness of the importance of nature conservation for sustainable development [34].
Another study assumes that Islamic religiosity influences residents’ perception
of tourism development. However, local communities understand that sustainable
tourism development, infrastructure factors, and cultural activities play signifi-
cant roles in community development. In this case, tourism enhances the commu-
nity’s image and brings better facilities, health services, quality of life, education,
improved infrastructure, and economic growth to the Islamic Republic of Pakistan
[21]. Tourism development improves residents’ quality of life due to its effect on the
area’s economic development, leading to new employment opportunities. In addition,
tourism activity in the rural area is beneficial for diversifying recreational alternatives
and improving general infrastructure [34].
Community members’ support is noted as one of the key factors for the success
of the sustainable tourism industry in all areas, including rural areas. In these
contours, a study proved the positive relationship between residents’ perceived value
of tourism development, their attachment to the community, overall quality of life
and support for sustainable tourism development. Furthermore, this study highlighted
that perceived tourism benefits were important in assessing tourism development and
residents’ overall quality of life [33].
Rural residents are more likely to decide to support tourism development when
they more clearly perceive improvements in their quality of life. The results further
confirm that residents play a crucial role in tourism development planning, which
is applicable in rural tourism provision in typical transition societies (with daily
economic transformations) [19].
3.3 Problems Arising from Rural Tourism and Sustainable

Tourism
The most important problem in rural tourism is to protect local properties and socio-
cultural composition while opening them up for tourism consumption. Under these
circumstances, strong cooperation between multidisciplinary institutions is needed
to protect these values and make them sustainable [11, 12].
Another study reveals that the average age of tourists is younger, with stable jobs
and considerably high wages. Urban residents with such characteristics are a large
part of the rural tourism market. They were considering further expanding niche
markets in the tourism industry and the future growth of rural tourism in China.
Therefore, it is vital to investigate the role of rural tourism destination performances
in predicting tourist satisfaction and destination loyalty, which contribute to the
satisfaction of tourists’ demands/expectations and the competitiveness of sustainable
rural tourism. Particularly in post-Covid-19, the research theme regarding slow and
natural rural tourism could potentially lead to sustainability in tourism activities.
After all, travellers may prefer to make their trips to natural and less populated
destinations with slower spaces and healthier ways [30].
As discussed above, tourism’s existing and potential value as an agent of rural
change is familiar. However, despite its growing importance, there is still a shortage
of specific rural tourism policies or appropriate policy frameworks. A study indi-
cates many of the old difficulties and problems inherent in earlier rural initiatives
still permeate current programmes and policies. The preceding analysis revealed the
existence of a legislative mismatch due to the ongoing public administration review
of the National Park in Northern Ireland [35].
Rural tourism in Spain faces a problematic situation in searching for survival
strategies for families owning small businesses. To solve these problems, the authors
understand that it is necessary to identify and respond to the needs of rural tourism
customers, particularly to assess their preferences [36].
For decades, seasonality was one of the biggest problems for tourism activity,
causing negative economic, social and environmental impacts on a destination.
However, the appropriate strategies for this problem may be those trying to live
with the phenomenon sustainably. Specifically, a minimum level of demand should
be guaranteed, which allows the stability and profitability of rural tourism enter-
prises, typically small-scale, to be maintained during the low season. This objective
should be easier to achieve with a greater knowledge of the market profile in each
period, implying the opportunity for a differentiated marketing approach whenever
a distinct market pattern can be associated with each season. Particularly, for the low
season, the best possible adaptation to a specific type of tourist may be critical for
certain business stability throughout the year, ideally leading to a loyal low season
market [37].
4 Conclusions, Limitations and Next Steps
Tourism is one of the fastest-growing industries and a driving force for many devel-
oped and developing economies. In analysing sustainable tourism as a condition of
rural tourism, it is understood that the ability of rural tourism to complement other
activities and provide employment opportunities to locals is thus conditioned by
annual stability. While sustainable tourism develops its approaches to the field, new
developments in the social sciences and broader technological development require
that sustainable tourism studies move with the times in response to these more general
changes. It is concluded from this analysis that it would be important that there is
local interest in and awareness of intangible cultural heritage during the develop-
ment of intangible cultural heritage. Professionals are empowered so that there is
parallel development between tourism development and the transmission of intan-
gible cultural heritage. There are many recommendations for improving sustainable
tourism policy. Still, above all, guidelines should be developed to form strong support
and transparent leadership at the international, national, and regional levels to ensure
the long-term sustainability of rural tourism destinations.
Rural tourism has been growing considerably, proving to be the centre of attention
of potential investors. It was found from the literature studied on rural tourism that
there is a relationship between rural tourism development, perceptions of community
involvement, support for multifunctional agriculture, and the well-being of local
communities. Sustainability practices are playing an increasingly important role in
the tourism sector. The sustainable development of rural tourism is a decisive factor
in job creation and local economies’ diversification and development. The crisis
caused by Covid-19 can also be seen as a driving factor in the revitalisation of rural
tourism destinations since there has been a substantial increase in the choice of
national tourists for rural tourism destinations. In these outlines, rural tourism has
the advantages of its low population density and meeting the psychological needs of
people to enjoy natural landscapes and outdoor activities while ensuring their safety.
If outdoor activities are related to environmental behaviours, the emotions felt
during these experiences matter. Therefore, natural physical practices with an ecolog-
ical purpose that establish a challenge or adventure that involves risk and uncer-
tainty, with a recreational character, generating sensations and experiences that
promote personal and social development are universal factors. Therefore, the asso-
ciated defines a physical-sports practice in nature with a predominantly educational,
recreational, and touristic approach, further away from these competitive sports
practices.
It was understood that sustainable and rural tourism are extremely relevant to
the studies carried out. Hence, rural tourism and outdoor activities are increasingly
sustaining a relationship of partnership, much due to the influences of Covid-19. But
there are some important and less positive aspects in the study of this set of concepts.
In particular, the clear and concrete linking of the topics under study is something
that still needs further development. The impact that covid-19 had on society and
finances forces the markets, mainly associated with tourism, to look for new ways to
rebuild their physical and financial structure. Regaining the confidence of consumers
will be the next steps.
Finally, this study will serve as a source of research for other studies on the subject.
In the future, studies will be made using this analysis, particularly the elaboration of
a systematic review on rural tourism and sustainable tourism.
In addition, it is suggested that this topic accompany this process and pandemic
path, continuing to be analysed outdoor activities but extending its study to other
keywords and extending the research to other databases.
(OE). The authors are also grateful to the UNIAG, R&D unit funded by the FCT—Portuguese
Higher Education. “Project Code Reference: UIDB/04752/2020”.
References
1. Cucari, N., Wankowicz, E., Esposito De Falco, S.: Rural tourism and Albergo Diffuso: a case
study for sustainable land-use planning. Land Use Policy 82, 105–119 (2019)
2. Yachin, J.M., Ioannides, D.: Making do in rural tourism: the resourcing behaviour of tourism
micro-firms. J. Sustain. Tour. 28, 1003–1021 (2020)
3. Higgins, J.P., Thomas, J., Chandler, J., Cumpston, M., Li, T., Page, M.J., Welch, V.A.: Cochrane
Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. Wiley & Sons, Chichester (UK) (2019)
4. Donato, H., Donato, M.: Stages for undertaking a systematic review. Acta Med. Port. 32(3),
227–235 (2019)
5. Tuckman, B. W., Harper, B. E.: Conducting Educational Research. Rowman & Littlefield
Publishers (2012).
6. Liberati, A., Altman, D. G., Tetzlaff, J., Mulrow, C., Gøtzsche, P. C., Ioannidis, J. P., Moher, D.,
et al.: The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies
that evaluate health care interventions: explanation and elaboration. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 62(10),
e1–e34 (2009)
7. Yang, E.C.L., Khoo-Lattimore, C., Arcodia, C.: A systematic literature review of risk and
gender research in tourism Management. Tour. Manage. 58, 89–100 (2017)
8. Kim, C.S., Bai, B.H., Kim, P.B., Chon, K.: Review of reviews: a systematic analysis of review
papers in the hospitality and tourism literature. Int. J. Hosp. Manag. 70, 49–58 (2018)
9. Pickering, C., Byrne, J.: The benefits of publishing systematic quantitative literature reviews
for Ph.D. candidates and other early-career researchers. High. Educ. Res. Dev. 33(3), 534–548
(2014)
10. Janjua, Z. U. A., Krishnapillai, G., Rahman, M.: A systematic literature review of rural
homestays and sustainability in tourism. SAGE Open 11(2) (2021)
11. Altun, S., Beyhan, G., Esengil, R.: Sustainable rural tourism in Akseki Sarihacilar village.
Open House Int. 32, 98–106 (2007)
12. Garau, C.: Perspectives on cultural and sustainable rural tourism in a smart region: the case
study of Marmilla in Sardinia (Italy). Sustainability 7(6), 6412–6434 (2015)
13. Davardoust, S., Karahan, F.: Evaluation of sustainable rural tourism: the case of Uzundere
District, Erzurum, Turkey. Sustainability 13(18), 10218 (2021)
14. Eusébio, C., Kastenholz, E., Breda, Z.: Tourism and sustainable development of rural
destinations: a stakeholders’view. Rev. Port. de Estudos Reg. 36, 13–21 (2014)
15. Lane, B., Kastenholz, E.: Rural tourism: the evolution of practice and research approaches–
towards a new generation concept? J. Sustain. Tour. 23(8–9), 1133–1156 (2015)
16. Butnaru, G.I., Haller, A.P.: Perspective of sustainable rural tourism in the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Northern Ireland (UK): Comparative study of β and σ convergence in the
economic development regions. Sustainability 9(4), 525 (2017)
17. Castanho, R.A., Couto, G., Pimentel, P., Carvalho, C., Sousa, Á., da Graça Batista, M.:
Analysing the public administration and decision-makers perceptions regarding the potential
of rural tourism development in the Azores region. Int. J. Sustain. Dev. Plan. 16(4), 603–614
(2021)
18. Couto, G., Pimentel, P., Batista, M.G., Sousa, Á.U.R.E.A., Carvalho, C.É.L.I.A., Castanho,
R.A.: The potential of rural tourism development in the Azores Islands from the perspective of
public administration and decision-makers. WSEAS Trans. Environ. Dev. 17, 713–721 (2021)
19. Petrović, M.D., Vujko, A., Gajić, T., Vuković, D.B., Radovanović, M., Jovanović, J.M.,
Vuković, N.: Tourism as an approach to sustainable rural development in post-socialist
countries: a comparative study of Serbia and Slovenia. Sustainability 10(1), 54 (2018)
20. Augustyn, M.: National strategies for rural tourism development and sustainability: the Polish
experience. J. Sustain. Tour. 6(3), 191–209 (1998)
21. Aman, J., Abbas, J., Mahmood, S., Nurunnabi, M., Bano, S.: The influence of Islamic reli-
giosity on the perceived socio-cultural impact of sustainable tourism development in Pakistan:
a structural equation modeling approach. Sustainability 11(11), 1–27 (2019)
22. Cavalcante, W.Q.D.F., Coelho, A., Bairrada, C.M.: Sustainability and tourism marketing:
a bibliometric analysis of publications between 1997 and 2020 using vosviewer software.
Sustainability 13(9), 4987 (2021)
23. Lane, B.: What is rural tourism? J. Sustain. Tour. 2, 7–21 (1994)
24. Xu, Z., Sun, B.: Influential mechanism of farmers’ sense of relative deprivation in the
sustainable development of rural tourism. J. Sustain. Tour. 28(1), 110–128 (2020)
25. Anderson, E., Bakir, A., Wickens, E.: Rural tourism development in Connemara, Ireland. Tour.
Plan. Dev. 12(1), 73–86 (2015)
26. Joo, Y., Seok, H., Nam, Y.: The moderating effect of social media use on sustainable rural
tourism: a theory of planned behavior model. Sustainability 12(10), 4095 (2020)
27. Coroş, M.M., Gică, O.A., Yallop, A.C., Moisescu, O.I.: Innovative and sustainable tourism
strategies: a viable alternative for Romania’s economic development. Worldwide Hosp. Tour.
Themes 9, 504–515 (2017)
28. Bramwell, B.: Rural tourism and sustainable rural tourism. J. Sustain. Tour. 2, 1–6 (1994)
29. Rasoolimanesh, S. M., et al.: A systematic scoping review of sustainable tourism indicators in
relation to the sustainable development goals. J. Sustain. Tour. 1–21 (2020)
30. Chi, X., Han, H.: Emerging rural tourism in China’s current tourism industry and tourist
behaviors: the case of Anji County. J. Travel Tour. Mark. 38(1), 58–74 (2021)
31. Al-Ansi, A., Han, H.: Role of halal-friendly destination performances, value, satisfaction, and
trust in generating destination image and loyalty. J. Destin. Mark. Manag. 13, 51–60 (2019)
32. Wu, J., Zhao, Y., Qi, H., Zhao, X., Yang, T., Du, Y., Wei, Z., et al.: Identifying the key factors
that affect the formation of humic substance during different materials composting. Bioresour.
Technol. 244, 1193–1196 (2017)
33. Bajrami, D.D., Radosavac, A., Cimbaljević, M., Tretiakova, T.N., Syromiatnikova, Y.A.: Deter-
minants of residents’ support for sustainable tourism development: implications for rural
communities. Sustainability 12(22), 1–16 (2020)
34. Muresan, I. C., Oroian, C. F., Harun, R., Arion, F. H., Porutiu, A., Chiciudean, G. O., Lile, R.,
et al.: Local residents’ attitude toward sustainable rural tourism development. Sustainability
8(1), 100 (2016)
35. McAreavey, R., McDonagh, J.: Sustainable rural tourism: lessons for rural development. Sociol.
Rural. 51(2), 175–194 (2011)
36. An, W., Alarcón, S.: Rural tourism preferences in Spain: best-worst choices. Ann. Tour. Res.
89, 103210 (2021)
37. Kastenholz, E., de Almeida, A.L.: Seasonality in rural tourism–the case of North Portugal.
Tour. Rev. 63, 5–15 (2008)
Portuguese Sports Fans Reaction
to Professional Athlete’s Activism
on Social Media: A Systematic Literature
Review
Hugo Filipe Antunes Guedes and João Vidal Carvalho
Abstract Although athlete activism has gained tremendous popularity in all levels
of competition over the years. With the Covid 19 pandemic, we started to witness
numerous acts of activism such as protests and rallies that counted with the presence
and support of some of sport’s biggest names. Moreover, this topic, in specific the
fan reaction to athlete activism remains vastly understudied. To better understand the
manners in which Portuguese sports fans react to athlete activism on social media
there is a need to deepen our understanding on this topic. Much of the academic
research and studies performed on the area of athlete activism and fan reaction to
said activism has been mostly conducted in the USA. To better comprehend the
state of activism by professional athletes today as well as to have a better historic
comprehension around athlete activism, a systematic literature review process was
used to collect relevant literature. Consequently, this provides a solid theoretical
framework that can back up an empirical investigation with a quantitative approach
about Portuguese sports fans reaction to professional athlete’s activism on social
media. This process served the fundamental purpose of identifying relevant and valid
literature in a systematic and organized manner while observing that the majority of
the studies around this thematic used a qualitative approach.
Keywords Social media · Athlete activism · Fan reaction · Facebook · Twitter ·

Instagram
H. F. A. Guedes (B) · J. V. Carvalho

Polytechnic of Porto/CEOS, Matosinhos, Portugal
e-mail: 2170520@iscap.ipp.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_54
610 H. F. A. Guedes and J. V. Carvalho
1 Introduction
1.1 Initial Framework
Activism has been present in our society for about 70 years (since the 1960s). The
attitudes and actions of an activist nature have been demonstrated by professional
athletes from various cultures, religions, and parts of the world.
Fundamentally, activism on the part of professional athletes has represented a
variant of activism that has been gaining popularity and captivating the attention of
the public.
This growing notoriety in relation to this theme has been increasingly evident
with the arrival of social media, which has brought the public and sports fans around
the world a new perspective on a variety of aspects. In the way they can acquire
new information and content, acting as an alternative to the conventional media,
such as radio, or television, but also in the way they can interact and react to new
information/news in a more effective and efficient manner.
Since sports fans themselves also have access to this type of content and can react
to it from their own social platforms, this article is focused on the analysis of the
reaction of sports fans in Portugal in relation to athlete activism on social media.
1.2 Definition of Terms
Throughout this article, the terms presented will serve as reference for the objects of
study that this article approaches. These terms will be properly defined so that they
can be understood perfectly.
The terms presented will be as follows:
• Professional athletes: When we use this term, we are implying that we are refer-
ring to individuals, both male and female, who practice any sport professionally,
in any category that is considered above the amateur or semi-professional level.
• Activist Content: The use of this term will be linked to any form or type of
content that aims to achieve or promote any kind of change in society, whether
this is in a political field, as in any variant related to social discrimination or even
with the mission of promoting equality in a variety of socio-economic factors.
Additionally, this type of content can also be related to awareness actions, such as
helping to raise public awareness on topics like wars or environmental protection,
and can sometimes, but not necessarily, include guidelines and/or tips on how
those viewing the content can help in the situation exposed in the publication.
• Sports Fan: In the context of this study, a sports fan will be considered as any
individual, both male and female, who enjoys watching or following any sport
category, whether this is done in a more diligent way or simply in a more casual
Portuguese Sports Fans Reaction to Professional Athlete’s … 611
manner. In this context, the fan does not need to be an athlete himself or a “fanatic”
for the sport itself.
2 State of the art
2.1 Activism
Activism is characterized by conventional acts of resistance that serve to correct social

or hegemonic misdeeds [2, p. 283; 3]. These acts of resistance are often political in
nature and are intended to continue the efforts made to achieve various forms of
equality [2, p. 282] Activism can be accomplished in any of the following ways:
communicating about the issue at hand, signing a petition, donating money, writing
a letter, attending a meeting, being an active member of an activist organization,
attending a rally, or posting content of an activist nature online [9; 34, p. 2].
Additionally, activism is often put into practice through the participation of indi-
viduals in a social movement. These social movements, which are defined as networks
of informal interactions between a plurality of individuals, groups, and/or organiza-
tions, engaged in political or cultural conflicts, based on shared collective identities
[10] that can be organized both in an online and in-person context. Social movements
themselves organized on social media can sometimes emerge in offline or physical
spaces through protests or demonstrations that promote the missions of those same
movements. Platforms such as social media sometimes serve as spaces through which
individuals with similar beliefs come together to organize protests, which will then
take place either online or in a physical space [25].
2.2 The History of Activism by Professional Athletes
While activism can obviously occur in a plenitude of contexts, sport provides a huge
opportunity for professional athletes to gain visibility and consequently extend the
reach of their entire social platform to engage in activism in a comprehensive and
effective way. Athletes like Muhammad Ali, Tommie Smith, John Carlos and Billie
Jean King built their legacy by simply being more than just top athletes, by choosing
to engage in activism they became icons of causes of great social relevance that go
beyond their respective sports [17].
To demonstrate the long and famous history of activism by professional athletes,
we can look at the case of Muhammad Ali, one of the greatest boxers of all time,
but also one of the great symbols of activism in the world of sports and the fight for
human rights. Long before he was Muhammad Ali, the heavyweight champion, he
was Cassius Clay, a boxing prodigy who at 18 won his first gold medal, and at 22
won the heavy-weight title [18]. In 1964, Cassius Clay published a statement saying
that he had converted to Islam, pointing out that his decision was based on the racial
segregation that existed in the 1960s in the United States and that Christianity had
something to do with the daily discrimination that all African Americans experienced
during that time [23].
As soon as his statement became public, the World Boxing Association stripped
him of his heavyweight title and the public reaction fell heavily on the narrative
that Cassius Clay had become anti-American and lost his sense of patriotism [18].
During all these repercussions, Cassius decided to emphasize his sense of freedom
and right to it, and eventually changed his name to the one by which he is still known
today, Muhammad Ali. Two years later, Ali was again involved in controversy when
he refused to serve in the United States Army in the Vietnam War, claiming that his
religious beliefs did not allow him to participate in that war [23].
After refusing to participate in the Vietnam war, Ali was arrested and sentenced
to 3 years in prison, although during this time he never actually served his sentence,
these 3 years made Ali, due to his actions of an activist nature, become a symbol of
peace and freedom and the fight for human rights and equality, while at the same
time, he was prevented from competing, thus resulting in him sacrificing 3 years of
his best form and athletic potential [14]. These were times when athletes were much
less likely to be known for anything other than the sport they played.
Athletes were naturally and unconsciously expected to be just that, athletes,
someone who only attracted attention for their performances, and it was unthink-
able that a professional athlete would dare to speak out about anything that was
remotely outside the sporting context. With the help of Muhammad Ali and the Civil
Rights Movement, society noticed the role of the professional athlete as an activist
[13].
2.3 Activism on the Part of Professional Athletes Today
Professional athletes can be very influential with fans and other members of the
public, which explains their visible activities related to sponsorship and advertising
[26], and the perceptions that they serve as examples to society [6]. In fact, Melnick
and Jackson (2002) suggested that the influence of heroes in the sports world extends
beyond simple admiration and even impacts “beliefs, values, self-evaluations, and
behaviors” (p. 429). Given their visibility and notoriety, athletes often have the power
to become “agents for social change” [30, p. 59] and can use this status to become
actively involved in social movements [13].
In recent years, there has been a sharp increase in the number and visibility of
athletes who have engaged in actions of an activist nature both inside and outside
the sports arena, as well as an intense public debate around these types of conduct
[8, 16, 17, 33, 39].
2.4 Fan Reaction to Athlete Activism
The professional athlete seen as a celebrity is a concept that is nowadays at its peak
due to the increased exposure provided by both the conventional media outlets and
social media [1]. From very early sports served and still serve to this day as an
important source of entertainment for the media and our popular culture, something
that has subsequently shaped the greatest athletes as also being celebrities in the eyes
of the public [4]. Because of this public perception, the response to athlete activism is
like celebrity activism. Fans of the athlete or celebrity often assume that the athlete
or celebrity rarely occupies a position that offers them credibility within a more
political landscape, which obviously calls into question the athlete’s credibility as
an activist [15].
Sports fans’ reactions to athletes’ offline activism efforts are often displayed
online [33]. In a study previously conducted Sanderson (2013) found that the plat-
forms provided by social media often act as interactive spaces for users to gather
and manage negative reactions to the athletes’ disclosures. Certain research, previ-
ously conducted, has found that online fans’ reactions to activism by professional
athletes are sometimes centered around an intention to behave in a certain way
toward the athlete who has spoken out or the organization representing that athlete
([33]; Kaufman 2008; Sanderson 2013; Schmittel and Sanderson 2015). Influences on
activism addressed in academic research to date [3, 22, 31, 35]. The status of celebri-
ties, in this case the professional athlete has been under-examined in the literature
on this subject. The response to fan activism by fans has also received insufficient
attention in terms of the studies developed on this topic [15].
2.5 Social Media and Activism
Social networks have taken a very important role in our society, as they act as a
means of connection between athletes and their fans, and the interaction between
these two parties drives the involvement of fans with these same social media [7].
The connectivity offered by social media also allows people to find communities
around issues of interest [5, 38] and to talk about, challenge and debate these topics
to a point where critical mass can be reached [24]. The interactive features that social
media offer, such as continuous updating and message exchange, also foster protest,
as participants can quickly obtain and relay information. These features can then
spark mobilizations and collective actions [12, 37].
2.6 Parasocial Relationships
Parasocial relationships are strong unilateral links between fans and celebrities [19].
Fans who form parasocial relationships with professional athletes tend to “believe
they are part of the athlete’s world” (Earnheardt and Haridakis 2009; [32]). Fans
who identify with the athletes they admire to the point of developing a strong bond
with the athlete are likely to “wish they were more like the athletes and take their
perspective” on matters of high importance [28]. The strength of the fans’ parasocial
relationships with the athletes is also linked to the likelihood that the fans themselves
will forgive the athletes if they commit any ethical transgressions [21].
3 Empirical Component
3.1 Systematic Literature Review
A systematic literature review is an essential part of writing a scientific article. Funda-

mentally, by reviewing the literature considered relevant to the topic in question, it
will be possible to acquire a deeper notion of the scientific advances made in the area,
as well as to identify pertinent components not yet studied within the same theme
[29].
The present systematic literature review was based on the study and process
developed by Yu Xiao and Maria Watson (2019). In this process, certain parameters
are established with the aim of better identifying, segmenting, and extracting the
information considered relevant to the topic at hand.
Yu Xiao and Maria Watson then defined the following criteria for conducting the
systematic literature review:
• Inclusion criteria: In the initial phase of the systematic literature review, only
studies or articles that somehow addressed the topic in question were considered
inclusive in the study. Given the growing popularity of activism today, all articles
that were deemed eligible for this study had to be as current and up to date
as possible. As far as the linguistic and cultural aspects are concerned, in the
linguistic aspect and due to the scarcity of studies related to activism in Portugal
and the reaction of sports fans to it, when it is then demonstrated through the
social platform of a professional athlete, studies written both in English and in
Portuguese were considered.
• Identifying relevant literature: The identification of relevant literature for the
topic of this article was based on a search centered mostly on the keywords of this
study, the search terms entered in the search engine ranged from “ social media”,
“athlete activism”, or even, “fan reaction”. After this research was conducted, the
titles of the articles provided by this research were reviewed, these titles emerged
as determinants regarding the preliminary relevance of these studies, and if the
content addressed the theme of activism, social media, or the reaction to activism,
then it was attached to the database. For the search of these scientific articles, the
search engine used was Google Scholar, one of the best-known search engines
for academic articles in the world.
• Screening For Inclusion: After gathering all articles considered by their title
as possibly relevant to the topic in question, their abstracts were then read to
understand whether the content present in each article or study could in fact be
relevant to the topic. After reading these abstracts, 12 articles were selected to be
read in full as a form of quality control.
• Quality Control: The quality of the 12 selected articles was determined by the
type of document presented, and only scientific articles, journal articles, and books
were analyzed, considering that, in the case of scientific articles, their literature
review contained information that was primarily relevant to the current panorama
of activism and that this same information was supported by authors considered
credible around sports activism.
• Information extraction and analysis: After a deeper reading of each selected
article, the data extraction and analysis attended to the fact that the analyzed
content was related to the 3 aspects that were considered as central to this study.
On the social networks side, all the information that described the usefulness
of social networks for the dissemination of information quickly and effectively
was extracted, as well as their role in creating new communication platforms for
a whole new audience, from the most common individual to the professional athletes
themselves.
As far as activism is concerned, all the information gathered was initially
concerned with any content that could provide a clear definition of what activism is
and how it can be characterized, as well as its importance for the numerous social
and cultural advances made during the past up to the present day. Subsequently, and
knowing that this study focuses on the activist content by professional athletes on
social media, all information on activism by professional athletes was also extracted
and divided into two parts, one part was related to their activism in a more historical
context, the other part was about the state of activism on the part of professional
athletes today.
Finally, all information related to fan reaction to sports activism, the different fan
perspectives on activist content by professional athletes, and fan perceptions of how
appropriate it is for a professional athlete to demonstrate activism on social media
was collected.
3.2 Research Question
In formulating this research question the dynamics of parasocial relationships were

considered, as defined by Horton and Wohl [19].
Considering the obvious scarcity of studies related to the activism of professional

athletes on social networks in Portugal, as well as the academic work on the percep-
tion and the way sports fans react to this activism on social media. The grand objective
of will be to find out how do sports fans in Portugal react to content of an activist
nature from professional athletes on social media. Subsequently, this study that is
about the systematic literature review process would pose the following research
questions:
R.Q.1: What type studies have been conducted around athlete activism on social
media?
4 Data Analysis and Results
The collected data extracted from this literature review process allowed for estab-
lishing the groundworks and basis of knowledge for the theme at hand, this process
allowed for the summarization of the existing body of work around athlete activism
and fan reaction to said activism. Because these reviews are meant to exist as their
own contribution of scholarly knowledge, they should be held to a similar level of
quality and rigor in study design as we would hold other literature [27]. Additionally,
stand-alone literature reviews can serve as valuable overviews of a topic for planning
practitioners looking for evidence to guide their decisions, and therefore their quality
can have very real-world implications [36].
Defining the inclusion criteria for the type of literature that would integrate this
study proved to be a valuable and fundamental part of this process, since it allowed for
an easier filtering of content, as it made the approximation to any literature considered
as relevant easier before any kind of research was initiated. Since the problematic
and research question had already been properly defined, the part of this systematic
literature review process that was related to the identification of the relevant literature
on the topic was made simpler. Having already defined the proper keywords for this
study, these keywords were then used in Google Scholar, the chosen search engine
for this study, and by using these keywords, a whole pool of academic research was
found and later saved to be screened for inclusion in the next step of this process. The
process of screening for inclusion started with the reading of the abstract of all the
articles selected after the previous research phase was concluded. After reading this
initial part of these academic bodies of work, and as a part the quality control for the
content that would be read in full, any academic research that was not directly linked
to activism, social media or fan reaction was excluded since either of these 3 areas
were the most important to analyze for this study. The quality control allowed for a
more detailed screening, since a lot of studies referred to social media but were not
related to activism while some other studies approached the thematic of fan reaction
to celebrities but not professional athletes. Moreover, some other studies would be
centered around fan reaction to professional athletes as a brand and not specifically
as an athlete activist. All these studies were naturally excluded resulting in a total of
12 articles that were selected to be fully read.
After these 12 articles were selected, they were then compiled in a table were we
initially had the titles of the articles, followed by the author who published them and
the year in which they were published as well as the country.
In addition to Table 1, after the articles were fully examined it was time to progress
to the data extraction phase of this systematic literature review process.
This part consisted of a 3-field area separated by the categories of social media,
activism, and fan reaction respectively, after these 3 fields were selected, after the
articles were fully read. If the study provided any pertinent information for the topic
at hand a space would be marked with a checkmark, if the article addressed any of
Table 1 Identifying information of the studies

Title Author Year Country
Social media impact on athlete activism Dirks, Emily 2021 USA
Athlete activism online: an examination Feder, Lillian 2019 USA
of subsequent fan engagement
‘Stick to Soccer:’ fan reaction and Cavalier, Elizabeth S 2018 USA
inclusion rhetoric on social media
Understanding emerging adults’ national Smith, Brent 2019 USA
attachments and their reactions to athlete
activism
Stand up, show respect: athlete activism, Smith, Lauren Reichart 2019 USA
nationalistic attitudes, and emotional
response
Development and initial validation of the Sappington, Ryan 2019 USA
attitudes toward athlete activism
questionnaire
When athlete activism clashes with group Sanderson, Jimmy 2016 USA
values: social identity threat management
via social media
Ativismo digital em Portugal: um estudo Campos, Ricardo 2016 Portugal
exploratório
Activism in the time of COVID-19 Grant, Peter R 2021 USA
Redes Sociais E Mobilizações Públicas. Babo, Isabel 2019 Portugal
O Movimento De “15 De Setembro” Em
Portugal
Athlete activism and corporate social Armstrong, Cole G 2018 USA
responsibility: critical lessons from sport
industry professionals
Separating perceptions of Kaepernick Park, Bumsoo 2020 USA
from perceptions of his protest: an
analysis of athlete activism, endorsed
brand, and media effects
these fields but the information found was not deemed as important or related to the
topic the space would be marked with a cross.
As we can observe in Table 2, the first column refers to social media, and in this
part, the articles that brought relevant literature about social media and the use of
these platforms for activism were marked with a checkmark while the articles that did
not mention social media or only briefly mention social media but don’t really expand
on this thematic were marked in the color red. If an article brought relevant literature
about one specific platform instead of social media in a more general picture, then the
social media platform(s) that that article was centered about was registered, hence
why one of the spaces contains a text saying, “just Facebook”, meaning that this
specific article was centered around Facebook instead of social media in general.
In the activism column, the articles that talked about the general picture of activism
in the present day or the ones who brought relevant literature about the history of
activism were marked with the checkmark, while the articles that briefly mentioned
activism but upon a full examination of the article did not provide a substantial
development on the topic were marked with the cross.
Table 2 3-field area to identify relevant literature regarding social media, activism, and fan reaction
Title Social Media Activism Fan reaction
√ √
Social media impact on athlete activism Cultures
√ √
Athlete activism online: an examination of Cultures
subsequent fan engagement
√ √
‘Stick to Soccer:’ fan reaction and inclusion X
rhetoric on social media
√
Understanding emerging adults’ national X Cultures
attachments and their reactions to athlete activism
√
Stand up, show respect: athlete activism, X Cultures
nationalistic attitudes, and emotional response
√
Development and initial validation of the X Cultures
attitudes toward athlete activism questionnaire
√ √ √
When athlete activism clashes with group values:
social identity threat management via social
media
√
Ativismo digital em Portugal: Um estudo Just Facebook X
exploratório
√ √
Activism in the time of COVID-19 X
√ √
Redes Sociais E Mobilizações Públicas. O X
Movimento De “15 De Setembro” Em Portugal
√
Athlete activism and corporate social X X
responsibility: critical lessons from sport industry
professionals
√ √
Separating perceptions of Kaepernick from X
perceptions of his protest: an analysis of athlete
activism, endorsed brand, and media effects
Finally, in the fan reaction column, the existence of relevant literature surrounding
fan reaction was the only requirement for the articles to be marked with the check-
mark, while the lack of content around this topic in any article was enough for
it to be marked with the cross. Some of the fields are marked with word “cul-
tures”, this happens because after reading the part of the articles where the sample
is exposed and explained, it was concluded that not all articles were considering
different cultures or religions, hence this word, indicating the articles that in their
sample took consideration for a more multicultural sample when arriving to their
empirical components.
The sample of each article was present after this 3-field column, and it was noted
to get a better feel about the kind methodology the authors of these articles were
using.
As we can observe in Table 3, one part was named “sample” and it was dedicated
to knowing and note the different samples that the authors of the examined articles
used to carry out their works.
In this part of the table were registered the number of participants or content that
was chosen as the sample for the methodology of these academic research, afterwards
if the subjects of study were actual participants and not pieces of content, the ages
of these participants would also be noted for further detail around the sample itself.
It is also worth mentioning that during the sample examination, 2 out of the 12
articles, simply presented a literature review but the authors did not carry out any
empirical component in these works.
The final part of Table 3 contained a section called methodology where the goal
was to register if the author ended up using a quantitative or qualitative methodology,
registering between parentheses their selected instrument of investigation.
At this phase it was possible to notice that excluding the 2 articles that did not
contain an empirical component 6 out of 10 of these academic studies carried out
qualitative approach being the interview the most selected investigation instrument
to use this methodology.
5 Conclusion
5.1 Overview
Considering the statements of Kaufmann (2008) there is a shortage of quantitative

studies around the topic of this study. Conducting a systematic literature review
allowed to observe exactly that, since most of the studies conducted about athlete
activism on social media mainly use a qualitative methodology approach. It was
possible to observe that out of the 12 studies reviewed only 3 were using a quantitative
methodology while 6 used the qualitative approach and 2 of the studies did not present
an empirical component.
Table 3 Sample and methodology of the studies

Title Sample Methodology
Social media impact on athlete 20 individuals ages Qualitative (interviews)
activism 23–40 years old
Athlete activism online: an 15 individuals ages Qualitative (interviews)
examination of subsequent fan 18–30 years old
engagement
‘Stick to Soccer:’ fan reaction Comments on facebook and Quantitative (data analysis)
and inclusion rhetoric on social instagram (1243 comments)
media
Understanding emerging 514 survey respondents ages Quantitative (survey)
adults’ national attachments 19 to 22 years old
and their reactions to athlete
Activism
Stand up, show respect: athlete 553 survey respondents ages Quantitative (survey)
activism, nationalistic 18 to 77 years old
attitudes, and emotional
response
Development and initial 713 survey respondents ages Quantitative (survey)
validation of the attitudes 18 to 82 years old
toward athlete activism
questionnaire
When athlete activism clashes 8 posts and 1019 comments Qualitative (content analysis)
with group values: social (Facebook)/455 tweets
identity threat management via (Twitter)
social media
Ativismo digital em Portugal: 6 individuals ages 20 to Qualitative (interviews)
Um estudo exploratório 35 years old
Activism in the time of The authors did not conduct –
COVID-19 an empirical study
Redes Sociais E Mobilizações The authors did not conduct –
Públicas. O Movimento De “15 an empirical study
De Setembro” Em Portugal
Athlete activism and corporate 4 focus groups Qualitative (interviews)
social responsibility: critical
lessons from sport industry
professionals
Separating perceptions of 200 participants Qualitative (action research)
Kaepernick from perceptions
of his protest: an analysis of
athlete activism, endorsed
brand, and media effects
Several factors were taken into consideration before this process, starting with the
definition of the research question, meaning that the whole process will first depend
on the clarification of this one question.
The definition of the inclusion criteria is also of the utmost importance since it was
by establishing these boundaries along with the research question that it was possible
to clearly delineate the studies suitable for this research as well as the keywords that
could be used to reach said studies. The definition of keywords proved to be extremely
useful when used for the next step of the systematic literature review process. By
using these keywords in a reliable academic search engine, the scope of studies and
articles that were found was much larger and relevant to the topic at hand.
The screening for inclusion happened after the identification of relevant literature.
A step that felt both natural but also necessary. With the use of keywords, the sample of
studies to analyze was vast, therefore this screening allowed us to eliminate duplicate
studies and identify the ones that contained relevancy. The full analyses of the articles
allowed for the retrieval of pertinent content and for the identification of credited
authors in the topic that could provide the back up for the information selected in
each study.
5.2 Future Directions
After examining the end results of the systematic literature review process and noting
the lack of studies made about fan reaction to athlete activism on social media it was
visible that the field caresses academic research since the majority were produced
in the United States while those produced in Portugal talk more about activism
activist movements and tools but don’t focus in other relevant aspects of this study,
which are social media and fan reaction to activism, also the Portuguese studies
mention activism but don’t relate it to any type of famous personas, like athletes or
even celebrities, thus making the studies about athlete activism in Portugal rather
inexistent.
Future directions for this work could revolve around the use of a quantitative
methodology using the data collected from this literature review to further expand
the knowledge around the fan reaction of Portuguese sports fans when concerning
the use of activist content by professional athletes on social media.

References
1. Andrews, D. L., Lopes, V. B., Jackson, S. J.: Sport celebrity and performative cultural politics,
in A Companion to Celebrity (2015), p. 421
2. Baumgardner, J., Richards, A.: Manifesta: Young Women, Feminism, and the Future (Farrar,
Strauss, & Giroux, New York, NY, 2000)
3. Bobel, C.: ‘I’m not an activist, though I’ve done a lot of it’: doing activism, being activist and
the ‘perfect standard’ in a contemporary movement. Soc. Mov. Stud. 6(2), 147–159 (2007)
4. Boykoff, J., Carrington, B.: Sporting dissent: Colin Kaepernick, NFL activism, and media
framing contests. Int. Rev. Sociol. Sport 55(7), 829–849 (2020)
5. Bruns, A.: How long is a tweet? Mapping dynamic conversations on Twitter using Gawk and
Gephi. Int. J. Sport Commun. 5, 503–521 (2012)
6. Buford, R.A.: The good and bad of it all: professional black basketball players as role models
for young black male basketball players. Sociol. Sport J. 26, 443–461 (2009)
7. Chung, S., Cho, H.: Fostering parasocial relationships with celebrities on social media:
implications for celebrity endorsement. Psychol. Market. 34(4), 481–495 (2017)
8. Cooper, J. N., Macaulay, C., Rodriguez, S. H.: Race and resistance: a typology of African
American sport activism. Int. Rev. Sociol. Sport 54, 151–181 (2017)
9. De Lemus, S., Stroebe, K.: Achieving social change: a matter of all for none? J. Soc. Issues
71, 441–452 (2015)
10. Diani, M.: The concept of social movement. Sociol. Rev. 40(1), 1–25 (1992)
11. Dirks, E.: Social Media’s Impact on Athlete Activism (2020), p. 4
12. Earl, J., Hurwitz, H. M., Mesinas, A. M., Tolan, M., Ariotti, A.: This protest will be tweeted.
Inf. Commun. Soc. 16, 459–478 (2013)
13. Edwards, H.: The Revolt of the Black Athlete. The Free Press, New York (1969)
14. Ezra, M.: Muhammad Ali: The Making of an Icon. Temple University Press (2009)
15. Feder, L.: Athlete Activism Online: An Examination of Subsequent Fan Engagement (2019)
16. Frederick, E., Sanderson, J., Schlereth, N.: Kick these kids off the team and take away their
scholarships: Facebook and perceptions of athlete activism at the University of Missouri. J.
Issues Intercol. Athletics 10, 17–34 (2017)
17. Gill, E.: “Hands up, don’t shoot or shut up and play ball” Fan-generated media views of the
Ferguson Five. J. Hum. Behav. Soc. Environ. 26(3–4), 400–412 (2016)
18. Hauser, T.: Muhammad Ali: His Life and Times. Open Road Media (2012)
19. Horton, D., Wohl, R.: Mass communication and para-social interaction. Psychiatry 19(3),
215–229 (1956)
20. Kassing, J.W., Sanderson, J.: Playing in the new media game or riding the virtual bench:
confirming and disconfirming membership in the community of sport. J. Sport Soc. Issues 39,
3–18 (2015)
21. Lee, S.H., Simkins, T.J., Luster, S., Chowdhury, S.A.: Forgiving sports celebrities with ethical
transgressions: the role of parasocial relationships, ethical intent and regulatory focus mindset.
J. Glob. Sport Manag. 3(2), 124–145 (2018)
22. Louis, W.R., Amiot, C.E., Thomas, E.F., Blackwood, L.: The ‘activist identity’ and activism
across domains: a multiple identities analysis. J. Soc. Issues 72(2), 242–263 (2016)
23. Marquese, M.: Redemption song: Muhammad Ali and the Spirit of the Sixties. Verso (2015)
24. Marwell, G., Oliver, P.: The Critical Mass in Collective Action: A Micro-Social Theory.
Cambridge University Press, New York, NY (1993)
25. Micó, J.-L., Casero-Ripollés, A.: Political activism online: organization and media relations in
the case of 15M in Spain. Inf. Commun. Soc. 17(7), 858–871 (2013)
26. Miller, F.M., Laczniak, G.R.: The ethics of celebrity-athlete endorsement. J. Advert. Res. 51,
499–510 (2011)
27. Okoli, C., & Schabram, K.: A guide to conducting a systematic literature review of information
systems research, in Sprouts: Working Papers on Information Systems, p. 10 (26) (2010)
28. Pan, P.-L., Zeng, L.: Parasocial interactions with basketball athletes of color in online mediated
sports. Howard J. Commun. 29(2), 192–211 (2018)
29. Paré, G., Trudel, M., Jaana, M., Kitsiou, S.: Synthesizing information systems knowledge: a
typology of literature reviews. Inf. Manag. 52, 183–199 (2015)
30. Pelak, C.F.: Athletes as agents of change: an examination of shifting race relations within
women’s netball in post-apartheid South Africa. Sociol. Sport J. 21, 59–77 (2005)
31. Qazi, H., Shah, S.: Identity constructions through media discourses: Malala Yousafzai in
Pakistani English newspapers. Journalism Stud. 19(11), 1597–1612 (2018)
32. Rubin, A., Perse, E., Powell, R.: Loneliness, parasocial interaction, and local television news
viewing. Hum. Commun. Res. 12, 155–180 (1985)
33. Sanderson, J., Frederick, E., Stocz, M.: When athlete activism clashes with group values: social
identity threat management via social media. Mass Commun. Soc. 19, 301–322 (2016)
34. Savas, Ö., Stewart, A. J.: Alternative pathways to activism: Intersections of social and personal
pasts in the narratives of women’s rights activists. Qual. Psychol. (2018)
35. Svensson, J., Neumayer, C., Banfield-Mumb, A., Schossböck, J.: Identity negotiation in activist
participation. Commun. Cult. Critique 8(1), 144–162 (2015)
36. Templier, M., Paré, G.: A framework for guiding and evaluating literature reviews. Commun.
Assoc. Inf. Syst. 37, Article 6 (2015)
37. Valenzuela, S., Arriagada, A., Scherman, A.: The social media basis of youth protest behavior:
the case of Chile. J. Commun. 62, 299–314 (2012)
38. Willnat, L. W., Wong, W. J., Tamam, E., Aw, A.: Online media and political participation: the
case of Malaysia. Mass Commun. Soc. 16, 557–585 (2013)
39. Yan, G., Pegoraro, A., Watanabe, N.M.: Student-athletes’ organization of activism at the
university of Missouri: resource mobilization on twitter. J. Sport Manag. 32, 24–37 (2018)
The Game of Words Human Creative
Writing Against Computer Assisted
Writing
Joana Fernandes
Abstract Artificial Intelligence (AI) is fully embedded in different domains of our

daily lives. However, the pandemic of 2020 seems to have accelerated and changed
human behavior concerning our relationship with time as well as with language and
communicative processes. Traditionally, we have learned that creative written tasks
need great amounts of time, inspiration, and rewriting. Conversely, speed has become
an important cultural value and computer assisted creative writing enables to accel-
erate the writing process. This paper is part of a preliminary research on the teaching
and learning of creative writing in the post-covid times. It concerns the subject of
Semiotics within the context of undergraduate Business Communication students,
and it aims at studying the possibilities of speed writing and creative writing AI
tools. We will discuss the qualitative results of an experiment in which our students
performed a creative process of producing language elements for a media campaign
(hashtag, a slogan, and a teaser text) to promote a cultural institutional event targeting
a broad audience. Two groups of students were given the same time to produce the
language contents above-mentioned, but they had to follow different writing method-
ologies according to the script. The results obtained reveal interesting perceptions
concerning style, connotation, grammaticality, rewriting and editing effort.
Keywords Human creative writing · Writing skills · Writing assistant · Editing
1 Introduction
Impressions and perceptions caused by the worldwide pandemic will probably be

felt and debated for years to come. Particularly, our relationship with time as well as
with language and communicative processes has considerably changed. Speed has
become an important cultural value and computer assisted tools for creative writing
enable to accelerate the writing process.
J. Fernandes (B)
ISCAP/P.PORTO/CEOS.PP, NOVA|CLUNL, São Mamede de Infesta, Portugal
e-mail: joanaf@iscap.ipp.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_55
626 J. Fernandes
This paper is a preliminary approach engaged in analysing students’ reactions and

performance when carrying out creative writing tasks using their own personal and
group resources and using AI tools as co-creators. Does computer assisted creative
writing enable them to accelerate the writing process? Are there differences in gener-
ating verbal semantic possibilities, writing tasks, and editing tasks? Is it a question
of competing against the machine? Can AI tools be useful co-creators in every stage
of a creative task? Do they actually save a lot of time?
The present study was conducted with first year students attending the subject
of Semiotics and it was undertaken throughout a qualitative approach. It was based
upon a questionnaire addressed to two focus groups of learners, aiming at collecting
and discussing their perceptions about the process of creating a slogan within the
context of an institutional campaign.
2 Creative Writing and Semiotics
In Semiotics, students are expected to understand the fundamental premise that reality
implies representation and signs are not direct substitutes of things. They are invited to
explore different creative writing processes in order to refine their personal voice and
style. As stated by Osborn [1], they are also expected to master prosodic, linguistic,
pragmatic, stylistic and rhetoric devices that shape different creative genres.
More broadly, the practice of creative writing tasks in class involves a detailed
and introspective attitude (searching, generating different possibilities, correcting,
and rewriting), and share think-aloud processes related to their decision-making
process, concerning dimensions of genre, convention, connotation, style and rhetor-
ical purpose. Classically, creative types of speech are fundamentally an imagina-
tive task and linguistic manipulation depends on the individual’s own repertoire to
succeed in using the aesthetic function of language.
Creative writing is an encoding process that implies inspiration, imagination, and
time to handle a set of the transactions between signifying systems and structures of
reference. It implies decisions concerning the use of one signifier rather than another
from the same paradigm. When trying to create something that is expected to be
original and catchy, writers often feel blocked to get started.
As Yaguello [2] explains in Language Though the Looking Glass. Exploring
Language and Linguistics, language is a game and to play the game of words one
has got to be prepared to know the rules and to be brave enough to break them.
Exploring connotation (Barthes [3]) and being able to carry out a paradigmatic anal-
ysis, in Saussurean semiology [4], are two fundamental strategies to apply during
the first stage of a creative process (generating). Connotation is a second order of
signification which uses the denotative sign (signifier and signified) as its signifier
and attaches to it an additional signified. In this framework, connotation is vital
to create the hidden structure of a verbal message, its latent meaning, by omit-
ting, or suggesting. Rather than being obvious it is vital to be bold enough to flout
conventional expectations. On the other hand, it is also part of the process exploring
The Game of Words Human Creative Writing Against Computer … 627
semantic binary oppositions, creating paradigm sets (and discussing what is present
and what is absent), performing syntagmatic operations—addition or deletion—and
paradigmatic operations—substitution and transposition. Creative writing, rewriting
and editing imply all these possibilities.
Paradigmatic analysis, within the classical approach of Saussure’s Course in
General Linguistics, involves comparing, and contrasting signifiers present in each
verbal content with absent signifiers which in similar circumstances might have been
chosen. It also implies considering the significance of the choices made. It can be
applied at any semiotic level, from the choice of a particular word, image or sound
to the level of the choice of style, genre or medium. The analysis of paradigmatic
relations helps define the value of specific items in a given message.
According to Pricken [5], slogans are a very challenging type of text, because
writers are expected to generate a very economic, concise, memorable, powerful,
and catchy statement that is representative of an entity, an object, an organization, or
an idea. Creating a slogan implies, on the one hand, a set of linguistic strategies that
must work together to secure a preferred reading. On the other hand, the openness of
connotative codes may mean that we must admit a range of possible alternatives open
to the audience. A wide range of keywords is fundamental to a slogan-in-progress.
Creative assisted writing can point out new directions that might help alleviate
writer’s block, it can also be useful to produce connotation, syntagmatic and paradig-
matic operations. A writing assistant is a software program that uses artificial intel-
ligence technology to help writers with the creative process. Grammar-checking and
spell-checking are now recognized as very helpful, but is it the same for assisting with
the nuances of the language, and the suggesting of content to spark new ideas? Some
machine generated outputs are certainly ignorable or take a lot of time to be analysed.
However, the purpose of creative assisted writing is to leave writers with editorial
control and the freedom to disregard unwanted or less meaningful suggestions. It is
not a question of competing against the machine or replacing human creativity, by
automating creative writing. Assisted writing can be a means to amplify creativity
by generating suggestions and possibilities. However, writers need time to learn the
best methodologies to benefit and incorporate machine outputs.
3 Methodology
As previously stated, this study is exploratory and based on a qualitative approach.

Qualitative research methods help researchers observe and understand a given
phenomenon by considering perceptions, thoughts, and feelings of the participants.
In this way, focus groups play an important role in qualitative research data collection
[6]. Broadly speaking, a focus group is an in-depth group interview with discussion
on a given topic, led by a moderator to provide useful insights on the research topic.
It encourages the sharing of representations and awareness of participants.
Students that participated in the study were challenged to produce verbal contents
concerning an institutional campaign. The campaign was about the Dia Mundial da
628 J. Fernandes
Table 1 Describing a
Portuguese English
pluricentric language
• Fluxo • Flow
• Lusofonia • Lusophony
• Partilha • Sharing
• Reciprocidade • Reciprocity
• Diversidade • Diversity
• Diáspora • Diaspora
• Multiplicidade • Multiplicity
• Multiculturalidade • Multiculturalism
• Interconectividade • Interconnectivity
• Interdependência • Interdependence
• Ligação • Connectedness
Língua Portuguesa (World Portuguese Language Day), which is celebrated on the 5th
of May. There was an expository moment, concerning the group of countries that have
Portuguese as their official or dominant language and some quantitative facts relevant
to understand the idea of a pluricentric language—the fifth most widely spoken
mother tongue in the world, corresponding to different heritages, cultural references,
and social uses. According to Lourenço [7], a dispersed intangible continent and a
project, a dream and, even, a utopia undertaken (1999, p. 175). Table 1 was given to
both groups in order to help them conceptualise different dimensions of a pluricentric
vision of Portuguese.
Though they were given several written tasks (hashtag, slogan and teaser text)
for the purpose of the study we will focus on the slogan. They were encouraged to
avoid stereotypes and to explore new and catchy possibilities. They were also given
general information about the time they should spend on each different stage of the
creative process. The two groups of students were given the same time to produce
the slogan, but they had to follow different methodologies according to the script of
each group.
Each group had ten students. They were given one hour to (a) create a common
paradigm set about Portuguese as a global language with 20 words; (b) they were
asked to produce 10 slogans (one slogan per group element) and (3) they were
expected to integrate the representations in a final collaborative slogan.
Group 1 was allowed to do online research only during the first stage, in
order to understand the diachronic context of the event and group 2 could use all
sorts of assisted writing tools, such as ProWritingAid (https://prowritingaid.com),
Hemingway Editor (https://hemingwayapp.com) and Textmetrics (https://www.
textmetrics.com), Grammarly (https://www.grammarly.com), and LanguageTool
(https://languagetool.org/pt).
Table 2 Students’ perceptions about the time and level of difficulty of the task
Focus group 1 Focus group 2
1. Which of the stages of the The stage of generating ideas The stage of negotiating
creative process did you find and suggesting corresponding meaning and style and
more challenging and words. rewriting.
time-consuming?
2. Do you enjoy controlling No. Receiving suggestions is Sometimes. Most suggestions
every step concerning a much better. received by the tool must be
creative process? ignored.
3. What type of computer Generating ideas and words and Generating syntagmatic
assisted writing help would revising. structures.
you prefer to have during a
creative process?
4. Do you believe Yes (in most cases). Not always.
suggestions put forward by
the tools save time?
5. Do you think the machine Yes. Revising tasks as much No. Most revising tasks must
outperforms humans as far more accurate if performed by be performed by the human
as spell-check and revising the machine. writer.
tasks?
4 Results
Participants assessed their writing experience by discussing the questions above

stated. Most students enjoyed the task and stressed that being integrated in a large
group was a rich experience (Table 2).
As we can observe, the representations reveal, at the syntagmatic level, a wide
range of syntactic patterns. Group 2 mentioned that they took a lot of time to
improve the semantics of the generated suggestions, because it was not suitable
to the intended meaning. Assisted tools provided a scaffolding model that was
grammatically plausible, but it was often neither coherent nor creative (Table 3).
Overall, both groups, with and without the experience, hesitated at the idea of
using computer-generated suggestions when writing a final product of a creative
text, but they agree on the usefulness of creative tools as writing warm-up. Group 2
even mentioned that the brainstorming process and at the early stages of discussion
and writing it was less stressful, because they felt less intimidated to judge options
generated by a machine then commenting on their group mates’ proposals.
5 Conclusion
Findings here shared are context-dependent, but they reveal interesting perceptions
to consider in broader and future research on this topic. Students had a positive view
of the use of tools to support creative writing, but they are not sure that they save time.
630 J. Fernandes
Table 3 Groups 1 and 2

Some examples
written outputs
• Em Português. Para o Mundo.
• Uma língua. Todos os continentes.
• Língua Mundial com pronúncia local.
• Um por nove e nove por um.
• A nossa língua é uma eterna caravela.
• Português: ligados por um olá.
• Uma língua. Várias comunidades.
• Uma língua. Várias vozes.
• O que a língua portuguesa une ninguém separa.
• Falar Português é viver em viagem.
• Português - a Babel que Deus fez.
• O Português liga. Liga para sempre.
• Por mares separados. Pela língua unidos.
• Ter saudade é ser do português do Mundo.
• O Português é Global.
• Vamos abrir mais o leque desta língua.
• Unidos e diferentes. Em Português.
• Português: Voz do Mundo.
• Uma língua. Tantas culturas.
• Fala Português. Com todas as cores.
Participants of both groups found the processes of collaborative work very helpful,
whether it was supported by tools or carried out on their own. Despite the different
natures of the two experiences, both groups believed that machine suggestions do not
necessarily lead to more creative or better written artifacts (Earnshaw [8]). Slogan
writing is a highly iterative process. It is expected that you produce several alternatives
until a final version is decided upon.
To conclude, the results obtained reveal interesting perceptions concerning style,
connotation, grammaticality, rewriting and editing effort. As previously described,
the two focus groups interviewed helped unveil different views on the creative tasks,
as the participants shared diverse judgements on the topic. Further research is required
to understand which variables do seem to influence the quality of interaction with
the writing assisted tools.
Acknowledgement This work is financed by Portuguese national funds through FCT—Fundação

References
1. Osborn, A.: Applied Imagination-Principles and Procedures of Creative Writing. Read Books
Ltd., S.L. (2013)
2. Yaguello, M.: Language Through the Looking Glass: Exploring Language and Linguistics.
Oxford University Press on Demand (1998)
3. Barthes, R.: Éléments de sémiologie. Communications 4(1), 91–135 (1964)
4. De Saussure, F.: Cours de linguistique générale (Vol. 1). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag (1989)
5. Pricken, M.: Creative Advertising: Ideas and Techniques from the World’s Best Campaigns.
Thames, New York (2008)
6. Collins, J. W., O’Brien, N. P.: The Greenwood Dictionary of Education. ABC-CLIO (2011)
7. Lourenço, E.: A Nau de Ícaro seguido de imagem e miragem de lusofonia. Gradiva, Lisboa
(1999)
8. Earnshaw, S.: (Ed.). Handbook of Creative Writing. Edinburgh University Press (2019)
Introduction to Spatial Data
Infrastructures and Web Services. The
WMS Display Service
and the Geographical Information
Metadata
José Manuel Naranjo Gómez , Rui Alexandre Castanho ,

and Daniel Meyer
Abstract Nowadays, most of our information and data for consequent treatment
comes from Spatial Data Infrastructures and web services. Also, much of the research
developed serves to feed those spatial data infrastructures as well as several web
services and vice-versa. In this regard, it becomes essential to understand the basic
concepts of some of the involved Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and their
tools, as is the case of the World Map Services (WMS) and the metadata. This work
will briefly explain those concepts and use the open-source GIS software Quantum
GIS to exemplify a practical use of such tools.
Keywords Geographic information systems · Metadata · Spatial data

infrastructures · World map service
1 Introduction
Bearing in mind the World Map Service (WMS) concept, we understand that it is
a standard for publishing cartography on the Internet. Moreover, the specifications
are contained in the OGC (Open Geospatial Consortium) [1]. The Open Geospatial
J. M. N. Gómez
Agricultural School, University of Extremadura, 06007 Badajoz, Spain
e-mail: jnaranjo@unex.es
J. M. N. Gómez · R. A. Castanho (B)
VALORIZA - Research Centre for Endogenous Resource Valorization, Polytechnic Institute of
Portalegre (IPP), 7300 Portalegre, Portugal
e-mail: acastanho@wsb.edu.pl
R. A. Castanho
Faculty of Applied Sciences, WSB University, 41-300 D˛abrowa Górnicza, Poland
R. A. Castanho · D. Meyer
College of Business and Economics, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, Johannesburg,
South Africa
e-mail: dfmeyer@uj.ac.za
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_56
634 J. M. N. Gómez et al.
Consortium is an international organization with more than 300 commercial, govern-

ment, nonprofit, and research organizations worldwide [2, 3]. Its members develop
and apply standards for the content of geospatial services and exchange GIS data
processing services [4–6]. In fact, regarding the description of a primary data model
for geographic features, many specifications have been developed to meet the specific
needs for location and interoperability of spatial technology, including Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) [7–9].
Necessary specifications of the OGC are: (i) WMS-Web Map Service; (ii) WFS-
Web Feature Service; (iii) WCS-Web Coverage Service; (iv) CAT-Web Catalog
Service; (v) SFS-Simple Features for SQL; and (vi) GML-Geography Markup
Language. In this regard, OGC services are increasingly used to exchange geospatial
data between different GIS implementations and data warehouses. The Open Source
Software Quantum GIS (QGIS) can now deal with three of the above specifications,
SFS, WFS, and WMS as a client.
The paper is structured as it is indicated. In the following Sect. 2, the authors
present the short literature review and theoretical framework used for the study. In
Sect. 3, a practical approach, using the exposed GIS tools is shown. Finally, we
conclude this chapter with the conclusions.
2 A Brief Overview of the Concepts Application in QGIS
2.1 WMS Client
QGIS can currently act as a WMS client that understands WMS 1.1., 1.1.1. and servers
1.3. in particular, it has been tested with public access servers such as DEMIS and
OnEarthJPL. WMS Servers act on client requests (for example, QGIS) to view a
raster map with a given extent, layer set, symbolization style, and transparency. The
WMS server will then query its local data sources, rasterize the map, and send it
back to the client in a raster format.
For QGIS, this would typically be JPEG or PNG. WMS is generically a REST
(Representational State Transfer) rather than a complete Web service. Thereby, the
user can copy the QGIS-generated URL and use it in a web browser to retrieve the
same images that QGIS uses internally. This can be useful for troubleshooting as
there are various brands of WMS servers on the market, and they all have their own
interpretation of the WMS standard.
WMS layers can be added straightforwardly while knowing the URL to access
the WMS server as long as the user has a valuable connection to that server and the
HTTP server understands the data transport mechanism.
Introduction to Spatial Data Infrastructures and Web Services … 635
Table 1 Description of configuration elements for a WMS connection

Name Define a name for this connection. This name is used in the server connections
drop-down box for which it differentiates them from other WMS Servers
URL URL of the server providing the data. This must be a resolvable string, the same
format that would be used to open a page on the internet
Username Username to access a WMS with access restrictions
Password Password to authenticate to access the WMS server
2.2 Selection of WMS Servers
The first time the user uses the WMS function (in QGIS), no servers are defined. The
user can start by clicking the button inside the toolbar through the menu. The Add
Layer(s) from a server dialog box for adding WMS server layers appears. To define
a new WMS server in Layers, select New. Next, enter the parameters to connect to
the desired WMS server (Table 1). In fact, it is a service and not a web page. It must
be used from a browser that supports this service.
2.3 Definition of the Cartographic Projection System (SRC)
In our case, we must use the ETRS89 reference system and zone 29. Remember that to
use this coordinate reference system, in the “Project/SRC Properties” window, write
the number 25829 in the “Filter” line, which corresponds to the EPSG code of this
SRC. Later, in the “World coordinate reference systems” section, we must click on
“ETRS89/UTM zone 29N”. Since Regional Reference Frame Sub- Commission for
Europe (EUREF), the sub-commission of the International Association of Geodesy
(IAG), has developed specific guidelines through which European countries ask for
validation of their national ETRS89 densification campaigns, such as Spain. Besides,
ETRS89 is the official [10]. In addition, ETRS89 is the official geodetic reference
system in Spain according to Royal Decree 1071/2007 of 27 July. As for zone 29,
since the study area is in this zone.
2.4 Metadata
The origin of the word metadata: Meta comes from Greek and means between,
with, after, or change. However, the term data comes from the Latin datum and means
data.
Therefore, metadata is data about data, that is, data that helps identify, describe,
and locate digital resources. Metadata is also structured information that describes
and allows us to find, manage, control, and understand or preserve other information
over time [10–15]. Therefore, metadata is the data of the data. There is even the
recurring phrase that data without dating is not data. An example, if we have a CD
where we have recorded a specific type of music, and we have not put the title of the
songs or the artist who performs them, we will not know what music is recorded on
that CD unless we play it.
To see the metadata of QGIS information layers, click on the layer’s name and
select Properties in the pop-up menu. In QGIS, we can also perform this operation
by going to the menu Layer and then Properties.
As an example, if we add the information from the Atlas of the Landscapes of
Spain, in that case, the following information appears in our image.
3 A Practical Application
There are different ways to obtain the links to various data infrastructures that allow
us to connect to a WMS. In this case, from the link offered by the Government of
Spain and specifically the Ministry of Transport, Mobility, and Urban Agenda, we
will be able to access a directory of WMS web services, both Spanish state and
regional, local, and neighboring countries. In total, it offers 2292 services.
In the case of neighboring countries, it offers services from Portugal, France, and
Andorra. Specifically, you can access the 29 services available for Portugal, where
Corine Land Cover (IGP) is found, which refers to land uses by the Portuguese
Geographic Institute (IGP). In this regard, specifically, the assigned URL address is
http://mapas.igeo.pt/wms/clc.
It was decided to use Quantum GIS 3.0.0 since it is open and completely free
software regarding the software used. Likewise, considering that WMS connections
are also free, the practical application carried out can be replicated.
Once the URL address to connect to the WMS service is located. A new connection
was generated starting with QuantumGIS 3.0.0. In this way, the command that allows
a WMS connection is accessed, and in the window that emerges, the name of the
connection is written in this case, ‘Corine Land Cover (IGP)’ and also, in the URL
‘http:// maps.igeo.pt/wms/clc’ (Fig. 1).
It is imperative to write the URL address correctly. Otherwise, the connection to
the WMS would not take place. From the connection made to the WMS, we can
consult the information hosted on the server. In this case, the land uses are offered
by the IGP. To achieve this, we must access the data source manager. Then, we must
specifically select ’WMS’ as the data source to add information from a WMS. Once
we access the corresponding window, the available WMS connection immediately
appears in the window that pops up at the top. Obviously, in our case, ‘Corine Land
Cover (IGP).’
However, the information available in that WMS does not appear since the connect
button must be clicked. Although we have established the connection previously, it
does not connect unless the user decides to join. Among other reasons, we can have
several WMS connections and possibly also because an established WMS connection
Fig. 1 Popup screen to

create a WMS connection
that loads the information could slow down the operation of the software. After
carrying out the previous steps we will be able to see all the information that we have
accessible in that WMS and specifically associated with the URL address that we
had previously entered.
In this case, it can be seen (Fig. 2) that there are three layers of information supplied
whose names are CLC06_PT, CLC00_PT, and CHA06_PT. In addition, we can see
the respective title for each of them: 1. Corine Land Cover, CORINE Land Cover
2006 map of Continental Portugal (CLC06_PT), 2. Revised CORINE Land Cover
2000 map of continental Portugal (CLC00_PT), 3. CORINE Land Cover Changes
2000-2006 map of Continental Portugal (CHA06_PT). Even in the leftmost column,
there is a brief description in the summary mode of each of the layers.
Following, just below (Fig. 2), appears the extension of the image file in which we
want to visualize each of the layers. Available formats are PNG, PNG8, JPEG, GIF,
TIFF, and SVG. In this case, land uses in mainland Portugal in 2006 were displayed
in PNG format. For this reason, the layer named ‘CLC06_PT’ was selected and added
as a layer in the Quantum GIS 3.0.0 graphics space.
It must be taken into account that the loading of graphic information is done
through raster information and that, in some cases, it can take some considerable
time since it depends, among other factors, primarily on the connection speed that
we have. Also, it may depend on the server’s reliability and technical features where
the information is hosted (Fig. 3).
Fig. 2 Data source administrator screen—WMS corresponding to land uses in Continental Portugal
Fig. 3 Land uses in mainland Portugal in 2006

Interestingly, although the information represented corresponds to a vector model

since the land uses are represented employing the Corine Land Cover (CLC) clas-
sification using polygons, the data is represented using a raster model. As we saw
previously, the information is displayed in concrete terms (in PNG format). This fact
is due to the essence of the WMS that represents the information as an image.
From the connection made, more layers of information could be added. However,
to show the possibility of adding information layers from another WMS, it was
decided to add a layer corresponding to Spain hosted on another server.
The official Cartographic Reference System (CRS) adopted in Spain corre-
sponding to the European Terrestrial Reference System 1989 (ETRS89) was initially
configured. In addition, it was decided to use zone 29 since it covered most of the
territory represented. In this case, it corresponds to the entire Iberian Peninsula. As
a consequence, in QuantumGIS 3.0.0. The one corresponding to the code European
Petroleum Survey Group (EPSG) 25829, corresponding to the SRC ETRS89 spindle
29, was selected as SRC.
We repeat the same procedure as the one used to add the land uses of Continental
Portugal in 2006. In this case, add a new layer of information corresponding to Spain.
To achieve this, we go to the website again and the spatial data infrastructures (IDEE),
but State, corresponding to Spain. Specifically, the ‘National Landscape Inventory’
supplied by the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Food and Environment
(MAPAMA) will be added as a new layer of information.
Again, in Quantum GIS 3.0.0. THE corresponding window to create a new WMS
connection was re-accessed. But in this case, the name ‘Biodiversity-Ecosystems-
National Landscape Inventory’ was written, and the provided URL was written,
‘http://wms.magrama.es/sig/Biodiversidad/Paisaje/wms.aspx.’
Once the connection is made, you access the data source manager and the WMS
section. In this case, two WMS now appear, the one used for the land uses of Portugal,
but I have also created more recently corresponding to the Atlas of Landscapes of
Spain. However, in our case and at this degree of progress in carrying out the practical
case, the WMS corresponding to the ‘Biodiversity-Ecosystems-National Landscape
Inventory’ was selected (Fig. 4).
In this regard, it could be seen that there was only one layer whose name was
‘LC.LandCoverSurface’ and whose title was ‘Atlas de los Paisajes de España.’
Regarding the summary, it appears that it was the Web Map Service according to
the INSPIRE profile of ISO 19128-WMS 1.3.0. Atlas of the Landscapes of Spain
allowed the visualization and consultation of the information of the different Spanish
landscapes.
Finally, as in the representative land uses for continental Portugal in 2006, this
information layer is also added in PNG format (Fig. 5). Consequently, it appears in
the graphical part of Quantum GIS 3.0.0. the two layers of information. As before,
curiously, this layer corresponding to the landscapes of Spain also represents vectorial
information through polygons. However, the data is represented by a raster model
through an image. Likewise, it can be seen in Fig. 5 that the fit or matching of the
two information layers is perfect in the SRC used. In this regard, it must be taken
Fig. 4 Data source administrator screen—WMS corresponding to the atlas of the landscapes of
Spain
Fig. 5 Data source administrator screen—WMS corresponding to the atlas of the landscapes of
Spain
into account that if the source information of some of the layers were not correct,
this perfect fit would not occur since the transformation made from the source CRS
to the one used would be wrong.
4 Conclusions
The information that we can find on the Internet grows day by day. Even the
geographic data that can be used in a GIS. Even using free software, as has been done
in this work, information can be displayed that can be of great value in different tasks.
In fact, the data used and the software used are free and could be used to replicate
the work that has been done.
Nevertheless, there are also certain disadvantages. Among them, they highlight
that when graphic information is loaded from a WMS, we depend on our software
and external elements. In other words, we rely on the server where the data we want
to obtain is hosted.
In this regard, we can find two main difficulties on some occasions. In the first
place, the information is not of adequate quality. Second, the technical features of
the server are not sufficient.
In the first case, it seems advisable to always use servers from official institutions
that can provide information more reliably than other servers. In fact, not only data
corresponding to the reality they represent but also the technical knowledge they
have. Thus, if they are not in a proper CRS, the matching with other layers would
occur incorrectly. Regarding the second inconvenience, if the server does not have
sufficient technical quality, it can cause a slowdown in the loading of information
in our GIS. It could even slow down access to data if different users want to access
the same information hosted on the same server simultaneously. Consequently, the
management of this information would not be agile, and in some cases, it would not
be helpful.
The future line of research consists of providing information through a WMS
and performing the reverse process. In the first place, the cartography would be
generated with a specific symbology, using several layers of information. Second,
each country’s official Cartographic Reference System (CRS) would be selected, and
if there were several countries, a valid CRS would be used for all countries. Later, by
using QuantumGIS 3.10. and the QGIS Server tool would offer the WMS service.
References
1. Gómez, J.M.N., Vulevic, A., Couto, G., Castanho, R.A.: Accessibility in European periph-
eral territories: analyzing the Portuguese mainland connectivity patterns from 1985 to 2020.
Infrastructures 6(6), 92 (2021)
2. Castronova, A.M., Goodall, J.L., Elag, M.M.: Models as web services using the open geospatial
consortium (OGC) web processing service (WPS) standard. Environ. Model. Softw. 41, 72–83
(2013)
3. Khattar, R., Ames, D.P.: A web services based water data sharing approach using open
geospatial consortium standards. Open Water J. 6(1), 2 (2020)
4. Bulatović, V., Ninkov, T., Sušić, Z.: Open geospatial consortium web services in complex
distribution systems. Geodetski list 64(1), 13–29 (2010)
5. Miao, L., Liu, C., Fan, L., Kwan, M.-P.: An OGC web service geospatial data semantic similarity
model for improving geospatial service discovery. Open Geosci. 13(1), 245–261 (2021)
6. Naghavi, M., Alesheikh, A.A., Hakimpour, F., Vahidnia, M.H., Vafaeinejad, A.: VGI-based
spatial data infrastructure for land administration. Land Use Policy 114, 105969 (2022)
7. Ariza-López, F. J., Rodríguez-Pascual, A., Lopez-Pellicer, F. J., Vilches-Blázquez, L. M., Villar-
Iglesias, A., Masó, J., González-Yanes, A., et al.: An analysis of existing production frameworks
for statistical and geographic information: synergies, gaps and integration. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-
Inf. 10(6), 374 (2021)
8. Núñez-Andrés, M. A., Lantada Zarzosa, N., Martínez-Llario, J.: Spatial data infrastructure
(SDI) for inventory rockfalls with fragmentation information. Nat. Hazards 1–24 (2022)
9. Han, S., Han, J.: Case study on an integrated interoperable metadata model for geoscience
information resources. Geosci. Data J. (2022)
10. Bruyninx, C., Altamimi, Z., Brockmann, E., Caporali, A., Dach, R., Dousa, J., Ihde, J.: Imple-
mentation of the ETRS89 in Europe: current status and challenges REFAG 2014, pp. 135–145
Springer (2015)
11. Goodchild, M. F.: Metadata on Spatial Data Quality (2010)
12. Note, M.: Metadata and Information Management (2011)
13. Tyagi, S.: The Concept of Metadata for Digital Information Resources with Special Reference
to Dublin Core (DC) (2013)
14. Bishop, W., & Grubesic, T. H.: Metadata Geographic Information: Organization, Access, and
Use, pp. 79–103 (2016)
15. Simmons, S.: Metadata and Spatial Data Infrastructure (2018)
The Transition of Television
Entertainment Considering
the Application of Streaming
Platforms—Systematic Review
Ana Paula Camarinha, António Abreu , and Bárbara Ribeiro
Abstract Boosted by the fast evolution of digital technology, streaming platforms

emerged as a mean of distribution that began to play an important role in the tele-
vision industry. TV stations, considering the popularity of digital platforms, began
distributing their content online, starting a digital transition in a traditional medium.
This dissertation aims to analyze the application of streaming platforms, under-
standing their impact as a digital innovation in television entertainment, through the
method of systematic literature review. To ensure methodological rigor, this system-
atic literature review follows the PRISMA guidelines (Preferred Reporting Items
for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses). The results suggest that the impact
of streaming platforms as a digital innovation in television entertainment has two
levels, its impact on the audience, which is reflected in a positive audience adhesion
to the platforms, resulting in a generation that prefers to watch television content
on streaming platforms and finally, its impact in the context of television stations,
marked by changes in production, distribution, technology, and business models of
television stations.
Keywords Digital · Streaming platforms · Television · Entertainment ·

Transition · Systematic review
A. P. Camarinha · A. Abreu (B)

CEOS.PP, IPolytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: aabreu@iscap.ipp.pt
A. P. Camarinha
e-mail: apteixeira@iscap.ipp.pt
B. Ribeiro
Porto Accounting and Business School, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_57
644 A. P. Camarinha et al.
1 Introduction
The last decade was marked by digital technology progress, a result of the creation of
digital infrastructures, computers, mobile devices and the expansion of the broadband
network [1]. All this technology is the basis of digital innovation, seen as a process
that allows the development of new products and services, new business processes
and new digital business models [2, 3].
As it is stated by de Bem Machado et al. [4], “Communication is an important tool
in the transformation process that occurs between data, information and knowledge
that generates innovation in society” (p. 7) and so as a response to digital and socio-
cultural innovation, influenced by the change in the consumer behavior, streaming
was born [5], a new form of digital distribution, which evolved through multiple
technological creations of different companies, whose main purpose was to guar-
antee innovative responses to its consumers, corresponding to the advances of the
respective competitors. This technology has been causing major changes in different
areas, with its main impact being in the media industry, since this is the area that has
benefited the most from streaming as a business [6].
The rapid evolution of digital technology, and in particular, streaming and internet
commercialization, has influenced the way entertainment content is transmitted [7],
pressuring its main distributor, the television industry, to evolve into a new market,
the distribution of content through Internet-dependent platforms [8].
It is in this context that this research work intends to analyze the application of
streaming platforms, understanding their impact as a digital innovation in television
entertainment, through the method of systematic literature review, answering the
following research question: (i) What is the impact of streaming platforms as a digital
innovation in television entertainment?. The main research question being divided
into three complementary questions: (ii) What is the role of streaming platforms as a
digital innovation in television entertainment?, (iii) What is the impact of streaming
platforms on the audience? and (iv) What is the impact of streaming platforms in the
context of television stations?.
The present paper is structured in five sections. After the introduction, a brief
description of the theoretical background, followed by Sect. 3 with the research
methodology used and Sect. 4 presenting analysis and discussion of the results.
Finally, we close the paper with conclusions and future work in Sect. 5.
2 Theoretical Background
2.1 Digital Innovation
The impact of digitalization and digital technology was guaranteed by the improve-
ment in the production of services and products in terms of the relationship between
price and performance and the relationship between performance and size of digital
The Transition of Television Entertainment Considering … 645
infrastructures (e.g., computers, connection of broadband networks and mobile

devices) [8, 9]. Since these digital products are easy to use, as they present a greater
range of functionalities than non-digital products and also, as they are editable and
reprogrammable [10], they caused and accelerated the emergence of new technolo-
gies worldwide [1], directing us to the development of the digital revolution, which
challenged the concept of innovation, giving a new direction to its process, emerging
the concept of digital innovation [11]. Thus, digital has come to dominate changes
in the infrastructures of various industries and markets [11, 12].
As a result of the digital innovation process, organizations can understand digital
innovation as a way to develop new products and services, new business processes
and even new digital business models [2, 3].
As stated by Jahanmir and Cavadas [13], digital technology is linked to permanent
changes, which quickly turn existing innovations into outdated innovations.
In addition to technological evolution, there is market competition, as organiza-
tions aim to ensure profit, achieving their business goals, through digital technologies
[13]. In this sense, according to Nylén and Holmström [12], an organization must
be able to identify new opportunities for innovation, realizing how it can play an
important and permanent role as a participant in digital innovation, keeping up to
date with technological innovations, analyzing the progress of digital technology and
some of its standards, this being the process of digital evolution scanning.
2.2 Streaming Platforms
Streaming as a form of digital distribution has been causing major changes in different
areas, such as education, the media and the business world [6].
Spilker and Colbjørnsen [14] present streaming as “the transmission and retrieval
of digital content that is stored and processed on a server”, as opposed to what occurs
when a download is performed since “the content is only temporarily retained on
the server cache, it is not permanently stored on the hard disk of the user’s device”
(p. 1212).
Streaming is a means of guaranteeing live or on-demand content (the possi-
bility to choose what the viewer wants, at any time) via the Internet, anywhere and
without mandatory download [5]. The form of distribution via streaming reconciles
the immediate transmission of television with the interactivity of the Internet [6].
Burroughs [5] presents streaming as a sociocultural process that has evolved with
the adaptation of the audience, institutions and the media industry to technological
innovation.
According to Spilker and Colbjørnsen [14], the influence of streaming on the
evolution of the media industry is remarkable, which has changed its way of sharing
content, according to the development of digital technology. The authors present
radio as the first media industry to feel streaming’s impact with the emergence of
the Internet, between the 90 s and 2000s. Currently, streaming is focused on a type
of content that includes video and audio, linked to the music, television and film
industry, the main beneficiaries of this format. In this context, YouTube, Netflix and
Spotify are leading companies [14].
2.3 Public and Private Television
In the television industry, private television, which “assumes a commercial aspect

aimed at a higher audience rate that captivates advertisers”, differs from public
television, which has regulated public service obligations [14, p. 1].
2.4 Television in the Digital Age
In order to understand the connection between media and innovation, Storsul and
Krumsvik [15] define the main influences on media innovations, (1) technology, (2)
market opportunities and consumer behavior, (3) competitors behavior, (4) regula-
tion, (5) industry standards, (6) company strategies, (7) leadership and vision, (8)
organizational structure, (9) capacity and resources and (10) organizational culture
and creativity.
Lotz [16] presents the Post-Networks Era concept, defining it as the end of linear
television that is, broadcasting at a certain time and on a certain channel. In the
Post-Networks Era, viewers are now allowed to watch on-demand, through different
digital devices. Based on five different features, choice, control, convenience,
personalization and community.
As stated by Aliloupour [7], the “rapid technological innovations over the past
ten years have disrupted entertainment distribution in a way that has been unprece-
dented” (p. 4) and as a consequence of this phenomenon, the television industry has
evolved into a new market for entertainment. content distribution, benefiting from
the popularity of the use of the Internet and the diversification of multimedia devices,
changed its strategy towards a multiplatform strategy, that is, the offer of its content
in several points of sale, adapting it to the different offer forms.
3 Methodology
The present study is guided by the qualitative paradigm [17] and developed through
the systematic literature review method, which according to Petticrew and Roberts
[18], aims to decode large contents of information, to answer a question or several
specific questions.
The choice of systematic literature review method was motivated by the existence
of previous research on the topic [18] and so, the need to summarize the existing
evidence [19].
In order to ensure the rigor and clarity of the systematic review, the guidelines
of the PRISMA framework (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and
Meta-Analyses) were followed and adapted [20].
3.1 Research Strategy
The research question focuses on the analysis of the application of streaming plat-
forms, understanding their impact as a digital innovation in television entertainment:
(i) What is the impact of streaming platforms as a digital innovation in television
entertainment?, the main research question is divided into three complementary ques-
tions: (ii) What is the role of streaming platforms as a digital innovation in television
entertainment?, (iii) What is the impact of streaming platforms on the audience? and
(iv) What is the impact of streaming platforms in the context of television stations?.
The main research question was applied in the SPIDER (Sample, Phenomenon
of Interest, Design, Evaluation and Research type) research strategy [21] (Table 1).
Search terms were identified and defined, through the SPIDER components, using
Boolean operators (“AND”, “OR” and “NOT”) [22].
The application of the strategy resulted in the following set of keywords: “stream-
ing” OR “streaming platforms” AND “television entertainment” OR “network” AND
“digital innovation” AND “distribution” AND “broadcast”, a set used in the literature
search in all chosen electronic databases.
The literature search was carried out between the 13th and 15th of April 2021,
through the electronic databases Google Scholar, ResearchGate and ScienceDirect,
to which the same combination of keywords mentioned above were applied. From
this research, 837 results were obtained.
The chosen literature was limited through eligibility, inclusion, and exclusion
criteria. Inclusion criteria were (1) language in Portuguese and English, (2) year of
publication between 2000 and 2021 and (3) areas of digital technology, multimedia,
audiovisual and communication. Having as an exclusion criteria, any literature that
did not addressed the relationship between the television theme and streaming, as is
Table 1 Application of the SPIDER strategy in present research question

SPIDER Elements of the research question
Sample Streaming, Streaming Platforms, Entertainment, Television
Entertainment
Phenomenon of Interest Application of streaming platforms in television entertainment
Design All types of literature
Evaluation Role, distribution, transmission, influence, impact, evolution,
characteristics, application and experiences
Research type Qualitative
the case of studies related to streaming in the area of music and gaming and also,
literature exclusively dedicated to the informative and sports television genres.
3.2 Procedure
The selection process of this study was managed sequentially, following the flowchart
proposed by PRISMA and the established eligibility criteria were respected, based
on the title, abstract and full text of the literature [20].
In this process, the following steps were estimated: (1) identification of literature
through databases, (2) elimination of duplicate literature through Zotero software,
(3) selection of literature based on title and abstract and (4) full reading literature, in
order to understand their eligibility and respective selection.
Data extraction was performed after a new full reading of the selected documents,
identifying, and categorizing the contents relevant to the study, with the support
qualitative data analysis software webQDA.
4 Analysis and Discussion of Results
Initially the search resulted in 837 documents. After eliminating 18 duplicate docu-
ments, there were 819 results for further analysis of the title and abstract. From this
third phase of analysis, 738 were excluded, resulting in 81 documents for full text
reading.
After reading in full, 58 documents were rejected, thus bringing the number of
documents to be included in the systematic literature review to 23.
The reasons for excluding the final documents were (1) no access to 11 docu-
ments, (2) a document presented in a language other than Portuguese and English,
(3) 17 documents had no connection between streaming and television themes (e.g.,
business models alteration or digital innovation impact in general), (4) 10 documents
referred to streaming without connection to the television theme, (5) 12 documents
referred to television without connection to the streaming theme and (6) existence
of a connection between streaming and television, outside the entertainment context
(e.g., exclusively dedicated to news and sports) in seven documents.
4.1 Descriptive Analysis
Analyzing the publications resulting from the research, focused on the period between
2000 and 2021, a greater number of publications in the year 2020 stands out, more
precisely six results. Followed by the year 2018, with a total of five publications.
The years 2008, 2010, 2016, 2017 and 2019 do not show any results. The remaining
years range from two to one publication.
Regarding the origin of publications, the results come from the USA (8), UK
(7), Brazil (2), Spain (2), Denmark (1), Italy (1), Norway (1) and Thailand (1).
Demonstrating the USA as the country with the most sources in this study area.
Considering the type of publication of the results, the following are presented:
article in a scientific journal (8), doctoral thesis (5), book (4), master’s dissertation
(3), conference article (1), book chapter (1) and report (1).
Considering the purposes of the analyzed studies and their respective areas, four
areas are associated with publications, media (18), advertising (2), digital innovation
(1) and technological innovation (2). As for the study purposes, they focus on the
analysis of the adaptation of television both in the public service television and in the
private television to digital platforms, with a focus on streaming platforms, consid-
ering their motivations, problems, solutions and results, in business and consumer
perspective. In some publications, the analysis is developed based on the study of
practical cases (e.g., BBC iPlayer and YouTube).
4.2 Interpretive Analysis
Dimension of the studies. The webQDA software allowed us to conclude that the
23 publications analyzed are divided into two dimensions, the dimension of public
service television and the dimension of private television.
Of the 23 publications, 15 are dedicated to the private dimension and eight to the
public service dimension, demonstrating a greater academic interest in the private
aspect of the study area.
The impact of streaming platforms on television entertainment. The results
supported by webQDA demonstrate that the impact of streaming platforms on tele-
vision entertainment is reflected at two levels: its impact on the television audience
and its impact on the context of television stations.
According to the results obtained, it is clear that the application of streaming
platforms as an innovation strategy was used by television stations in order to keep
up to date and in a strong competitive position in the television market [23–25], such
need is defended by Jahanmir and Cavadas [13], since digital technology is linked
to permanent changes, which quickly make existing innovations out of date.
Observing the main influences on media innovations, presented by Storsul
and Krumsvik [15], being them (1) technology, (2) market opportunities and
consumer behavior, (3) competitors behavior, (4) regulation, (5) industry standards,
(6) company strategies, (7) leadership and vision, (8) organizational structure, (9)
capacity and resources and (10) organizational culture and creativity, the results allow
to conclude the presence of 5 of the 10 influences in the role of the introduction of
streaming platforms in the television context. Starting with (1) technology, innovation
generates technology, presenting the case of the introduction of streaming platforms,
which motivated the media to innovate to respond to technological advances, which
gave them new opportunities and the creation of new services, (2) market opportuni-
ties and consumer behavior, given the introduction of platforms as an opportunity to
respond to the changing consumer behavior, (3) competitors behavior, the increase in
the application of streaming platforms in the television context as a way of responding
to the same pace as some market competitors, (6) company strategies, referring to
the organizations’ approach to innovation, the introduction of streaming platforms
reflects the openness to the application of innovation by media organizations. And,
finally, the importance of, (9) capacity and resources, which influence the innovation
capacity of organizations, whether in editing, production or distribution, proven in
the problem found regarding the additional investment in resources, considered an
obstacle [26, 27]. In this study, the presence of the remaining influences on media
innovations were not found, being (4) regulation, (5) industry standards, (7) lead-
ership and vision, (8) organizational structure and (10) organizational culture and
creativity.
Considering the impact of streaming platforms on the audience, through this study,
a positive adherence to the platforms was confirmed [24, 28]. Audiences today “take
it for granted that they will be able to access programming anytime, anywhere and
on any device” [24, p. 11], being more attracted to watch television content on
digital platforms, replacing physical television [28], characteristics linked to the
Post-Networks Era of Lotz [16].
The popularity of streaming platforms is also reflected in the emergence of a
new generation that does not benefit from pay-tv signal distribution services [29],
demonstrated in the decrease in the use of pay-tv signal distribution services, replaced
by VOD such as Netflix [30–33].
A transformation of the audience’s perspective of streaming platforms stands out,
platforms are no longer a means for the audience to keep up to date with television
content, becoming an initial destination for entertainment [28].
As a result of the Covid-19 pandemic, there was an increase of leisure time during
confinement, which was reflected in an increase in the use of VOD services [34].
Looking at the impact of streaming platforms in the context of television stations,
the introduction of these platforms is a phenomenon of digital transition, marked by
the impact on production, distribution, technology, business models and audience
behavior [24].
The study allowed us to conclude that the phenomenon of the application of
streaming platforms in the context of television entertainment was marked by prob-
lems such as the lack of strategic solutions aimed at preparing and responding to
changes in media innovation technology [30], rivalry between private and public
media [35], skepticism and internal concern in television stations, technical diffi-
culties in the application of the platforms, changes in the television business model
[24], additional investment in resources [26, 27], as well as difficulty for non-English
speaking television stations to enter the market for VOD services [27], possibility
of excluding some audience without access or with difficulty in accessing streaming
platforms (e.g., older audiences) [35, 36], copyright infringement, [25, 37–39], prob-
lems between the television station and the telecommunications companies that
provide television services to [23, 29], existence of a wide range of streaming plat-
forms, becoming a common service on the market [23] and difficulties in motivating
current television viewers to become paid subscribers to the platforms, in the case
of paid subscription platforms [33].
In addition to the issues listed above, the results show that questions have started
to be raised concerning the future of traditional television, taking into account the
popularity of access to streaming platforms [28, 32]. With the decrease of subscrip-
tions on pay-TV signal distribution services, as mentioned above, there is a complete
rupture of the traditional television business model [23]. Meimaridis et al. [33] present
the Brazilian case considering the collapse of television consumption, where local
television stations and telecommunications companies began to integrate streaming
services, to remain relevant, recover audience and profit, this being a response to the
entry of VOD service platforms, such as Netflix, in order to try to create profitable
business models, television stations and telecommunications companies adapted to
the current digital context. This context is reflected in the phenomenon of growing
VOD services in the audiovisual industry, in which Meimaridis et al. [33] refer to as
“Streaming Wars”.
Covid-19 accelerated digital transformation strategies in television [34]. However,
as the lockdown progressed, the overall number of viewers declined. Thus, the
pandemic had an impact on the economic situation of the media due to factors such as
increased competition between traditional channels and VOD services. On the other
hand, it is observed in some cases, as a result of the application of streaming plat-
forms in the context of television stations, an increase in audience share, as well as an
increase in the insertion of some audience segments, in particular the younger ones
[24], the production of exclusive content for online, as well as the sharing of content
online, before being broadcast on television, on some television stations [28, 40].
The results obtained through the method of systematic literature review, which used
the webQDA software as a resource, allowed us to conclude that the impact of
streaming platforms as a digital innovation in television entertainment stands out
at two levels, its impact on the audience and its impact in the context of televi-
sion stations. From the impact on the audience, there is a positive adherence to the
platforms, marked by the change in the consumer behavior characterized by the
preference to watch television content on streaming platforms. The impact in the
context of television stations is reflected by the application of streaming platforms
as an innovation strategy, a phenomenon of digital transition, marked by changes in
production, distribution, technology and business models of television stations. This
transition caused several problems, but in contrast to the problems, the transition was
also marked by positive results such as an increase in audience share and an increase
in the insertion of some audience segments, in particular the younger ones.
As for a future work proposal, a study exclusively dedicated to the analysis of the
impact of Covid-19 on adherence to streaming platforms is suggested, comparing
it to television audiences, both in public service television and private television,
since the research of the present study was carried out only between April 13 and 15,
2021. Also, as future research, we suggest a study focused on the impact of streaming
platforms in the Portuguese television context, of the general-interest channels (RTP,
SIC and TVI).
References
1. Fichman, R. G., Dos Santos, B. L., Zheng, Z.: Digital innovation as a fundamental and powerful
concept in the information systems curriculum. MIS Q. 38, 329–353 (2014). https://doi.org/
10.25300/MISQ/2014/38.2.01
2. Kohli, R., Melville, N.: Digital innovation: a review and synthesis. Inf. Syst. J. 29, 200–223
(2017). https://doi.org/10.1111/isj.12193
3. Wiesböck, F., Hess, T.: Digital innovations: embedding in organizations. Electron. Mark. 30(2),
75–86 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12525-019-00364-9
4. de Bem Machado, A., Souza, M. J., Catapan, A. H.: Systematic review: intersection between
communication and knowledge. J. Inf. Syst. Eng. Manag. 4(1), em0086 (2019). https://doi.org/
10.29333/jisem/5741
5. Burroughs, B.: A cultural lineage of streaming. Internet Histories 3(2), 147–161 (2019). https://
doi.org/10.1080/24701475.2019.1576425
6. Krikke, J.: Streaming video transforms the media industry. IEEE Comput. Graphics Appl.
24(4), 6–12 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1109/MCG.2004.17
7. Aliloupour, N. P.: The Impact of Technology on the Entertainment Distribution Market: The
Effects of Netflix and Hulu on Cable Revenue. Claremont Colleges (2015). https://scholarship.
claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1811&context=scripps_theses
8. Evens, T.: Clash of TV platforms: how broadcasters and distributors build platform leadership.
In: 25th European Regional Conference of the International Telecommunications Society, pp. 1–
16. Brussels (2014). https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/101429
9. Yoo, Y., Boland, R., Lyytinen, K., Majchrzak, A.: Organizing for innovation in the digitized
world. Organ. Sci. 23(5), 1398–1408 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1120.0771
10. Holmström, J.: Recombination in digital innovation: challenges, opportunities, and the impor-
tance of a theoretical framework. Inf. Organ. 28(2), 107–110 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.infoandorg.2018.04.002
11. Nambisan, S., Lyytinen, K., Majchrzak, A., Song, M.: Digital innovation management: rein-
venting innovation management research in a digital world. MIS Q. 41 (2017). https://doi.org/
10.25300/MISQ/2017/41:1.03
12. Nylén, D., Holmström, J.: Digital innovation strategy: a framework for diagnosing and
improving digital product and service innovation. Bus. Horiz. 58(1), 57–67 (2015). https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2014.09.001
13. Jahanmir, S.F., Cavadas, J.: Factors affecting late adoption of digital innovations. J. Bus. Res.
88, 337–343 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.01.058
14. Spilker, H.S., Colbjørnsen, T.: The dimensions of streaming: toward a typology of an evolving
concept. Media Cult. Soc. 42(7–8), 1210–1225 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1177/016344372090
4587
15. Storsul, T., Krumsvik, A.H.: Media Innovations—A Multidisciplinary Study of Change.
University of Gothenburg, Nordicom (2013)
16. Lotz, A.D.: The Television Will be Revolutionized. New York University Press, New York
(2007)
17. Creswell, J. W, Creswell, J. D.: Research Design: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches,
2nd edn. SAGE Publications (1994)
18. Petticrew, M., Roberts, H.: Systematic Reviews in the Social Sciences: A Practical Guide.
Blackwell Publishing, Nova Jersey (2006)
19. Kitchenham, B.: Procedures for Performing Systematic Reviews. Keele University, vol. 33,
pp. 1–26 (2004)
20. Liberati, A., Altman, D. G., Tetzlaff, J., Mulrow, C., Gøtzsche, P. C., Ioannidis, J. P. A., Clarke,
M., Devereaux, P. J., Kleijnen, J., Moher, D.: The PRISMA statement for reporting system-
atic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: explanation
and elaboration. PLoS Med. 6(7), e1000100, (2009). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.100
0100
21. Cooke, A., Smith, D., Booth, A.: Beyond PICO: the SPIDER tool for qualitative evidence
synthesis. Qual. Health Res. 22(10), 1435–1443 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1177/104973231
2452938
22. Camilo, C., Garrido, M. V.: A revisão sistemática de literatura em psicologia: Desafios e
orientações. Análise Psicológica 37(4), 535–552 (2019). https://doi.org/10.14417/ap.1546
23. De Kare-Silver, M.: E-shock 2020: How the Digital Technology Revolution is Changing
Business and All Our Lives. Palgrave Macmillan, London (2011)
24. Flood Page, M.: The development of BBC on-demand strategy 2003–2007: the Public Value
Test and the iPlayer. University of Glasgow (2015). https://theses.gla.ac.uk/6779/
25. Kim, J.: The institutionalization of YouTube: from user-generated content to professionally
generated content. Media Cult. Soc. 34(1), 53–67 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1177/016344371
1427199
26. Martin, E.N.: Can public service broadcasting survive Silicon Valley? Synthesizing leadership
perspectives at the BBC, PBS, NPR, CPB and local US stations. Technol. Soc. 64, 101451
(2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2020.101451
27. McElroy, R., Noonan, C.: Public service media and digital innovation. The small nation expe-
rience. In: Ferrell Lowe, G., Van den Bulck, H., Donders, K. (eds.) Public Service Media in
the Networked Society, pp. 159–174. Nordicom (2018)
28. Grainge, P., Johnson, C.: From catch-up TV to online TV: digital broadcasting and the case of
BBC iPlayer. Screen 59(1), 21–40 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1093/screen/hjy002
29. Lamansky, L.: Not for Profit Theater Subscriptions and Premium Television Subscriptions:
Moving into the Anywhere, Anytime, Any Platform Spheres of the Digital Age. Columbia
University (2013)
30. Acevedo-Berry, L. M.: Successful Strategies to Address Disruptive Innovation Technologies in
the Digital-Media Industry. Walden University (2020)
31. González-Neira, A., Quintas-Froufe, N, Gallardo-Camacho, J.: Television audience measure-
ment: the challenge posed by video streaming platforms. Comunicación y sociedad 17, 1–23,
(2020). https://doi.org/10.32870/cys.v2020.7284
32. Lotz, A.D.: The Television Will be Revolutionized, 2nd edn. New York University Press, New
York (2014)
33. Meimaridis, M., Mazur, D., Rios, D.: The streaming wars in the global periphery: a glimpse
from Brazil. Ser. Int. J. TV Ser. Narratives 6(1), 65–76 (2020). https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.
2421-454X/10457
34. Túñez-López, M., Vaz-Álvarez, M., Fieiras-Ceide, C.: Covid-19 and public service media:
impact of the pandemic on public television in Europe. Profesional De La Información 29(5)
(2020). https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2020.sep.18
35. Nissen, C. S.: Public Service Media in the Information Society. Council of Europe, Strasbourg
(2006)
36. Johnson, N. E.: Television in Scotland: An Assessment of the Broadcasting Landscape: Past,
Present and Potential Futures. University of Glasgow (2018)
37. Frey, A.: To sue or not to sue: video-sharing web sites, copyright infringement, and the
inevitability of corporate control. Brook J. Corp. Fin. Com. L. 2, 167 (2007)
38. Logan, K.I.: The Medium may Determine Who Listens to the Message: A Proposed Criterion
for Comparison of Media. The University of Texas, Austin (2009)
39. Ng, S.: A brief history of entertainment technologies. In: Proceedings of the IEEE, 100, Special
Centennial Issue, pp. 1386–1390 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1109/JPROC.2012.2189805
40. Freedman, D., Goblot, V.: A Future for Public Service Television. MIT Press, Massachusetts
(2018)
Graph Databases Assessment:
JanusGraph, Neo4j, and TigerGraph
Jéssica Monteiro , Filipe Sá , and Jorge Bernardino
Abstract Over time, data growth across technology platforms has become a chal-
lenge for relational databases. Therefore, it becomes difficult to store and process
massive volumes of data and data where the schema is represented by graphs, such
as social networking sites. Graph databases emerged as the solution, wherein entities
from the domain of interest are represented by nodes and relationships between them
by edges. The main objective of this paper is to find out which of the top three open
source graph databases are the most complete and efficient. According to DB-Engines
Ranking, the top three graph databases are: JanusGraph, Neo4j, and TigerGraph. We
apply the OSSpal methodology, which consists of an evaluation based on qualita-
tive and quantitative measures to these databases. The evaluation categories of the
OSSpal methodology are focused on software functionalities, attributes and features,
available documentation, support and service, user community, and graph database
development.
Keywords Graph databases · NoSQL databases · OSSpal methodology · Open

source tools · JanusGraph · Neo4j · TigerGraph
1 Introduction
Relational databases are a type of database that has been used for many years and is
still prevalent in data storage. But as the amount of data and the need to store relation-
ally rich data increases dramatically, a particular type of the NoSQL database model
has emerged [1]. One type of NoSQL database that emerged was graph databases,
J. Monteiro (B) · F. Sá · J. Bernardino

Polytechnic of Coimbra—ISEC, Rua Pedro Nunes, 3030-199 Coimbra, Portugal
e-mail: a21230162@isec.pt
F. Sá
e-mail: filipe.sa@isec.pt
J. Bernardino
e-mail: jorge@isec.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_58
656 J. Monteiro et al.
which has a different way of representing and storing its data. The data is defined
as a graph, a collection of vertices (nodes) and edges [2]. There are several graph
databases that we can use. Graphs are becoming the preferred choice as a data model
for representing and storing this new type of data [3].
In this paper, we focus only on open source graph databases. We intend to evaluate
them qualitatively and quantitatively by applying the OSSpal methodology that only
evaluates open source software. We decided to choose the databases based on the
ranking that DB-Engines 2022 provides, selecting the top three graph-type databases
of the ranking. The graph databases analyzed were JanusGraph, Neo4j, and Tiger-
Graph. The OSSpal methodology was chosen to evaluate the main features of the
graph databases in this work and thus select the best graph database. The OSSpal
open source software evaluation methodology has recently emerged as a successor
to the Business Readiness Rating (OpenBRR) [4] and was revised in 2017 [5]. We
analyzed the information available on the databases websites and scientific articles,
identified the main features of the graph databases, and represented this information
in a summary table. Then, these characteristics were associated with category metrics
to apply the OSSpal methodology and verify which graph databases were the best.
This article is structured as follows. Section 2 describes each one of the three
graph databases. Section 3 presents the OSSpal methodology. Section 4 presents
the evaluation of the characteristics of each graph database by applying the OSSpal
methodology. Finally, Sect. 5 presents the conclusions and future work.
2 Graph Databases
Before defining what graph databases are, it is first necessary to define what NoSQL
databases are. NoSQL database does not mean it does not use SQL, but it has a
different storage structure and data schema. The most common NoSQL database
systems can be organized into document databases, column databases, key-value
stores, and graph databases [6]. Graph databases have a different structure than
relational databases. A relational database is a collection of data stored in a tabular
form based on the relational model proposed by Codd [7]. The authors also mention
that each table contains rows and columns in a relational database, rows representing
records and columns representing attributes.
On the other hand, graph databases are organized as graphs with nodes (also
known as vertices), and edges are data items that correspond to the database entities
and their relationships, respectively [8]. Edges correspond to a link between a source
node and a destination node. There is a possibility that any of these nodes have
properties or labels. A graph database based on a labeled property graph data model
provides internal structures inside nodes and edges [9]. The following subsections
describe the architecture and each database’s most prominent features, advantages,
and weaknesses.
Graph Databases Assessment: JanusGraph, Neo4j, and TigerGraph 657
2.1 JanusGraph
According to [10], JanusGraph is a graph database based on the Titan graph database
developed and distributed. The author also mentions that the database is based
on TinkerPop and has a flexible and highly extensible framework that supports
several combinatorial models. TinkerPop is a vendor-agnostic API that enables inter-
changing supporting databases [11]. Scalability is a crucial point in graph databases.
JanusGraph is a scalable database optimized for storing and querying large graphs
distributed in a cluster of several machines [12], and the query language is called
Gremlin [11].
According to the documentation available on the JanusGraph website, Janus-
Graph supports third-party adapters in data storage and indices. Data storage supports
Apache Cassandra, Apache HBase, and Oracle Berkeley DB Java Edition. The
indexes that speed up and allow more complex queries support Elasticsearch, Apache
Solr, and Apache Lucene. We can interact with JanusGraph in two ways [13]: embed
JanusGraph within the application by running Gremlin queries directly on the graph,
or interact with a local or remote instance of JanusGraph by sending Gremlin queries
to the server. Execution of queries, JanusGraph caches, and transaction handling
happen in the same JVM as the application, while retrieving data from the storage
backend can be local or remote. Alternatively, we interact with a local or remote
instance of JanusGraph by sending Gremlin queries to the server. JanusGraph natively
supports the Gremlin Server component of the Apache TinkerPop stack.
If we want to view data from a graph in JanusGraph, an interface is required.
Figure 1 represents viewing the JanusGraph database through the Cambridge Intel-
ligence platform using KeyLines. KeyLines is a JavaScript software development
kit (SDK). We can use the technology to quickly build network visualization web
components into our applications [14].
Fig. 1 Visualizing the JanusGraph database—Cambridge Intelligence. Source [14]

JanusGraph has the following advantages [13]:

• Elastic and linear scalability for a growing database and users;
• High availability of multiple datacenters;
• Dynamic backups;
• Node-centric indexes provide node-level queries to alleviate problems like the
supernode problem;
• Support a variety of storage and indexing backends.
We can also identify some weaknesses [13]:
• They focus on the way it supports a variety of storage and indexing backends and
makes the graph database dependent;
• It is difficult to predict future development, as the project has the support of
community developers.
2.2 Neo4j
Neo4j is an open source graph database implemented in Java that was first released
in 2007. Neo4j developers consider the graph database a transactional database and
a persistent Java engine where it is possible to store structures in graphs instead of
tables. The graph database uses the proprietary graph model, allowing an alignment
between the data stored in the graph and the natural world [15] and is an of the most
used graph databases in areas such as health, government, automated production, and
military among others [3]. The query language is Cypher. It is like SQL for graphs
and was inspired by SQL, allowing us to focus on the data we want from the graph
[16].
Neo4j’s interface stands out for being very interactive and easy to use. Figure 2
represents the Neo4j interface.
In the DB-Engines 2022 ranking, we can see that Neo4j is the database highlighted
first and that it stands out for its strengths. The main advantages of Neo4J are:
• An intuitive and interactive interface for data analysis;
• Mature and intuitive query language;
• It has a high-performance distributed cluster architecture;
• Graph fragmentation minimizes query latency as it stores more segments close to
users;
• User credentials control access to the user interface, allowing for organized access
controls;
• The AuraDB cloud service is fully managed and has automatic updates, fully
managed backups, and supports the Cypher query language.
Neo4j also has some weaknesses, namely:
• It requires a well-configured server for a large dataset;
• It does not accept data in RDF format directly and consumes much memory.
Fig. 2 Neo4j interface. Source [16]
2.3 TigerGraph
TigerGraph is an open source graph database released in 2017 and is a graph database
system built on the foundation to support massively parallel computation of queries
and analysis [17]. The query language is GSQL. As the name suggests, GSQL is a
direct extension of SQL for graph databases, and it enforces a strict schema decla-
ration before querying [18]. It supports the aggregation specification in graph anal-
ysis [19]. According to the documentation provided by TigerGraph, the database
runs with an elastic read-only cluster. TigerGraph’s architecture is divided into three
layers: the top layer comprises the programming user interface, including the GSQL
compiler, the GraphStudio visual SDK, and REST APIs for other languages; the
middle layer contains the standard built-in user-defined functions (UDFs); the bottom
layer includes the graph storage engine (GSE) and the graph processing engine
(GPE).
TigerGraph’s interface also stands out for being very interactive. One curiosity
is the possibility of assigning custom icons to each node. Figure 3 represents the
TigerGraph interface.
TigerGraph’s main advantages are the following:
• A database to handle large graphs and workload in a natural production environ-
ment where tens of terabytes of connected data with incremental or daily refresh
is a must;
• In terms of elasticity, users often do not know how much hardware or computing
power they will need in advance, and elasticity eliminates the need to plan for
capacity and cost-efficiency;
• Includes a flexible, high-performance data loader that can transmit tabular or
semi-structured data while the system is online.
Fig. 3 TigerGraph interface. Source [20]
On the other hand, the limitations of TigerGraph are:

• It runs only on Linux servers;
• It has a high-cost cloud service;
• The subscription price is also high.
3 OSSpal Methodology
This section explains how to evaluate graph databases using the OSSpal method-
ology. OSSpal is a well-known methodology created after the Business Readiness
Rating (BRR), whose main objective is to evaluate open source software from a clear
perspective, following criteria that assure that the result reached is logical and consis-
tent from an expert point of view [21]. The OSSpal methodology combines quan-
titative and qualitative measures to evaluate and compare software tools in several
categories [22]. This methodology consists of four phases:
• Identify software components to be analyzed, and measure each component
against the evaluation criteria;
• Assign weights to each category and measures;
• Gather data for each metric used in each category and calculate the weighting
applied to each metric in a range of 1–5 (1—Unacceptable, 2—Bad, 3—Accept-
able, 4—Very Good, 5—Excellent);
• Calculate the final OSSpal grade based on category ratings.
The categories identified were:
• Functionality: analyses how well the software meets the user’s requirements;
• Operational Software Characteristics: evaluates whether the software has the

latest versions released, how good the user interface is, and whether the software
is easy to install and configure;
• Software Technology Attributes: analysis of important software attributes, such
as the number of systems they support, whether it has a cloud service, whether the
query language is intuitive and easy to learn, the number of bugs it must have, the
quality of third-party plugins, the number of supported programming languages,
and whether the software is only open source or has a commercial component as
well;
• Documentation: whether there is any reference documentation for the software
dedicated to users and developers, whether there are learning tutorials and some
training and certification;
• Support and Service: examines how well is the software component supported
and if there is commercial or community support or both;
• Community and Adoption: examines the adoption of the component by
community, market, and industry. Also, how active is the community for the
software;
• Development Process: evaluates the level of professionalism of the development
process and the project organization.
The “Functionality” category is evaluated differently from the rest [23]. To evaluate
this category, we should follow the steps:
• Define the characteristics to be analyzed and assign scores (1—least important
and 3—very important);
• Rank the characteristics with an accumulative sum (from 1 to 3);
• Standardize the previous result on a scale of 1–5.
We define the category scale as follows:
• Below 65%, score = 1 (unacceptable);
• 65–80%, score = 2 (bad);
• 80–90%, score = 3 (acceptable);
• 90–96%, score = 4 (good);
• Above 96%, score = 5 (excellent).
After knowing and identifying all the steps of the OSSpal methodology, the next step
in evaluating the graph databases is described in Sect. 4.
4 Graph Databases Evaluation
To apply the OSSpal methodology, first, we identify the categories of the graph
databases, which will be evaluated. The next step consists of defining weights
according to our study’s importance, objectives, and characteristics. Table 1 presents
the weights assigned to each category.
Table 1 Weight assigned to

Category Weight (%)
each category
Functionality 30
Operational software characteristics 15
Software technology attributes 15
Support and service 15
Documentation 10
Community and adoption 10
Development process 5
According to our study, we decided to assign the following weights: the ‘Func-
tionality’ category was given a weight of 30%, the ‘Operational Software Charac-
teristics,’ ‘Software Technology Attributes,’ and ‘Support and Service’ categories
have a weight 15%, while the ’Documentation’ and ’Community and Adoption’
categories have an assigned weight of 10%. Finally, the ‘Development Process’
category weighs in at 5% since graph database development depends on improving
the previous categories. The next step is defining and evaluating characteristics that
we consider essential in graph databases to analyze the category ‘Functionality.’ The
characteristics chosen to evaluate the graph databases were based on the fundamental
constitution of the graph databases, which focuses more on how they deal with the
data. The relevance score was assigned to each (1 - slightly important; 2—important;
3—very important). Table 2 presents these characteristics.
Next, we must identify the characteristics that we intend to analyze in the
‘Functionality’ category, considering only those that fit into open source software.
Within the ‘Functionality’ category, we chose the following categories to evaluate:
• Data Management: graph databases must provide a reasonable basis for data
management and storage;
Table 2 Weights for the

Category Weight
characteristics of the category
‘Functionality’ Data management 3
CRUD operations 3
Backup 3
Partitioning 3
Replication 3
Data consistency 3
Cloud service 2
Indexes 2
Functions 2
Interactive analysis 2
Collaboration 1
• CRUD Operations: the ability to edit, remove or update the data schema;
• Backup: the type of backups allowed;
• Partitioning: how data is distributed in graph databases;
• Replication: means that a data item is stored on more than one node, allowing it
to be too useful to increase the read performance of the database;
• Data Consistency: how a system is in a consistent state after operating. A
distributed system is consistent if, after an update operation, all readers see their
updates in the shared data source;
• Cloud Service: if a cloud is available;
• Indexes: if they have indexes is a redundant copy of some of the data in the
database to make searches for related data more efficient;
• Functions: The query language allows functions;
• Interactive Analysis: the graph must be interactive;
• Collaboration: publishing, sharing, and discussing information.
The next step is to evaluate the other categories from ‘Operational Software Charac-
teristics’ to ‘Development Process’. After analyzing the ’Functionality’ category, it
remains to evaluate all the others that, unlike this one, are evaluated from 1 to 5 (1—
unacceptable, 2—bad, 3—acceptable, 4—very good, 5—excellent). Each category
contains multiple metrics, and these metrics must be appropriate for the category
type and have a weight assigned to the degree of importance. After that, evaluate the
databases from 1 to 5 graphs on each metric. Throughout the methodology, ratings
from 1 to 5 are given, except in the ‘Functionality’ category. The results are shown
in Table 3, and the final score for each graph database ranges from 1 to 5. Table 3
has the categories on the left in descending order by weight. On the right side are the
names of the graph databases evaluated.
The total values result from the sum of the products between the weights assigned
for each metric category and the evaluation given to each. After evaluating each
category and fulfilling all the evaluation steps required by the OSSpal methodology,
we check the scores. We start with the best score down to the lowest score. The
best score corresponds to 4.97 and belongs to Neo4j, with only 0.03 points of the
Table 3 OSSpal final score

Category Weight (%) Graph databases
JanusGraph Neo4j TigerGraph
Functionality 30 1.50 1.50 1.50
Operational software characteristics 15 0.64 0.75 0.68
Software technology attributes 15 0.48 0.72 0.59
Support and service 15 0.32 0.75 0.51
Documentation 10 0.10 0.50 0.36
Community and adoption 10 0.10 0.50 0.24
Development 5 0.25 0.25 0.20
Total 3.39 4.97 4.08
maximum score. It is a complete graph database with many features, is interactive,

and is easy to use. Next, TigerGraph, with a score of 4.08, also scores well but is below
Neo4j. TigerGraph also has some features and has an interactive data visualization
environment for the user. However, it only supports one operating system, Linux, and
supports few programming languages, making it somewhat limited in its use. Finally,
JanusGraph had a score of 3.39, which is well below the other two graph databases. It
has weak support from the user community, little activity in the community forums,
and few learning resources. Weights should be assigned to categories and measures
consciously and reasonably, and the choice of measures should be appropriate to the
case associated with a graph database.
This article studies and evaluates the latest versions of the three open source graph
databases present at the top of the DB-Engines 2022 ranking using the OSSpal
methodology. The methodology can help companies, organizations, or users decide
which open source graph database to install. Its features should be studied and eval-
uated in advance to meet the requirements of those who want to purchase it. The
information needed to evaluate each category of the methodology was gathered from
the documentation available on the websites of each graph database. When combining
data collection with the application of the OSSpal methodology, we were sometimes
faced with unclear documentation or sometimes no documentation at all, which led
us to combine the information in the documentation with articles by other authors so
that we could apply the methodology in-depth and make known which open source
graph databases have well-improved features.
The study concluded that the most developed graph database was Neo4j. Tiger-
Graph was very valuable and had features with equal potential. JanusGraph, on the
other hand, scored well below the other two graph databases for not having good
documentation for users who are interested in learning how to deal with the graph
database and for not having good community support.
As future work, we plan to evaluate other open source graph databases and include
more measures in each category.
References
1. Chen, M., Poulsen, S., Alkhabaz, R., Alawini, A.: A quantitative analysis of student solutions to
graph database problems. In: Annual Conference on Innovation and Technology in Computer
Science Education, ITiCSE, June 2021, pp. 283–289
2. Elmasri, R., Navathe, S.B.: Database systems seventh edition
3. Guia, J., Soares, V.G., Bernardino, J.: Graph databases: Neo4j Analysis. In: ICEIS 2017 -
Proceedings of the 19th Int. Conference on Enterprise Information Systems, 2017, vol. 1,
pp. 351–356
4. Ferreira, T., Pedrosa, I., Bernardino, J.: Evaluating open source business intelligence tools
using OSSpal methodology. In: IC3K 2017—International Joint Conference on Knowledge
Discovery, Knowledge Engineering and Knowledge Management, vol. 1, pp. 283–288
5. Wasserman et al.: Open Source Systems: Towards Robust Practices (2017). http://www.spr
inger.com/series/6102
6. Diogo, M., Cabral, B., Bernardino, J.: Consistency models of NoSQL databases. Future
Internet, vol. 11, no. 2. MDPI AG (2019)
7. Medhi, S., Baruah, H.: Relational database and graph database: a comparative analysis. J.
Process Manage. New Technol. 5(2), 1–9 (2017)
8. Candel, C.J.F., Sevilla Ruiz, D., García-Molina, J.J.: A unified metamodel for NoSQL and
relational databases. Inf. Syst. 104 (2022)
9. Sharma, C.: Design of formal query languages and schemas for graph databases. Ph.D. Thesis
(2021)
10. Qiao, J.: Intelligent big data framework for the technical design of public management
applications in sports. Math. Probl. Eng. 2022, 1–9 (2022)
11. Reynolds, O., García-Domínguez, A., Bencomo, N.: Cronista: a multi-database automated
provenance collection system for runtime-models. Inf. Softw. Technol. 141 (2022)
12. Falcão, T.A., et al.: Comparative analysis of graph databases for git data. J. Phys: Conf. Ser.
1944(1), 012004 (2021)
13. JanusGraph: JanusGraph (2022). https://janusgraph.org/
14. Cambridge Intelligence: Cambridge Intelligence (2022). https://cambridge-intelligence.com/
keylines/technology/
15. Melo, D., Cristina, V., Souza, O.: Implementação e Análise do SGBD NoSQL Neo4j sobre a
Orquestração do Kubernetes (2020)
16. Neo4j: Neo4j (2022). https://neo4j.com/
17. Deutsch, Y.X., Wu, M., Lee, V.: TigerGraph: A Native MPP Graph Database. White paper
(2019). http://arxiv.org/abs/1901.08248
18. Rusu, F., Huang, Z.: In-depth benchmarking of graph database systems with the linked data
benchmark council (LDBC) social network benchmark (SNB) (2019). http://arxiv.org/abs/
1907.07405
19. Deutsch, Y.X., Wu, M., Lee, V.E.: Aggregation support for modern graph analytics in Tiger-
Graph. In: Proceedings of the ACM SIGMOD International Conference on Management of
Data, June 2020, pp. 377–392
20. TigerGraph: TigerGraph (2022). https://www.tigergraph.com/
21. Cruz, S., Bernardino, J.: Project management tools assessment with OSSPAL. In: Proceedings
of IC3K 2019, vol. 2, pp. 390–396
22. Carvalho, G., Mykolyshyn, S., Cabral, B., Bernardino, J., Pereira, V.: Comparative analysis of
data modeling design tools. IEEE Access 10, 3351–3365 (2022)
23. Marques, J.F., Bernardino, J.: Evaluation of Asana, Odoo, and ProjectLibre Project management
tools using the OSSpal methodology. In: Proceedings of IC3K 2019, vol. 2, pp. 397–403
The Use of Mobile Technology in Outdoor
Tourism: A Systematic Review
Elaine Scalabrini , Alexandra I. Correia , Alcina Nunes ,

Cláudia Miranda Veloso , Elvira Vieira , Fernanda A. Ferreira ,
Goretti Silva , Manuel Fonseca , Paulo Carrança , Sónia Santos ,
Abstract Mobile technologies are evident in all sectors, and this is also a reality in
tourism. Tourists are increasingly using their smartphones for different functions and
purposes, from planning trips to browsing destinations. Mobile technology is also an
ally in outdoor activities. Thus, this study sought to understand, through a systematic
E. Scalabrini (B) · A. Nunes · P. O. Fernandes

UNIAG, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal
e-mail: elaine@ipb.pt
A. Nunes
P. O. Fernandes
e-mail: pof@ipb.pt
A. I. Correia · G. Silva
UNIAG, CITUR, Instituto Politécnico de Viana Do Castelo, Rua Escola Industrial E Comercial de
Nun’Álvares No. 34, 4900-367 Viana Do Castelo, Portugal
e-mail: acorreia@estg.ipvc.pt
G. Silva
e-mail: goretti@estg.ipvc.pt
A. I. Correia · F. A. Ferreira
UNIAG, School of Hospitality and Tourism of P. Porto, Rua D. Sancho I, No. 98, 4480-876 Vila
Do Conde, Portugal
e-mail: faf@esht.ipp.pt
C. M. Veloso
GOVCOPP, ESTGA, University of Aveiro, Rua Comandante Pinho E Freita, No. 28, 3750-127
Águeda, Portugal
e-mail: cmv@ua.pt
E. Vieira
UNIAG, Instituto Politécnico de Viana Do Castelo, ISAG-EBS, CICET-FCVC, Rua Escola
Industrial E Comercial de Nun’Álvares No. 34, 4900-367 Viana Do Castelo, Portugal
e-mail: evieira@esce.ipvc.pt
M. Fonseca
UNIAG, Instituto Politécnico de Viana Do Castelo, Avenida Do Atlântico, No. 644, 4900-348
Viana Do Castelo, Portugal
e-mail: manuelfonseca@esce.ipvc.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_59
668 E. Scalabrini et al.
review, how mobile technologies are being approached in outdoor tourism literature.
The analysis was conducted with twenty-four articles indexed in the Web of Science
and published in the last five years (2018–2022). The first finding is the small number
of specific articles on outdoor tourism, even when adding the terms nature-based or
adventure tourism. The main reasons why outdoor tourists use mobile technology
during their activities are communication, navigation, feeling safe, boredom relief,
and taking photos Thus, there is a need for more research to better understand the
benefits and risks of the use of mobile technology in outdoor activities and most of
the analysed articles presented a quantitative approach.
Keywords Applications · Mobile technologies · Outdoor tourism · Systematic

review
1 Introduction
Society has been transformed with technology and the use of mobiles has become
a necessity. This is also a reality in tourism. In recent years the use of mobile
technologies by tourists before, during and after travel has increased considerably
[1–4].
Mobile technology helps tourists in different forms, namely, planning their trips,
communication, navigation, boredom relief, taking photos and sharing information
[5–7]. Moreover, smartphones have the potential to change the experience of tourists’
underconnectivity and access to information and increase tourists’ sense of safety
[8].
To understand the relation of mobile technology to tourism, different authors have
developed systematic reviews. Kim and Law [7] analysed 104 papers related to the
adoption of smartphones in tourism and hospitality marketing, published between
2000 and 2013, and identified the importance of the practice of mobile marketing
from the perspective of marketers and consumers. This study identified a few studies
related to tourists’ attitudes towards the use of technology. However, it pointed out
new trends in the use of smartphones by the market and consumers. It also demon-
strated the evolution of the use of this technology, especially for the dissemination of
destinations and how it has been used to facilitate the travel process. Liang and Law
[4] studied the relevance of mobile tourism and information technology, analysing 92
articles published between 2000 and 2015. In the 94 studies reviewed, three distinct
P. Carrança
Turismo Do Porto E Norte de Portugal, Instituto Politécnico de Viana Do Castelo, Castelo
Santiago da Barra, 4900-360 Viana do Castelo, Portugal
e-mail: paulo.carranca@portoenorte.pt
S. Santos
Instituto Politécnico de Viana Do Castelo, Avenida Do Atlântico, No. 644, 4900-348 Viana Do
Castelo, Portugal
e-mail: ssantos@esa.ipvc.pt
The Use of Mobile Technology in Outdoor Tourism: A Systematic Review 669
clusters were identified related as the focus of the investigations. Therefore, the focus
of the studies centred on industry and business applications, technological innova-
tions and consumers and demand. The need for further studies on this theme was
also evidenced since it is an emerging topic in tourism studies.
Aiming to understand the relationship between mobile technologies and smart
tourism, Dorcic et al. [3] reviewed 126 articles published between 2012 and 2017. In
this study, the selected papers were classified into three categories named consumer
perspective, technological perspective, and provider perspective, identifying the
consumers’ benefits of using technology during trips. Similar to Kim and Law’s
[7] findings, one of the benefits cited was the ease of the travel planning process,
increasing tourist satisfaction. However, Dorcic [3] also indicates the need for further
studies on this theme, since there is still a gap related to mobile technologies and
applications in smart tourism.
A larger study [9] analysed 803 studies related to technology and tourism
published between 2003 and 2020 and concluded that the development of tech-
nology over the years is synchronised with research related to mobile technology
and tourism. By analysing the studies, the authors demonstrated the evolution of
these integrated with the evolution of technology (e.g., 3G to 4G) and affirmed that
technology could represent innovation to traditional tourism.
Despite the existing studies, it is still recognized that few bibliometric or system-
atic review studies have been carried out on the topic of mobile technology and
tourism [9].
In this regard, it is evident the lack of specific studies on outdoor tourism, nature-
based tourism or adventure tourism justifies the need to conduct studies on this
theme.
The demand for outdoor activities has grown substantially [10] and the charac-
teristics of outdoor tourism allow the use of mobile technologies to help in different
aspects, such as facilitating the geographical location, sharing experiences, and
searching for activities. On the other hand, technology is also seen negatively as
it can create distractions during activities, security, privacy, and excessive reliance
on technology [11].
This study aims to understand, through a systematic review, how the technology
is being investigated in the literature related to outdoor tourism. In this sense, the
data were collected on the Web of Science, considering papers published in the last
five years (2018–2022).
This paper is structured across four sections. After an introduction that presents
some relevant contributions to the studied theme and the aim of this systematic review,
the methods section explains the data collection and the developed analysis. Section
three presents the data collected, dividing it into the distribution of articles per journal
and year, the used method and the keyword cluster developed in VOSviewer Software,
along with the discussion of results. In the final section, the main conclusions are
presented and some suggestions for future research are discussed.
2 Methodology
To accomplish the objectives of this study, some selection criteria were applied to
select the analysed articles. First, full articles were searched on the Web of Science
database. Supported by previously reviews [3, 9], books, research notes, reviews,
reports, and thesis were not included in this study. In this sense, full papers published
in indexed journals in the last five years (2018–2022), regarding mobile technologies
used in outdoor tourism, were included in the data analysis.
In line with Chen et al. [9], the terms used to search the articles on the Web
of Science included “mobile technology”, “mobile applications”, “smartphone”,
“apps”, “mobile database”, “mobile internet”, “mobile web”, and “mobile comput-
ing” combined with “outdoor tourism”, “nature-based tourism” and “adventure
tourism”. It was also selected articles indexed in the area “hospitality, leisure, sport,
tourism”.
After applying screening criteria, 294 papers were identified. This first dataset
included papers that were not directly focused on outdoor tourism and mobile tech-
nology. These were excluded and to refine the database the title, the abstract and
the keywords of the 190 papers were analysed and exported to Rayyan free soft-
ware, which enabled the papers´ selection according to the inclusion and exclusion
criteria. In this stage, 24 were selected for this review (Fig. 1). The others were
excluded because the categorization did not fulfil the selection criteria, and they
were not directly related to the proposed objectives and outdoor tourism. The small
number of studies conducted to identify the relationship between mobile technolo-
gies and outdoor tourists’ behaviour is evident, even when we add in the search the
terms nature-based tourism or adventure.
tourism, which proves that studies in this area are still incipient, mainly in the
database (Web of Science) used in this research.
In the next step, the title, author(s), keywords, publication year, journal, and
methodological approaches were entered into a dataset and so a descriptive statistical
analysis was performed, considering these variables that are similar to those used in
other studies [3, 12]. For a better comprehension of the issue, keyword clustering
was developed using VOSviewer software.
Fig. 1 Inclusion and

exclusion of relevant studies.
3 Analysis and Discussion
The 24 papers reviewed were published in 16 journals. The Journal of Hospitality and
Tourism Technology, Journal of Leisure Research, Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism
Research and Journal of Park and Recreation Administration accounts for half of
the articles. Other twelve journals published one article each. Related to publication
year, the year 2019 has the highest number of articles (Table 1). Noteworthy that
the Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology also was highlighted in other
systematic reviews about tourism and technology [3, 4, 9].
As in other areas of tourism, this systematic review also demonstrated that the
quantitative method is the most used, and the questionnaire was the most used instru-
ment (19) to collect the data (Table 2). The statistical analysis techniques more used
were Partial Least Squares (4), Confirmatory Factor Analysis (2), Structural Equa-
tion Model (2) and Factor analysis (2). Considering the sample of each quantitative
study, the average is 373, similar to quantitative studies conducted in the tourism area.
These results were also identified in previous reviews [3, 9], which corroborates the
trend towards the use of quantitative methods and multivariate statistical techniques.
Related to the keywords, the VOS clustering technique identified three clusters
(Fig. 2). There were 215 keywords, and it was considered the keywords that appeared
at least two times. In this sense, 41 met the threshold and were selected for analysis.
Considering the standard distribution of the software (1.0), the number of words
Table 1 Distribution of articles per journal and year

Journal title 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 n
Journal of hospitality and tourism Technology 1 1 2 4
Journal of leisure research 1 2 3
Asia Pacific journal of tourism research 3 3
Journal of park and recreation Administration 2 2
Other* 2 3 1 4 2 12
Total 4 9 3 6 2 24
*Other journals with publications: Annals of Leisure Research; Current Issues in Tourism; European
Journal of Tourism, Hospitality and Recreation; Inf Technol Tourism; International Journal of
Tourism Cities; Journal of Destination Marketing & Management; Journal of Outdoor Recreation,
Education, and Leadership; Leisure Studies; Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural; Tourism
and Hospitality Research; Tourism Management; Tourism Recreation Research
Table 2 Distribution of
Method n
articles per methods
Quantitative 17
Qualitative 4
Mixed 3
Total 24
Fig. 2 Keywords clusters
between the clusters was quite similar (Cluster 1—14 keywords; Cluster 2—14
keywords and Cluster 3—13 keywords).
The first cluster is related to articles that present the technology and apps and their
use in tourism, for example, how technologies such as GPS can assist in measuring
the number of tourists in a particular ecological park. It is noteworthy that in this
cluster are concentrated studies applying a theory to measure a model developed
[13–15]. The theory used in these studies was the Theory of Acceptance and Use of
Technology (UTAUT2).
Cluster 2 presents the studies related to the tourists´ perceptions and satisfaction
with the use of mobile technologies. Finally, Cluster 3 relates the studies that focus
on the behaviour of tourists toward mobile technology and its use in their outdoor
tourism activities. Table 3 summarises the clusters and their respective publications.
These results are similar to the study by Dorcic et al. [3] who analysed mobile
technologies towards smart tourism, analysing 126 articles related to this theme. It
was identified that the studies are divided into consumer perspective, technological
perspective, and provider perspective.
According to the research region, the USA was the most researched country (13),
followed by China (4) and India (3). The use of mobile technologies in national parks
was the most cited, followed by mountaineering and hiking.
In the analysed articles it was possible to identify the main reasons why outdoor
tourists use mobile technology during their activities. Among the most cited activities
is communication, navigation, feeling safe, boredom relief, and taking photos [5, 6].
Table 3 Clusters and

Clusters Publications
publications
The use of technology and [13, 15–21]
apps in tourism
Tourist’s perceptions and [5, 6, 8, 22–27]
satisfaction with mobile
technologies
The behaviour of tourists [1, 5, 6, 11, 13, 14, 24, 28–31]
towards mobile technology
A paper can be assigned to more than one cluster
In addition, apps are used before trips to facilitate planning and to help tourists to
make better decisions regarding what to do at a destination [24].
4 Conclusions
This study used a systematic review to understand how mobile technology related to
outdoor tourism has been studied in the last five years (2018–2022). For this analysis,
24 articles indexed on the Web of Science were selected according to the inclusion
criteria. Whilst the relationship between technology and tourism is widely studied,
specifically, in outdoor tourism, the studies are emerging yet.
The review evidenced that studies linked to this theme mostly used the quantitative
method and provide descriptions of mobile technology use in different situations.
As referred, some analysed articles presented technology as a form to measure the
concentration of demand, which has also been a technique used in tourism studies
in general. Other studies relate to how tourists use smartphones in their travels,
describing their behaviour and perceptions regarding the technologies. The findings
also show that studies are concentrated in the USA and Asia, and it is necessary
to develop research in Europe to compare if the user profile of this region differs
from the others. The clusters delimited in VOSviewer evidenced that the articles are
related to three different topics: the use of technology and applications in tourism;
tourist perceptions and tourist satisfaction with mobile technologies and tourists’
behaviour towards mobile technology.
There is a gap regarding the risks and benefits of the use of mobile technologies
in outdoor activities, and these may present future possibilities for research in the
area. Since social media are still under-applied in studies, it is suggested to conduct
a content analysis of digital media that can contribute to the strategic planning and
marketing of outdoor destinations once it is possible to determine the destination
image according to the photos and the contents. The cost and the benefits and how
tourists use apps in remote places and how they assist in their travel may also be the
focus of future studies.
The main contribution of this study was to identify the main gaps in research
related to the topic, analysing how the technology is being investigated in the outdoor
tourism context.
Finally, the main limitations of this paper are centred on the low number of articles
analysed, once the relationship between mobile technology and outdoor tourism is
still understudied. In this study, the Web of Science database was analysed, but in a
future review, the data can be extended to other databases such as Scopus and others.
Acknowledgements This project is being carried out within the scope of the TURNOUT Project
the European Investment Fund Regional Development (FEDER) through the Operational Program
of Competitiveness and Innovation (POCI) and the Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P.
(OE). UNIAG, R&D unit funded by the FCT—Portuguese Foundation for the Development of
Science and Technology, Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education; “Project Code
Reference: UIDB/04752/2020”.
References
1. Alejandro, M.A.U., Lastra-Bravo, X.B., Jaramillo-Moreno, C.: Turismo y aplicaciones móviles.

Preferencias de turistas y prestadores de servicios en el cantón Tena, Napo, Ecuador. PASOS
Rev Tur y Patrim Cult. 20(1), 83–99 (2022)
2. Chen, J., Becken, S., Stantic, B.: Assessing destination satisfaction by social media: An inno-
vative approach using importance-performance analysis. Ann. Tour. Res. 93, 103371 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2022.103371
3. Dorcic, J., Komsic, J., Markovic, S.: Mobile technologies and applications towards smart
tourism—state of the art. Tour. Rev. 74(1), 82–103 (2019)
4. Liang, S., Schuckert, M., Law, R., Masiero, L.: The relevance of mobile tourism and information
technology: an analysis of recent trends and future research directions. J. Travel Tour. Mark.
34(6), 732–48 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2016.1218403
5. Amerson, K., Rose, J., Lepp, A., Dustin, D.: Time on the trail, smartphone use, and place
attachment among Pacific Crest Trail thru-hikers. J. Leis. Res. 51(3), 308–24 (2020). https://
doi.org/10.1080/00222216.2019.1680264
6. Lepp, A., Rose, J., Amerson, K., Dustin, D.: Thru-hikers’ smartphone use on the Pacific Crest
Trail. Ann. Leis. Res. 0(0), 1–16 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1080/11745398.2021.1993286
7. Kim, H.H., Law, R.: Smartphones in tourism and hospitality marketing: a literature review. J.
Travel Tour. Mark. 32(6), 692–711 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2014.943458
8. Dias, S., Afonso, V.A.: Impact of mobile applications in changing the tourist experience. Eur.
J. Tour. Hosp. Recreat. 11(1), 113–120 (2021)
9. Chen, S., Law, R., Xu, S., Zhang, M.: Bibliometric and visualized analysis of mobile technology
in tourism. Sustainability 12(19), 1–16 (2020)
10. Silva, G., Correia, A., Rachão, S., Nunes, A., Vieira, E., Santos, S., et al.: A methodology
for the identification and assessment of the conditions for the practice of outdoor and sport
tourism-related activities: the case of Northern Portugal. Sustainability 13(13) (2021)
11. Shepherd, C., Johnson Kilty, T., McCoy, D., Bolliger, D.: Navigating tensions associated with
smartphone use in outdoor recreation settings. J. Outdoor Recreat. Educ. Leadersh. 13(3),
35–51 (2021)
12. Hadinejad, A.D., Moyle, B., Scott, N., Kralj, A., Nunkoo, R.: Residents’ attitudes to tourism:
a review. Tour. Rev. 74(2), 157–72 (2019)
13. Castañeda, J.A., Martínez-Heredia, M.J., Rodríguez-Molina, M.Á.: Explaining tourist behav-
ioral loyalty toward mobile apps. J. Hosp. Tour. Technol. 10(3), 445–460 (2019)
14. Gupta, A., Dogra, N., George, B.: Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology What deter-
mines tourist adoption of smartphone apps? An analysis based on the UTAUT-2 framework
“What determines tourist adoption of smartphone apps? An analysis based on the UTAUT-
2 framework” For Authors. J Hosp Tour Technol [Internet] (2018). https://doi.org/10.1108/
JHTT-02-2017-0013
15. Kamboj, S., Joshi, R.: Examining the factors influencing smartphone apps use at tourism
destinations: a UTAUT model perspective. Int. J. Tour. Cities 7(1), 135–157 (2021)
16. Ghaderi, Z., Hatamifar, P., Ghahramani, L.: How smartphones enhance local tourism expe-
riences? Asia Pacific J. Tour. Res. 24(8), 778–88 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/10941665.
2019.1630456
17. Ho, R.C., Amin, M., Ryu, K., Ali, F.: Integrative model for the adoption of tour itineraries from
smart travel apps. J. Hosp. Tour. Technol. 12(2), 372–388 (2021)
18. Kim, J., Thapa, B., Jang, S.: GPS-based mobile exercise application: an alternative tool to
assess spatio-temporal patterns of visitors’ activities in a national park. J. Park. Recreat. Admi.
37(1) (2019)
19. Monz, C., Mitrovich, M., D’Antonio, A., Sisneros-Kidd, A.: Using mobile device data to
estimate visitation in parks and protected areas: an example from the nature reserve of orange
county. California J. Park. Recreat. Admin. 37(4), 92–109 (2019)
20. Miyasaka, T., Oba, A., Akasaka, M., Tsuchiya, T.: Sampling limitations in using tourists’ mobile
phones for GPS-based visitor monitoring. J. Leis. Res. 49(3–5), 298–310 (2018). https://doi.
org/10.1080/00222216.2018.1542526
21. Yun, H.J., Kang, D.J., Lee, M.J.: Spatiotemporal distribution of urban walking tourists by
season using GPS-based smartphone application. Asia Pacific J. Tour. Res. 23(11), 1047–61
(2018). https://doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2018.1513949
22. Huertas A. How live videos and stories in social media influence tourist opinions and behaviour.
Inf Technol Tour [Internet]. 2018;19(1–4):1–28. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40
558-018-0112-0
23. Jiang, S., Scott, N., Tao, L.: Antecedents of augmented reality experiences: potential tourists
to Shangri-La Potatso National Park, China. Asia Pacific J. Tour. Res. 24(10), 1034–45 (2019).
https://doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2019.1653949
24. Kang, S., Jodice, L.W., Norman, W.C.: How do tourists search for tourism information via
smartphone before and during their trip? Tour. Recreat. Res. 45(1), 57–68 (2020). https://doi.
org/10.1080/02508281.2019.1627076
25. Dayour, F., Park, S., Kimbu, A.N.: Backpackers’ perceived risks towards smartphone usage
and risk reduction strategies: A mixed methods study. Tour. Manage. 72, 52–68 (2019). https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2018.11.003
26. Xia, M., Zhang, Y., Zhang, C.: A TAM-based approach to explore the effect of online experience
on destination image: a smartphone user’s perspective. J. Destin. Mark. Manage. 8, 259–70
(2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2017.05.002
27. Warner, R.P., Adanin, K., Szolosi, A.: To use or not to use” understanding mountaineers’
smartphone use in high-alpine environments. J. Leis. Res. 51(4), 452–68 (2020). https://doi.
org/10.1080/00222216.2020.1722043
28. Van Winkle, C.M., Bueddefeld, J.N.H., Halpenny, E.A., MacKay, K.J.: The unified theory of
acceptance and use of technology 2: understanding mobile device use at festivals. Leis. Stud.
38(5), 634–50 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/02614367.2019.1618895
29. Ali, F., Terrah, A., Wu, C., Ali, L., Wu, H.: Antecedents and consequences of user engagement
in smartphone travel apps. J. Hosp. Tour. Technol. 12(2), 355–371 (2021)
30. Podsukhina E, Smith MK, Pinke-Sziva I. A critical evaluation of mobile guided tour apps:
Motivators and inhibitors for tour guides and customers. Tour Hosp Res. 2022;0(0):1–11.
31. Tan, W.K., Chen, Y.C.: Tourists’ work-related smartphone use at the tourist destination: making
an otherwise impossible trip possible. Curr. Issues Tour. 24(11), 1526–41 (2021). https://doi.
org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1814706
Using Technology in Tourism: A Twofold
Supply Perspective
H. A. Sampaio , A. I. Correia , C. Melo , A. Silva , and S. Shehada
Abstract Technology, which has scaffolded tourism development in different ways,

is currently seen as a transformational driver of the industry structure and operations,
affecting markets, tourism agents, management, and marketing practices, along with
competitive strategies. However, and even though there is a prominent positive view,
the use of technology also poses several disadvantages and/or drawbacks to compa-
nies. Therefore, and based on twelve semi-structured interviews, the aim of this study
is to identify and analyse the perceptions of both, tourism agents (companies) and
technology suppliers, about the use of technology in Tourism, and of its advantages,
disadvantages, and challenges. The results reveal the unanimous perception of the
importance of using technology to add value the experience without replacing the
human interaction and emotions. Implications, limitations, and suggestions for future
research will also be presented.b
Keywords Tourism companies · Technology suppliers · Northern Portugal
H. A. Sampaio (B)
Laboratório de Paisagens, Património e Território (Lab2PT), Centro de Investigação,
Desenvolvimento e Inovação em Turismo (CITUR), Instituto Politécnico do Cávado e do Ave,
Barcelos, Portugal
e-mail: hsampaio@ipca.pt
A. I. Correia
Centro de Investigação, Desenvolvimento e Inovação em Turismo (CITUR); Unidade de
Investigação Aplicada à Gestão (UNIAG), Instituto Politécnico de Viana do Castelo, Viana do
Castelo, Portugal
C. Melo
Centro de Investigação para a Valorização de Recursos Endógenos (VALORIZA), Instituto
Politécnico do Porto, Vila do Conde, Portugal
A. Silva
Instituto Politécnico de Viana do Castelo, Viana do Castelo, Portugal
S. Shehada
Faculty of Arts, Department of Archaeology and Civilization, Egyptology, Helwan University,
Cairo, Egypt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_60
678 H. A. Sampaio et al.
1 Introduction
Technology, increasingly existent in tourism, both in the context of destinations [1, 2]

and companies [3], is impacting the industry structure and operations[4]. Different
examples of technology can be found [4, 5], leading to a variety, multiplicity of
applications, and complexity. This reinforces the need to further study how companies
perceive these technologies, its adoption, opportunities, and challenges [6].
Therefore, and based on twelve semi-structured interviews, the aim of this study
is to identify and analyze the perceptions of both, tourism agents and technology
suppliers, about the use of technology in the current situation of COVID-19 and in
the future, its advantages, disadvantages, and challenges.
This study is structured in six sections: introduction, literature review, method-
ology, results, discussions, and conclusions, including some implications, limitations,
and recommendations for future research.
2 Literature Review
Technology has undoubtedly changed the tourism industry structure, business prac-
tices, strategies [7], operation, processes, costs, and management [6], with new
paradigms being introduced in some businesses [8, 9]. Consumers’ monitoring via
social media Big Data Analytics [10], can be a good example of how technology can
be disruptive and innovative compared to traditional forms of offer and consump-
tion [11]. This dynamic technological context affects tourism demand and supply,
requiring a focus on experiences and on innovative value [12].
Several examples of technology can be found in tourism, as location-based
services, artificial intelligence, machine learning, big data, internet of things, smart
devices, robots, drones, sensors, virtual and augmented reality, and biometric data
[4–6, 13].
On one hand, technology affects customers’ behavior and experience, plan-
ning, and purchase of tourist services [14], since information can be reached faster
and [15] shared anytime, anywhere [9]. For example, tourists can get a technology-
enhanced and more personalized experience through gamified mobile experiences
when visiting destinations [16], and/or through artificial intelligence while being
at the destination [12]. On the other hand, technology allows the creation of new
products and new business models [8]. Also, features of connectivity, data, and
smartness [4] can increase the capacity of companies to meet tourists’ evolving
needs, expectations, and motivations [17], to enhance the provision of tourism-related
services and experiences [5], and to improve companies’ information and communi-
cation [4]. Moreover, and depending on the company, robots, automation, and arti-
ficial intelligence can influence competitiveness, management of human resources,
operationality of processes and management of infrastructures, facilities, and costs
[18, 19].
Using Technology in Tourism: A Twofold Supply Perspective 679
Although many literature pinpoints technological benefits for Tourism [11, 20–
23], there are also recognised disadvantages. For example, filtering the accuracy of
digital information might be challenging, and fake information can quickly get viral,
which sometimes might be negative for businesses [24]. Moreover, IT best gadgets
and applications are generally recognized as expensive [25], need maintenance and
actualization [26], and may dehumanize natural destinations and contribute to the
exchange of jobs vacancies by machines and/or technology [27].
Technological engagement increased during the Covid-19 pandemy, especially
with educational [28] or working purposes [29], also with impacts on Tourism [30–
32]. For example, smart technology is being used for monitoring tourist flows, and
to minimize overtourism [33, 34]. Considering the future of the industry, the impact
of technology already leads to the questions if Digital Tourism will replace Mass
Tourism [35] and how it will affect behavioural interaction between stakeholders and
consumers [36].
3 Methodology
This exploratory study used semi-structured interviews for data collection. The inter-
view was conducted in a flexible way, allowing different aspects to be explored [37,
38]. Based on the literature review (e.g., [2–4, 19]), questions were devised to identify
and analyze the perceptions of both, tourism companies and technology suppliers
about the use of technology, its advantages, disadvantages, and challenges.
In total, twelve interviews were conducted. Nine were held with agents from
different areas of the sector, and three were technology suppliers with experience in
supplying (technology for) tourism companies and destinations. The tourism agents
were distributed and coded as follows: 4-star hotel and rural hotel (4SH and RH,
n = 4), leisure-related companies (LRC, n = 3, subdivided in LS—leisure surfing,
LC—leisure cultural and LN—leisure nature), restaurant (R, n = 1), a travel agency
and museum (tourist attraction) (TA and M, n = 1), and a stakeholder with respon-
sibilities in destination planning and management, in particular, in the context of
smart destinations (D, n = 1). The technology suppliers were not codified given their
typology of business.
Companies and respondents were selected through a convenience sampling
method [39]. The tourism agents were selected based on different criteria: the legal
classification and their positioning. In addition to their willingness to participate in the
study, the selected companies are renowned in Minho, northern Portugal, the region
where the interviews were applied. These interviews were conducted in person, from
June 22nd to 26th, 2020 and lasted an average of 50 min each. Regarding the tech-
nology suppliers, and after the respondents’ selection based on their experience in
providing technology to Tourism, interviews were conducted from November 2020
to April 2021 via Zoom. All the interviews were recorded with authorization from
all respondents.
The content of the interviews was transcribed and later analysed with a collabora-
tive software for qualitative analysis (webQDA, www.webqda.com). This software
gives full and flexible control over the data and analysis without bias [40], and has
already been used use in qualitative studies in tourism [41].
A thematic analysis was carried out to identify recurrent messages and domi-
nant themes and relate them to the typology of respondent organization, when rele-
vant. Also, and based on literature [42], a simple frequency count was performed
to summarize the number of times the identified themes were mentioned. Further-
more, the themes which emerged from the global analysis were later cross checked
with the literature review to ensure consistency. Analysis and codification were
conducted by the (multidisciplinary) authors. Codification based on the typology
of the organization was used to ensure the anonymity of the participants [1].
4 Results
4.1 Tourism Agents
All agents were familiar with the use of technology in general, and particularly in
tourism. There were words cited more than one time, namely ‘Robots’ (3x), ‘Facial
recognition’ applications (2x), particularly for customer service, ‘check-in’ proce-
dures (2x) and ‘weather forecasts’ (2 references). Other mentions appear once, like
‘big data’, ‘digital marketing’, ‘robotics’, ‘chatbots’, ‘logistical planning’, ‘machine
learning’ and ‘driverless vehicles’, and are related to the typology of respondents.
A brief initial contextualization was made of the main existing and projected
applications of technology in tourism. When asked about which examples, they
consider most interesting for their activity, they indicated big data (TA, R, D), reser-
vation applications, (self-)check-in and check-out (4SH, RH, R), and augmented
reality (M, LRC), sensors (M), chatbots (LRC) and car parking systems (D). The
main reasons for their answers are related to information optimization and operations
management. The former was mentioned by eight interviewees, given its decisive
role in getting to know customers better, improving, and personalizing service. In
operations management, simplification of procedures and time saving allow users “to
resolve some issues and above all also end up saving time and directing our activity
and our relationship with the customer” (TA).
All respondents mentioned the use of some form of technology in their compa-
nies/organizations, although in different degrees and complexities (Table 1). The
agents of 4SH, M and LBC listed the largest number of technologies. However,
they were greatly concerned about the possible reduction in human interaction and
emphasized the need for personalization and proximity to customers (4SH). The
type of technology used by each of the companies is related to its activity: weather
forecasting applications (LS), audio guides (M) or food automation (R). The specific
Table 1 Technological applications used by the interviewed companies/organizations

Companies/Organizations Technology applications
Museum Audio guides | interactive sensors | interactive displays | 4D movie
Rural hotel Online check-in | online wine and meal menus
4-star hotel QR codes | apps | smart TV | customer relationship management |
newsletter | body temperature measurement by image
Travel agency website analytics | big data
Leisure-related companies Chatbots | weather forecast apps | billing management with
customer history | augmented reality
Restaurant QR codes | online reservation systems | automation systems (food
processing)
Destination Destination dashboard (big data) | flow management apps
use of each of the applications is related to service customization (M, 4SH, LC),
information management (D and TA) and visitors flow management (D).
Moreover, respondents pointed out the main advantages of using technology:
contribution to information management, operations management, market segmen-
tation and attraction of new tourist markets. In information management, technolo-
gies allow agents to “access specialised information (…) about the client” (TA);
and “to achieve better results” (4SH). They also allow “reducing costs and labour”
(TA), “saving time” (LN) and “dematerialising services” (4SH). The segmentation
and attraction of new markets are also advantages, as technology contributes to
knowing “The customer’s profile, what he seeks, main trends, how much he intends
to spend, and allows us to be more assertive” (TA). Moreover, it allows attraction of
specific markets, “people with reduced mobility and intellectual disability, visually
impaired” (M) and adapting “positioning and distribution” to the specific character-
istics of different markets (LC). Reference is also made to the consumer experience,
“richer and differentiated” (M), monitoring of visitor flows (LC, D), cost reduction
(R) and market promotion (LC), and information management (TA, D).
References to human interaction show that the advantages of using technology
do not result in the possible replacement of the human, because in some situations it
is human presence that gives technology its greatest value (M, TA, D).
The disadvantages related to the possible reduction of human interaction are high-
lighted: “Tourism is about feelings, emotions; people look for the experience, sensa-
tions and machines cannot transmit those sensations” (TA). The use of technology
is seen as a complement: “there will always have to be some human contact” (4SH).
Security/privacy issues are also seen as drawbacks: “[we must] be aware of how
we access customer information because we may be invading privacy”; one cannot
“be too invasive, which is also related to data protection” (4SH). From another
perspective, “democratisation and access to information bring a lot of people” and
“those who do sports like to do so with few people around, because they have more
freedom” (LS). The cost of technology is another disadvantage: “it’s not always finan-
cially possible to follow the evolution of technology” (LN). By company/organisation
typology, the results show that maintenance and/or assistance seems to be particularly
relevant for M, but that human interaction is important for TA and HR. The impact of
technology on human resources seems to be more relevant for R and cost/investment
for LRC.
Furthermore, the need for knowledge and/or training in technologies is pointed out
as the main challenge when using technology in tourism, either from the perspec-
tive of the customer (M, TA) or that of human resources (4SH). For customers
to benefit from the technological background, they must have knowledge about it:
“many visitors, not being directed and accompanied, give up because handling these
technologies implies some kind of explanation” (M). In addition, cost is also seen as
a challenge, as “many of these technologies are inaccessible” (LC); “the main chal-
lenge is the investment” (M). Selecting appropriate technologies and monitoring their
evolution are other challenges. It is crucial to “identify the most useful technologies”
and assess the “suitability of their application to certain types of services” (HR). Iden-
tification and evaluation must consider change and evolution, because “technology
is always evolving, while the client wants something modern and attractive” (LC).
Regarding the intention to adopt/reinforce the future use of technology, only one
agent stated that “our objective is to assure human interaction more than techno-
logical components” (RH). The others show interest in adopting other technologies,
underlining apps related to information management and optimisation of consumer
behaviour. Information management through apps is the most mentioned domain that
may contribute to quality and personalised/tailor-made services: “Having a tech-
nology that informs us about the time that a certain client usually has a meal, if
he/she eats dessert (…), would be useful” (R); managing and disclosing internal
information to the hotel team (4SH); analysing markets, allowing updated evalua-
tions, and being more efficient when allocating human resources to different tasks:
“if I need to analyse market trends, I would lose too much time, and I will not be
able to focus on other management aspects or attending clients” (TA). The second-
most mentioned domain relates the potential contribution of technology to enhancing
experiences linked to interactivity and adaptation to specific needs: “In the future we
expect the use of new technologies, interaction of characters; updating the 4D movie
with different languages selected by the users; improving audio guides with sensors
and equipment; making the room more interactive” (M). Real-time and relevant
information offered for tourists help them enjoying the experience better. In addi-
tion, management and monitoring of tourist flows is also mentioned (D), along with
service personalisation, safety, operations, customer management and market anal-
ysis. Information management is the area most underlined by TA, LRC and R and
consumer experience by LRC.
The majority of clients seem receptive to technology, although levels vary
according to the market segment and the price of the product/experience. From
different market segments, “the feedback is positive, especially families with chil-
dren” (M). For seniors or honeymoon tourists “it will depend on the technology”
(TA). Acceptance “depends on the client profile. Some look for sport to disconnect.
Others could easily adhere, even if only for some moments, for example, after doing
sport” (LS). The price also influences acceptance and this is why “we specify what
they can afford when paying” (M). Overall, all the agents underline personalisation
and the human component in attendance as priorities: “our clients still prefer contact
and direct information” (LN), since “clients need to be in a physical space” (TA).
Relating the contribution of technology to recovery after COVID-19, most respon-
dents consider technology important, especially to re-establish consumer confidence
and to promote competitive positioning, “because it can help to distinguish and
promote places that have good security and health policies, especially in Europe”
(LS). Rural Hotel shares this opinion since technology “helps to quickly boost desti-
nations’ image, for example, at the level of Safe & Clean certification, already adver-
tised online”. Technology can also contribute to recovering consumer confidence with
“body temperature reading video cameras with alarm sounds” (4SH). However, “it
is also crucial to have confidence in people, not in technology” (TA). Several compa-
nies recognise the efficiency of technology for recovering tourism activity (8 in 16
references): “it will be decisive to the revival” (LC); “it can facilitate contact with
the client and secure maintenance of activities” (LN); “it can help to quickly reach
important information” (RH) and helps “reinforce confidence” (R).
The main challenges in adopting technology in tourism, costs, and investment, are
the utmost references, tuned to the nature of each company: “Mainly the costs and
access to these technologies. Small companies do not have the financial capacity”
(RH), they “will not have conditions to acquire these tools, maybe at a collective
level” (D). The importance of technical knowledge and training skills in the future
adoption of technologies is also mentioned: “adaptation at the level of skills of
human resources to function with those equipment” (RH); “the challenge will be to
gather necessary conditions to technically and financially create and implement those
technologies” (LS); “training and access to companies that may present solutions”
(R). A list of other challenges, like loss of human interaction, conditioning service
personalisation (TA, M), safety/privacy (4SH), and reaching new markets (TA), is
also referenced. Comparing the analysis of challenges related to implementation
and use of technology until the present/recent past and future uses, the volume of
investment and necessary knowledge are, in both cases, the most relevant challenges.
However, a variation is observed. Future use is based on the dimension of costs, while
past/current use is based on knowledge.
Finally, and regarding the consequences of not adopting technology in tourism,
perceptions are unanimous: companies and destinations lose competitiveness. “There
should be an increasing investment, otherwise they will stop being competitive”
(TA); “they will lose market share” (LN); “it will be even more difficult to catch the
train” (LC). In the COVID-19 context it seems even worse, whereas “companies
not prepared for this reality will experience less demand” (4SH). Furthermore, it is
also assumed that “technology is here to stay and evolve” (LS), due to the “tendency
of tourism modernisation using technology” (M) and “it will also be important to
revitalise urban centres by using new technologies” (M). Technology is perceived as
an easy complement (not a substitute) to operations and experiences, and the need to
adapt the level of technology to each market segment (D). The perspective of 4-star
hotel and leisure surfing supports this idea: “there will always be a public that wants
to disconnect, like others preferring to be online” (4SH) and “we need to know what
clients value more” (LS).
Following to the thematic analysis conducted, several themes emerged: infor-
mation management, markets, customer experience, human interaction, opera-
tions management, cost/investment, service personalisation, flow management and
monitoring, knowledge/formation, security/privacy, management of customer rela-
tion, work markets and/or human resources, customer confidence, promotion
and/or competitive strategic positioning, maintenance and/or assistance, suitability,
technology evolution, and quality of service.
Considering the total amount of references cited by the interviewees, each theme
shows the relation with the specific company/organisation’s activity. More specif-
ically, flow management appears to be more relevant to D, as it was mentioned 9
times. In turn, information management seems to be an important theme for LRC,
with a total of 8 references, whereas consumer experience was mentioned 8 times by
the M interviewee, showing the importance of this theme to this typology of activity.
Information management was mostly referred by interviewees as the main topic
regarding interesting examples of technology to be used in specific contexts of the
tourist sector (both currently and in the future), but also in relation to the advantages
of its use. On the other hand, customer experience and market-related reasons stand
out considering the use of most interesting examples of technology in the future,
its advantages and customer responsiveness to technology “examples”. Regarding
human interaction, interviewees’ answers indicate that this theme is common to
advantages and disadvantages. Human interaction is the differentiating element when
using technology and if it is compromised it is, in fact, considered to be one of the
main disadvantages of its use in tourism. Moreover, operations management is mostly
referred to in the context of advantages of technology, whereas cost/investment is
more often indicated to explain the main challenges of using it in the future, or even
its disadvantages. Also related to challenges are training needs, as interviewees also
highlighted the need for specific knowledge to use technology efficiently. Service
personalisation was mostly referred to when answering questions about advantages
and, also the main challenges of using technology in the sector. In addition, flow
monitoring and management is referred to as both an advantage and among the most
interesting examples of technology.
4.2 Technology Suppliers
Regarding the main areas in which the companies provide technology, respondents
referred mostly to accommodation (particularly small-sized and local-based hotels),
museums and visitor centers, local tourist regions, wine producers with wine tourism
offer, the media sector, and insurance-related companies. Technology in these cases
is mainly used for the digitalization of processes, production of virtual content, and
virtualization of showrooms.
In tourism, technology provided by the interviewees is mainly aimed at automating

processes and supporting customer care and services. On the other hand, technology
seeks to complement visits, making them more interactive and dynamic, to provide
information to consumers, and to support promotion when launching experiences,
and products, reinforcing the interaction with consumers. This operationalization
results from the use of different technology, with augmented reality and virtual reality
being more mentioned, followed by artificial intelligence (through chatbots, virtual
assistants, machine learning), and big data.
As for the advantages, the interviewees’ positive perception is clear. They
include companies’ enhanced competitiveness, as technology allows experiences
and services with more perceived value for customers. Moreover, allows a greater
customization of services, an improvement of tourist experiences, which become
more dynamic and organized, with useful and relevant information. It was also
mentioned that it is possible to preserve memories and heritage, which is highly
beneficial for the industry. In relation to the advantages for the companies, they high-
lighted greater efficiency, with time saving in certain processes, and with an increased
potential to channel consumers from digital to face-to-face contact/purchase, which
is particularly important for small and medium-sized companies.
When asked about the disadvantages, the respondents were unanimous in referring
that technology may create dependence and negatively influence the experience,
especially when overlapping digital and physical information. Also, it allows contents
manipulating and, in turn, behaviors. In this case, disadvantages might occur with
technology misuse. The lack of the human factor and the cost were also mentioned
as having influence in the overall supply.
Finally, and regarding the challenges of technology adoption in the future, the
balance with human factor is a consensual answer. Respondents recognize that tech-
nology does not solve all the problems. However, it is also important to decrease
negativity among those who believe that technology contributes to dehumanization
of services and removes people and emotions from the industry. In addition, there are
also challenges in terms of increasing the credibility of services among some more
traditional audiences, along with customer loyalty. Consumers like and constantly
look for updated content and new experiences. So, if the technological solutions do
not evolve, they will not repeat their visits. However, and considering the companies’
side, the need for continuous maintenance and content evolution, prove to be real
challenges, even more when high costs are associated.
5 Discussion
According to the thematic analysis conducted, and when cross-checked with the
literature review, in general, the results are in line with the literature review. The
results of both tourism and technology-related companies show that respondents are
familiar with technology in tourism in general [4–6, 9, 12–16], with chatbots, big
data, augmented reality and processes automation being the most cited examples, in
accordance with some authors [4–6].
These perceptions about technology may be related to the specificities of each
tourism-related company/organization’s activity, as is also highlighted in the avail-
able literature, since it requires a new focus on tourist’s experiences [12]. This is also
evident in the scope of this study, considering the particular examples mentioned by
the different interviewees.
Additionally, all recognize the potential application of technology in different
areas of the industry and associate its usefulness with their operations and manage-
ment. It is generally perceived that its use can improve the company’s performance
in different tourism activities, as underlined by Lamsfus et al. [18] or Ivanov and
Webster [19]. Companies can improve their ability to create new offers and enhance
their services and their customers’ personalized experiences [8, 11].
The main advantages cited are information and operations and destination
management [18, 19], and issues associated with markets [14, 17], like segmentation,
the capture of new tourist markets and customer experience. The use of technology
is relevant to attract digital users to physical services. These results are in line with
the literature review, notably in collecting and processing large amounts of informa-
tion [4] and reaching customers more quickly [18], influencing consumer behavior
[36] and planning the tourism supply [14]. Furthermore, in this study, technologies
are seen to add value to tourism supply [2]. Nevertheless, even without denying or
resisting the introduction of technologies, the worth of the human aspect is under-
lined in this study. The human component is not replaced by technology [19], but
the opposite in some cases, as it is human presence that adds the greatest value to
technology. This idea is also present by the statements that technology can be applied
to co-create tourist value, and to improve customer relationship, as cited by Sigala
et al. [4].
As for the disadvantages, the results underline the existing concern about the
possible reduction of human interaction [27] and rotation of staff/human resources
[18, 19], the cost of technology [18] and safety/privacy-related issues [11]. Risks
of information sharing are identified by Buhalis and Amaranggana [17], which
reinforces the importance of these issues for tourism and technology stakeholders.
The main challenges are associated with the cost of acquisition and selection of the
most interesting and suitable technology. These results are in line with other studies
that note the importance of investing in technology to create and/or reinforce service
quality and competitivenesss [18], to add value to customers’ experiences consid-
ering sustainability and local welfare [2] and to gather information suitable to obtain
customers’ profile, enabling products and more accurate service recommendations
[17]. Other challenges are also indicated, such as conditioning service personal-
ization. Personalization is also a relevant aspect put forward in the literature since
it allows real-time monitoring and optimization of experiences [17]. Technology
can trigger the empowerment of experiences and value co-creation throughout the
different stages of travel [11]. This study also revealed that the challenges perceived
depend on the nature of the company/organization.
The results show that tourism and companies already use certain forms of tech-
nology, although with different degrees and complexity. All these examples of usage
are referred to in the literature review, particularly QR codes and online check-in,
for instance, regarding activity recommendation systems, the use of mobile devices,
or marketing [11, 18].
Technology is important to the recovery of customer confidence, and it is perceived
as a competitive advantage during, and in the post-COVID-19 scenario [43] and is
regarded as especially useful in strategic positioning for companies and destinations.
Considering the inevitable technological progress and its increasing use in tourism,
companies and destinations that do not adopt it in the future will lose competitiveness
[18]. Nevertheless, its use in the future is dependent of costs [19]. However, it should
be considered the balance between technology and human resources [18, 19], the
experience of interaction with people [36], costs [7, 18, 19], and the constant necessity
of upgrades, formation, and specialization regarding technology development [26].
Given the current pandemic situation and its significant impact on the tourist
industry, the data provided can help companies to identify and implement different
initiatives, such as training on the range, diversity, trends, and applicability of tech-
nologies that can be used in the industry, given the inherent importance of people
[34].
References
1. Stalidis, G., Karapistolis, D., Vafeiadis, A.: Marketing decision support using Artificial Intel-
ligence and Knowledge Modeling: application to tourist destination management. Proc. Soc.
Behav. Sci. 175, 106–113 (2015)
2. Tsaih, R. H., Hsu, C. C.: Artificial intelligence in smart tourism: a conceptual framework. In:
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Electronic Business—ICEB, December
2–6, Guilin, China, AIS Electronic Library, pp. 124–133 (2018)
3. Law, R., Buhalis, D., Cobanoglu, C.: Progress on information and communication technologies
in hospitality and tourism. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manag. 26(5), 727–750 (2014)
4. Sigala, M.: New technologies in tourism: from multi-disciplinary to anti-disciplinary advances
and trajectories. Tour. Manag. Perspect. 25, 151–155 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.
2017.12.003
5. Stankov, U., Gretzel, U.: Tourism 4.0 technologies and tourist experiences: a human-centered
design perspective. Inf. Technol. Tour. 0123456789 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40558-
020-00186-y
6. Ivanov, S., Webster, C.: Robots in tourism: a research agenda for tourism economics. Tour.
Econ. 26(7), 1065–1085 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1177/1354816619879583
7. Buhalis, D., Leung, D., Law, R.: ETourism: critical information and communication tech-
nologies for tourism destinations. In: Wang, Y., Pizam, A. (eds.) Destination Marketing
and Management: Theories and Applications, pp. 205–224, United States of America, CAB
International (2011). https://doi.org/10.1079/9781845937621.0205
8. Paunov, C., Planes-Satorra, S.: How are digital technologies changing innovation?: Evidence
from agriculture, the automotive industry and retail. In: OECD Science, Technology and
Industry Policy Papers, 74. Paris, OECD Publishing (2019)
9. Cristiana, P.: The tourism industry and the use of internet. Ann. Univ. Oradea Econ. Sci. Ser.
17(2), 344–347 (2008)
10. Miah, S.J., Vu, H.Q., Gammack, J., McGrath, M.: A Big data analytics method for tourist
behaviour analytics. Inf. Manag. 54, 771–785 (2016)
11. Buhalis, D.: Technology in tourism—from information communication technologies to
eTourism and smart tourism towards ambient intelligence tourism: a perspective article. Tour.
Rev. 75(1), 267–272 (2020)
12. Grundner, L., Neuhofer, B.: The bright and dark sides of artificial intelligence: a futures perspec-
tive on tourist destination experiences. J. Destin. Mark. Manag. 19, 100511 (2021). https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2020.100511
13. Kang, B., Brewer, K.P., Bai, B.: Biometrics for hospitality and tourism: a new wave of
information technology. Hosp. Rev. 25(1), 1–9 (2007)
14. Minazzi, R., Mauri, A. G.: Mobile technologies effects on travel behaviours and experiences:
a preliminary analysis. In: Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism 2015,
pp. 507–521, Switzerland, Springer International Publishing (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/
978-3-319-14343-9_37
15. Alexis, P., Buhalis, D.: Exploring the information and communication technologies revolution
and visioning the future of tourism, travel and hospitality industries. Int. J. Tour. Res. 9(5),
385–387 (2007)
16. Garcia, A., Linaza, M.T., Gutierrez, A., Garcia, E.: Gamified mobile experiences: smart tech-
nologies for tourism destinations. Tour. Rev. 74(1), 30–49 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-
08-2017-0131
17. Buhalis, D., Amaranggana, A.: Smart tourism destinations enhancing tourism experience
through personalisation of services. In: Tussyadiah, I., Inversini, A. (eds.) Information and
Communication Technologies in Tourism 2015, pp. 377–389. Springer, Switzerland (2015)
18. Lamsfus, C., Martín, D., Alzua-Sorzabal, A., Torres-Manzanera, E.: Smart tourism destina-
tions: an extended conception of smart cities focusing on human mobility. In: Tussyadiah, I.,
Inversini, A. (eds.) Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism, pp. 153–162.
Springer International Publishing, Cham (2015)
19. Ivanov, S., Webster, C.: Robots in tourism: a research agenda for tourism economics. Tour.
Econ. 26(7), 1065–1085 (2019)
20. Buhalis, D., Law, R.: Progress in information technology and tourism management: 20 years
on and 10 years after the Internet. Tour. Manag. 29(4), 609–623 (2008)
21. Wang, D., Li, X., Li, Y.: China “smart tourism destination” initiative: a taste of the service-
dominant logic. J. Destin. Mark. Manag. 2(2), 59–61 (2013)
22. Del, G., Baggio, R.: Knowledge transfer in smart tourism destinations: analyzing the effects
of a network structure. J. Destination Market. Manag. 4(3), 145–150 (2015)
23. Huang, C.D., Goo, J., Nam, K., Woo, C.: Smart tourism technologies in travel planning: the
role of exploration and exploitation. Inf. Manag. 54(6), 757–770 (2017)
24. Abbasian Fereidouni, M. A., Kawa, A.: Dark side of digital transformation in tourism. In:
Nguyen, N., Gaol, F., Hong, T. P., Trawiński, B. (eds.) Intelligent Information and Database
Systems (ACIIDS 2019) [Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence, 11432], pp. 510–518. Springer
Nature Switzerland, Cham (2019)
25. Chih-Yao, L.: The integration and development of the leisure and hospitality information system
module with the embedded technology. Int. J. Comput. Sci. Eng. 3(5), 1986–1994 (2011)
26. Jungsun, K., Hardin, A.: The impact of virtual worlds on word-of-mouth: improving social
networking and servicescape in the hospitality industry. J. Hosp. Market. Manag. 19(7), 735–
753 (2010)
27. Arias Castañeda, E.: Reflections about the technification and dehumanization of tourist services.
Revista de Turismo em Análise 28(2), 245–253 (2017)
28. Afonso, P., Trindade, B., Santos, D., Pocinho, R., Silveira, P., Silva, P.: Teachers’ adaptation to
technologies during the pandemic by COVID-19. In: García-Peñalvo, F. J., García-Holgado,
A. (eds.) Eighth International Conference on Technological Ecosystems for Enhancing Multi-
culturality (TEEM’20), pp. 817–820, Association for Computing Machinery, New York
(2020)
29. Syvänen, S., Loppela, K.: Remote and technology-based dialogic development during the
covid-19 pandemic: positive and negative experiences. challenges, and learnings. Challenges
13(2), 1–24 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/challe13010002
30. Gössling, S., Scott, D., Hall, C.M.: Pandemics, tourism and global change: a rapid assessment
of COVID-19. J. Sustain. Tour. 29(1), 1–20 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2020.
1758708
31. UNWTO.: COVID-19: UNWTO calls on tourism to be part of recovery plans (2020a). https://
www.unwto.org/news/covid-19-unwto-calls-on-tourism-to-be-part-of-recovery-plans
32. UNWTO.: International tourist arrivals could fall by 20–30% in 2020 (2020b). https://www.
unwto.org/news/international-tourism-arrivals-could-fall-in-2020
33. Capocchi, A., Vallone, C., Pierotti, M., Amaduzzi, A.: Overtourism: a literature review to
assess implications and future perspectives. Sustainability 11(12), 3303 (2019). https://doi.
org/10.3390/su11123303
34. Trunfio, M., Pasquinelli, C.: Smart technologies in the Covid-19 crisis: managing tourism flows
and shaping visitors’ behaviour. Eur. J. Tour. Res. 29, 2910 (2021)
35. Akhtar, N., Khan, N., Mahroof Khan, M., Ashraf, S., Hashmi, M.S., Khan, M.M., Hishan, S.S.:
Post-COVID 19 tourism: will digital tourism replace mass tourism? Sustainability 13, 5352
(2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/su13105352
36. Yan, H., Wei, H., Wei, M.: Exploring tourism recovery in the post-COVID-19 period: an
evolutionary game theory approach. Sustainability 13, 9162 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/
su13169162
37. Rubin, H.J., Rubin, I.S.: Qualitative Interviewing: The Art of Hearing Data. Sage, California
(2011)
38. Smith, S. L. J.: Practical Tourism Research (2nd ed). CABI International, Oxfordshire (2017)
39. Robinson, O.C.: Sampling in interview-based qualitative research: a theoretical and practical
guide. Qual. Res. Psychol. 11(1), 25–41 (2014)
40. Souza, F. N., Costa, A. P., Moreira, A.: Análise de dados qualitativos suportada pelo software
WebQDA. In: VII Conferência Internacional de TIC na Educação: Perspetivas de Inovação,
pp. 49–56. Universidade do Minho, Braga (2011)
41. Costa, C., Bakas, F.E., Breda, Z., Durão, M.: ‘Emotional’ female managers: how gendered
roles influence tourism management discourse. J. Hosp. Tour. Manag. 33, 149–156 (2017)
42. Stepchenkova, S., Zhan, F.: Visual destination images of Peru: comparative content analysis of
DMO and user-generated photography. Tour. Manag. 36, 590–601 (2013)
43. Sigala, M.: Tourism and COVID-19: impacts and implications for advancing and resetting
industry and research. J. Bus. Res. 117, 312–321 (2020)
AR-Based Resources to Train
Computational Thinking Skills
Lazaro Lima, Francisco Saraiva, Luis Gonzaga Magalh aes,

Pedro Rangel Henriques, and Alexandre Cardoso
Abstract Learning and teaching computer programming is a challenge for everyone

because it requires persistence and dedication. Nowadays, Computational Thinking
is accepted as an essential skill to overcome those challenges. In this paper, we
propose two Augmented Reality (AR) environments that create representations of
complex programming constructs displaying engageable and playful activities that
can be executed fast and do not require a great mental load. They are intended to
be used as Learning Resources to train people in CT. The artifacts enable people to
explore CT concepts and diverse problem-solving approaches in a subtle way. These
artifacts include two simple AR-based activities, easy to handle and visualize based
on “see-through video”. We argue that by interacting with these artifacts, users can
acquire CT problem-solving skills. Those two learning activities supported by AR
provide visual representations and interactivity to engage students while training CT.
We also describe an experiment to test both artifacts. The experiment was carried out
with 12 participants of different ages and education levels. The results of feedback
collected was positive.
Keywords Augmented reality · Learning resource · Learning active · Mobile

device · Computational thinking
L. Lima (B)
Instituto Federal de Brasilia, Brasilia, DF, Brasil
e-mail: lazaro.lima@ifb.edu.br
F. Saraiva · L. G. M. aes · P. R. Henriques
Centro ALGORITMI, Universidade do Minho, Braga, Portugal
e-mail: lmagalhaes@dsi.uminho.pt
P. R. Henriques
e-mail: prh@di.uminho.pt
A. Cardoso
Universidade Federal de Uberlandia, Uberlandia, MG, Brasil
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_61
692 L. Lima et al.
1 Introduction
The Researcher Jeannette Wing consolidated the term CT(Computational Thinking)

in work [11], which defends that it is essential to develop skills related to PC concepts
to better solve complex problems. Training CT requires perseverance, repetition and
engagement. The concepts that characterize of CT are identified in Fig. 1.
The algorithm is a correct sequence of instructions for solving a problem. Com-
bining the abstraction, decomposition, pattern recognition abilities with the logical
reasoning, it is possible to build the Algorithm. After successfully building the algo-
rithm, instructions shall be translated into a programming language to obtain the
problem solution. After running the program, it is important to analyze the output
and the process and, if necessary, revisit the previous steps to improve the proposed
solution. However, training those abilities is hard and requires appropriate resources.
The author [1] defined AR as virtual information integrated into a real environment
in real time. In the papers by [3, 9] Augmented Reality (AR) is applied to teaching
programming.
The author [2] define types of AR Display Technology, which depend on the prox-
imity of display mediums. Handheld AR is a common method that uses smartphones
Fig. 1 Ct Concepts supporting the development of artifacts

AR-Based Resources to Train Computational Thinking Skills 693
and tablets to show AR content. Another is using headsets that are classified as opti-
cal see-through and video see-through like Hololens our Google Glass. However,
the last one although very effective is an expensive technology thinking about use
in public schools. The challenge of the first activity is to create a virtual monster
by executing a sequence of steps. Both resources support a Plugged Activity, using
mobile devices guided with audio instructions. The second activity is a game about
driving virtual Shrews, friendly small characters, in a 3-D labyrinth aiming at helping
them to travel from a start position to an end position overcoming all the obstacles
found along the way.
This, the paper describes in Sect. 2 some works related with our project; Sect. 3
discusses the ideas and motivations that lead to the project; then Sects. 4 and 5 present
the artifacts developed; before concluding in Sects. 7 and 6 discusses the results
obtained in an experiment conducted after the development of both pedagogical
tools.
2 Related Work
Since the popularization of AR technology, society has been interested in developing

new teaching methods. Wing [11] said that CT would influence all fields of action,
thus raising the educational challenge of our society. We have to think and develop the
idea of creating new teaching/learning tools appropriate for training CT. The author
also shows how social media has added a new industry segment to our economy,
investing in Virtual and AR technologies.
In the evolution of technologies, [10], presents an augmented reality (AR)-
enhanced learning system that offers visual representation and interactivity to help
students learn programming for 3D applications. The author demonstrates in his
work results that, with the AR, the students had better learning efficiency than the
common system. In addition, the author’s work claims that students have a better
perception of usability, flow and usage.
In the sense of what [4] discuss in terms of programming, we cannot simply
follow a traditional system of exposing the syntax and semantics of a language.
It is necessary to carry out a constant and individual assessment drawing a profile
of the students’ skills. The author presents a system that suggests exercises and
automatically evaluates the results so that the teacher has key information to increase
student motivation and success. It is observed in this work that tasks repeated in a
different way, those directly linked to programming, demonstrate here the concepts
of CT being trained.
Coming then to two recent works by [9] with RoboTIC and [8], different com-
ponents that are integrated in the RoboTIC architecture are provided thanks to the
use of AR and game mechanics designed to motivate students, but the presented
system has a high-cost wearable equipment. The works by [5, 6] suggests how to
use RoboTIC in the classroom, first explaining the concept of programming and then
694 L. Lima et al.
letting students play the related game level to check if they really understand this
concept.
The challenges of learning programming can be reduced by using tools and graph-
ical representations associating real-world elements with specific programming con-
cepts. So, the main ideia is to transform those complex concepts of programming
associating them with metaphors easily created AR. It is important to highlight the
future work suggested in the referenced papers confirms that we are on the right path.
Actually the authors pointed out the need to work on a fundamental axis, which is
the exploration of AR environments on mobile devices with current technologies,
such as: ARCore, ARKit, Vuforia, etc.
In common in the related works, we identified some gaps that align Augmented
Reality and ontology to guide the development of activities that impact on program-
ming learning. Students find it difficult to assemble mental models to solve ordinary
problems.
In the next section we will show how we associate the activities of the artifacts
with the skills to be developed in the CT.
3 Projecting AR artifacts to train CT
The learning activities projected and discussed in the paper demand from the students
the use of CT keys. To limit the scope of this work, artifacts developed and presented
here were constructed using Handheld AR techniques as illustrated in the general
architecture depict in Fig. 2.
The idea is to plan activities in which the user will have to make choices and
to take decisions according to a strategy resorting to mechanism like abstraction,
decomposition, logic reasoning, pattern recognition, etc. The methodology used in
this research will be Design Science Research (or Constructive Research) [7]. The
DSR consists of a sequence of activities that produces an innovative product. With
Fig. 2 Architecture of artifacts

the artifact created it is possible for the researcher to better understand the problem
and assess the approach adopted. In this way, it is possible to improve the quality of
the solution attained in a loop until developing an effective final artifact.
So for developing this artifact using the DSR methodology, Hevner suggests seven
guidelines to follow: Problem identification and Motivation; Objectives of a Solution;
Design and Development (creation of the artifact); Demonstration (use in appropriate
environment); Evaluation (performance of the artifact); Communication.
We developed the application “Make Your Hero in AR” that was designed with
the objective of carrying out learning activities based on the key characteristics of
CT. The artifact allows to create different 3D heroes and change their attributes using
Markers as cards. In this App, AR is not only used to display information, but also
the environment is used for interaction. The user plays with cards to interact and
chosen the character’s attributes. Heroes created can be saved and then exported as
a QR-Code to be imported later on in a different device.
The challenge proposed by the Shrews game is the conduction of a friendly small
character, in a 3-D labyrinth aiming at helping him to travel from a start position to
an end position overcoming all the obstacles found along the way. The player must
interact with the virtual scene shown(three different scenarios are available, by now)
through virtual buttons that activate movement instructions or actuate on drilling
tools to cope with obstacles appearing in the scene.
Thinking about reducing energy consumption, we prefer not to use wireless tech-
nologies to exchange information between devices. This is possible through saving
the information produced in JSON format then using this information to create a QR-
Code to be read by another device. Important to note that activities use the Camcorder
and consume more energy from the device.
QR-Code is generated with the information that the user has customized using
the markers. The option to use the camera to read the information of another device
is only available when turned on. After reading a valid QR-Code, this routine is
suspended to not consume power with a script that uses the camera. The use of
interactive menus with buttons before the activity avoids using the camera reducing
power consumption, reducing also the camera usage to two moments: in Learning
Activity with AR and in QR-code reading.
To implement the ideas, we use Unity 3-D® v.2018.4. The tool is useful to build
AR systems supported by the Vuforia® library version 9.8. To create JSON files,
we use the Newton soft library and to exchange information between applications,
use QR-Code with ZWING library. The technologies chosen make possible to create
scripts using the C# language to operate in the interface layer created by Unity3D;
they also enable the use of libraries capable of generating visual information through
QR-Codes. The next sections discuss in more detail these artifacts that were created
to fit the concepts of CT using AR.
696 L. Lima et al.
4 Make Your Hero to Train CT
CT is based on some key concepts such as Logical Reasoning, Algorithm Design,

Decomposition, Pattern Recognition, Abstraction and Evaluation. As the objective is
to train CT skills in a Learning Activity, the idea is to focus on the thought processes.
With this activity, the user will experience and explore an AR Activity aiming at
customizing characters, recreating a character or creating a new one randomly. The
key concepts associated with CT can be explored and improved while playing with
“Make Your Hero” as explained in the sequel. Pattern Recognition: interacting with
the cards, players will start recognizing patterns. Decomposition: The challenge is
to create a hero with some attributes, such as choosing hero, scale, special effects
and color. Algorithm: The objective of the activity is to follow the ordered steps
and use the modifier cards to customize a character, like in an algorithm, performing
a sequence of elementary instructions , like in an algorithm, performing a sequence
of elementary instructions; Abstraction: It is important to abstract how put cards
to interact. Also the perspective view of AR to visualize the character in all angles
gives the user the sense of analysis. Therefore, that artifact promotes CT practices
in the following ways: Creating, designing and making heroes; Explore, Try and
play with AR; Debugging: the challenge of building the hero correctly; Persevering:
being able to end up with a complete hero ready to be saved; Collaborating: swap
and compare heroes using QR-Codes.
With this game it is possible to create different characters with different effects,
colors and sizes using six cards. Save created characters for comparison with other
users. Use QR-Code to export/read created characters. The developed activity has
two ways; create a custom hero or visualize a randomly generated character. In the
activity of creating a character, the user is free to chosen and customize their hero. In
the Random Menu routine, we have the challenge of configuring a character with the
same characteristics that the system generated. We present here a system designed to
be appropriate for training the concepts of CT using AR for mobile devices and cards
as tangible objects. To use the system, it is necessary to have the Markers printed for
interaction, there are six in total.
The printed markers are used as Game Cards for interaction through the routine
that guides the user through information that appears on the screen. The activity of
creating a character has five steps: Place Card Player 1 and/or 2; Place the Skin card
and chosen one of the available characters; Place the Power card to choose which
effect will be displayed; Place Scale card to change size and display; Place Color
card to change RGB colors. The sequence of letters for interaction in AR were fixed,
relating to the concept of algorithm flow sequence. Users can create and save two
characters in same time. After choosing the characteristics, they can export their
character through a generated QR-Code and the character information is loaded on
another device.
Only with the combination of Player cards with the modifier cards (character,
scale, color, and power), the system shows panels for changing the character’s
attributes. To create more combination options, we have 4 scales of size levels,
Fig. 3 List of basic heroes available and panel to change character
Fig. 4 Scene of button to randomize hero and example of randomize attributes
19 characters, 10 types of Power (effects), and even the possibility of colors using
10 colors (Fig. 3).
In the Fig. 4 show two scenarios of Make Your Hero in different moments of
game execution, when the user presses the button, the system with its randomization
functions generates information of all the attributes that we can customize in the
activity. The textual information is presented for each attribute generated, and the
concept of abstraction is being explored.
The user can generate as many times as he wants, when they press the “Play”
button, the system will open the camera for the user to explore the Cards in AR. In the
Random menu, the character will be generated directly and associated with “Player 1
card” and the challenge is to reproduce a character with the same characteristics as the
character generated randomly. This plugged Learning Activity, using the concepts of
CT, demonstrate that using few printed Markers for AR interaction, have a multitude
of character customization options. At last, the application can export information
in QR-code format and students can and exchange characters between devices. This
activity can also be used to create stories and use custom characters as protagonists,
involving other educational content. This can be applied in areas such as History,
where the teacher with students can create scenarios and reproduce moments using
mobile devices that have a camera and printed markers. In the next section, we will
present another kind of AR game developed with the key concepts of CT.
698 L. Lima et al.
Fig. 5 Shrews main menu levels
5 Shrews Game
Shrews is a puzzle game that uses AR to train skills related to CT. The objective is
to guide a friendly little character that must help his friends to get out of mazes with
various barriers, and travel from a starting position to a final position, overcoming
all obstacles encountered along the way. The game was developed with the objective
of being easy to access and cheap so that the idea can be developed impacting the
training of CT. The player needs only an android device to install an application and
a printed image. As a way of simplifying the combination of markers, a game board
approach was used. Instead of printing the three markers individually, one simple
image with all the markers aligned in the correct order was conceived, easing the
setup to start playing the game (Fig. 5).
Playable stages open the camera to start tracking the game board and displaying
virtual buttons. Virtual buttons are the form of input that players must use to interact
to play the game, by placing their hand over the objects/buttons with the camera
registering the input. To start playing, the player must press the play button, thus
starting the timer in one corner of the screen and the score in another. Three different
challenges have been developed: “Beginner”, “Medium” and “Advanced”.
The scoring system is simple, moving the builder Shrew gives 1 point, performing
an action gives 10 points, with the time taken to perform the challenge also impacting
the score. While playing the game, moving the builder and performing actions, the
changes are directly reflected onto the AR. This map allows the user to find different
paths and use different actions to cross the obstacles. Figure 6 shows the possible
paths and actions to cross the map and reach the exit. The three levels have different
challenges to simulate players. The beginner being a level to familiarize the player
with the game and tools available. The medium presents a direct obstacle that must
be overcome by the player with what they learned in the previous level and explore
Fig. 6 Tools to cope with obstacles in Shrews: 1-bridge 2-ramp and 3-tunnel
Fig. 7 One of many solution in game
the tool interactions with the blocks. The advanced level has the more complex map
structure, being composed of all types of cubes and limiting the mobility of the
player to think about the best strategy of moving out and reach the exit and to test
their knowledge of the information absorbed from the previews levels (Fig. 7).
In the game presented here, CT concepts can be associated with attributes of the
game:
Abstraction: Visualize the challenge map and work out the best exit route for the
character by analyzing the tools, movement and blocks;
Pattern Recognition: identification of the functions that the virtual buttons perform
and how they interact with the blocks, with each button only working in certain
blocks and with different rules;
Decomposition: The main character must overcome one obstacle at a time, by
decomposing the big puzzle into pieces, each block presents an obstacle and problem
to solve with the tools available;
700 L. Lima et al.
Algorithm: The sequence of steps to solve the puzzle, with so many different ways
of solving it, each player has their own algorithm to create and take the Shrews to
the exit.
6 Experimental Results, Discussion and Limitations
To evaluate the activities and their usability, the experiments were designed and pre-
sented to a class of postgraduate students of a portuguese university. The participants
were 12 students aged over 22 and under 35 years, 5 men and 7 women. The profile
of the participants in the experiment is peculiar; they are investigating new ways
to assist in teaching of informatics. The experiments were presented to a class of
students that part was connected through video streaming and another part of the
face-to-face class. After explaining how artifacts work, the participants started the
activities with the tools. Some guidelines have been provided to help on an easy usage
of the games. After 30 min of use, the participants were asked to answer a post-test,
aiming to assess the functionality, behavior, and usability of the proposed games.
The questionnaire answers collected tell us that all the participants were already
familiarized with AR. In the matter of preferring using a mobile APP instead of
traditional keyboard and mouse, the feedback was positive, but also showed interest
in merging both approaches. Concerning “Make Your Hero”, all participants found
the task of creating the characters easy to use, with also positive feedback on being
able to create one with defined attributes. All participants understood how the cards
and the interaction buttons on the interface are used. About the Shrews game, the
post-test answers tell us that the participants understood the three levels of difficulty
and asked for more challenges. Of the participants, 50% said they would like to use
this type of tool to understand the concepts related to CT, but there are still 25% with
no definitive answer. 50% out of the Participants would like to have the app installed
on their mobile phone; everyone would recommend it to friends. For instance, one of
the Participants said: “The interface is intuitive, the project is interesting. There are
infinite possibilities for applying the project in the classroom. Congratulations!”. The
pandemic created by the SARS-Cov 2 virus has converted many classes into online
classes. However the experiment prepared can still be performed in this situation and
can be done by students at home.
7 Conclusion and Future Work
The two artifacts introduced along the paper train the key concepts of Computa-
tional Thinking that we believe crucial to programming. The studies and tests made
to collect and analyze data and feedback about the user experience while playing
with our Resources showed that, the overall opinion given is very positive. Out of all
the participants, the general opinion is that the Shrews Video Game is a very good
and interesting concept, that the use of AR was fun and CT skills were nurtured
and used for solving the puzzles presented to them. The studies and tests made to
collect and analyze data and feedback about the user experience while playing with
our Resources so far introduced showed that, the overall opinion was very positive
and encouraging. The concepts presented by Make Your Hero and the challenge
and puzzles offered by Shrews evidenced their interest and evolve potential to grow
larger as learning tools. The observation along the experiments allowed to learn
how people’s interactions are different from one to another. Participants used the
system from different perspectives. Some participants moved around the marker to
see the 3D environment and solve the problem; other participants logically test the
behavior patterns of the presented tools. Summing up, we demonstrate that creating
adequate AR-based tools to train CT help to better understand a problem, analyze
it, and devise solutions in a digital society. To solve the challenges, users perform
actions that rely on skills related to CT, like: abstraction, where unnecessary details
are removed to better understand the problems. CT skills are nowadays accepted an
essential to overcome those challenges. After abstracting the essence of a problem,
participants have to apply decomposition, dividing a problem into smaller parts so
that the complexity decreases. Pattern recognition, is the ability of recognizing sim-
ilarities among known problems and the proposed one to reuse solutions. Another
characteristic identified in the experiments is the low mental load to carry out the
activities. In the two artifacts presented, users get involved with the playful game
in a light way, performing easily the proposed actions. The activities were designed
to be short , i.e. they can be completed without great effort or long time, avoiding
time consuming and complex tasks leading to disinterest. The problem of identifying
touches on the marker is something that the AR library used in the second artifact
still needs improvement. Regarding the research question presented in this work, “Is
it possible to improve CT skills through activities developed with AR?” it can be said
that the experiment conducted, even the small number of participants, showed that
it is more interesting for students to build metaphors to explore skills of the CT. Of
course, more experimental work is needed. Actually we have to collect more data to
better confirm the AR resources effectiveness. For that purpose, new artifacts based
on Augmented Reality technology using the concepts of CT will be developed.
References
1. Azuma, R.T.: A survey of augmented reality. Presence: Teleoperators Virtual Environ. 6(4),
355–385 (1997)
2. Billinghurst, M., Clark, A., Lee, G.: A survey of augmented reality. Found. Trends® Human-
Comput. Interact. 8(2–3), 73–272 (2015)
3. Cleto, B., Sylla, C., Ferreira, L., Moura, J.M.: CodeCubes: Coding with Augmented Reality.
In: Queirós, R., Portela, F., Pinto, M., Simões, A. (eds.) First International Computer Program-
ming Education Conference (ICPEC 2020), volume 81 of OpenAccess Series in Informatics
(OASIcs), pages 7:1–7:9, Dagstuhl. Schloss Dagstuhl-Leibniz-Zentrum für Informatik, Ger-
many (2020)
702 L. Lima et al.
4. Figueiredo, J. and García-Peñalvo, F. J. (2018). Building skills in introductory programming. In:

Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Technological Ecosystems for Enhanc-
ing Multiculturality, TEEM’18, pp. 46–50. New York, NY, USA. Association for Computing
Machinery
5. Gardeli, A., Vosinakis, S.: Arquest: a tangible augmented reality approach to developing com-
putational thinking skills. In: 2019 11th International Conference on Virtual Worlds and Games
for Serious Applications (VS-Games), pp. 1–8. Los Alamitos, CA, USA. IEEE Computer Soci-
ety
6. Gardeli, A., Vosinakis, S.: The effect of tangible augmented reality interfaces on teaching
computational thinking: a preliminary study. In: Auer, M.E., Tsiatsos, T. (eds.) The Challenges
of the Digital Transformation in Education, pp. 673–684. Springer International Publishing,
Cham (2020)
7. Hevner, A.R., March, S.T., Park, J., Ram, S.: Design science in information systems research.
Manag. Inf. Syst. Q. 28(1), 6 (2008)
8. Schez-Sobrino, S., Gmez-Portes, C., Vallejo, D., Glez-Morcillo, C., Redondo, M.A.: An intel-
ligent tutoring system to facilitate the learning of programming through the usage of dynamic
graphic visualizations. Appl. Sci. 10(4), 1518 (2020)
9. Schez-Sobrino, S., Vallejo, D., Glez-Morcillo, C., Redondo, M.A., Castro-Schez, J.J.: Robotic:
a serious game based on augmented reality for learning programming. Multimed. Tools Appl.
79(45), 34079–34099 (2020)
10. Teng, C.-H., Chen, J.-Y., Chen, Z.-H.: Impact of augmented reality on programming language
learning: efficiency and perception. J. Educ. Comput. Res. 56(2), 254–271 (2018)
11. Wing, J.M.: Computational thinking and thinking about computing. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A:
Math., Phys. Eng. Sci. 366(1881), 3717–3725 (2008)
International Mobility Flows
and COVID-19 Effects: Evidence
from Instituto Politécnico de Bragança
Isabel M. Lopes , Luís S. Pais , and Paula Odete Fernandes
Abstract Facing the difficulties and the new challenges that COVID-19 has created
for Higher Education Institutions (HEIs), the future needs to analyse and reflect on
this crisis. Considering the increasing value of international mobility in Portuguese
HEIs in the last decades, this research aims to study the effect of the COVID-19
pandemic on the flow of student and faculty mobility. Since international students,
as well as teaching staff mobility, are an asset for many HEIs, this study will be
applied to the Instituto Politécnico de Bragança (IPB), an institution located in the
interior of Portugal where the weight of international students is quite significant. The
paper provides an overview of the mobility flows between the period 2004/2005 and
the 2020/2021 academic year. According to the findings obtained, the restrictions on
international physical mobility are observed as the biggest challenges that occurred in
IPB during the COVID-19. From the results presented, a sharp growth in international
mobility flows is evident until the 2018/2019 academic year, as a consequence of
the investment made by the IPB’s presidency, in which one of the pillars of the
institution’s growth is based on the internationalisation strategy. Afterwards, in the
last two academic years, there has been a sharp decline; both in terms of student
mobility, on average, there was a decrease of around 26.0%, and faculty mobility, on
average, there was a decrease of approximately 55%.
Keywords International mobility · COVID-19 pandemic · Higher education
I. M. Lopes · P. O. Fernandes (B)

Portugal
e-mail: pof@ipb.pt
I. M. Lopes
e-mail: isalopes@ipb.pt
I. M. Lopes
Algoritmi, Universidade do Minho, Largo do Paço, 4704-553 Braga, Portugal
L. S. Pais
CIMO, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança,
Portugal
e-mail: pais@ipb.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_62
704 I. M. Lopes et al.
1 Introduction
The effects of COVID-19 were rapidly observed, starting with restrictions on human
mobility, which caused a slowdown in all economic activities. Even the flow of inter-
national mobility crossing borders to search for new experiences and opportunities
has been affected significantly by the COVID-19 pandemic.
More than two years later, it is confirmed that this pandemic has caused unprece-
dented economic and social effects on a global scale, exceeding the worst predic-
tions. The restrictions and measures to face the pandemic applied by the Portuguese
Government, along with what happened around the world, the application of several
states of emergency, the closing of borders, and the closing of schools from preschool
to higher education have significantly changed the flow of the last two school years.
The interruption of classes and the changing of the school timetable to ensure the
safety of students, professors, and the whole school community was a necessary evil.
Some of these interruptions meant that classes stopped face-to-face and started being
taught remotely. The question that arises, and given the scope of this research work,
is what implications these restrictions had on the mobility of international students.
Considering the growing relevance of international mobility [1, 2], in recent years
in Portugal and in the HEI under study, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança (IPB), it
is essential to know if the number of mobility suffered any oscillation during this
pandemic crisis. The pandemic may have had an impact on international mobility.
Some institutions closed down mobility programs; in other cases, the ever-changing
restrictions could have led students/faculty members not to want to take the risk of
travelling. The closing of borders may also have conditioned travel between coun-
tries. The fear of being infected with COVID, and the mandatory quarantines after
entry into some countries are important variables that could have conditioned and
quantitatively changed the number of mobile students/staff members.
In this regard, this research aims to analyse the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic
on the flow of student and faculty mobility. To address the main objective, this paper
is structured as follows: After this introduction, a brief description is given of the
subject under study—international mobility. Then, in Sect. 3, the Higher Education
Institution under study is described, followed by the presentation and analysis of the
IPB internationalisation figures. In the last section, considering the study’s results,
future research opportunities are identified.
2 Globalisation and Internationalisation
Globalisation influences labour markets, management and education in many ways.

Within the global context, the internationalisation of education is considered at a
higher level, as it creates and transfers knowledge crucial to the growth of both
developed and developing countries [3].
International Mobility Flows and COVID-19 Effects … 705
The internationalisation of Higher Education is played on several boards.

Attracting foreign students/faculty members is the one that has been the most worked
on and shows the most consolidated results [4]. Among the current policies for higher
education, internationalisation emerges as an important strategy for integrating coun-
tries into the globalised world either by the perspective of solidarity advocated by
UNESCO, or by the mercantilist trend promoted by the World Trade Organisation.
There is no doubt that internationalisation and globalisation are closely connected,
even though they are two essentially different processes [5–8], as they have different
meanings and are composed of different dimensions. Internationalisation aims to
promote recognition, respect for differences and cultural identity, while globalisation
seeks to develop homogenisation. It can be inferred that globalisation influences
higher education as HEIs seek to respond to the demands of the interconnected and
global world [8].
From the twentieth century on, it can be said that the concept of internationalisation
emerged, to some extent, as a response to the effects of globalisation, as an effort
by higher education institutions to adjust to the changes of the globalised world.
Based on this understanding, internationalisation promotes recognition, respect for
differences, and cultural identity, while globalisation develops homogenisation [9].
Both processes, internationalisation and globalisation, push higher education towards
international involvement in a globalised world [10]. The differences can be observed
in Table 1.
There are many ways to define globalisation and internationalisation, but there
are also different motivations for integrating an international dimension into higher
education. The reasons or motivations for internationalisation are a combination of
factors that will be hierarchically defined within the priorities and needs of each HEI.
Motivations may vary between different institutions, reflecting local circumstances,
traditions, and culture [11]. In this context, they may change from region to region
or from country to country. Internationalisation of higher education, namely related
to students mobility, has been associated with several benefits like as [7]:
Table 1 Distinctions between globalisation and internationalisation

Characteristics features Result
Internationalisation The response of The higher degree of Physical mobility,
educational internalisation results academic cooperation
institutions to the in a higher degree of and academic
globalisation process globalisation and vice knowledge transfer
versa
Globalisation The acceleration of The process by which Competition,
movement of people, different cultures and commercial knowledge
ideas, knowledge, nations become transfer
capital, goods and homogeneous
services through
national borders
Source [10]
a. One should note the cultural and social impact that this phenomenon is making
within the local, regional, and even national communities;
b. The movement of students and staff among campuses has allowed them to
gain new perspectives and become much more aware of the possibilities for
cooperation;
c. Both students and staff were able to recognise international opportunities and be
internationally oriented;
d. The internationalisation of higher education offers a new perspective in terms of
quality assurance within universities.
Decisions to adopt internationalisation as a strategy for institutional or regional
development are based on different reasons and motivations, and several authors
define these facts. This research was chosen to model the fundamentals and
approaches of internationalisation after reviewing the literature on this topic, listing
the following authors’ points of view (see Table 2) [12]. Table 2 provides a broad
synthetic summary of the literature on internationalisation rationales and approaches.
It can be used as both an analytical and empirical framework for understanding
the extent to which universities in a given context engage with internationalisation
processes and rationales. Clearly, while much is now known about the motives behind
internationalisation in universities, much less is known about how these motives are
prioritised in universities in different parts of the world. Based on the model shown
in Table 2, it can be argued that prioritisation patterns of rationales can be used as
valid predictors of the nature and variety of approaches to internationalisation used
in different parts of the world [12].
Internationalisation has become very important for HEIs. The meaning of the
term, as seen earlier, is not understood by all authors in the same way, presenting
different meanings. These meanings also reflect the different reasons and motivations
that lead HEIs to internationalisation. This interest is accompanied by the growing
number of international mobility, which may be affected by other variables that do
not allow for this constant growth.
3 Methodology
As mentioned, the present research aims to study the effect of the COVID-19
pandemic on the mobility flow of students and teaching staff. For that purpose,
data on the mobility flow of students and professors were collected, for the period
between the academic year 2004/2005 and 2020/2021.
As the intention was to analyse the evolution of international mobility, a descrip-
tive exploratory analysis was carried out using the calculation of absolute and relative
frequencies with graphic representation. In order to analyse the variations registered
throughout the years under study, the annual variation and average annual variation
rates will be determined.
Table 2 Mapping of rationales of internationalisation

Rationale Meaning and focus Key strategies
Economic Based on ambitions of becoming Overseas student recruitment brings
economically competitive, foreign exchange and student labour
independent and increasing
institutional financial revenue streams
Political Based on the idea of creating world Development of global
understanding, eminence and problem-focused curricula and
leadership, peace and development research and teaching centres for
poverty reduction, climate change,
world conflict/peace studies and global
terrorism, world religions, global
financial markets, and human
trafficking. World-class talent
identification and recruitment
Sociocultural Based on the ambition to forge greater Student and staff academic exchange
understanding between nations and programmes. Second language
cultures and enrich the learning learning and teaching. Cultural
experience exchange programmes
Technological Develop heightened responsiveness to Huge investment in state-of-the-art
current technological developments technologies at various levels of the
and become leaders in this field. The institution. Use of technology to create
exploitation of technology creates and widen access to education through
access, social justice and equity in the distance/e-learning
sector
Educational Internationalisation as an educational Developing internationalisation audit
quality marker. Motives around the frameworks. Partnerships for research,
creation of learning and scholarship teaching (joint degree programmes),
communities. Develop partnerships for and education commercialisation
interrogating institutional and
cross-institutional issues and forging
progress and development links
Pedagogical Based on the idea of internationalising Development of guidelines for
the university curriculum, content, preparing international curricula.
teaching principles and approaches, Workshops enhance staff’s
assessment, support for learning and pedagogical preparedness to deal with
the student experience aspects of international curricula
Source [12]
4 Instituto Politécnico de Bragança at a Glance
Founded in 1983, the Polytechnic Institute of Bragança includes six schools, four
on the Bragança campus, one in Mirandela and another one in Chaves. The Instituto
Politécnico de Bragança (IPB) [13] is a higher education public institution with
a defined mission of creating, transmitting, and diffusing technical-scientific and
professional knowledge through study articulation, teaching, applied research, and
experimental development. IPB belongs to the European Network for Universities
of Applied Sciences (UASNET). Its main objectives include the transferability of

professional skills and the integration of applied research in its professional and
technological education mission.
Its activity embraces a wide area of knowledge and technology, namely arts,
communication and multimedia, business sciences and law, education and teachers
training, agriculture sciences and natural resources, health and civil protection,
tourism, wellness, sports and leisure, and technologies.
Following the current reform of the European higher education system, the actual
goals of IPB are: to contribute to the increase of higher education frequency; motivate
lifelong learning; improve the quality and relevance of its academic offer; to promote
the mobility of students and graduates and to contribute to better international
cooperation in Europe and with the Portuguese-speaking countries.
The IPB has consolidated its dimension around to 10,000 students in the academic
year 2021/2022 (Fig. 1), presenting an average increase, post-2015, of approximately
6.6%. Moreover, has achieved the adequacy of the Bologna process through the
offer of around a hundred degrees, namely technical specialisation graduations, and
bachelor’s and master’s programmes.
Nowadays, over 85% of the IPB teaching staff holds a PhD degree. The IPB is
part of the national science and technology system, through the existence of R&D
units and branches at the IPB. In several areas, the IPB presents indicators of the
impact and excellence of its scientific publications and applied research: according
to the SCImago ranking, the IPB is the Portuguese higher education institution with
the greatest normalised impact and the best excellence rate.
The IPB is frequented by students from all parts of mainland Portugal, the islands
of the Azores and Madeira and by a considerable population of international students,
enabling the creation of a multicultural environment and contributing to the human
and civic education of students.
11000
No. of Students
10000 9800
9000 8895
8529
8000 8012
7474
7000 7123 6948 7044
6660 6600 6405 6607
6051 6160 6301 6360
6000
5422 5237
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
2004/2005
2005/2006
2006/2007
2007/2008
2008/2009
2009/2010
2010/2011
2011/2012
2012/2013
2013/2014
2014/2015
2015/2016
2016/2017
2017/2018
2018/2019
2019/2020
2020/2021
2021/2022
Academic year
Fig. 1 Evolution of the number of students enrolled in the IPB in the period 2004–2022
5 International Mobility in the Middle of the COVID-19

Pandemic
The internationalisation of the IPB is one of its current strategic challenges due to
the awareness that this will be a positive factor for differentiation among higher
education institutions. The results obtained have positioned the institution at a level
of prominence both nationally and internationally. The IPB integrates the Top 100
higher education institutions with the greatest number of incoming professors and
the Top 500 institutions with the highest rate of incoming and outgoing students on
Erasmus mobility.
The experience added in the European mobility project has catalysed the non-
European cooperation, with special emphasis on the Portuguese-speaking countries
and regions. The IPB has established an academic network with Brazilian Federal
Institutes and Universities and the Macao Polytechnic Institute, representing the
annual mobility of nearly a hundred students and the teaching and research cooper-
ation. The presence of a community of students from African Portuguese-speaking
countries is also a reality in the institution due to the Institute’s involvement in
the creation and development of higher education in Angola, Cape Verde, Mozam-
bique and São Tomé and Príncipe. This will decisively contribute to the qualification
of human and academic resources. The cooperation with Macao has allowed the
establishment of protocols with Chinese Universities, involving the Portuguese and
Chinese teaching and the creation of the Centre for Chinese Language and Culture
in Bragança. The IPB has also distinguished itself by offering international students
Portuguese language and culture courses. Currently, the IPB is a multicultural insti-
tution with 30% of international students. IPB offers all Portuguese and international
students a unique opportunity to study and live in a young and innovative academic
atmosphere [13].
Noteworthy, as for many countries, international mobility is becoming more and
more critical in the global trend of internationalisation of higher education and
migration patterns [14]; also, for the IPB, this reality is visible.
To consolidate the information presented above, Fig. 2 shows evidence of the
importance of international mobility of students for IPB. It is enlightening the weight
presented by the international community on the students attending the IPB, which
reached a maximum of 15.8%, in the academic year 2018/2019. A drop followed
this to 14.1% (the academic year 2019/2020) and a rather sharp decline to 7.1%
(the academic year 2020/2021) due to COVID-19. It can be said that the mobility
of international students has followed the number of enrolled students in the IPB.
Still, in the last two academic years, under analysis, the effect of the pandemic has
become evident, presenting opposite paths, and the number of students enrolled in the
IPB has increased. Still, the number of mobile students has decreased dramatically.
The growing number is reasonably representative of the internationalisation strategy
that the IPB is following and the importance that this flow of students brings to the
regional economy. After COVID-19, international mobility figures are expected to
register the same figures or higher than the 2018/2019 academic year.
IPB students Student Mobility Mobility Weight

10000 18,0%
No. of Students
Mobility Weight
9000 16,0%
8000 14,0%
7000
12,0%
6000
10,0%
5000
8,0%
4000
6,0%
3000
2000 4,0%
1000 2,0%
0 0,0%
2004/2005
2005/2006
2006/2007
2007/2008
2008/2009
2009/2010
2010/2011
2013/2014
2014/2015
2011/2012
2012/2013
2015/2016
2016/2017
2017/2018
2018/2019
2019/2020
2020/2021
Academic year
Fig. 2 Evolution of the number of students enrolled in the IPB versus student mobility, 2004–2021
Table 3 shows data on international mobility. The number of international

students and mobility faculty has grown, with minor fluctuations, until the 2018/2019
academic year. For the period under analysis, the IPB received on average 426 mobile
students; and sent 270 students. It is possible to observe that in the period under study,
there was a significant growth, in international student mobility, with an annual rate
that oscillated between −47.7%, the academic year 2019/2020, where the effect of
the COVID-19 pandemic is quite evident; and 45%, the academic year 2005/2006,
when the IPB began to invest in the internationalisation strategy. The annual average
rate of change for both flows, incoming and outgoing, is around 9.9%, which is quite
a satisfactory figure. On the other hand, as far as the flow of faculty mobility is
concerned, the IPB receives more professors than it sends. For the period under anal-
ysis, the IPB received on average 117 mobile faculty members; and sent 43 faculty
members; notably, it received almost triple the number of professors. While during
the 2015/2016 academic year, it recorded an annual growth rate of 42.7%; during the
full pandemic period, it dropped by −71.0%. At the same time and for the 16-year
period, it showed an average annual growth rate of 4.3%.
The high number underlying international mobility is clear evidence of the
growing internationalisation in IPB. The obtained data reveal that IPB, as a host
institution, gains its popularity among foreign institutions and shows a significant
increase in numbers.
Table 3 Number of international mobility in the IPB, 2004–2021

Student mobility Academic Faculty mobility
Number Number Total Annual year Number Number Total Annual
of of rate of of of rate of
incoming outgoing change incoming outgoing change
91 49 140 – 2004/2005 20 9 29 –
107 96 203 45.0% 2005/2006 44 14 58 100.0%
118 148 266 31.0% 2006/2007 67 10 77 32.8%
203 179 382 43.6% 2007/2008 69 14 83 7.8%
286 203 489 28.0% 2008/2009 79 12 91 9.6%
303 221 524 7.2% 2009/2010 84 20 104 14.3%
347 270 617 17.7% 2010/2011 126 19 145 39.4%
411 366 777 25.9% 2011/2012 172 31 203 40.0%
441 456 897 15.4% 2012/2013 135 39 174 −14.3%
542 368 910 1.4% 2013/2014 137 46 183 5.2%
416 323 739 −18.8% 2014/2015 123 48 171 −6.6%
581 311 892 20.7% 2015/2016 167 77 244 42.7%
593 318 911 2.1% 2016/2017 190 83 273 11.9%
646 344 990 8.7% 2017/2018 210 93 303 11.0%
882 380 1262 27.5% 2018/2019 212 105 317 4.6%
862 342 1204 −4.6% 2019/2020 131 64 195 −38.5%
417 213 630 −47.7% 2020/2021 17 40 57 −70.8%
10.0% 9.6% 9.9% – Annual −1.0% 9.8% 4.3% –
average
rate of
change
6 Conclusions
The Covid-19 pandemic represents a dramatic interruption to International Mobility

flows and is more significant than the global financial crisis in 2007/2008 or the
SARS outbreak of 2002–2004.
This paper aimed to analyse the evolution and significant trends of interna-
tional mobility before and after the COVID-19 pandemic, providing an overview,
in numbers, of international mobility in the IPB.
In this way, the Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, along with the other HEIs
around the world, are working hard to provide options for international students,
including hybrid instruction models and other opportunities for study, for example,
replacing a physical classroom space with a virtual environment. In addition, travel
restrictions, visa delays, and public health policies may have made the opportunity
for mobility impractical. For instance, students stayed at home because of border
closures or because IPB had moved all graduations to a virtual environment.
From the results presented, a sharp growth in international mobility flows is

evident until the 2018/2019 academic year, as a consequence of the investment made
by the IPB’s presidency, in which one of the pillars of the institution’s growth is
based on the internationalisation strategy. Subsequently, in the last two academic
years, there has been a sharp decline; both in terms of student mobility, on average,
there was a decrease of around 26.0%, and faculty mobility, on average, there was a
decrease of approximately 55%.
Furthermore, due to the relevance and importance of the internationalisation
strategy followed by the IPB and its international mobility of students and faculty
members, the results of this study will help IPB decision-makers develop strategies
to support internationalisation in future crises.
It is left for reflection that sometimes underlying the choice of international
mobility are contributing factors, often called ‘push and pull factors’, as these
contribute to competition between the main host countries to attract, for example,
students that will have an effect on demographic changes in the host and sending
countries. On the other hand, the decline in birth rates and the ageing of the popula-
tion in the northeast region of Trás-os-Montes, where the IPB is located, motivates
it to recruit international students who help to build a global talent pool, diversify
perspectives in higher education and contribute to the local economy.
It is believed that the IPB continues to produce creative and innovative solutions
for education and virtual media during the pandemic that still exists today.
Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the UNIAG, R&D unit funded by the FCT—
Portuguese Foundation for the Development of Science and Technology, Ministry of Science,
Technology and Higher Education. “Project Code Reference: UIDB/04752/2020”.
References
1. Choudaha, R.: Three waves of international student mobility (1999–2020). Stud. High. Educ.
42(5), 825–832 (2017)
2. Iorio, J.C., Fonseca, M.L.: Estudantes brasileiros no Ensino Superior português: construção
do projeto migratório e intenções de mobilidade futura (Brazilian students in higher education
in Portugal: migratory project and plans for future mobility). Finisterra – Rev. Port. Geogr.
LIII(109) (2018)
3. Bhandari, R., Laughlin, S.: Higher Education on the Move: New Developments in Global
Mobility. Institute for International Education, New York (2009)
4. Romeira, A.: https://jornaleconomico.pt/noticias/estudantes-internacionais-crescem-44-no-
ano-passado-820849. Last accessed 1 Apr 2022
5. Altbach, P.G., Knight, J.: The internationalisation of higher education: motivation and realities.
J. Stud. Int. Educ. 11(3/4), 290–305 (2007)
6. Knight, J.: Five truths about internationalisation. Int. High. Educ. 69, 5–7 (2012)
7. Bordean, O.N., Borza, A.: Internationalisation of higher education institutions: the case of
Romania. Procedia - Soc. Behav. Sci. 92, 98–103 (2013)
8. Barretto, C.M.: Estudo no exterior durante a graduação: implicações acadêmicas e profissionais.
Tese de doutoramento em educação, Universidade Federal da Bahia (2019)
9. Gacel-Ávila, J.: La Internacionalización de la Educación Superior - Paradigma para la

Ciudadania Global. Editorial Centro Universitário de Ciências Sociales y Humanidades
CUCSH - Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, México (2003)
10. Pipia, E.: The impact of globalization and internationalization on education in Georgia. Eur. J.
Educ. Stud. 3(5), 16–21 (2017)
11. Taylor, J.: The Management of Internationalisation in Higher Education. Internationalisation
of European Higher Education. Raabe (2010)
12. Maringe, F., Foskett, N., Woodfield, S.: Emerging internationalisation models in an uneven
global terrain: findings from a global survey. Comp.: J. Comp. Int. Educ. 43(1), 9–36 (2013)
13. Instituto Politécnico de Bragança: https://portal3.ipb.pt/index.php/en/guiaects/polytechnic-ins
titute-of-braganca. Last accessed 8 Apr 2022
14. Jampaklay, A., Penboon, B., Lucktong, A.: Internationalisation of higher education in Thailand:
promises and reality. Kasetsart J. Soc. Sci. 43(1), 183–193 (2022)
Learning Graphics in Supervised
Teaching Practice in an Educational
COVID-19 Context
Catarina Moreira, Dárida Fernandes, and Maria Inês Pinho
Abstract The pandemic caused by COVID-19 has brought a sudden change in

society and education. Thus, it was necessary to readapt the management of resources
and knowledge already acquired to create new environments for the teaching and
learning process. In this new paradigm, it was imperative not to give up and the
watchword was to differentiate, as each child was an individual being with their own
needs and motivations. On the other hand, it was vital to continue to promote educa-
tional experiences that articulated knowledge, with special emphasis on Mathematics,
an unloved subject for many children. Based on these conceptions, in the Supervised
Teaching Practice of the master’s in teaching of the 1st CEB and of Mathematics and
Natural Sciences in the 2nd CEB, it was important, in this distance learning period,
to study what is the influence on the learning of the content on Statistics based
on the child’s real-life data. The methodology used was the case study which was
implemented in a classroom and the technics implemented were the qualitative and
interpretive. This teaching strategy was significant for the child, and a pedagogical
differentiation promoted since different individual teaching activities applied for the
use of new educational platforms. At the end, beneficial consequences for children
were observed specifically on significant mathematical learning.
Keywords Distance learning · Pedagogical differentiation · Teaching strategies ·

Significant mathematics learning
C. Moreira
Trainee Teacher of the Master’s in Teaching at the 1st CEB and Mathematics and Natural
Sciences at the 2nd CEB, School of Education of Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias,
602, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
D. Fernandes (B)
Institutional Supervisor Teacher in Mathematics and Integrated Researcher at InED, School of
Education of Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 602, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
M. I. Pinho
Cultural and Social Sciences Department at School of Education of Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Dr.
Roberto Frias, 602, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
e-mail: inespinho@ese.ipp.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_63
716 C. Moreira et al.
1 Introduction
The closure of schools, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, led to the existence of
non-face-to-face teaching, with Distance Learning being applied, as indicated in
Decree-Law no. 14-G/2020 [1]. This was a sudden and unpredictable change that
led to adaptations on the part of teachers with the adoption of different teaching strate-
gies to mobilize children’s knowledge and continue the teaching activity, remotely.
This situation stimulated a change in educational practices, being essential that the
teacher did not give up and assume, in another dimension, the role of knowledge
builder, in a reflective and investigative attitude of his own practice, “leading the
teaching–learning process, evaluating the students, contributing to the construction
of the school’s educational project and to the development of the school’s relation-
ship with the community” [2, p. 1]. As Mathematics is a comprehensive subject, but
closely linked to students’ school failure and to peculiar inherent difficulties [3] it has
become relevant to bet on an even more individualized and differentiating teaching,
respecting the needs and motivations of children in this area. It was essential that the
teacher continued to assume a decisive role, as the success of their students is built
when they are: “encouraged to expose their ideas, to comment on the statements of
their colleagues and the teacher and to raise their doubts” [4, p. 5], fostering a taste
for Mathematics [4, 5]. According to these authors, children’s success, with a focus
on Mathematics, it is achieved through the design and development of differenti-
ating practices with the inclusion of other aspects such as motivation, relating it to
meaningful learning and a greater commitment of children to school activities.
Bearing in mind these assumptions, the article is structured according to the
research carried out, starting from its theoretical framework for the methodological
options, for the presentation and analysis of results, ending with the reflections and
final conclusions.
2 Theorical Contextualization
The educational change that came from the new context of the COVID-19 pandemic
changed many aspects of the educational and social paradigm, which forced new
conjectures in teaching and in the way of acting, both for teachers and students. In
this way, schools had to readapt the teaching and learning management in real time
[6] and in a constant and daily way, which is a complex process in decision-making,
and “strategies to get involved in a unique educational movement, with a challenging,
demanding and still very laborious educational and learning program” [7, p. 57]. In
this new context, Pedagogical Differentiation presents itself as the proactive response
that the teacher has in the face of the needs and individualities of each child, moving
from a conception of “a school for all” in which there is equality to a perspective of
equity and appreciation of difference. Cadima [8] also complements these ideas by
mentioning that pedagogical differentiation is more than a technique or methodology,
Learning Graphics in Supervised Teaching Practice … 717
assuming itself as a matter of attitude, requiring the design of a complex pedagogical

organization, referring to materials, tasks, time and space. This organization should
aim at meaningful learning, with the teacher being responsible for “investing in […]
diversified methodologies, interesting activities, current affairs” [9, p. 272].
Mathematics, a fundamental subject area for the formation of individuals, and its
teaching has a decisive role in the school and personal life of the student, since its
learning is a complex process that implies the involvement of students in different
types of experiences and situations, leading the student to learn through “doing” and
reflecting on “doing” [2, 10]. In this perspective, it should be considered as “man’s
activity, whether considered from an individual or a social point of view, requires
knowledge, as complete as possible, of the world around him” [11, p. 64]. Because
it is necessary to know, understand, determine reasons, and analyze the connections
between phenomena/contents. Ponte [10] also argues that “teaching should be based
on everyday situations in which Mathematics is used. It is recommended that students
be provided with meaningful learning experiences” (p. 11). Thus, it is accepted that
the diversity of teaching strategies leads to “improvement in the interpretation of
information […] tends to make the class dynamic and attractive […] stimulate a
self-taught role because they have the opportunity to build their own knowledge”
[10, p. 12]. The materials made available as well as the strategies developed offer
“great opportunities and potential […] motivating students in this process” [12, p. 1],
in the sense of investigate and gain confidence in problem solving [9] and to create
more autonomy in learning [13–15].
As such, and considering the context of Distance Learning, it is necessary for
the teacher to select the most appropriate tools for the educational context and the
domain to be explored, using means that are compatible with the instructional objec-
tives outlined [16]. Students, through different strategies, feel motivated, because
motivation “is an important challenge that we must face, as it has direct implica-
tions for student involvement in the teaching and learning process” [12, p. 2]. On
the other hand, according to Alcará and Guimarães [17], a motivated student seeks
“new knowledge and opportunities, showing himself to be involved with the learning
process, engages in tasks with enthusiasm and demonstrates willingness to face new
challenges” (p. 177). Ponte and coauthors (2007) also admit that training should be
considered as it allows students to include and use Mathematics in different school
subjects, but also in their personal and professional lives and in society.
In short, educational practices must respond to students, considering their charac-
teristics, from their interests, abilities, needs and learning difficulties, selecting, there-
fore, various teaching strategies to “transform the teaching and learning process”. In
a moment of pleasure, where knowledge is constructed fluidly and in an articulated
way” [16, p. 198] and always in a constant process of humanization of Mathematics
[5].
3 Methodology
In this section, the methodology appears, indicating the methodological options,

passing through the techniques and instruments for data collection and characteriza-
tion of the participants, as well as the description of the training sessions.
3.1 Methodological Options
The methodology applied is assumed as a case study, being an investigation of

detailed analysis of a defined individuality [18], advantageous in the investigation,
as it focuses overall and intends to “develop theory […] to explain a situation […] to
describe an object or phenomenon” [7, p. 52], aiming to interpret the set of qualitative
data. In this interpretive case study, relevant data were collected for the investiga-
tion, selecting a set of data collection techniques and instruments, namely: an online
questionnaire, students’ productions in various media, using analysis of content of
their answers, document analysis, special participant observation, based on constant
dialogues between students and between them and the teacher, produced on Distance
Learning platforms, as well as the participant observation of the cooperating teacher
and the institutional supervisor and the reflections produced in the group.
The participants of this case study were students of the 5th year of a Basic School
of 2nd and 3rd Cycles of Basic Education (CEB), belonging to a Group of Schools
in the Municipality of Matosinhos. The class consisted of 24 students, aged between
10 and 13, with 22 students (92%) having access to digital technologies, namely the
computer and internet access, so it was possible to access the classroom platform,
chosen by the School Cluster and where all the resources for teaching activities were
made available. The selection of this group to carry out the study was because it
corresponds to the context of face-to-face teaching and Distance Learning, and only
two of the students were not present during this procedure in the remote teaching
period, since they did not had access to these digital tools. In this educational context,
the tasks were adapted to the resources that the students had, and the reception of
the weekly plans, in paper format, was carried out through the school.
According to Tuckman [19], the data collection technique, using an online ques-
tionnaire survey to students, allows “to achieve knowledge about a given subject,
through questions that reflect the attitudes and opinions of a group of individuals”
(2000) (p. 517). To allow the triangulation of data, the students’ productions, the
dialogues produced in asynchronous classes, the researcher’s logbook and the reflec-
tions carried out with the Pedagogical Pair, with the Cooperating Teacher and the
Institutional Supervisor Teacher in Mathematics were also used. The analysis of the
training sessions as well as the results collected by a questionnaire made it possible
to understand. Also, an analyze of the students’ responses regarding the learning
achieved and the difficulties felt by the students in the sessions were pertinent.
3.2 Training Sessions
The development of this investigation took place in the period corresponding to

Distance Learning, in a learning path corresponding to three didactic sequences on
the Google Classroom platform (Table 1).
Considering that the learning path to be developed with and for the students
would be exclusively online and there would be no direct contact with the class
synchronously, it was essential to develop continuous training sessions over a signif-
icant period. In this course, different contents were approached, characterized by
using the various resources and different tasks to understand the difficulties felt and
the knowledge achieved by each student as an individual being in the teaching and
learning process.
It is important to consider that all sessions were planned and implemented on
the Google Classroom platform, therefore, there is constant monitoring, with space
for clarifying doubts and correcting any difficulties. The constant monitoring was
also determined by the individualized comments made by the Intern Teacher to the
students of the class during and after the delivery of the weekly assignments, which
was an “intimate” monitoring. This proximity was characterized by understanding
the difficulties, encouraging praise for the improvements and learning achieved and
always based on positive reinforcement for students, in a full assumption of Peda-
gogical Differentiation. All this also allowed to establish a bridge between School-
Family(ies), the latter being a preponderant agent in the students’ learning and their
commitment to the study of the themes in development.
The data analyzed and discussed in this article focus on the acquisition and mobi-
lization of knowledge related to the Organization and Treatment of Data, developed
in three sessions.
Table 1 Training sessions in the mathematics subject

Weekly session Content Resources
1st NO: comparison and ordering of Virtual school
rational numbers represented by Mathematics manual
fractions
2nd NO: addition and subtraction of PowerPoint authored by the trainee
rational numbers; NO: numerical teacher
expressions
3rd OTD—data organization and Video-animation by the trainee
treatment (currently called data and teacher
probabilities): absolute and relative
frequency tables
In the last three sessions, contents of the domain of Organization and Data
Processing, currently known in Essential Mathematics Learning as “Data and Proba-
bilities”, were explored, with absolute and relative frequency tables being addressed.
Students had access to a YouTube link with explanatory animation videos with the
recorded voice of the Trainee Teacher. These videos, organized into distinct parts,
guided students to explore them, but also to carry out specific tasks. It should be
noted that the videos and associated tasks were contextualized, based on an analysis
of data relating to the class of students. The master’s student prepared an online ques-
tionnaire on Google Forms with questions related to personal data that the students
accessed and filled in through a previously provided link.
Initially, in the video, they were presented with a problem related to the age of
the students in the class and they were then asked to organize and interpret the data
present. In this task, a great diversity of answers was observed (Fig. 1).
By observing the students’ achievements, it was possible to develop the power
of analysis and mathematical communication in the characterization of the repre-
sentation of each graph. Each of the students presented and became aware of the
Fig. 1 Student productions of the first part of the third session

construction of their graph and its representation to learn the specific mathematical
language of this content and achieve a more rigorous representation of the graph.
Later, in the video, the resolution of the initial problem was presented using tables
of absolute and relative frequencies, as well as the concepts inherent to the content
of absolute and relative frequencies, as well as the associated rules. The fact that
the context was known to the students guided them to apply and commit themselves
more, in a meaningful learning related to data from their own reality. It became
aware that meaningful learning must always start from moments, objects or other
resources that are of personal knowledge of the students, with the establishment of
bridges between the learning of the contents and the daily life of the students. The
tasks being exclusively based on information from the students themselves makes
learning more attractive, establishing greater proximity to the environment, also
motivating students to focus on a, personal and collective interest, making learning
more meaningful [19].
In this specific content, a curiosity and dedication to draw conclusions about the
data presented and to make comparisons between them were denoted. The students
were able to memorize certain absolute and relative frequency values because, in
some way, they identified with them, such as their birthday month or the most frequent
age of the class. The videos also presented concepts inherent to this content, absolute
and relative frequencies, as well as associated rules such as the conclusion that the
sum of the absolute frequency values is equal to the number of elements in the data
set and that the sum of the values of the frequencies relative values is equal to 1 or
100%.
Finally, it was proposed to the students to carry out a challenge on the treatment and
organization of data in tables of absolute and relative frequencies and the elaboration
of questions about the organized data and their associated answers. The students’
productions (Fig. 2) showed commitment and dedication in their execution, obtaining
extremely well-organized tables with pertinent questions.
The correction of the tasks was done as the students turned in the resolutions,
with aid of an evaluation grid, with detailed feedback being always provided to the
student (Fig. 3), on what was correct, what could be improved and what still had to
be done in the proposed tasks. Feedback was always carried out in detail and with
positive reinforcement so that the student felt motivated and confident with himself
and with his productions. Despite this, while carrying out the tasks, students had
access to the Classroom platform and Google Hangouts to clarify doubts.
In the individualized support for students, it was mentioned if the problem was
correctly solved; the teacher presented some questions and some strategies were
highlighted in order to positively stimulate students in their work.
4.1 Analysis of the Survey by Questionnaire
As mentioned, in this investigation several data collection instruments were used,

including the online questionnaire. The online questionnaire survey contained 28
Fig. 2 Students productions on the second part of the third session
Fig. 3 Feedback provided to students in the third session

closed-response questions, essentially multiple-choice and scaled about the training

sessions, contents and strategies applied. It also consisted of an open-ended question
regarding the opinion expressed by the students regarding suggestions for improving
the work carried out in Distance Learning. This survey was applied to the students
in the class, and the relevant link was sent with the informed consent of the students
and their families, safeguarding aspects of an ethical nature in the research carried
out. 10 female students and 7 male students responded, making a total of 17 students.
On the answers given at the questionnaire was ensure that all children answer with
same condition and in a coherent way to all situations presented.
Regarding the question about the strategy that most facilitated learning in Mathe-
matics, the explanatory animation with 11 responses (65%), followed by 4 responses
to the PowerPoint presentation by the Trainee Teacher (23%). Still with one answer
(6%) selected the tasks from the manual and documents authored by the Trainee
Teacher.
The remaining strategies did not get any response from the students. The explana-
tory animation was a differentiating and captivating strategy, as it is an animation
of icons and drawings associated with the recorded voice of the Intern Teacher and
never presented to the students. It should be noted that this strategy was related to
the students in the class, which leads students to be more committed to novelty and
curiosity, but also because content related to an everyday context is addressed and
focusing on aspects of their interest.
It appears that the strategy that most hindered learning was the manual tasks with
7 responses (41%), followed by the Virtual School tasks with 6 (35%). It should
also be noted that another three options were chosen by one student (6%), with the
PowerPoint presentation, informative documents and tasks authored by the Trainee
Teacher.
It is noted that the tasks they liked the least were essentially characterized by
application exercises, which may be associated with a lack of interest in knowledge on
the part of the students and repetition of the exercises. One student (6%) referred the
answer “Other” indicating that “no” strategy made learning in Mathematics difficult.
Through the analysis of the answers obtained (Fig. 4), it is possible to confirm
that no student considered the strategies insufficient, with an average of 4.4, on a
scale from 1 (A little) to 5 (A lot). Only one student (6%) considered an intermediate
value of 3, and the others answered 4 and 5, with 9 answers (53%) and 7 answers
(41%), respectively.
Figure 5 also allows the analysis of the reasons for the difficulties in the mathe-
matical content, and more than one answer could be selected from those presented.
That said, it is noted that most students (11 students—65%) considered that the
difficulty was related to the understanding of the contents covered, so it may be
associated with the complexity of the contents, namely the non-negative rational
numbers, which preceded the OTD.
It should also be noted that most students (12 students) considered the subdomain
“non-negative rational numbers” as the most complex. This content is considered
one of the most abstract and, in times of a pandemic, it was also recognized as one
1 2 3 4 5
0 (0%) 0 (0%) 1 (6%) 9 (53%) 7 (41%)
Fig. 4 Regularity of the strategies used in carrying out the proposed activities
Fig. 5 Answers on the reasons for the difficulties of mathematical content
of the most difficult for students to understand and assimilate in a Distance Learning
context.
The topic “non-negative rational numbers” also encompasses the domain of oper-
ations, so they have more difficulties in understanding because the difficulties are
found at the level of elementary operations, but also of essential concepts, including
aspects of conceptual understanding and calculation skills.
The following option—lack of study—obtained a result of 3 responses corre-
sponding to 18% of the sample. The few exercises applied by 1 student (6%), the
lack of support from the master’s student also by 1 student (6%) and ineffective
strategies by another (6%) were also mentioned. The option “Other” was chosen by
2 students (12%), one of whom answered “None” and another answered, “I can’t
even remember what it is”.
Regarding the reasons for the ease of learning the contents (Fig. 6), students
considered the ease of understanding the contents and many application exercises,
Fig. 6 Answers on the reasons for the ease of mathematical content
with 8 responses (47%), respectively. This question allowed the option of choosing
one or more of the answers presented.
The most facilitating content was related to the subdomain of “Organization and
Processing of Data” (or “Data and Probabilities”), which corresponds to the strategies
applied and considered by the students as the most facilitating and motivating for
learning. This content was approached through explanatory animations and using
real-life data from the students themselves, thus gaining a personal touch for the
class. Five students (29%) also mentioned the option of regular study, as well as the
support of the master’s student and very effective strategies, with 4 responses (23%)
respectively.
The most facilitating content was related to the subdomain of “Organization and
Processing of Data” (or “Data and Probabilities”), which corresponds to the strategies
applied and considered by the students as the most facilitating and motivating for
learning. This content was approached through explanatory animations and using
real-life data from the students themselves, thus gaining a personal touch for the
class. Five students (29%) also mentioned the option of regular study, as well as the
support of the master’s student and very effective strategies, with 4 responses (23%)
respectively.
Analyzing the students’ level of motivation through the strategies used, it is
concluded that there was a positive balance with an average of 3.8, on a scale from
1 (not at all) to 5 (very much), with 7 students (42%) indicating grade 4. 2 students
(12%) indicated grade 2, 4 students (23%) considered an intermediate value of 3
and 4 students (23%) considered level 5. This analysis can be determined for several
reasons, since the realities were different and the survey was answered at the end
of the school year so they could no longer feel so motivated, as they had been in
confinement for three months. Other reasons may be associated with the lack of help
from their family members or the difficulty in accessing digital platforms. These
two possible reasons were addressed during Distance Learning, through the contacts
kept on the platform. Already 2 students (12%) indicated grade 2, 4 students (23%)
considered an intermediate value of 3 and 4 students (23%) considered the highest
value of the scale, level 5.
5 Conclusions
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the educational community needed to adapt and
discover new “paths”, to continue the teaching and learning process.
In this context, several strategies were developed and applied in training sessions
to motivate students to learn. Throughout the training sessions there was a constant
evolution of all those involved, highlighting the continuous and gradual commitment
and work of the students, denoting an evolution in terms of the learning achieved by
them. This learning reflects the strategies outlined that were also improved throughout
the sessions, in order to satisfy the needs, interests and abilities of the students, always
bearing in mind the individuality of each child. However, it should be emphasized
that the lack of family support was a difficulty felt and revealed by the students,
which can lead to a decrease in students’ motivation and willingness in the teaching
and learning process. It can also be mentioned that, individually, students’ requests
for help were always answered and difficulties were always overcome, without
jeopardizing learning.
The questionnaire survey reinforced the meaning of the work developed in the
training sessions and in the students’ learning around Mathematics. It was possible to
identify that the most effective strategies refer to the last training session, denoting
a greater ease, on the part of the students, with technologies and the digital plat-
form. The evolution of this same work allowed the strategies to be evolutionary and
even more complex in terms of their use and application in context, which allowed
us to consider the last strategy as the most satisfactory at different levels: taste,
commitment, motivation, schoolwork, and degree of complexity.
Pedagogical differentiation, within the scope of Mathematics, has become central
in the teaching and learning process, allowing children to establish closer links
with the subject, in a way that is adapted to the abilities, needs and tastes of each
child. This ability to adapt the process of learning and teaching Mathematics to the
student allowed everyone to achieve school goals, without ever minimizing motiva-
tion throughout the learning process. In these final reflections, it is considered that
the new teaching context has changed the school and the community life of all the
educational agents associated with it. The students had to adapt to the new school
and the teachers used new means and strategies to teach their classes, without ever
forgetting the motivation and positive learning of their students, giving a special
meaning to knowledge, as this was literally taken to the children’s house [15].
This study also allows us to conclude that it is desirable and necessary to foster
interest in Mathematics through different materials and strategies as they allow
to influence students’ attitudes and perception of the subject, further humanizing

mathematical science [13, 14].
References
1. Decreto-Lei n.º 14-G/2020, de 13 de abril. Diário da República n.º 72 – I Série. Presidência do

Conselho de Ministros, Lisboa
2. Ponte, J.P.: Investigar a própria prática. In: GTI (Org.) Reflectir e investigar sobre a prática
profissional. APM, Lisboa (2002)
3. Conselho Nacional de Educação: Estado de Educação 2018. CNE, Lisboa (2019)
4. Damião, H., Festas, I., Bivar, A., Grosso, C., Oliveira, F., Timóteo, M.C.: Programa e Metas
Curriculares Matemática – Ensino Básico. Ministério da Educação e Ciência, Lisboa (2013)
5. Cravo, C., Fernandes, D.: Observar, manipular e comunicar sequências e regularidades da
Ribeira do Porto. Indagatio Didática 5(12), 369–392 (2020)
6. Palmeirão, C.: Digitais por obrigação. In: Alves, J.M., Cabral, I. (eds.) Ensinar e aprender
em tempo de COVID 19: entre o caos e a redenção. Faculdade de Educação e Psicologia da
Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Porto (2020)
7. Meirinhos, M., Osório A.: O estudo de caso como estratégia de investigação em educação.
EDUSER: Rev. Educ. 2(2), 49–65 (2010)
8. Cadima, A.: As estratégias de diferenciação na sala de aula. In: Conselho Nacional de Educação
(ed.) Actas do Seminário Equidade na Educação: Prevenção de Riscos Educativos, pp. 109–120.
Conselho Nacional de Educação, Lisboa (2006)
9. Martins, Z.: As TIC no ensino-aprendizagem da Matemática. In: Silva, B.D., Almeida,
L., Lozano, A.B., Uzquiano, M.P. (eds.) X Congresso Internacional Galego-Português de
Psicopedagogia, pp. 2727–2742. Universidade do Minho, Braga (2009)
10. Ponte, J.P.: O ensino da Matemática em Portugal: Uma prioridade educativa? In: Conselho
Nacional de Educação (Org.) O ensino da Matemática: Situação e perspectivas, pp. 21–56.
Conselho Nacional de Educação, Lisboa (2002)
11. Caraça, B.J.: Conceitos fundamentais da Matemática. Tipografia Matemática. Lisboa (1951)
12. Batista, A., Pires, A., Brito, E., Rodrigues, F.: O uso das T.I.C. como uma ferramenta facilitadora
da aprendizagem. Rev. Estud. Investig. Psicol. Educ. (13), 105–109 (2017)
13. Fernandes, D.: Aprendizagens algébricas em contexto interdisciplinar no ensino básico. Tese
de Doutoramento, Universidade de Aveiro (2006)
14. Fernandes, D.: Sendas de Sucesso com o “método de Singapura” – Parte 1/3. Ozarfaxinars 70
(2017)
15. Fernandes, D.: Sendas de Sucesso com o “método de Singapura” – Parte 3/3. Ozarfaxinars 77
(2018)
16. Flores, P.Q., Ramos, A.: Práticas com TIC potenciadoras de mudanças. In: Mesquita, C., Pires,
M.V., Lopes, R.P. (eds.) 1.º Encontro Internacional de Formação na Docência, pp. 195–203.
INCTE, Bragança (2016)
17. Alcará, A.R., Guimarães, S.E.R.: A Instrumentalidade como uma estratégia motivacional.
Psicol. Esc. Educ. 11(1), 177–178 (2007)
18. Coutinho, C.P., Chaves, J.H.: O estudo de caso na investigação em Tecnologia Educativa em
Portugal. Rev. Port. Educ. 15(1), 221–243 (2002)
19. Tuckman, B.: Manual de Investigação em Educação. Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Lisboa
(2000)
20. Fernandes, D.: Conferência realizada no âmbito da Prática de Ensino Supervisionada em tempo
de pandemia (2020)
Collaborative Training: Faculty
and Library Combat Plagiarism—The
Case of the Instituto Superior de
Contabilidade e Administração do Porto
Library
Inês Braga , Isabel Santos Moura , Iolanda Valente ,

and António Abreu
Abstract The study focuses on plagiarism in higher education and on the need for
collaborative work between students, faculty, and librarians to prevent it. The univer-
sity library assumes a significant role as an information literacy training agent, trans-
mitting the importance of an ethical use of Information and the respect for intellectual
property and copyright laws. The literature review includes: a theoretical reflection
on the concept of plagiarism; on plagiarism legislation; on how Higher Education
Institutions—HEIs—cope and embrace training as a pre-emptive measure. In our
capacity as faculty and as librarians at Porto Polytechnic Accounting and Busi-
ness School—ISCAP—we conducted an empirical study on the library, applying
a case study methodology, and documental research as data collection technique.
This study mapped the Information Literacy training provided by the library over
a period of seven years (2015–2021) in response to a strategic design to improve
academic success and to make students aware of the correct use of scientific infor-
mation. The results obtained demonstrate that the library already has a sustained
training program, well-defined audiences, contents aligned with the objectives of the
educational process, and a fruitful dialogue with faculty. Yet, this dynamic should
be expanded in the future by a more systematic and diversified training offer.
Keywords Plagiarism · Training for information literacy · University libraries
I. Braga (B)
ISCAP, Instituto Politécnico do Porto, CITCEM, CEOS.PP, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: inesbraga@iscap.ipp.pt
I. S. Moura · I. Valente
ISCAP, Instituto Politécnico do Porto, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: imsm@iscap.ipp.pt
I. Valente
e-mail: ivalente@iscap.ipp.pt
A. Abreu
ISCAP, Instituto Politécnico do Porto, CEOS.PP, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: aabreu@iscap.ipp.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_64
730 I. Braga et al.
1 Introduction
We shall be addressing plagiarism in Higher Education and the need to provide

students with adequate training in Information Skills to prevent it.
In our capacity as faculty and librarians, it is our belief that such training should
not fall upon faculty alone. Given the weight of the role that falls upon librarians
to raise awareness and train users, they should have an active part in providing and
designing information skills training/contents.
This research focuses on the role that “teacher-librarians” should play in the
promotion of the correct use of information and the respect for intellectual property
and copyright laws. This new dynamic of proactive and collaborative action between
“teacher-librarians”, students, and faculty could provide a significant contribution to
the teaching–learning process.
Our objective is to assess the current information literacy training conveyed by
the library of ISCAP to students and faculty in order to better understand how it
promotes the expected ethical use of information.
The specific objectives are (i) to identify the frequency of training sessions
within the seven-year period; (ii) to identify how training is carried out (content
and resources); (iii) to identify the profile of the trainees; (iv) to identify the level of
interaction between the library and other education agents, e.g. teachers; and (v) to
identify the existence of formal and informal mechanisms for assessing training.
We selected the case study methodology, applying it to the library of ISCAP.
As described by Yin [1], case study methodology addresses a contemporary
phenomenon, integrated in a real-life context, and consists of a deep study of the
theme—the library and the training carried out as part of the education process. The
data collection technique of documental research was applied to the documentation
produced by the librarian for the Information Literacy training sessions.
In the introduction we contextualize the research. This is followed by the literature
review, the analysis and discussion of the results, and the conclusions, in which the
most important ideas are highlighted and we formulate proposals for improvement, as
advocated by the literature reviewed and in accordance with results of the diagnosis
on the training role of the library.
2 Literature Review
As an introduction to the topic of plagiarism, we began with the analysis of a real case
of plagiarism as reported by a Portuguese public newspaper—O Público—on March
14, 2018 [2] regarding a master’s dissertation in which there was an ipsis verbis tran-
script of 21 pages taken from another master’s thesis. The case was reported by the
plagiarized author by filling a lawsuit against the plagiarist, who was then sentenced
to sixty hours of community service and to issuing a formal written apology. The
dissertation was removed from the repositories. Despite this being a lengthy process,
Collaborative Training: Faculty and Library Combat Plagiarism … 731
it was made possible by Portuguese legislation. The Code of Copyright and Related
Rights [3] provides for the criminalization and penalty for usurpation, in accor-
dance with Articles 195 and 197, with penalties ranging from imprisonment to fines.
The existence of a legal framework foresees the violation of intellectual property
and copyright. Nevertheless, higher education institutions are reluctant to apply the
legal provisions and mechanisms for punitive action. Most faculty members often
prefer not to report the plagiarism as they dread the complex, bureaucratic, and time-
consuming process, that consumes much needed time and energy they would rather
allocate to core academic activity. The lack of administrative support is reported by
faculty within an analysis of teachers’ attitudes towards non-compliance by students
who violate academic integrity [4].
It is a worrying that this generation of digital natives does not seem to under-
stand that copying informative material from the internet and presenting it as their
own, without refering sources, is not only intellectually dishonest as it is criminal
as provided by Law [5]. Hence, student training is of the utmost importance to
prevent plagiarism and its legal consequences. This is extensive to academic fraud
as consequences may resonate throughout their adult life and impact on professional
success.
Although penalties as a response to an illicit act are commendable, many advo-
cate preventive action, with a focus on training. A 2011 study on academic integrity
conducted amongst students enrolled in Portuguese higher education institutions,
sought to characterize deviant behavior and conduct, such as copying in exams
and plagiarism. In it, a significant percentage (47%) of the students considered
that dishonest behavior could be reduced should there be greater awareness and
wider information on academic integrity and ethical behavior [6] amongst students.
According to Silva and Coelho [7], academic integrity is a complex process that
involves different moments and actors. The indoctrination of such a notion and its
implementation is no easy task.
Therefore, in our perspective, as cases of plagiarism and academic fraud are
seldom pursued and penalized, it seems reasonable that the fight against plagia-
rism and academic dishonesty should lay on prevention, awareness and (in)forming,
instead of allocating time to establish internal regulations that are documents with
little or none practical application. The passivity and permissiveness with which the
offenses to academic integrity are dealt with is counterproductive to the greater aim
of higher education—to create good professionals, stimulating their creativity, scien-
tific, and critical thinking. We propose that the formula for combating plagiarism and
academic fraud is based on communication between the triad: library—student—
teacher, in which the student will always be the center line of this cooperation. It is
up to faculty to encourage good practices in research, collection, and processing of
information, and the development information literacy skills to be applied in scientific
writing.
However, in addition to teaching and researching, the number of hours allocated
by faculty to administrative and bureaucratic activities does not contribute to allowing
teachers the time or disposition to invest in this particular set of skills. Nevertheless,
it is important that teachers adequately inform students about the importance of
732 I. Braga et al.
citing correctly and about the legal and intellectual imperative to state their sources.
In addition, students should be taught to filter information, to distinguish reliable
sources from “informational garbage” roaming the web, to recognize disinformation
pieces and assess scientific rigor. Although the recent generations of students have
grown up alongside technology, most struggle with digital literacy—despite their
proficiency in the use of equipment they are oblivious to what seems to be the
complex, dense and confusing sea of information [7]. According to Sanches [8], the
internet allows access to a greater diversity of digital information resources and to
means of communication, superior in quantity and quality. As a consequence, the
internet enables easy access, easy copying (and pasting) features, and an easy reuse
of information in both hard and digital support. Yet, the validity of such information
is compromised should it not be used ethically, in abidance of legal principles.
In an era defined by information overload, it is up to the librarian, as an informa-
tion management specialist, to (in)form the academic community on how to research,
filter and select information, thus investing on the promotion of information literacy,
a concept defined by ALA [9] as a set of skills that individuals designated as “infor-
mation literates” must have: “recognize when information is needed and have the
ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information.” In other stan-
dards—such as those of CILIP [10]—in addition to these competencies, the ethical
use of information is also valued.
Ramos and Morais [11] state that plagiarism corresponds to a problem of
(i)morality and (un)awareness of the academic culture and the characteristics of
scientific writing. This problem is due not only to the subject’s marked flaws of moral
character—translated into a conscious lack of integrity and intellectual honesty—but
also due to ignorance about the management of information. Therefore, it falls upon
librarians and faculty to prevent plagiarism and academic fraud, and it is also up to
the latter to monitor behavior that threatens intellectual integrity.
In the broad and challenging context of digitalization in education, the current
technological development provides plagiarism detection software—a valuable aid
to improving the quality and integrity of education. Tripathi et al. [12] refer the
advantages of anti-plagiarism software/tools and list a series of commercial solu-
tions, such as Turnitin, CopyCatch Gold, EVE2, Essay Verification Engine, J Plag,
Moss, EduTie.com, PlagiServe, Wordcheck, defending that researchers and scien-
tific authors should know and use this software to verify their academic and research
work, which will improve quality. Ramos and Morais [11] also refer plagiarism
detection technology as beneficial for teacher surveillance, though they admit that
this is insufficient to prevent fraud. A study carried out by Universidade Aberta [13]
demonstrated that teachers are reluctant to adhere to digital plagiarism verification
practices—a claim substantiated by this research. In fact, although University Aberta
made Turnitin and FeedbackStudio software available to faculty members, in order
to facilitate the detection of student plagiarism, there was a reduced use of these
tools by faculty members. Finally, in a comparative investigation of different types
of software carried out by Pezuk et al. [14] the authors concluded that the choice
of software should be made carefully and responsibly, as the degree of detection
of plagiarism is variable, with some software being limited and unable to identify
significant percentages of plagiarized text. Still, these technological resources help

combat deviant behavior by students and encourage teachers to rethink teaching and
assessment strategies, eventually promoting ethical and moral discussions in class.
Plagiarism prevention strategies include teaching students how to conduct
research based on quality scientific criteria; teaching how to paraphrase; how to
assimilate information read and express it in their own words; how to correctly
reference sources [11]. This is the objective that the library of the Porto Poly-
technic Accounting and Business School seeks to achieve when providing training,
not only in information research and selection (e.g. B-on—Biblioteca do Conheci-
mento Online) but also in correct citation and referencing (e.g. Zotero). Regardless
of format, this type of training enables libraries to fulfill their mission of promoting
knowledge by making information available and teaching how to use such infor-
mation, of improving accessibility, of reducing search time, and of adapting library
services to user needs [15].
Portuguese higher education libraries that provide this type of training (e.g.
ISCAP), are aligned with what Ramirez Leyva [16] defends when stating that the
library should design training programs that would go beyond promoting literacy
(reading) but focus on information skills and the ethical use of information. The
author adds that the practice of plagiarism ultimately reduces the importance of
librarianship work, insofar as it reduces not only the use of its resources, which
implicates on financial management of resources, but also the specialized work of
librarians. Leitão et al. [17] argue that a higher education library is one of the most
important spaces in the prevention of plagiarism. We will go even further, stating that
the library space must go beyond its own physical limits, taking its services to the
classroom or to other spaces where the communion between information and intel-
lectual integrity is necessary. Librarians thus hold “the unique role in universities and
colleges to combat student plagiarism as they lead efforts to introduce information
literacy programming into the curriculum” [18]. The ISCAP library has focused on
training the academic community, either by presenting proposals by its own initiative
to teachers, or by responding to their requests.
The library at ISCAP has 4485 enrolled readers and serves the whole academic
community: 5114 students, 231 teachers and 58 staff members. Between 2015 and
2021, this Documentation service had a librarian and 2 collaborators, having admitted
another librarian in December 2021. We have analyzed the evolution of the training
provided by the ISCAP library during period of seven years—training began being
offered systematically in 2015.
Since 2015, all training sessions were delivered by the librarian, mainly in situ—in
the classroom—using a computer, a projector, the internet, and the scientific database
B-on. B-on allows access to quality information, subject to peer review in top ranking
journals. As the academic community is allowed free access to the full articles,
734 I. Braga et al.
Number of training sessions
25
22
23
22
21
18
17
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Fig. 1 Evolution of the number of training sessions provided by the library per year
students received training to make the best possible use of this database as a tool to
enhance academic performance. During the Covid-19 induced confinement period,
11% of the training was carried out online.
The first training sessions focused on B-on responding to request of the Interna-
tional Office. According to Fig. 1, the number of annual training courses is stable,
ranging from 17 to 25, with an annual average of 21 courses. The year 2018 stands
out with a total of 25 training courses.
The library is the main responsible for organizing training for students. The
number of training sessions increased since 2015, with 25 training courses in 2018.
In 2019 there was a sharp decrease and in 2020 the number of training sessions
increased again to 22 sessions.
The training sessions proposed by faculty began in 2015 and took place with some
interruptions, namely in 2016, 2018 and 2020. In 2015 and 2017 they had little expres-
sion (only 1 session). In 2019 and 2021, faculty proposed 15 and 21 training courses
respectively. In 2020, a year marked by the pandemic and confinement, training was
proposed almost exclusively by the Library. In 2021 all training was a result of faculty
requests. Faculty members and course directors found that training at the beginning
of the academic year or at the beginning of the second semester was more adequate
and requested so from the librarian. Training is also suggested and requested by those
who teach Information methodology related subjects, research methodologies, and
the correct use of scientific information, in an effort to complement their teaching
with that of the Information Professional (Fig. 2).
The contents taught in the training sessions are: B-on, Zotero (free bibliographic
reference management software); APA (bibliographic referencing standard); Reader
training; and EBSCO (eBook Academic Collection). Over the last seven years, most
sessions are about B-on, with a maximum number of 21 sessions on this topic in
2016, with the average being of 16 sessions per year. The second most discussed
topic of training is Zotero, with several sessions that vary between 1 and 15 and with
an annual average of 6.
The trainees are undergraduates, graduates, and others (researchers of the Center
for Organizational and Social Studies and the International Relations Office).
Considering all academic years, the library organizes an annual average of 11 sessions
22
21
21
18
19
15
9
4
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Library CEISCAP Interna onal Rela ons Office Faculty Events Research centers
Fig. 2 Number of training sessions provided by the library per proponent
for graduates and 6 sessions for undergraduates. Each student will have one session
only per year. Most training courses are aimed at Master’s degree students every year,
with an exception in 2018, when there were more training sessions for undergraduates
(Fig. 3).
There are currently no formal mechanisms of evaluation (e.g. surveys) being
applied after the sessions. Participants provide feedback orally at the end of the
sessions or at a later time should students have follow-up questions for the librarian.
This university library has been attentive to the informational needs of its users
and has, for the last seven years, been investing in regular training.
Students are the library’s main target audience, with more sessions aimed at
Master’s students than at undergraduate students, to better provide the first with the

Undergraduates Graduates Others
14
12
12
12
11
10
9
9
7
6
5
5
4
4
3
2
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3 Number of training session provided by the library per academic level
736 I. Braga et al.
information literacy skills necessary to meet the graduation dissertations’ require-

ments—identifying reliable scientific information sources, correct citation, and
correct use of bibliographic references.
The highest number of sessions address topics related to efficient research using
the online scientific library—B-on. The focus on this training intends to publicize
this important resource that is institutionally financed but still underused by students,
either due to lack of knowledge or to difficulties in its use. Thus, the training sessions
seek to help students carry out their academic work more efficiently, quickly and
without additional financial cost. Students are taught to identify their informational
needs, to make simple and advanced searches in the database, how to select and
store and organize the appropriate information, and how to have good management
practices for its subsequent usage.
From our analysis of students’ assignments and thesis it has become clear that
students struggle to comply with bibliographic standards. To help students overcome
this and help them produce better, more formally adequate scientific work, the library
provides training in Zotero software (how to use bibliographic references, citations,
and bibliographies, according to the different norms of bibliographic referencing).
The librarian also sporadically organizes training actions on the APA style—used in
Master’s dissertations, although Zotero already allows the automatic adaptation of
bibliographic references to this style and many others.
These examples of the library’s proactive action towards information users denote
an effort to promote the ethical use of information. It can also be asserted that the
library helps fight plagiarism in a formative and pre-emptive manner. In these sessions
it is implicit that students develop Information Literacy skills, such as the ability to
recognize an informational need, knowing how to search for the information they
need, knowing how to select, evaluate, and use information critically, communicating
information ethically, respecting copyright and intellectual property.
Amongst those educational agents taking initiative to promote training in Informa-
tion literacy, the library stands out, having presented a growth pattern in the number
of training sessions offered in the first four years (2015–2018). This pattern changed
in later years, (2019 and 2021) as the increase of interactions between faculty and the
library resulted in an increase of training requests made chiefly by faculty members.
This change demonstrates that faculty members could be beginning to recognize the
added value of the librarian’s role in the academic training of their students. This
dynamic can be understood as a collaborative work between faculty members and
the librarian, whose formative role is recognized, being perceived as an ally of the
teaching–learning process.
4 Conclusions
In general, the library’s performance seems to be aligned with what was described in
the literature review. Plagiarism and academic fraud are addressed in a pre-emptive
way, through the dissemination of information and training, through practical demon-
strations of the benefits of software usage, scientific data base research, and biblio-
graphic standards. These actions aim to help students produce ethically and formally
accurate scientific documents (assignments, papers, thesis, etc.).
The results obtained in the diagnosis denote a concern with the organisation of
a structural training program. Training provided comprises annual periodic sessions
held by the library directed to specific and targeted audiences, with organised thematic
sessions suited to meet the audiences’ requirements, with the necessary resources
(hardware, software, etc.), during pre-defined periods of the academic year.
During the first four years (2015–2018) training sessions were initiated by the
librarian. More recently (2019 and 2021), most sessions were requested by faculty,
thus leading to the conclusion that the work carried previously by the librarian
resulted in an alliance with faculty to collaborate towards the common goal of
augmenting Information Literacy skills, with emphasis on the research of quality
scientific information and its ethical use by the students.
So far, the human resources allocated to the training provided by the library are
scarce, with only one librarian allocated, which is significantly insufficient consid-
ering the size of the institution. The recent hiring of one additional librarian will
enable a more systematic and diversified training program.
For the future, we propose a systematic monitoring of all classes throughout their
academic training and not restraining students to a single training session. We also
propose offering training sessions to help teachers use plagiarism detection programs
effectively.
The existing training should be assessed formally—going beyond the informal
assessment by the participating students.
Finally, we propose the implementation of a pilot project for the design and
implementation of training sessions designed and ministered by faculty and library.
These sessions would focus on scientific database, bibliographic references, citations,
and bibliography and would result in a student assignment that should be assessed
by both the faculty and library.
Through the collaborative work of different educational agents involved, we
think we can innovate the teaching–learning process, making it more motivating
and focused on the effective informational needs of students, making students more
accountable for the ethical use of information and, contributing to a formative and
non-punitive approach to plagiarism.

References
1. Yin, R.K.: Estudo de caso: planejamento e métodos, 4ª ed. Artmed Editora, São Paulo (2005)
2. Araújo, P.: O Bom, o Mau, o Feio e o Plagiador. PÚBLICO (2018)
738 I. Braga et al.
3. Portugal: Código do Direito de Autor e dos Direitos Conexos (1985)

4. MacLeod, P.D., Eaton, S.E.: The paradox of faculty attitudes toward student violations of
academic integrity. J. Acad. Ethics 18, 347–362 (2020)
5. Ruipérez, G., García-Cabrero, J.-C.: Retos y dificultades para combatir el plagio académico. In:
Novo, A., Nobre, A., Simão, J., Pereira, P. (eds.) Plágio e integridade académica na sociedade
da informação. Universidade Aberta (2020)
6. Teixeira, A.A.C.: Integridade académica em Portugal: Relatório-síntese global do estudo.
FEUP, Porto (2011)
7. Silva, A., Coelho, K.: Integridade académica e plágio: como levar à mudança dentro e fora
da sala de aula? In: Novo, A., Nobre, A., Simão, J., Pereira, P. (eds.) Plágio e integridade
académica na sociedade da informação, pp. 68–78. Universidade Aberta (2020)
8. Sanches, T.: Citar e referenciar: uma estratégia formativa para o uso ético da informação e
prevenção do plágio em meio académico. Perspect. Ciênc. Inf. 24(3), 60–73 (2019)
9. ALA: Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education. ALA, Chicago,
Illinois (2000)
10. CILIP: CILIP Definition of Information Literacy (2018)
11. Ramos, M., Morais, C.: As várias faces do plágio entre estudantes do ensino superior: um
estudo de caso. Educ. Pesqui. 47, 1–23 (2021)
12. Tripathi, R., Tiwari, P., Nithyanandam, K.: Avoiding plagiarism in research through free online
plagiarism tools. In: 2015 4th International Symposium on Emerging Trends and Technologies
in Libraries and Information Services, pp. 275–280 (2015)
13. Novo, A., Nobre, A., Simão, J., Pereira, P.: Estratégias e iniciativas da Universidade Aberta
para a promoção da originalidade nos trabalhos académicos. In: Novo, A., Nobre, A., Simão,
J., Pereira, P. (eds.) Plágio e integridade académica na sociedade da informação, pp. 4–14.
Universidade Aberta (2020)
14. Pezuk, J.A., Diniz, S.N., Pereira, R.M., Gonçalves, I.D., Costa, N.M.L., Dias, M.A.: The use
of software to identify plagiarism in academic and educational texts. Educ. Pesqui. 46, 1–21
(2020)
15. Gómez Hernández, J.A.: Los usuarios. In: Orera, L. (ed.) Manual de biblioteconomia, pp. 229–
237. Editorial Sinstesis, Madrid (2008)
16. Ramírez Leyva, E.M.: La formación de lectores para el uso ético de la información. Inf., Cult.
Soc. 6, 111–122 (2017)
17. Leitão, H., Almeida, P., Simões, M.G., Martínez-Ávila, D.: Ação das bibliotecas académicas
na prevenção do plágio. Ciênc. Inf. 48(3), 239–251 (2019)
18. Michalak, R., Rysavy, M., Hunt, K., Smith, B., Worden, J.: Faculty perceptions of plagiarism:
insight for librarians’ information literacy programs. Coll. Res. Libr. 79(6), 747–767 (2018)
Cybersecurity Concerns Under
COVID-19: Representations
on Increasing Digital Literacy in Higher
Education
Justino Lourenço , José Carlos Morais , Susana Sá , Nelson Neves ,

Fernando Figueiredo , and Mário Costa Santos
Abstract The COVID-19 brought several new challenges for the students and
lecturers, particularly in higher education. The conventional physical classroom
was almost instantly pushed into a new environment: a remote session class. And
this lecturing paradigm shift occurred, necessarily, in a short period of time. The
lecturing players suffered the pressure of using different learning tools and method-
ologies while exposing themselves to, in most part of cases, unexpected cybersecurity
threats. The purpose of this article is to clarify all the new menaces that arose during
this period. Also, to understand the level of exposure and impacts on the lecturer
and student to this quick but necessary paradigm shift. Methodologically: two focus
groups were undertook to capture representations of students about uses of computer
technology; differences in exposure to threats before and during the pandemic and
impacts on society; student’s needs regarding the topic and suggestions about strate-
gies for increasing overall knowledge about it. Answers were treated recurring to
software webQDA®—Qualitative Data Analysis Software for analysis of qualita-
tive data. Results depict the exposure to cybersecurity issues and some level of
J. Lourenço (B) · N. Neves · F. Figueiredo · M. C. Santos

ISPGAYA, Vila Nova de Gaia, Portugal
e-mail: jml@ispgaya.pt
N. Neves
e-mail: nneves@ispgaya.pt
F. Figueiredo
e-mail: ffigueiredo@ispgaya.pt
M. C. Santos
e-mail: msantos@ispgaya.pt
J. C. Morais
CEOS.PP; ISPGAYA, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: jmorais@ispgaya.pt
S. Sá
CIDI-IESF, Instituto de Estudos Superiores de Fafe, Fafe, Portugal
e-mail: susana.sa@iesfafe.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_65
740 J. Lourenço et al.
knowledge about them, inducing preventive practices when using informatics tech-
nology. Sense of increasing insecurity in society is associated with the statement
of increasing activity regarding cybercrime, giving way to the assumption of the
need of awareness and knowledge of general public regarding this issues, and rise
suggestions on teaching approaches directed to the subject.
Keywords Cybersecurity · Higher education students · COVID-19 · Teaching ·

Digital literacy
1 Introduction
The pandemic stress caused by COVID-19 had multiple severe impacts over the
world. In particular, the lecturing players had to perform a fast change in the teaching
environment: a shift from classic to remote classroom scenarios. This shift occurred
without a needed balance time to prepare the intervenient for all the panoply of
software tools and in particular without having any literacy preparations concerning
the cybersecurity aspect. Several relevant bibliographic studies have been conducted
about the impact of the introduction of new technologies in the learning environment
[1–4].
At the same time the intensive use of remote solutions sharpened the cybercrime.
Crisis scenarios are prone to the episodes of cybercrime rising. All the hostile players
are tempted to apply their dark practices in generating conventional and even new
approaches to carry out cyberattacks, taking the advantage of more potential victims
at their disposal [5].
The pandemic crisis of COVID-19 was an example of a massive rise in cyber-
crime. A serious worldwide issue that had extended media coverage among with
the student’s relocation to their homes created the perfect storm scenario set. The
lecturing players had a practice of working, most of the time, under a University
network with a set of security rules and policies in a more up-to-date security
protected network. The telework shifted the classes into remote software in each
student private computer and network. The digital literacy of the users played an
important part: with the exception of IT students, all the others had no adequate level
of knowledge—concerning the threats and solutions that would grant a safe play-
ground for the lecturing. The quick and unexpected shift from presence to remote
classes was an off-side in the implementation of the best security practices, including
a specific literacy course for all the teaching actors.
The cybercrime players felt a unique opportunity to promote chaos over the least
experienced users. Even, the natural quest for information about COVID-19 was a
tactic used by hackers to promote attacks [6]. The students profile is: a user that
uses the same device for leisure and for their academic practices. This brings an all
panoply of security issues. The lecturing players, as previously described, lack of
literacy prevented the use of Virtual Private Network (VPN) solutions that would
represent a relevant level of extra protection threw the safe tunneling of all the
Cybersecurity Concerns Under COVID-19: Representations … 741
traveling data. At last, and about this topic, some devices were suffering from non-
secure operating system settings, outdated software updates, along with non-secure
Internet surfing practices.
This article is organized as follows: firstly, a conceptual and contextual charac-
terization of the security threats. Followed by the methodology implemented for a
correct perception of the issue. After that, a results discussion and a last section
presenting the conclusions of the proposed topic.
1.1 Cybersecurity
The topic of Cybersecurity is of extreme relevance. Several malicious practices,

security strategies and policies should be taken into consideration [7–13]. The cyber-
attacked profile is also a relevant topic for discussion. The ubiquitous nature of
cybercrime that chases both individual and all sorts of organizations leads to believe
that there is a general inability to prevent its dissemination. Reports from Industry
or academia seem to corroborate this hypothesis. This inability for implementing a
solution that could stop this cybercrime spread has shifted some focus of the research
into the (cyber) criminal profiling [14–18].
An organization implements a proper security policy in order to keep the network
safe, on the other hand a student does not have those special considerations, in
particular “non IT degrees” students. A network administrator is responsible for all
the security topics implementation and monitoring; a student’s computer and network
is managed by the user. These two relevant distinct procedures can easily trigger the
security vulnerability on the weakest side: student.
By definition, a security threat may have the proposal do deliberately access
personal or University data (for corrupting the information or just for accessing it)
or to compromise the proper operation of a part or the entire IT infrastructure or
associated services. These practices most of the time are used as a strong sign about
the Internet relevance of a user or a group of users and in a relative number with
financial purposes.
In the following subsection a set of typical cybersecurity threats—in detail—will
be described.
Login Dissemination
The authentication threw a login and a password is still the most common procedure
to access IT services. This dependency is a strong point-of-failure in the cybersecurity
chain.
A combination of a week password, without an aging mechanism implementation
or even the access credentials shared with a student’s colleague present a serious risk.
Also of strong relevance the risk of a remote access without the support of a secured
connection.
A multiple step authentication is an important step introduced to bypass these

typical vulnerabilities. Always assure a secure connection when login and password
are over transit is another relevant procedure to avoid cybersecurity issues.
Several proposals are presented as strategical countermeasures for this topic, with
the support of machine learning techniques [19, 20] using of secure logins protocols
[21] and bringing Blockchain (BC) as a new solution [22].
Identity theft
A possible cyber menace arises from successful attempts to get the Person Identi-
fying Information (PII) from a user. With the PII the attacker plans to assume the
offended positions, pretending to play the role of a different person with all the
serious consequences associated with this behavior [23–26].
A clear weak link in the architecture of PII services is sufficient to bring exposure
and PII risk. Recently, a shift happens in identity management solutions with the
growth of blockchain. Blockchain provides a unique and strong answer in terms of
addressing security and privacy with its embedded immutability [27].
Information Disclosure and Corruption
This form of security vulnerability is an exploitation of an unsafe entry to the data
repository. The malicious author of the crime perpetrator will read or copy relevant
information, such as its academic report with the intention of granting relevant infor-
mation as a student and in worse cases to public disseminate it, in order to achieve a
high level of reputation among his cyber community tribe.
Actually, the amount of sensitive personal data stored in public or private organi-
zations, Universities and several others is considerable. A data breach would expose
sensitive data and consequently compromise organization credibility.
The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) is one of the strongest regula-
tion that grants data protections in a form of a law by the European Union (EU).
Fundamentally, it implies the use of a set of rights and freedoms of all individuals,
ultimately the privacy and security of all our personal data. The requirement is not
only applied on the UE geographic scope but extends to wherever a EU citizen has
its data stored, processed or transmitted [19–22].
As previously described: one illegitimate access granted to a cyber-attacker
enables the access to privilege data such as academic data or even student’s personal
data. Sometimes the motivation goes beyond consulting the information, the cyber-
attack may plan to destroy the information forever or to get a reward for enabling
the original user to access the information data again (ransomware) [28, 29].
Dark background processing
The chance of having remote access to the student’s computer is a serious menace.
Besides enabling all the cyberattacks described in all the previous subsections opens
a new door to even more malicious procedures. The attacker will be able to install
malicious software in the victim’s computer to: install portions of code that will
enable him to control all the computer running processes and take the computer
processing power for several criminal tasks.
Depending on the motivation and the degree of local power processing needed
this tasks can be easily performed without the attacked student noticing it.
2 Methodology
This study is of a qualitative nature [30–32] with characteristics of a case study,

carried out to capture the opinion of Portuguese Higher Education students, regarding
cybersecurity and digital technologies, before and after/during the COVID-19
pandemic.
Based on the theoretical and circumstantial foundations described above and
on the problems presented, the following objectives were established: (i) to iden-
tify students’ perceptions regarding Cybersecurity and digital technologies in the
emerging context of the COVID-19 pandemic; (ii) identify the information that
these students have about cybersecurity and related practices; (iii) look for percep-
tions about teaching gaps related to cybersecurity and look for the best approaches to
teaching content within this theme. According to the delimited problem, the following
questions or themes were defined to be discussed in a focus group context: (1) What
digital devices/media do you use regularly and for what purposes?; (2) Have you
ever heard of cybersecurity? What does this term mean to you?; (3) Before the
COVID-19 period, did you have any computer security problems? And after the
declaration of the 1st period of confinement (March 2020)? in this case, the terms
and some explanation were mentioned: phishing; access to your email; access to your
bank; access to your social network(s); the computer or cell phone does not turn on;
someone unauthorized to access my computer data; ransomware. (4) In your opinion,
is cybercrime a growing phenomenon and a growing global concern, with negative
impacts on different dimensions of society? What kind of negative impacts can you
identify? (5) How do you rate your recently acquired knowledge of computer secu-
rity, for example, do you think that nothing has changed, got worse, improved a little
or improved a lot. (6) Can you identify some practices that you carry out in order
to guarantee your computer security, for example those related to passwords or how
to deal with suspicious mails? (7) How could knowledge be increased in your case
and in the general public regarding Cybersecurity? What do you think about the use
of game elements, gamification, to teach security practices? And applied in face-to-
face and distance learning? Have other suggestions? The research was carried out
with two focus groups of students, randomly selected, designated by FG1 and FG2.
FG1 consisted of 6 students from the Small and Medium Enterprises Management
and Digital Marketing courses. FG2 consisted of 5 students of Mechatronics and
Electronics Technology and Industrial Automation. All students belong to a Private
Higher Education Institution in the North of Portugal. Focus groups had an average
duration of 17 min and were performed by one of the study authors. All ethical
standards were safeguarded, namely the guarantee of participants’ anonymity, data
confidentiality and the right to voluntary participation.
Table 1 Focus group and category analysis matrix

Categories FG1 FG2
frequency units (n) frequency units (n)
Use of digital means 12 15
CYBERSECURITY Phishing before COVID-19 6 5
Phishing after COVID-19 7 4
Intensification of crime 3 2
Learning 5 4
Ransomware 1 2
Security related practices 6 5
Gamification 3 3
Cameras 4 0
Industrial platforms 0 1
Cybersecurity training 0 3
Source Authors
The answers were entered into the webQDA®—Qualitative Data Analysis

Software [33] software for qualitative data analysis. Data analysis performed by
webQDA® is similar to the basic structure of content analysis [34]: (a) pre-analysis,
with the organization of the material to be analyzed; (b) exploration of the mate-
rial, with coding and categorization; and (c) treatment of the results, with inferential
interpretations. This stage started “from the meanings that the message provides”
[35, p. 135]. It is, therefore, “a process of arranging in a set of categories of mean-
ing” [35, p. 302] that we will call reference units. Content analysis was carried out
with a focus on digital technologies and cybersecurity, emerging the following cate-
gories, which are shown in Table 1: (i) Use of digital media; (ii) Cybersecurity:
Phishing before COVID-19; Cybersecurity: Phishing after COVID-19; Intensifica-
tion of Crime; Learning; Ransomware; Security Practices and Gamification; (iii)
Cameras; (iv) Industrial Platforms; and (v) Cybersecurity Training.
3 Results
Triangulation matrices were made between categories and literature. We consider

the need to establish some strategies. Among them, we also chose to privilege data
triangulation—as a modality that proves whether the information collected is consis-
tent—signed by another (theoretical) source, and we resort to the transparency of the
entire process that guarantees the merit, credibility, and reliability of the investigation.
From the analysis of Table 1, we can see that FG1 showed to be more concerned
with cybersecurity issues than FG2, despite mentioning that they use less digital
media (n = 12), for example, mobile phones, computers, tablets and smartphones
watch than FG2 (n = 15). This is explained by the fact that FG2 students have more
digital literacy, due to their academic background.
Students were unanimous (with the exception of one from FG2), FG1 (n = 6) and
FG2 (n = 5) in saying that Phishing was lower before the COVID-19 pandemic than
after (during) the pandemic (n = 7) and (n = 5), respectively. Before the pandemic,
FG1 referred to “emails with something free” and after/during the pandemic “I
received more phishing emails (fake profiles trying to enter facebook), phone calls
(spam), etc.”, in FG2, a student mentioned “I was phishing on my facebook”.
Students from FG1 (n = 3) and FG2 (n = 2) mentioned that there was an intensifi-
cation of cybersecurity crime, an example of FG1 “computer virus” and FG2 “more
attacks on large business groups”.
Regarding cybersecurity literacy, students from FG1 (n = 5) mentioned, for
example, “videos, lectures and when a social network is created, immediately suggest
2 security systems”, students from FG2 (n = 4), said “every time you learn more”.
As for the ransom request, both FG1 (n = 1) and FG2 (n = 2) are aware.
Specifically regarding security practices, both FG1 (n = 6) and FG2 (n = 5),
students are concerned about passwords, change them periodically or use another
validation system simultaneously, but both keep the passwords in easily accessible
phishing locations.
Regarding the use of Gamification for cybersecurity literacy learning, both FG1
and FG2 students (n = 3) find this teaching strategy on the subject interesting and
motivating.
When students were asked to give other examples of something that concerned
them about the topic, FG1 students (n = 4) recalled the security vulnerability that
may exist in cell phone or computer cameras. FG2 students mentioned industrial
platforms (created by training companies) (n = 1) and cybersecurity training (n = 3)
to students from 5 to 9th grades of the 2nd and 3rd cycles of basic education, in the
sense to alert them and teach prevention strategies alongside sex and bullying issues.
4 Conclusions
Our study highlights the fact that cybercrime activity is rising with the broadening
of internet and digital means use as a consequence of «re-placing» in loco work, and
schooling with remote «presence», confining it to the domestic space, along with
other preventive measures related to the Covid19 pandemic, following a line of secu-
ritization of education [36]. One of the most affected activities were those related to
teaching and learning, putting a much greater importance in the use of digital means.
The generalized use of digital means and applications causes a more frequent and
close encounter with cybersecurity issues in academic population, directly linked
with the more intense and generalized use and access of internet. Traditional issues
regarding digital literacy make way to considerations about literacy in cybercrime
itself, since they are not the same thing, although they are connected. We can conclude
about different levels of digital literacy regarding cybersecurity in collected student’s
statements, and the need of increasing knowledge about illicit activities relating
internet and crime. As they were stated in the literature review, concepts of login
dissemination, identity theft, information disclosure, information corruption and dark
background processing, were not addressed by the students as technical terms, instead
they needed to be interpreted from their recorded casual speech. We are talking about
citizens that are «digital natives», but in need of specific training on these matters.
It was observed a not consistent and dispersed view on digital crime, having been
referred issues that most people may not be aware of, for instance those related to
cameras in computers and in smartphones, contributing to a general sense of insecu-
rity. Perhaps the most important outcome of this study was not only concluding about
different levels of cybersecurity awareness corresponding to different backgrounds
of students attending different scientific areas, but there is consensus among inquired
students of the need of adaptation of teaching strategies related to the topic of cyber-
security according to specific characteristics of the populations that teaching aims,
putting a special reference to the use of elements of games in education, adapted to
targeted groups.
References
1. Lourenço, J., Morais, J., Monteiro, J., Sá, S., Santos, J.D., Neves, N.: Conceptions on higher
education students about use of technologies in the learning process: a comparative study. In:
INTED2022, pp. 3721–3730 (2022)
2. Lourenço, J., Sá, S., Neves, N., Morais, J.C., Santos, J.D.: Conceptions on higher education
students about use of technologies in the learning process: a comparative study. In: INTED2022,
pp. 3775–3784 (2022)
3. King, V.: Technology-facilitated online and distance learning student support. In: Proceedings
of the IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (2004)
4. Pearshouse, I., Sharples, M.: CETADL: a research and development facility for e-learning.
In: Proceedings International Workshop on Advanced Learning Technologies. IWALT 2000.
Advanced Learning Technology: Design and Development Issues (2000)
5. Backman, S.: Conceptualizing cyber crises. Conting. Cris. Manag. (2020)
6. Anderson, T., Canter, L., Luo, Y.: Key COVID-19 issues for privacy and cybersecurity profes-
sionals. In: China, Cybersecurity, Data Privacy, EU Data Protection, European Union, Financial
Privacy, Health Privacy, Privacy and Data Security, 10 Mar 2020
7. Sabillon, R., Serra-Ruiz, J., Cavaller, V., Cano, J.: A comprehensive cybersecurity audit
model to improve cybersecurity assurance: the cybersecurity audit model (CSAM). In: 2017
International Conference on Information Systems and Computer Science (INCISCOS) (2017)
8. Kriz, D.: Cybersecurity principles for industry and government: a useful framework for efforts
globally to improve cybersecurity. In: 2011 Second Worldwide Cybersecurity Summit (WCS)
(2011)
9. Fang, Y., Zhang, Y., Huang, C.: CyberEyes: cybersecurity entity recognition model based on
graph convolutional network. Comput. J. 74 (2020)
10. Tayouri, D., Hassidim, S., Bremier, E., Smirnov, A., Shabtai, P.A.: CyberSecurity standards
for cloud access (2022)
11. Bokan, B., Santos, J.: Managing cybersecurity risk using threat based methodology for eval-
uation of cybersecurity architectures. In: 2021 Systems and Information Engineering Design
Symposium (SIEDS) (2021)
12. Hajny, J., Ricci, S., Piesarskas, E., Levillain, O., Galletta, L., Nicola, R.D.: Framework, tools
and good practices for cybersecurity curricula. IEEE Access 9 (2021)
13. Wilson, D.C.: Cybersecurity (2021)
14. Back, S., LaPrade, J., Shehadeh, L., Kim, M.: Youth hackers and adult hackers in South Korea:
an application of cybercriminal profiling. In: 2019 IEEE European Symposium on Security
and Privacy Workshops (EuroS&PW) (2019)
15. Felipe, F.D., Noya, F.C., Martínez, I.: Technical profiles for Mexican internet user to improve
informatics security. In: 2016 8th Euro American Conference on Telematics and Information
Systems (EATIS) (2016)
16. Balogun, A.M., Zuva, T.: Criminal profiling in digital forensics: assumptions, challenges and
probable solution. In: 2018 International Conference on Intelligent and Innovative Computing
Applications (ICONIC) (2018)
17. Balogun, A.M., Zuva, T.: Open issues in cybercriminal profiling. In: 2017 1st International
Conference on Next Generation Computing Applications (NextComp) (2017)
18. Chung, W., Wang, G.A.: Profiling and visualizing cyber-criminal activities: a general
framework. In: 2007 IEEE Intelligence and Security Informatics (2007)
19. Misbahuddin, M., Bindhumadhava, B.S., Dheeptha, B.: Design of a risk based authenti-
cation system using machine learning techniques. In: 2017 IEEE SmartWorld, Ubiquitous
Intelligence & Computing, Advanced & Trusted Computed, Scalable Computing & Commu-
nications, Cloud & Big Data Computing, Internet of People and Smart City Innovation
(SmartWorld/SCALCOM/UIC/ATC/CBDCom/IOP/SCI) (2017)
20. Djosic, N., Nokovic, B., Sharieh, S.: Machine learning in action: securing IAM API by risk
authentication decision engine. In: 2020 IEEE Conference on Communications and Network
Security (CNS) (2020)
21. Waheed, A., Shah, M.A., Khan, A.: Secure login protocols: an analysis on modern attacks
and solutions. In: 2016 22nd International Conference on Automation and Computing (ICAC)
(2016)
22. Biswas, B.N., Bhitkar, S.D., Pundkar, S.N.: Secure login: a blockchain based web application
for identity access management system. In: 2021 2nd International Conference for Emerging
Technology (INCET) (2021)
23. Yang, Y., Manoharan, M., Barber, K.S.: Modelling and analysis of identity threat behaviors
through text mining of identity theft stories. In: 2014 IEEE Joint Intelligence and Security
Informatics Conference (2014)
24. Berghel, H.: Identity theft and financial fraud: some strangeness in the proportions. Computer
45 (2012)
25. Lacey, D., Zaiss, J., Barber, K.S.: Understanding victim-enabled identity theft. In: 2016 14th
Annual Conference on Privacy, Security and Trust (PST) (2016)
26. Ghazizadeh, E., Zamani, M., Manan, J., Khaleghparast, A.R., Taherian, A.: A trust based model
for federated identity architecture to mitigate identity theft. In: 2012 International Conference
for Internet Technology and Secured Transactions (2012)
27. Rana, R., Zaeem, R.N., Barber, K.S.: An assessment of blockchain identity solutions: mini-
mizing risk and liability of authentication. In: 2019 IEEE/WIC/ACM International Conference
on Web Intelligence (WI) (2019)
28. Aidan, J.S., Verma, H.K., Awasthi, L.K.: Comprehensive survey on Petya ransomware attack.
In: 2017 International Conference on Next Generation Computing and Information Systems
(ICNGCIS) (2017)
29. Adamov, A., Carlsson, A.: Reinforcement learning for anti-ransomware testing. In: 2020 IEEE
East-West Design & Test Symposium (EWDTS) (2020)
30. Bogdan, R., Biklen, S.: Investigação qualitativa em educação. Porto Editora (1994)
31. Yin, R.: Estudo de Caso. Planeamento e Métodos. Bookman (2005)
32. Stake, R.E.: Investigación con estudio de casos. Morata (1999)
33. Amado, J., Costa, A., Crusoé, N.: A técnica da análise de conteúdo. In: J. Amado (Coord.)
Manual de Investigação Qualitativa em Educação, pp. 301–349. Imprensa da Universidade de
Coimbra (2013)
34. Murphy, M.: COVID-19 e eLearning emergencial: Consequências da securitização do ensino

superior para pedagogia pós-pandemia. Polít. Segur. Contemp. 41(3), 492–505 (2020). https://
doi.org/10.1080/13523260.2020.1761749
35. Bardin, L.: Análise de Conteúdo. Edições Setenta (2010)
36. Costa, A.P., Moreira, A., Souza, F.: webQDA (version 3.1)—qualitative data analysis. Aveiro
University and MicroIO (2019)
Active Methodologies in Higher
Education: An Interdisciplinary Project
Applied to Teachers’ Education
Aldina Sofia Silva , Joana Cavalcanti , Joana Rodrigues-Carvalho ,

Joana Nogueira , Ricardo Oliveira , and Rosa Martins
Abstract Technological development in recent decades has led to changes in the

teaching programs of educators and elementary school teachers has also been
affected. Thus, the foundations and principles of all childhood education should
be an integrated and global approach to the different areas of knowledge. Therefore,
we aimed to approach Artistic Expressions and children’s Literature from a project
methodology perspective, valuing the interdisciplinarity of artistic expressions as a
mean of facilitating the development of skills of the students. For that, 12 students and
4 teachers from 2018/2021 1st Cycle Basic Education graduation, had to construct a
story, a pedagogical device, and a guide of pedagogical activities to be developed by
educators and elementary school children. In the line of research focused on higher
education and based on the short story “Rain Girl” (Cavalcanti, A menina da chuva,
Miguilim, 2014) the students conceived a pedagogical device “Magic Umbrella” with
the objective that it could develop ludic-pedagogical activities in classroom context.
Each device brought a pedagogical proposal composed of at least four activities. The
A. S. Silva (B) · J. Cavalcanti · J. Rodrigues-Carvalho · J. Nogueira · R. Oliveira · R. Martins

Center for Research, Development and Innovation of the European Institute of Superior Studies
(CIDI-IEES), Rua Universitária, Apartado 178, 4824-909 Fafe, Portugal
e-mail: sofia.silva@iees.pt
J. Cavalcanti
e-mail: joana.cavalcanti@iees.pt
J. Rodrigues-Carvalho
e-mail: joana.carvalho@iees.pt
J. Nogueira
e-mail: joana.nogueira@iees.pt
R. Oliveira
e-mail: ricardo.oliveira@iees.pt
R. Martins
e-mail: rosa.martins@iees.pt
A. S. Silva
Research Center in Training, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of
Porto, Porto, Portugal
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_66
750 A. S. Silva et al.
results of the introduction of an interdisciplinary project methodology, produced

significant learning in the preparation of future educators and elementary school
teachers. The use of an interdisciplinary methodology between Artistic Expressions
and Literature, specific technology and the collaborative work needed to achieve the
tasks, stimulated the development of pedagogical skills, the entire teaching/learning
process, both from the point of view of teachers and students. Efforts should be
made to develop and reorganize teaching programs in Higher Education, from an
interdisciplinary, and up-to-date technology perspective.
Keywords Active methodologies · Artistic expressions · Interdisciplinarity ·

Children’s literature · Project
1 Introduction
Education has a fundamental role in the development of societies, and educators

act as “change agents”. Technological development in recent decades has led to
changes in the way we teach and learn. Higher education has also been affected by
technology [1], which is a major challenge for universities [2]. Some adaptations
include the implementation of the Bologna Process in Europe [3]. This requires
that students and teachers adapt to a new model of “competencies” that is reflected
in new subject curricula [4], shifting the central role of teachers to student-centered
teaching [5]. Likewise, the national report “Portuguese Strategic Vision 2030” [6], in
its Thematic Agenda 2, includes the promotion of culture as a factor of citizenship and
the valorization of information and knowledge, learning, qualification and continuous
training, creativity and innovation as key factors of competitiveness. It is therefore
recognized that knowledge is increasingly the basis of economic development and
is central to create a society open to discovery and changes of perspective.
The teaching courses for Teachers for Pre-School Education and Basic Education
play a decisive role in the transmission and promotion of these essential skills and
it is clear in the National Pedagogical Curriculum Guidelines that from Pre-School
Education, the proposal of the pedagogical methodology is for a path of integral devel-
opment of the children. Thus, the foundations and principles of all early childhood
education currently imply an integrated and global approach to the different areas
of subject matter. This application of interdisciplinarity in the teaching of several
subject matters seems to be an efficient proposal in the literature [7]. However, we
observe that in the current mandatory education there are still fragmenting models.
While the interdisciplinary proposals aim at a point of intersection between subject
matters with different focuses or logics, the dominant educational proposal maintains
clearly delimited positions, distancing students from the notion that the construction
of knowledge is empirical, interpretive, and critical, not limited, and mechanical
[8–10].
Realizing the need to change this framework, researchers have suggested the use
of active methodologies to promote interdisciplinarity, as they promote an alternative
Active Methodologies in Higher Education: An Interdisciplinary … 751
to disciplinary school organization and focus on the student and individual, creative,
and autonomous learning [11].
In this perspective, the project presented in this study aimed to approach artistic
expressions and children’s literature (musical expression, dramatic expression,
plastic expression, and written workshop) from a project methodology perspective,
valuing the interdisciplinarity of expressions as a mean of facilitating the develop-
ment of skills of the future educators and elementary school teachers. The applied
design methodology places the student as the focus, making him a builder of his own
learning and encourages the individual to learn, solve certain problems or challenges
autonomously [12], while teachers provide the necessary supervision and support.
According to the literature, the individual’s artistic abilities begin to be evident
during childhood [13] and these are the vehicles of expression and communication in
which each one establishes contact with himself, and the artistic experience influences
the way we learn, and communicate. All people have the same creative capacity, but
this capacity is enhanced or minimized considering the interactions with the cultural
environment [14]. Arts can play an important role in the teaching–learning process,
as it translates into a way of knowledge that articulates imagination, reason, and
emotion [15]. In fact, Davis [16] concludes that students look to the arts in search of
opportunities that other disciplines do not offer—doing something with ink or pencil
and paper or clay or structuring a performance of music or drama to fill a space in the
world with something that they created from their own ideas implemented exclusively
by artistic resources. Still from this perspective, in the classroom, the community and
relationships between students are strengthened when Arts are integrated. Whether
collaborative or individual multimodal works that incorporate traditional writing,
music, movement, or visual works, it is a unique opportunity for students to showcase
their creativity and stand out, give, and reciprocate admiration for their peers. For
some of the students for whom reading, and writing are difficult, these types of
projects and activities can be an opportunity to show what they know and succeed
[17].
As mentioned, these areas must be approached in an integrated way, for a better
understanding of the different subject matters [18]. In particular, the interdisciplinary
practice of artistic expressions makes it possible to establish a dialogue between
the different areas of knowledge, overcoming the fragmentation of knowledge and
obtaining greater student interaction. Thus, the aim of this study was to explore
how the practices of integrated teaching of artistic expressions of Basic Education
teachers in training can help to understand their perception of implementing these
practices in their classrooms. Thus, in the context of a line of research focused on
higher education and based on the short story “A Menina da Chuva—The Rain Girl”
[19] the interdisciplinary project was developed, articulating artistic expressions and
children’s literature. The project resulted in the construction of a story, a pedagogical
device “Magic Umbrella” and a guide of pedagogical activities to be developed
by children at pre-school education or 1st Cycle of Basic Education. This article
describes not only the methodology and the results of an interdisciplinary project
carried out with future educators and teachers of Basic Education in several curricular
units of the 1st Degree in Basic Education at Fafe Higher Education School, but
also demonstrate the results of the analyzes to the experiences described by the
participating, teachers and students, reported after the implementation of a project
methodology.
2 Methodology
2.1 Sample
The sample of this study consisted of students (n = 12) of the 2018/2021 course of
the 1st Degree in Basic Education at ESE de Fafe, and professors (n = 4) of the course
responsible for the curricular units of: (i) Writing Workshop, Musical Expression,
Dramatic Expression and Plastic Expression. The students agreed to participate in
the project proposed by the teachers: “Construction of a pedagogical device—Magic
Umbrella”, fundamentally based on the theories of Bernstein [20] and Cortesão et al.
[21]. Taking as a starting point the literary text “A Menina da Chuva” [19].
The teachers and students participating in the project were later contacted to
schedule an online face-to-face interview on the Zoom platform. Before the inter-
view, the purpose of this part of the study was explained to the participants—descrip-
tion of their experiences after implementing a project methodology. The identity and
confidentiality of the responses were ensured, and consent was obtained for partic-
ipation and recording of the interview. The semi-structured interview script was
composed of non-directive open questions adapted from Baber [22]. Each interview
was conducted in the participants’ native language (Portuguese) for 20–30 min.
Finally, the interviews were transcribed, printed, read, reread and the recordings
were heard again by the investigators. The recorded data were analyzed using Inter-
pretive Phenomenological Analysis to identify similarities between the participants,
with unique experiences related to the themes and allowing the similarities to be
considered alongside the individual experience.
2.2 Procedures
A Project Methodology was used, which means that students, through the integration
of acquired knowledge, planned, executed, and evaluated an interdisciplinary project.
The responsible Professors formulated interdisciplinary strategies aimed at
promoting the development of adequate competences for students of a 1st cycle
of Basic Education studies. An interdisciplinary and broad teaching–learning envi-
ronment was implemented, through the promotion of theoretical and practical classes
for the acquisition of competences that resulted in the following stages: 1st stage:
The construction of individual history; 2nd stage: design and creation of umbrellas;
3rd stage: Public presentation.
To implement the project, students were trained in the curricular units already
mentioned in the analysis, understanding and application of the following pedagog-
ical, computer and technological tools:
– During the entire project: (i) Microsoft Teams Platform; (ii) Moodle Platform;
(iii) Zoom Platform.
– In the 1st stage of the project: (i) Microsoft Word and Power Point program;
(ii) Reading theoretical texts and Literature for Children and using strategies to
develop reading comprehension and discussion; (iii) Unlocking exercises for the
personal construction of the “Storyteller”; (iv) Realization of the Storytime; (v)
Film viewing; (vi) Carrying out Creative Writing exercises.
– In the 2nd stage of the project: (i) Paint program, Corel; (ii) Adobe Illustrator.
Development of skills in Pedagogical Techniques of (iii) Painting; (iv) Cutting; (v)
Drawing; (vi) Gluing; (vii) Constructions; and (viii) Assembly. In the 3rd stage:
(i) Music software; (ii) Photoshop; (iii) Editing YouTube videos; (iv) Audacity
Program; (v) Music maker program; (vi) Techniques of body expression; (vii)
Dance Techniques; (viii) Vocal expression technique (breathing, voice placement,
diction).
3 Results
The Magic Umbrella Project enabled students to appropriate important concepts in

the context of teaching educators and teachers, by way of building a pedagogical
device “Magic Umbrella”. In the 1st stage, taking the short story as a starting point,
the Stortime was developed with the literary text “A Menina da Chuva” [19]. The
text in question addresses several themes and promotes the discussion of several
contemporary themes, such as: difference, the importance of respecting the Other,
the importance of dreaming and having hope, the possibility of change, the sense
of belonging and identity construction, the appreciation of becoming a possible a
dream… After the Storytime, a Creative Writing workshop was held, in which the
participants produced texts that could be a script for the creation of the “Magic
Umbrella”.
Regarding this phase of the project, a student reported the following: “… the
project “The Magic Umbrella” was very exciting (…). I consider that writing was
the skill that I developed the most during the process of creating the story. During
the whole process, I always felt guidance from the teachers, which in my opinion was
crucial at the end of the project.” S1
This was a pedagogical activity that required greater interdisciplinarity and team-
work by several teachers using transversal methodologies in the curricular units. It
was imperative for the success of the project that the students acquire the necessary
knowledge. The students’ motivation was clear, especially when they overcome one
of their main difficulties, writing. One teacher said: “As for the class, I evaluate the
group very positively (…). Even students who had some difficulty in writing managed
to overcome the challenges. In general, the class was committed, attentive, interested,
met the deadlines, and actively participated in the classes (…).” T1
The students conceived a pedagogical device “Magic Umbrella” with the objective
that it could develop ludic-pedagogical activities in the context of the classroom.
Each device brought a pedagogical proposal composed of at least four activities.
These should address the main theme of the Umbrella and be developed from an
interdisciplinary perspective, always valuing Artistic Expressions. One student said:
“It was a unique, rewarding experience that led me to overcome, both in terms of
creative writing and aesthetic creation. I will take it with me to life that we are
all capable of creating if we are encouraged and valued. A pedagogical device is
always an asset in the work of an educator/teacher as it is a didactic instrument that
motivates and encourages the child in an unparalleled way.” S2
The produced material reflected the interdisciplinarity, whether in the device
created or in the activities aimed to the children. There was also the development of
knowledge in the use of the numerous computer programs applied. Most students had
never used these programs. In this regard, a teacher mentioned: “The first reaction
of the students is that they will not be able to because it is a lot of work. Many do
not like to write and have difficulties in understanding the programs to be used. (…).
When they reach the end, they are surprisingly confident and accomplished, master
important concepts and “learn” to reinvent the classroom space so that later they
can be meaningful teachers. They overcome difficulties with the support of teachers,
participation in classes, “doing” accompanied by the specialist and the availability
to get involved and do the best, articulating theory, and practice. On the other hand,
the teachers were able to witness the joy of achievement and of the obstacle over-
come, given that each student has their finished product and can be an instrument
for their pedagogical practice in internships and when they become professional.”
T2
The same idea was reported by one of the students: “(…) these types of activities
are very relevant since they are closely related to the essence of our future profession.
They allow us to develop skills in writing, plastic expression, computing, drama,
sharpening an aesthetic sense and developing a critical and creative spirit.” S3
Nine “Magic Umbrellas” were built, nine books containing the stories created
in the Creative Writing sessions (some illustrated), and nine Activity Guides, with
introduction and theoretical foundation, as can be seen in Fig. 1.
In addition to all the production, the students presented their devices in Storytime
sessions. After the end of the project at the ESEF, it was also presented at several
scientific events.
One teacher also mentioned: “The mastery of different forms of expression encom-
passed different learning experiences using mediating cognitive processes and the
use of new technological instruments, as a means of facilitating the development of
competences. The main difficulties felt by the students focused on time management
and the use of new technological instruments, but these difficulties were overcome
throughout the classes and with their experimentation” T3. Also in this context,
one of the students explained: “From the academic point of view it was my peak,
it was where I put all my learning and concepts acquired during the semester. It
Fig. 1 Research archive
was the culmination of a project that I never initially thought I would be able to
do. I currently put into practice all the learning acquired in this interdisciplinary
project in the classroom/field. It was a personal and professional asset, I acquired
and developed skills (…). With all this, I acquired a pleasure for writing and constant
reading, a persistent search for authors who complete me.” S4
4 Discussion
Artistic Expressions and Literature are the vehicle of expression and communica-
tion that each one establishes with himself, plus this experience influences the way
we learn, and how we communicate with others. This project aimed to prove that
interdisciplinary practice, with the use of technological strategies, within the scope
of Artistic Expressions and Literature, allows the establishing of a dialogue between
the different areas of knowledge, overcoming the fragmentation of this knowledge
and contributing to a greater development and integration of students. In this regard,
Aguiar et al. [23] referred that interdisciplinary work ensures greater interaction
between students and teachers and incorporates experience and group interaction.
Based on this principle, it seems important to rethink traditional methodologies and
implement projects methodologies as a way of promoting school union around the
common objective of training social skills in children. In fact, we perceive in the
reviewed literature that in the development of interdisciplinary activities the student
does not build knowledge alone, but together with others and having the figure of the
teacher as an orientation [24]. The implementation of this type of methodology makes
it possible to plan and develop pedagogical intervention projects, combining different
forms of artistic expression and valuing their interdisciplinarity with other areas of
knowledge, articulating imagination, reason, and emotion. The mastery of different
forms of expression comprehends different learning experiences using mediating
cognitive processes, committing students to learning, as means of facilitating the
development of their competences [22].
The evaluation of the teachers, even realizing that the interdisciplinary method-
ology of project requires planning, involvement, and harmony among those involved,
which in a way requires more hours of dedication, is positive [9]. Mainly because they
can share experiences and content from each area of activity and improve their own
view of the relationship between the disciplines [10]. Our results corroborate these
reflections and the conclusions mentioned by Sousa and Coelho [7], where they high-
light those active methodologies contribute to creating the conditions that enhance
the development of interdisciplinarity, as they provide students with different situ-
ations that allow the experience and search for construction of knowledge through
the process of dialogue, intellectually structured, between them and between areas
of knowledge.
The educational system determines that each subject must be marked by a common
basis that aims to justify and give it proper importance in the school context. However,
current times require reformulations, so that teaching practice is innovative and
that the education and learning process is not only established in a traditional way,
centered on the isolation of knowledge from each subject matter and on the transmis-
sion of oral knowledge. New technologies are increasingly essential in the teaching–
learning process, and it is up to the teachers of future educators and teachers to adapt
their skills to modern times. There is, in fact, evidence of a growing interdisciplinarity
in scientific publications on Information and Technological Literacy, which interre-
lates information and digital literacy studies with e-learning and mobile technologies
[25]. The results show that the students were highly motivated, and clearly perceived
the usefulness of all the knowledge and skills they acquired for their professional
and personal lives plus for continuing their studies. This approach visibly allowed
an effective assimilation of knowledge, promoted a motivating, practical, dynamic
learning, which resulted in an evident individual achievement of each student at the
end of the project.
5 Conclusion
Our results suggest that the knowledge and the commitment assumed by both teachers
and students with the introduction of an interdisciplinary methodology of project
translated into a Project: Construction of a pedagogical device “Magic Umbrella”, in
fact produced significant learning in the preparation of future educators and teachers
in pre-school education and basic education. We observed that this project stimulated
the development of pedagogical skills, the entire teaching/learning process, both from
the point of view of teachers and students. The use of an interdisciplinary method-
ology between Artistic Expressions and Literature, the use of specific technology,
collaborative work to achieve the tasks proposed by teachers and students, motivated
the involvement of everyone in accomplishing of the different tasks proposed, and
enhanced the entire learning process. These results suggest that efforts to develop
and reorganize study plans from an interdisciplinary perspective are notable.
Despite the success verified in the results of this study, there were limitations such
as the reduced number of students and the limited time for performing the project.
More studies and research projects are needed in other areas to complete the limited
existing knowledge regarding this thematic approach in the training of Educators and
Teachers of Basic Education. In particular, future lines of research should include
not only children but also teachers from pre-school education or 1st Cycle of Basic
Education.
References
1. Au-Yong-Oliveira, M., Gonçalves, R., Martins, J., Branco, F.: The social impact of technology
on millennials and consequences for higher education and leadership. Telemat. Inform. 35,
954–963 (2018)
2. Scott, P.: Globalisation and higher education: challenges for the 21st century. J. Stud. Int. Educ.
4, 3–10 (2000)
3. Zahavi, H., Friedman, Y.: The Bologna Process: an international higher education regime. Eur.
J. Educ. 9, 23–39 (2019)
4. Palés-Argullós, J., Nolla-Domenjó, M., Oriol-Bosch, A., Gual, A.: Proceso de bolonia (I):
Educación orientada a competencias. Educ. Med. 13, 127–135 (2010)
5. Andelković, S., Dedjanski, V., Pejic, B.: Pedagogical benefits of fieldwork of the students at the
Faculty of Geography in the light of the Bologna Process. J. Geogr. High. Educ. 42, 110–125
(2018)
6. Diário da Républica, 1ª série, Nº 222. Presidência do Conselho de Ministros. Resolução do
Conselho de Ministros nº 98/2020, 13 de novembro de 2020. Last accessed 24 Jan 2022
7. Sousa, F.A., Coelho, M.N.: As metodologias ativas como estratégias para desenvolver a inter-
disciplinaridade no ensino médio. Desafios 2020, Rev. Interdiscip. Univ. Fed. Tocantins 7(3),
42–55 (2020)
8. Colorado, H.A., Mendoza, D.E., Valencia, F.L.: A combined strategy of additive manufacturing
to support multidisciplinary education in arts, biology, and engineering. J. Sci. Educ. Technol.
30, 58–73 (2021)
9. Duarte, S.G., Martins, C.M.M.R., Bandeira, L.G., Carramillo, L.C., Gervásio, M.P., Wanderley,
M.D.: Experiência interdisciplinar na educação básica e na formação de professores: artes,
biologia e geociências. Terra Didat. 14(3), 245–255 (2018)
10. Soares, W., Barbosa, M., Silva, J.: O uso de expressões artísticas no ensino de Biologia
Celular: Uma proposta combinando metodologias ativas e interdisciplinaridade. Res., Soc. Dev.
10(6), e26810615779 (2021). ISSN 2525-3409. https://doi.org/10.33448/rsd-v10i6.15779.
Last accessed 21 Feb 2022
11. Silva, A.S., Gonçalves, I., Rodrigues-Carvalho, J., Pinto, D., Costa, J.: Innovative Pedagogical
Practices: Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology. Fafe, Portugal (2021). https://
doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_69. Last accessed 21 Feb 2022
12. Wood, E.J.: Problem-based learning: exploiting knowledge of how people learn to promote
effective learning. Biosci. Educ. 3, 1–12 (2004)
13. Nascimento, V.: Ensino de arte: Contribuições para uma aprendizagem significativa. Funarte,
políticas para as artes. Fundação Nacional de Artes (2012)
14. Haetinger, M.: O universo criativo da criança na educação. Instituto da Criança (2005)
15. Sousa, A.: Educação pela Arte e Artes na Educação. Bases Psicopedagógicas, vol. 1 (2003)
16. Davis, J.H.: Why our schools need the arts. Teachers College Press, New York (2008)
17. Soh, K.: Fostering student creativity through teacher behaviors. Think. Ski. Creat. 23, 58–66
(2017)
18. Matos, F., Ferraz, H.: Questões e razões. Roteiro da Educação Artística. Noesis, pp. 26–29
(2006)
19. Cavalcanti, J.: A menina da chuva. Miguilim (2014)
20. Bernstein, B.: From pedagogies to knowledges. In: Morais, A., Neves, I., Davies, B., Daniels,
H. (eds.) Towards a Sociology of Pedagogy: The Contribution of Basil Bernstein to Research.
Peter Lang, Nova Iorque (2001)
21. Cortesão, L., et al.: E Agora Tu Dizias Que... Jogos e Brincadeiras como Dispostivos
Pedagógicos. Edições Afrontamento, Porto (1995)
22. Baber, J.E.: The [integrated] art of teaching: early career english teachers’ perceptions of
integrated arts practices and their creative self-efficacy. Dissertation, Doctor of Philosophy,
University of Oklahoma (2019)
23. Aguiar, K., Ribeiro, L., Queiroz, S., Santos, V.: A interdisciplinaridade na formação inicial
de professores: um relato de experiência sobre uma proposta de trabalho realizada no curso
de pedagogia. In: SEMINÁRIO GEPRÁXIS 2021, Educação como Direito em Tempos de
(Neo)Conservadorismo; Da Subalternidade à emancipação, vol. 8(14), pp. 1–15. Vitória da
Conquista, Bahia, Brasil (2021). e-ISSN 2596-7613
24. Donato, O.P., Fernandes, M.N.: Didática: uma ponte para a prática interdisciplinar e construção
do processo de ensino/aprendizagem. In: Seminário Gepráxis 2021, vol. 6, n. 6, pp. 3179–3190
(2017). http://anais.uesb.br/index.php/semgepraxis/article/viewFile/7426/7199. Last accessed
15 Feb 2021
25. Pinto, M., Fernández-Pascual, R., Caballero-Mariscal, D., Sales, D.: Information literacy trends
in higher education (2006–2019): visualizing the emerging field of mobile information literacy.
Scientometrics 124, 1479–1510 (2020)
Social Education, Professional
Knowledge and Deontological Culture
Under Construction Dynamics
Renata Machado and Isabel Baptista
Abstract This article reflects on the ethical-deontological culture of Portuguese

social educators, based on a study of the relationship between professional knowl-
edge and ethical training. Associating the professional knowledge of social educators
with a relational, hospitable and reflective mentality, privileged in the context of inter-
vention, we wanted to understand to what extent this paradigm of professionalism,
worked in academic training, is expressed in the documents of practice regulation
adopted by the reference communities (institutional, scientific and professional). The
data collected and analyzed allow us to conclude that the heritage currently existing
is diversified and quite rich, expressing a common value framework of humanistic
nature. However, in general terms, it can be said that this heritage is still character-
ized by dispersion and fragmentation. On the other hand, the analyzed documents
differ regarding the conceptual matrix and the type of commitments, which allows
us to conclude that we are facing dynamics under construction, thus constituting a
challenge within the initial training of social educators.
Keywords Social educators · Professional knowledge · Ethical-deontological

culture
1 Introduction
At an essential level, Ethics is defined as the ability to reflect on one’s own conduct,
questioning values, living habits and social behavior, thus fulfilling the Socratic ideal
of an examined and socialized life. As such, it is an intrinsically human activity,
R. Machado (B)
CIDI-IESF, IESF—Higher Institute for Studies, Fafe, Portugal
e-mail: renatamachado@iesfafe.pt
N2i-IPMAIA, IPMaia—Polytechnic Institute of Maia, Maia, Portugal
R. Machado · I. Baptista
CEDH/FCT-UCP, UCP—Portuguese Catholic University, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: ibaptista@ucp.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_67
760 R. Machado and I. Baptista
present in all dimensions of life. In our perspective, this statement is reinforced

when we talk about professional lives dedicated to the intervention with vulnerable
people and human groups, as is the case of social educators. We state then that Ethics
is a cornerstone of the socio-educational intervention, occupying, to that extent, a
decisive place in the training of social educators in a framework of promoting a
professionalism that is effectively reflective, responsible and committed. After all,
“the main goal of Social Education is to include the individual in society. To seek
the meaning that provides us with the awareness of the bonds that unite us to the
community and the conduct that these bonds impose” [1]. The acceptance of these
assumptions led us to seek to inquire about the values, standards of conduct and
ethical challenges assumed by social educators in the context of practice. What kind
of decision support tools exist and are used? What kind of documents of ethical and
deontological regulation do social educators use when making decisions?
To answer these questions we proposed to carry out a study on the ethical-
deontological culture of Portuguese social educators, based on the currently existing
official documents regulating practice and considering that, within the framework
of a reflexive professionalism, the process of making considered and enlightened
decisions, made in context, implies the mobilization of values, principles, guidelines
and standards of conduct, thus referring to the heritage of existing ethical knowledge
within the respective institutional and professional communities.
2 Professional Knowledge and Ethical-Deontological

Culture
In any context whatsoever, the pedagogical act corresponds to a unique and particu-
larly intense interpersonal experience from an anthropological point of view. Since
it is marked by the intention to positively influence the development process of
other human beings, this relationship entails an enormous responsibility. However,
this responsibility assumes specific contours within the scope of the intervention of
social educators, calling for complex and very specific demands of reflection and
decision [2, 3]. For that matter, we wanted to know what is the place of Ethics
in the initial training of Portuguese social educators, using, in a first study [4] the
mapping of the Portuguese higher education institutions with a training offer in
Social Education and the analysis of the respective curricula. This analysis allowed
us to conclude that most initial training courses include curricular units dedicated
to ethical issues. It was also found that the syllabus worked in these units tend to
reflect theoretical-philosophical dimensions mostly subordinated to conceptions of
relational ethics and applied ethics or practical ethics, guided by values such as
“hospitality”, “recognition”, “cooperation”. In other words, at the academic level,
conceptions of a teleological and Aristotelian nature gain priority over conceptions
of a more Kantian, normative and prescriptive matrix [3, 5–7].
Social Education, Professional Knowledge and Deontological … 761
As Jesús Vilar [8] notes, “social professions develop in a territory generally full
of uncertainties, doubts and traps. Inequalities, social logics that lead to exclusion,
the ease with which progress towards more favorable ways of living is lost, make
them professions that force us to “be alert” to the unstoppable and constant pres-
sure of elements that often hinder the construction of satisfactory spaces for human
development”. Also, for this reason, the instruments of ethical-deontological regu-
lation assume particular significance in the process of affirmation and recognition
of scientific-professional communities, contributing to help develop and affirm an
autonomous and distinctive professional culture. Functioning as an anchor of profes-
sionalism internally, to the extent that they allow to mark out the professional practice,
thus reinforcing the bonds of collegiality and solidarity among peers, these instru-
ments also work externally, enabling the projection and credibility of the profes-
sional ethos. Recognizing that this type of culture is expressed in normative texts of
different nature, such as Charters, Declarations or Codes of Conduct, we wanted to
identify which documents exist within the scientific, institutional and professional
communities of reference of Portuguese social educators and which matrix they
reflect.
3 Methodological Description
In line with theoretical framework, from the methodological point of view, a qualita-
tive approach was chosen, using the documentary technique, based on the documents
available in the institutional websites, being conducted over the time period July 2021
to February 2022. Thus, based on a phenomenological-interpretative approach, we
sought to identify “the phenomena as they are perceived and manifested by language”
[9]. In line with this strategy, three key dimensions of analysis were defined, namely
the concept of ethics, the model of professionalism and the formulation of standards
of conduct, as shown in the following conceptual map (Table 1).
Table 1 Conceptual map

Ethics Professionalism Standards of conduct
Relational ethics Reflexive Commitment
Practical ethics Autonomous Guidance
Normative ethics Prescriptive Duty
Source The authors
4 Standards of Conduct—Dynamics Under Construction
In general terms, the data collected and analyzed show the existence of an extremely
rich heritage with regard to the ethical-deontological culture of social educators,
although not always clearly explicit and scattered across a plurality of documents,
in line with what characterizes the Portuguese educational panorama in general [5].
In this context, it was possible to find two key documents concerning, respectively,
the Ethics charter of a scientific-professional society, the Sociedade Portuguesa de
Ciências da Educação (SPCE) and the Deontological Code of a socio-professional
association, the Associação dos Profissionais Técnicos Superiores de Educação
Social (APTSES). According to its Statutes, SPCE defines itself as a “non-profit
scientific, technical and professional association with legal personality, established
(…) in 1990” aimed at “promoting and defending the quality of research, publication
and teaching in Education Sciences” [10]. As far as the educational field is concerned,
it also includes Social Education. The first version of the Ethical Charter of SPCE was
approved in 2014 and was revised after six years, in 2020. For the purposes of anal-
ysis, the two versions of this document were consulted. Both versions of this Charter
are subject to the same conceptual matrix and are structured by an Introduction,
followed by an Introduction and Framework defining the Principles and Guidelines
and commitments regarding the relationship with the research participants; the rela-
tionship with the research community; the relationship with the students and educa-
tion professionals; the relationship with the promoters and research collaborators;
the relationship with the communities and society in general.
The second association, APTSES, is defined as a “non-profit association, of unlim-
ited duration, of national scope and with legal personality” [11] aimed at “promoting
and deepening the associative spirit among Social Education professionals, repre-
senting their interests and watching over their rights” [11]. The first version of the
Deontological Code of Higher Technicians in Social Education was approved in 2016,
having been revised after five years and approved at the IX International Congress
of Social Education in 2021. Once again, for study purposes, the two editions of
the document were consulted and analyzed. These documents are structured by a
preamble and fifteen chapters, comprising the following designations, respectively:
General Overview, Fundamental Principles, Responsibility, Exercise of the Profes-
sion, Institutional Relationships, Relationships with Education Subjects, Interdisci-
plinary Relationships, Relationships with Employers, Professional Secrecy, Tech-
niques Used, Fees, Professional Advertising, Public Statements, Scientific Commu-
nications and Publications and, finally, Final Provisions. It should be noted that, both
in the 2016 edition and in the edition revised in 2021, each chapter is organized in
the form of articles, making a total of thirty-eight articles.
With regard to institutional documents, and as shown in Table 2, nine out of the
fifteen institutions studied did not provide any information, while six included the
existence of an ethical-deontological regulation document, although only four of
those six made it available on the institutional website. It was also found that the
six documents identified adopted the designation “Code” and were recent publica-
tions, dated between 2017 and 2022, with the exception of one of the Codes whose
publication dates back to 2013.
In terms of analysis, the data collected through the document consultation were
categorized according to the previously defined dimensions of analysis. Thus, we
may state that the Ethics Charter of SPCE is anchored in a conceptual model of
Relational Ethics and Practical Ethics, of an open and eminently guiding nature, an
option evidenced right from the designation of the document “Charter” and explicitly
stated in the text of the first version where, with regard to how the ethical standards
considered are defined, are returned and applied, that is, recognizing that there are
different ways of conceiving, stimulating and regulating ethical practice, it is stated
that “the Society opts for the indexation to a relational and situated ethics, admittedly
close to educational rationality, as a structurally dynamic, dialogical and interactive
rationality” [12].
In line with this concept, regarding the model of professionalism, the document
shows a reflective conception, sustained by a dialogic dimension that reinforces the
professional identity of its addressees, aiming at enhancing their power of autonomy.
This finding is reinforced when we consider the third dimension of analysis, related
to the formulation of standards of conduct, stated as commitments “in relation to”.
In other words, they are considered as principles of action that constitute “a support
base and reference framework for a contextualized, autonomous and enlightened
decision” [13], consistent with the valorization of a humanistic axiological heritage
with an eminently relational content.
Following the same analysis scheme, the Deontological Code of Higher Techni-
cians in Social Education in both editions (2016 and 2021), refers in its preamble the
indexation to a “professional ethics” [14], without clarifying the respective concep-
tual matrix, but subordinating itself to a framework of humanist principles and values
and the recognition of Social Education as an ethical profession. The document pays
special attention to the “need for legal, social and professional recognition of this
new Educational Profession” [14, 15]. With regard to the concept of professionalism,
the document expresses a prescriptive model, sustained by the enunciation of a set of
duties [14, 15], often formulated in the negative, using expressions such as “should
not”, “has the duty to”, “can only”, even warning of situations of “breach of the
code”.
Regarding the institutional plan, we found disperse and distinct documents, as
mentioned, and concerning the life of the institutions as a whole, without specific
reference to Social Education. The analyzed documents present common features,
namely at the level of the principles “of justice, equity, non-discrimination and respect
for the dignity of the human being”, in the “recognition of the right to dignity and
quality of life of the human being”, reflecting values of humanist dimension. At the
same time, they are characterized by a prescriptive tendency, sustained by expressions
such as “they must still act and decide exclusively on the basis of (…) not being able
to take advantage of (…)” and by the recurrent use of terms such as “obligation”
and “duty”. In short, the analysis of the benchmarks of conduct at the level of the
764
Table 2 Higher education institutions with ethical-deontological documents

No. of institutions higher No. of higher education No. of higher education No. of higher education Name of the
education institutions without reference institutions with institutions providing an ethical-deontological
ethical-deontological document ethical-deontological ethical-deontological document
document document
15 9 6 4 “Code”
Source The authors
R. Machado and I. Baptista
institutional, scientific and professional community allows us to conclude that we

are facing open dynamics, which are still in the process of construction.
By definition, the professional knowledge of social educators assumes an eminently

ethical character, since it refers to pedagogical intervention with people of all ages
who are often in a situation of vulnerability. In this understanding, we recognize that
the instruments of ethical-deontological regulation may work as pillars of consoli-
dation of the professional identity, insofar as they define standards that mark profes-
sional conduct, attesting to the richness of the ethical-deontological culture as a
substantive part of professional knowledge.
This study has allowed us to verify that the ethical-deontological heritage of
Portuguese social educators is rich and diversified, being characterized by dynamics
under construction, with a need for further clarification on conceptual and method-
ological matrices in a perspective of development and consolidation of models
of autonomous and reflective professionalism, as defended in the theoretical and
academic training plan. It is precisely in this autonomy that is required from social
educators that it is important to continue to invest, familiarizing and committing
them to the development of the deontological culture valued in their institutional,
scientific and professional communities, so that they are able to take contextualized
and informed decisions. In this sense, and in order to complete our study, it is now
important to investigate the perceptions of the actors, the social educators.
References
1. Vieira, A., Vieira, R.: Pedagogia Social, Mediação Intercultural e (Trans)formações, 1ª edição.
Profedições, Lda., Porto (2016)
2. Baptista, I.: Ética e Educação social - interpelações de contemporaneidade. SIPS – Pedag. Soc.
Rev. Interuniv. 19, 37–49 (2012). http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=135025474003. Last
accessed 16 Feb 2022
3. Baptista, I.: Integridade Profissional e Conhecimento Ético. In: Barros, R., Fragoso, A. (eds.)
Investigação em Educação Social – Prática e Reflexão, vol. II, pp. 37–42. Universidade
do Algarve Editora (2021). https://sapientia.ualg.pt/bitstream/10400.1/14974/1/EBook_MES-
Vol%20II%20-%202021.pdf. Last accessed 3 Dec 2021
4. Machado, R., Baptista, I.: Ética e Formação Inicial dos Educadores Sociais – Dificuldades e
Desafios. Humanid. Tecnol. (FINOM) 34(1), 55–66 (2022). E-ISSN 1809-1628
5. Baptista, I.: Ética e Investigação em Ciências da Educação: A Carta Ética da Sociedade
portuguesa das Ciências da Educação. In: Tavares, P., Osswald, H., Garcia, J. (coord.) Ética
investigação e vida universitária, pp. 55–66. Universidade do Porto, Faculdade de Letras (2018).
https://ler.letras.up.pt/site/default.aspx?qry=id022id1749&fb=sim. Last accessed 3 Nov 2021
6. Nascimento, E., Gonçalves, J., Gomes, P. (coord.): Ética dos fundamentos filosóficos aos princí-
pios de ação. Direitos Humanos, Educação e Intervenção Social. Escola Superior de Educação
de Paula Frassinetti (2018). http://repositorio.esepf.pt/bitstream/20.500.11796/2672/1/etica_

dos_fundamentos%20%282%29.pdf. Last accessed 16 Feb 2022
7. Carvalho, A.D., Baptista, I.: Ética e formação profissional. Problemáticas antropológicas e
dilemas éticos na intervenção socioeducativa. In: Banks, S., Nohr, K. (coord.) Ética Prática
para as Profissões do Trabalho Social pp. 19–32. Porto Editora, Lda., Porto (2008)
8. Vilar, J.: El Tractament dels conflictes ètics en la pràctica professional: aproximació a uma
ética aplicada. In: Planella, J., Vilar, J. (eds.) L’Educació Social: prjectes, perspectives I camins,
pp. 195–216. Edicions Pleniluni, Barcelona (2003)
9. Amado, J. (coord.): Manual de investigação qualitativa em educação. Imprensa da Universidade
de Coimbra, Coimbra (2017)
10. Estatutos da Sociedade Portuguesa de Ciências da Educação. https://www.spce.org.pt/assets/
files/Novos-EstatutosdaSPCEjunhode2014pdf.pdf (2013). Last accessed 23 Nov 2021
11. Estatutos da Associação dos Profissionais Técnicos Superiores de Educação Social. http://
www.aptses.pt/estatutos/#1567452326633-97ada526-8e36 (2008). Last accessed 4 Oct 2021
12. Carta Ética da Sociedade Portuguesa de Ciências da Educação. https://www.spce.org.pt/PDF/
CARTAETICA.pdf (2014). Last accessed 4 Oct 2021
13. Carta Ética da Sociedade Portuguesa de Ciências da Educação. https://www.spce.org.pt/assets/
files/CARTA-TICA2.EDICAOFINAL-2020-COMPACTADO.pdf (2020). Last accessed 4 Oct
2021
14. Código Deontológico do/a Técnico/a Superior de Educação Social. http://www.aptses.pt/cod
igo-deontologico/ (2021). Last accessed 3 Nov 2021
15. Código Deontológico do Técnico Superior de Educação Social. http://www.aptses.pt/codigo-
deontologico/ (2016). Last accessed 23 Aug 2021
Initial Training in Social Education:
A Study About Teaching Profiles
Cindy Vaz and Isabel Baptista
Abstract This article reflects on the challenges of academic training in Social

Education, as part of an ongoing research on “Social Pedagogy and Socio-
Educational Innovation”, framed within a doctoral course in educational sciences.
Social Pedagogy is a highly valued academic and professional area in the Portuguese
educational panorama, defining itself as a relevant and specific discipline, built on
the line of articulation between the areas of education and social solidarity. To this
extent, Social Pedagogy functions for social educators as their professional knowl-
edge of reference, being recognized as a vector of professional identity. Based on this
observation, we were interested in understanding to what extent and in which way
this educational discipline is worked and valued in the scope of initial training and
intervention, trying, specifically in this case, to know to what extent it constitutes a
necessary qualification to exercise teaching functions in the initial training courses in
Social Education currently existing in Portugal. To this end, we chose a methodolog-
ical strategy based on a qualitative approach, using documentary consultation as a
data collection technique in the time from May 2021 to January 2022. Data analysis
suggests that the process of academic affirmation of Social Pedagogy is in a phase
of consolidation.
Keywords Social pedagogy · Teaching profile · Initial training
1 Introduction
Social Pedagogy is recognized in the Portuguese educational panorama as a specific,

relevant and innovative discipline, playing a key role in the training of social educa-
tors. In this sense, in a first study [1], we wanted understand in what extent it is present
C. Vaz (B)
CIDI-IEES, IEES—Institute of Higher Studies, Fafe, Portugal
e-mail: cindy.vaz@iees.pt
C. Vaz · I. Baptista
CEDH/FCT, UCP—Portuguese Catholic University, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: ibaptista@ucp.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_68
768 C. Vaz and I. Baptista
in the plans of the initial training courses in Social Education. Thus, based on the
mapping of the Portuguese Higher Education institutions with training offer in this
area, we conclude that most institutions, thirteen out of a total of fifteen, explicitly
contemplated a Curricular Unit dedicated to Social Pedagogy. Most of the time it
appears with the denomination “Social Pedagogy”, in others with that of “Social
Pedagogy and Social Education” or “Social Pedagogy and Foundations of Social
Education” and even as “Foundations of Social Pedagogy”. However, despite this
differentiation in terms of designation, we found that there is a common conceptual
matrix, in line with the concept of Social Pedagogy mostly adopted by the Portuguese
reference authors [2–12]. From these authors perspective, Social Pedagogy is a scien-
tific knowledge epistemologically indexed to the field of Education Sciences, refer-
ring to the socio-educational intervention developed within a perspective of social
solidarity. This concept can be found in a large number of publications published,
especially in the last two decades, thus evidencing a particularly rich scientific and
academic heritage. In this sense, the aim was to find out to what extent this capital
of scientific production and academic qualification has been incorporated by Higher
Education institutions, namely in terms of the profile of their teaching staff.
In other words, if in a first phase, the teaching staff of Social Education courses
in Portugal was predominantly made up of authors from other areas of the Social
and Human Sciences, such as Philosophy, Anthropology and Sociology, at this time,
after two decades of undergraduate and postgraduate training in Social Pedagogy, the
existence of a teaching staff with its own socio-pedagogical training is to be expected.
In this sense, we proposed to identify and analyze the academic training profile of the
teachers with responsibility for the coordination and/or teaching of Social Pedagogy
curricular units, as well as the recruitment requirements for teaching in this area,
according to the contextualization presented below.
2 Background
The first-degree courses in Social Education in Portugal appeared at the end of the
twentieth century, more precisely in 1996 at the Portucalense Infante D. Henrique
University, in Porto, counting for that purpose on the contribution of authors from
different academic areas, namely the social and human sciences. It should be noted
that the first work on Social Education was published in 2004, under the title “Edu-
cação Social: Fundamentos e estratégias” (“Social Education: Foundations and strate-
gies”), being precisely assumed by its authors as a first effort of systematization of
the epistemological ground of Social Education “a ground as touched as abandoned
by social and human sciences in general and by education sciences in particular. A
new, fertile and promising terrain” [8].
The first graduates in Social Education started on the labour market in the year
2000, and since then a remarkable evolution has been registered, both at academic
and professional level. Within the scope of academic training, it is worth noting not
only the number of initial training courses that have been created in the meantime, but
Initial Training in Social Education: A Study … 769
also post-graduate training courses, master’s degrees and doctorates, with consequent
repercussions on the quality and quantity of scientific production. In this context and
as an example, we refer the contribution of Ana Vieira with the publication of the
work “Educação Social e Mediação Sociocultural” (“Social Education and Sociocul-
tural Mediation”) [13], resulting, precisely, from a first work of the PhD in Education
Sciences, defended at the Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro University in 2011. In the
same sense, we can highlight as an illustrative example of these academic quali-
fication itineraries the work “Trajetórias de Vulnerabilidade: Perceção Subjetiva e
Objetiva da Condição do «Novo Pobre»” (“Trajectories of Vulnerability: Subjective
and Objective Perception of the Condition of the «New Poor»”) [14] by Ana Camões,
resulting from a Master’s dissertation in Education Sciences, specialization in Social
Pedagogy, followed by a doctoral thesis in the same area subordinated to the theme
“Formação Contínua e Ethos Profissional. O caso dos Educadores Socais em Portu-
gal” (“Continuous Training and Professional Ethos. The case of Social Educators in
Portugal”) [15]. These examples testify the progressive participation of Portuguese
social educators themselves in the creation and dissemination of their professional
knowledge, allowing to nurture and strengthen the desirable link between theory and
practice.
The question then arises of knowing in what way this type of qualification has
or has not come to be valued within the scope of teaching in Social Education.
That is, having Social Pedagogy an academic tradition of about two decades in
Portugal and existing already qualified and specialised people in this area, to what
extent the existing teaching staff in Social Education degree courses reflects this
knowledge capital? This question led us to seek to know the academic training
profile of the teaching staff members who integrate the training institutions, and
previously mapped, as well as the recruitment requirements of these teachers and the
teaching staff qualification criteria recommended by the National Higher Education
Evaluation Agency (A3ES).1
3 Methodological Explanation
In methodological terms, we opted for a qualitative approach, with recourse to docu-

mentary consultation, assuming as central objective the search for the meaning or
meanings of a document seeking “(…) the phenomena as they are perceived and
manifested by language (…)” [16]. To this end, the analysis was made of the official
documents available on the websites of the mapped Higher Education institutions,
referring to the composition and characterization of the teaching staff, based, in this
1 “Established by the State through Decree-Law No. 369/2007, of 5 November, the Assessment and
Accreditation Agency for Higher Education (A3ES), is a private law foundation, established for an
indefinite period of time, endowed with legal personality and recognized as of public utility. It is
independent in the exercise of its competences, without prejudice to the guiding principles legally
established by the State.” Consulted at: https://www.a3es.pt/pt/o-que-e-a3es on 20 May 2021.
aspect, on the respective Teachers’ Curriculum Sheets. With regard to the recruit-
ment requirements for teaching staff, two Documentary Contest Opening Notices
[17, 18] for the period under study (academic years 2020/2021 and 2021/2022)
were analyzed, as well as the document concerning the Criteria for Qualification of
Teaching Staff for the Accreditation of Study Cycles [19] available on the official
website of the National Higher Education Evaluation Agency. In accordance with the
stated objectives, these documents were consulted taking into account the following
dimensions of analysis or main categories: academic qualification profile, training in
Social Pedagogy (postgraduate, master’s and doctoral degrees) and requirements for
teaching in the area of Social Education-Social Pedagogy. For the purposes of data
presentation and with specific regard to the External Assessment Committee Reports
on proposals for new study cycles in Social Education available on the site of the
National Agency for Higher Education, despite being public documents, given the
type of information in question, we have chosen to make the appropriate encryption,
according to the following coding criteria letter (D) and the respective numbering,
thus seeking to respect “(…) the principles of transparency and social responsibility,
in order to ensure that the knowledge produced within its area of expertise can be
used for the common good and the well-being of people” [20].
4 Education Profiles and Recruitment Criteria
Regarding the first category, referring to the academic qualification profile, training
in Social Pedagogy (post-graduate, master’s and doctorate) and based on the compo-
sition of the teaching staff of Social Education courses (undergraduate degrees) in
the fifteen Higher Education institutions studied, the Curriculum Cards of twenty-
eight teaching staff were analyzed. This analysis revealed that four of the fifteen-
degree courses in Social Education considered to have course coordinators who have
training in Social Education-Social Pedagogy, with three of these coordinators having
a degree in Social Education and one holding a specialist degree in the area.2
It was also found that of these four coordinators with a degree in Social Education,
two have a Master’s degree in Education Sciences, specializing in Social Pedagogy
and one has a doctorate in the area of Social Pedagogy, which suggests a progressive
focus on specialization in this area.
As for the second category, regarding the requirements for teaching in the area
of Social Education-Social Pedagogy, the Documentary Contest Opening Notices
for Adjunct Professors in the consulted Higher Schools of Education state that “(…)
holders of a doctoral degree or specialist title in the area or related area for which
the competition is open may apply” [17]. In the same sense, another of the Opening
2The title of specialist was approved by decree-law no. 206/2009 of 31 August, referred to in article
48 of law no. 62/2007 of 10 September, awarded upon approval in public examinations, in order to
prove the quality and relevance of the professional curriculum of the candidate in a specific area of
knowledge, for the performance of teaching in polytechnic higher education.
Notices analyzed, mentions that recruitment was specific to the “(…) disciplinary
area of Education Sciences, sub-area of Social Education” [18]. In other words, both
cases require the teacher to have specialized training in the disciplinary area of Social
Education-Social Pedagogy.
In turn, in the official documents of the National Higher Education Evaluation
Agency, namely regarding the Criteria for Qualification of Teaching Staff for the
Accreditation of Study Cycles [19], it is described that the Higher Education institu-
tion that offers Study Cycles must ensure that the teaching staff has academic qual-
ifications in the training area to which the course refers and also that the teaching
staff should be “own and duly qualified and specialized”. Also, in the same document
[19], it is recommended that the coordinator of the study cycle should hold a doctoral
degree in the fundamental knowledge area of the course.
In a complementary analysis on Recruitment Grants for teaching in the degree in
Social Education and in line with the current recommendations of the Agency, we
found two competitions for the recruitment of teachers (academic years 2020/2021
and 2021/2022) explicitly stating that candidates should hold a qualification and
specialization in the area of Social Education-Social Pedagogy. In both situations
the aim was to ensure the teaching of curricular units in the area of Social Education-
Social Pedagogy. These data show, in fact, the official adoption of a specific teaching
profile duly framed in the scientific area of reference.
Still on this aspect, it was possible to observe that in the three External Assessment
Committee Reports resulting from the accreditation of new study cycles consulted in
September 2021 and available on the A3ES official website, the concern regarding
the need for training in one of the fundamental areas of the study cycle in Social
Education-Social Pedagogy is clear. It should be noted that the constitution of
this External Assessment Committee is defined by the Agency with the intention
of assessing and accrediting a Study Cycle, integrating experts in the respective
assessment/accreditation areas.
We could see in one of those reports that in the global assessment of the teaching
staff it is mentioned that although the coordinator of the degree course in Social
Education has a PhD in one of the fundamental areas of the study cycle, the scientific
area is far from the main scientific area, Education Sciences. In the same document
it is pointed out that there is a lack of qualification of the teaching staff in the
fundamental area of Educational Sciences and that the only teacher with a specific
training profile in the area of the study cycle, Social Pedagogy, is part-time in the
Higher Education institution. The Commission of External Evaluation points out as
a weak point the deficient qualification of the teaching staff in the area Education
Sciences-Social Pedagogy. The Agency also highlights the need to promote measures
that enable the development of publications and scientific research in the area of the
study cycle, as stated in another of the documents consulted D (2) “(…) as well as
a greater correspondence in the relationships they establish with academic training
and professional performance in Social Education”. Once again, the alignment that
exists at national level on the need to incorporate academically qualified teachers in
the area of Social Education-Social Pedagogy is noted.
In short, the analysis of the documentary data collected allowed the conclusion
that there is a great concern on the part of the Portuguese Higher Education Schools
regarding the recruitment of teachers with training in Social Education-Social Peda-
gogy, even if it is recognized that there is still a way to improve in this aspect. As we
have seen, this concern to absorb the human capital already trained responds posi-
tively to the observations made by the National Agency and described in its various
official documents, in order to consolidate the existence of a proper and academically
qualified and specialized teaching staff in Social Pedagogy.
According to the data collected and the analysis, we found that Social Pedagogy is
valued in the initial training of Portuguese social educators and that Higher Education
institutions with a training offer in Social Education have been making significant
efforts in terms of the composition of their teaching staff, with a view to enhancing
relevant, qualified and credible socio-educational knowledge.
This panorama reflects the current recommendations coming from the entities
responsible for ensuring the quality of education, in the sense that the initial training
institutions constitute a consolidated teaching body in this academic area. In other
words, the teaching profile with a pedagogical-social pendant is required by the
national academic entities and also recommended by the Portuguese Higher Educa-
tion Evaluation Agency. As such, being Social Pedagogy valued by Higher Educa-
tion establishments and by the entities that govern this education, it is essential that
teachers of degrees in Social Education in Portugal invest in training in Social Peda-
gogy, either at the level of offering masters and doctoral courses, but also at the level
of research, creating a culture of academic collegiality.
Thus, recognizing that Social Pedagogy is an innovative, characteristic and perti-
nent educational knowledge, with crucial importance in the training of social educa-
tors, it is now important to know the perception of the actors, in particular of the
trainers, whether in the context of initial training or continuous training. In other
words, it is important to know how this knowledge is experienced and valued by
those who practice it on a daily basis. The challenge resulting from this study
lies, therefore, in knowing to what extent Social Pedagogy works, effectively, as
a theoretical-practical tool that makes the difference in the construction of responses
to people’s concrete problems, especially those in situations of special vulnerability.
References
1. Vaz, C., Baptista, I.: Pedagogia Social e Inovação Socioeducativa – Imperativos de formação
académica. Braz. J. Dev. 7(8), 77886–77898 (2021). ISSN 2525-8761
2. Azevedo, J.: Aprendizagem ao longo da vida e regulação sóciocomunitária da educação. In:
Cadernos de Pedagogia Social. 1, Ano 1, pp. 7–40. Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Porto
(2007)
3. Azevedo, J.: A Educação de Todos e ao Longo de Toda a Vida e a Regulação Sociocomunitária
da Educação. In: Cadernos de Pedagogia Social. 3, Ano 3, pp. 9–34. Universidade Católica
Portuguesa, Porto (2009)
4. Baptista, I.: Dar Rosto ao Futuro – a educação como compromisso ético, 1ª edição. Profedições,
Lda., Porto (2005)
5. Baptista, I.: Pedagogia Social: uma ciência, um saber profissional, uma filosofia de acção. In:
Cadernos de Pedagogia Social. 2, Ano 2, pp. 7–30. Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Porto
(2008)
6. Baptista, I.: Investigar em Pedagogia Social: razões, oportunidades e desafios. Trama Inter-
discip. 8, 18–25 (2017). https://repositorio.ucp.pt/bitstream/10400.14/23428/1/Investigar%
20em%20pedagogia%20social.pdf. Last accessed 1 Sept 2021
7. Baptista, I.: Inovação, Pedagogia Social e Desenvolvimento Humano. In: Vieira, A., Vieira, R.,
Marques, J.C. (orgs.) Temas e Contextos de Pedagogia- Educação Social, pp. 59–86. Edições
Afrontamento, Porto (2021)
8. Carvalho, A., Baptista, I.: Educação Social: Fundamentos e estratégias, 1ª edição. Porto Editora,
Porto (2004)
9. Carvalho, A.: A Educação e os limiares contemporâneos da tolerância. In: Revista Portuguesa
de Investigação Educacional. Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Porto (2009)
10. Peres, A.N.: Promover os Direitos Humanos e Educar para a Cidadania Activa. In: a Página da
Educação. Profedições, Lda., Porto (2006). https://www.apagina.pt/Download/PAGINA/SM_
Doc/Mid_2/Doc_11838/Doc/P%C3%A1gina_11838.pdf. Last accessed 10 Oct 2021
11. Vieira, A., Vieira, R.: Pedagogia Social, Mediação Intercultural e (Trans)formações, 1ª edição.
Profedições, Lda., Porto (2016)
12. Vieira, A., Vieira, R., Marques, J.C. (orgs.): Temas e Contextos de Pedagogia- Educação Social,
1ª edição. Edições Afrontamento, Porto (2021)
13. Vieira, A.: Educação Social e Mediação Sociocultural, 1ª edição. Profedições, Lda., Porto
(2013)
14. Camões, A.: Trajetórias de vulnerabilidade: Perceção Subjetiva e Objetiva da Condição do
«Novo Pobre» (Dissertação de Mestrado). Faculdade de Educação e Psicologia, Universidade
Católica Portuguesa, Porto (2012)
15. Camões, A.: Formação Contínua e Ethos Profissional - O caso dos Educadores Sociais
em Portugal (Tese de Doutoramento não publicada). Faculdade de Educação e Psicologia,
Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Porto (2018)
16. Amado, J. (coord.): Manual de investigação qualitativa em educação. Imprensa da Universidade
de Coimbra, Coimbra (2017)
17. Diário da República n.º 114/2021, Série II de 2021-06-15, pp. 250–255. https://dre.pt/dre/det
alhe/edital/2021-165106492. Last accessed 14 Jan 2022
18. Diário da República n.º 227/2021, Série II de 2021-11-23, pp. 320–324. https://dre.pt/dre/det
alhe/edital/1348-2021-174783211. Last accessed 14 Jan 2022
19. Critérios de Qualificação de Pessoal Docente para a Acreditação de Ciclos de Estudos.
https://www.a3es.pt/sites/default/files/criterios_qualificacao_pessoal_docente_FINAL_2_1.
pdf (2021). Last accessed 4 Sept 2021
20. Carta Ética da Sociedade Portuguesa de Ciências da Educação. http://www.spce.org.pt/assets/
files/CARTA-TICA2.EDICAOFINAL-2020-COMPACTADO.pdf (2020). Last accessed 4 Jan
2022
Learning in the Context of Digital
Technologies: What Lessons Can We
Learn from Covid-19 in Basic Education?
Teresa Santos , Palmira Alves , and Susana Sá
Abstract With the pandemic, the European Union reconfigures the need to raise
levels of digital training, as well as to improving digital skills and competences.
The emergency remote teaching increased the challenges and inequalities among the
most disadvantaged, led them to learn how to learn for themselves, it means to learn
to be competent, to be autonomous through a work plan, to receive and consider feed-
back to improve. The objective of this study is to inventory and articulate knowledge
about emergency remote teaching, more specifically, to answer the question: in the
context of the covid-19 pandemic, which pedagogical practices were most friendly
for learning and succeed in basic education? To conduct this study, the methodology
was quantitative. We constructed and applied online a questionnaire near teachers
of basic education (n = 377). The questionnaire was composed of multiple-choice
and open-ended questions. Data were processed using SPSS (Social Package for
Social Sciences), version 27 and analyzed using descriptive statistics. The main
results suggest that teachers considered that they need to change pedagogical prac-
tices, designing “new” pedagogical scenarios, teaching and learning strategies for
motivating pupils and evaluating competences through the use of emergency remote
teaching. Despite this effort and awareness of the need for change, the performance
culture was still predominant.
Keywords Pedagogical practices · Digital technologies · Learning to learn ·

Covid-19
T. Santos (B) · P. Alves

CIEC-IE, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
e-mail: tjcpsantos@gmail.com
P. Alves
e-mail: palves@ie.uminho.pt
S. Sá
CIDI-IESF (Centro de Investigação, Desenvolvimento e Inovação), Fafe, Portugal
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_69
776 T. Santos et al.
1 Introduction
Due to Covid-19 pandemic, each country, following the strict isolation rules, issued
by the General Directorate of Health (DGS), closed schools and the distance learning
modality was implemented, supported by digital technologies.
In Germany, for instance, “the first measure to be adopted was the choice of
programs and platforms that could be used to organize teaching and make videocon-
ferences possible” and “in an extremely short period, teachers must obtain specific
training and follow-up the online teaching” [1, p. 3]. In France, the digital plat-
form “Ma Classe à la Maison” (my classroom at home) was created, so pupils
accessed pedagogical content via a computer, tablet or cell phone [2]. In Portugal, the
Portuguese Ministry of Education “produced resources, guidelines, gathering prac-
tices, establishing partnerships, in order to support schools and teachers” [3, p. 4].
He underlines that “we had an emergency response, education professionals changed
methods, new forms of evaluation were implemented” [4, p. 3]. Portuguese teachers
immediately began to find solutions and experiment new pedagogical models [5,
6] to engage pupils in their learning. Information and communication technolo-
gies were the support to mediate learning. So, teaching activities were developed
through the non-presential teaching modality, the schools implemented an emergency
remote teaching plan, with methodologies appropriate to the available resources and
evaluation criteria consider the new contexts of teaching and learning.
The school’s pedagogical council or the legally equivalent one, defined the rules
for registering attendance according to the strategies, resources and tools used by
the school and by each young. Teachers collected evidence of young participation,
using virtual platforms, in a distance learning model. So, in a collaborative effort,
teachers, youngs and parents analyzed various strategies to engage “with a chal-
lenging educational and learning program” [7]. We present a study concerning the
Portuguese context, in order to understand how these teachers envisaged this collab-
orative effort, considering the technologies used to ensure the continuity of learning,
as well as their pedagogical practices in order to favor the youngs’ school success.
1.1 Learning with Emergency Remote Teaching
Distance learning emerged as an educational and training offer to respond to children

and young people who, for the most different reasons, find themselves in situations,
that prevent them from regularly attending a school. This training offer is a planned
and technology-mediated learning, takes place in a “place different from the teaching
place and requires special techniques of course creation and instruction, special
methods of communication through electronics and other technologies, as well as
organizational and special administrative provisions” [8].
Learning in the Context of Digital Technologies … 777
It presupposes face-to-face contact whenever necessary, a high level of autonomy

by the youngs, who must be guided through new strategies and learning; preparing
teachers to design and facilitate learning [9–11].
With the Covid-19 pandemic, another terminology gains repercussion and visi-
bility: Emergency Remote Teaching (ERT) as designated by [11, 12], which the
current legislation does not contemplate. For [11] it is an alternative mode of educa-
tion due to crisis circumstances, whose main objective is not to recreate a robust
educational ecosystem, but rather, “to provide temporary access to instruction and
educational support of a way that is quick to configure and is reliably available during
an emergency or crisis” [11, p. 8]. In addition to the advantage of saving time and
travel, it has a greater scope of teaching, as well as a greater flexibility in learning.
The researchers related to emergency and crisis education emphasize “the impor-
tance of approaches that support well-being and focus on children’s rights and the
preservation of education as a fundamental right”. For instance, “the literature on
earthquakes in New Zealand, emphasizes the importance of the feeling of well-being
of students, staff and families” [13].
In this context, overnight teachers had to take over the entire process for the devel-
opment of each class, so they used online pedagogical strategies providing generic
communication and interaction applications and services, such as Zoom, Skype and
Google Hangout. Although there are specific solutions for virtual classrooms, such as
Google Classroom, which, in addition to live broadcasts, allows availability of record-
ings and complementary activities, enabling the continuity of pedagogical activities
over the internet, mitigating the impacts on childrens’ learning, while they need to
stay away from school. For the development of learning even at home [14] suggests
the following ideas to teachers: “Texts in digital format; Collaborative methods of
content production; Presentations in multimedia format; Online reviews; Educational
applications and software: educational games” [14, p. 36].
Youngs, removed from the school environment, had their learning compromised.
Teachers needed to innovate and adapt to the reality of young people, having to resort
to methodologies that arouse interest in school activities and promote autonomy,
using digital resources to improve young’s participation.
In this sense, the active methodologies proposed by [15], are considered essential
to generate a more meaningful and effective learning “Playfulness: approaching the
subject of study through games; Protagonism: proposing to the young to seek the
subject by himself, but with the guidance of the teacher; Debate: hold discussions
about the subject, at home with parents or virtually with colleagues”. To facilitate
learning, “case studies: interpret a case and apply it to reality based on different ideas,
being able to discuss it with family members; Field research: seeking information on
a topic by contacting the object of study directly”. In the elaboration of works and
projects, use technology, digital tools to assist in carrying out the tasks [15, p. 34].
2 Methodology
This quantitative study [16], with the characteristics of a case study carried out on
the Portuguese reality, so it reflects teachers’ perceptions. Portuguese schools were
asked to implementing a distance learning plan, with methodologies appropriate to
the resources available at each school and adapting the evaluation criteria, which
should consider the young’s contexts.
Our starting point was the definition of the problem [17], which followed three
fundamental criteria: clarity, feasibility and relevance, considering the learning times,
both for teachers and children, marked by uncertainty and the need to answer
adequately to the social isolation caused by the emergency. The rise of distance
learning and the difficulties felt by teachers and children, constitutes something
particularly present and very important in the current times to be analysed.
Based on these grounds, the following research question was formulated. What
pedagogical practices could promote the culture of learning and school success in
basic education? In order to find some answers, we choose the questionnaire survey
[18, 19], as it is the most used measurement instrument for collecting information
that translates the study objectives with measurable variables. The set of questions
makes possible to assess attitudes, opinions or collect any other information from
respondents.
When designing the questionnaire survey for teachers, we intended to obtain
the necessary information to analyze the perceptions of teachers about how it was
remote teaching operationalized; identify pedagogical practices that promote chil-
dren learning; perceive how teachers monitored and assessed children during this
period. Thus, “the construction of the questionnaire and the formulation of the ques-
tions constitute, therefore, a crucial phase in the development of the research” [20].
So, the questionnaire survey, contained items on a likert scale (1—Strongly disagree;
2—Disagree; 3—No opinion; 4—Agree; 5—Strongly agree), distributed by three
dimensions: operationalization of the curriculum; monitoring learning; and assess-
ment. All ethical standards were safeguarded, namely the guarantee of participants’
anonymity, data confidentiality and the right to voluntary participation.
Data was collected in September 2020, the questionnaires were distributed
online, using the Google Forms tool: Escolas Públicas Básicas em Portugal. The
random sample (n = 377) is made up of in service teachers, without distinction of
geographical areas.
The answers were compressed in Excel, generated by Google forms and then
inserted into the SPSS software (Social Package for Social Sciences) 27, generating
the possibility of quantifying a multiplicity of data and carrying out descriptive
statistics.
Table 1 Characterization of teachers: age groups

Teachers 31–40 years old 41–50 years old 51–60 Over 60 years
years old old
377 Fre 32 179 136 28 377
100% % 8.5% 47.5% 36.1% 7.4% 100%
Source Authors
The most expressive percentage (47.5%) of the participants is between 41 and

50 years old, followed by 36.1% that is between 51 and 60 years old, and 7.4% is
over 60 years old (Table 1).
Concerning gender, 75.9% are female and 24.1% are male.
As for how long they teach, 39% of the teachers reported the group between 16
and 25 years of service; 22% between 30 and 40 years, and 7% between 26 and
30 years of service. Only 5.8% reported between 5 and 10 years.
3 Results/Discussion
Bearing in mind the social isolation caused by the covid 19 pandemic, teaching and
learning was only possible through the distance learning format, using computers,
smartphones, tablets, television, internet and digital platforms.
In this sense, we intend to understand and articulate knowledge about remote
emergency teaching, and which pedagogical practices are most likely to enhance the
culture of learning and school success in basic education?
We will analyze data from the three dimensions: Operationalization of the
curriculum, monitoring of learning and assessment.
Concerning the first dimension, how teachers operationalized the curriculum
during the emergency remote teaching and their perspective on this teaching, we
asked teachers if they consider teaching: as “a means for everyone to have access
to education”. With this statement, 51.2% agree and totally agree, also a significant
percentage (43%) disagree and totally disagree. The mean is 3.1, the mode 4 and the
standard deviation 0.199;—“it is an alternative to attending school”, 79.6% agree
or totally agree, only 2.9% had no opinion. The mean is 3.75, the mode 4 and the
standard deviation 0.954;—“a school that travels beyond the walls of the school”,
83.6% agree and totally agree, while 7.4% had no idea. The mean is 3.98, the mode 4
and standard deviation 0.861;—“it allowed changes and transformations in schools”,
85.2% agree and totally agree, while 8.7% totally disagree and disagree;—“it has the
(ICT) in the teaching and learning processes”, 6.7% disagree and totally disagree, but
87% totally agree and agree, the mean is 4.05, the mode 4 and the standard deviation
0.799;—“it is the evidence of weaknesses in practical subjects”, 88.4% agree and
totally agree, the mean is 4.23, the mode 4 and the standard deviation is 0.871;—it
evidences the inequalities among children”, 91% agree and totally agree, while 6.9%
Table 2 Teachers’ perspectives on emergency remote teaching

Freq Mean Mode Sta. deviation
It is a mean for everyone to have access to education 377 3.10 4 1.199
It is an alternative to attending school 377 3.75 4 0.954
A school that travels beyond the school walls 376 3.98 4 0.861
It has the (ICT) in the teaching and learning processes 377 4.05 4 0.799
It allowed changes and transformations in schools 377 4.06 4 0.805
Evidence of weaknesses in practical disciplines 377 4.23 4 0.871
It evidences inequalities among children 377 4.33 5 0.898
Source Authors
strongly disagree and disagree, the mean is 4.33, mode 5 and the standard deviation
0.898 (Table 2).
Regarding the teachers’ perceptions about the operationalization conditions of
remote teaching, we present the results of the teachers’ interaction with their children
in class: 29% were unable to interact with 1–2 children per class; 30.3% were unable
to interact with 3–5 children per class; 16.2% could not interact with 6–9 children;
18.3% interact with more than 10 children. The mean is 2.19, the mode 2 and the
standard deviation at 1.205.
We asked teachers about the topics: (i) access to the necessary equipment to follow
the classes at distance; (ii) access to the resources they need for remote teaching; (iii)
access to the internet to carry out this teaching; (iv) access by children to the necessary
equipment and tools to follow the classes online; (v) internet in the household of their
children; (vi) computer in the children household.
Data highlight that 98.8% agree and totally agree that both children and teachers
had the necessary equipment. The average is at 4.71, the mode at 5 and the standard
deviation at 0.520. Concerning the second and the third topics, an identical agreement
was observed: 99.2% and 98.4% respectively. As for the fourth topic, the mean is at
4.64, the median is at 5, the mode at 5 and the standard deviation at 0.654.
Related to the topic “internet in the household”, teachers reported that 16.4% had
internet, 58.6% reported that a great number had it too. The mean is at 1.48, the mode
at 2 and the standard deviation at 855.
Concerning the topic “computer in your children’ household”, 10.6% consider
that everyone had a computer, while 69% considered the great majority had it, and
16.2% considered that only a few had a computer. The mean is at 1.97, the mode at
2 and the standard deviation at 0.662.
Analysing the diversity of digital tools used in communication, the results show
that 83.6% used a variety of tools to communicate with their children, online plat-
forms (Zoom, Skype, Microsoft Teams, Google Classroom, Moodle…); mobile
phone; printed materials (photocopies, cards, textbooks…); 12.5% only used online
platforms (Zoom, Skype, Microsoft Teams, Google Classroom, Moodle…), 4%
referred to mobile phones, the mode is 2, and the standard deviation is 0.575.
Related to the second dimension, the monitoring of learning, data highlited that
teachers had to adapt to this reality to engage children. Thus, 53.1% of the teachers
used synchronous and asynchronous classes; 42.7% only asynchronous classes; 4.3%
used video recording, problem solving, research and critical reflection activities and
autonomous tasks. The mean is 1.54, the mode is 1 and the standard deviation is
0.668.
Concerning learning tools, teachers used a variety of instruments that they listed
as follows: 63.9% refer to online platforms, videos, animations, school textbooks and
didactic games; 10.9% educational games, textbook, worksheets and power points;
10.6% textbook, video worksheets, questionnaires and games; 9.8% videos, textbook,
power points, worksheets, educational games; and 4.5% quizzes and games.
Finally, we asked them about assessment methods, procedures and techniques, to
collect the necessary information to support learning. So, the assessment evidence
that teachers used was diversified, namely: 87.5% individual work; 66.8% question-
naires; 66.5% summative and formative cards; 42.7% photos; 28.6% videos; 24.1%
essay/compositions/critical reflection; 17.5% group work; 9.5% portfolio.
They admit the impossibility of replicating the usual assessment practices, that is
two written tests per period, translating the grammar school [21] (Fig. 1).
Data analysis concerning the teachers who participated in this study allows us to
make some reflections according to school experiences and practices.
Teachers had difficulties in interacting with children since only 18.3% reported
they were able to interact with more than 10 children per class, highlighting the
lack of technological resources in the family environment, as shown by descriptive
statistics, because of, in the teachers’ perception, only 10.6% had computers. The
same situation is verified with the internet, because of teachers consider that only
16.4% had internet in the household.
Distance learning increases the difficulty of reaching children who do not have
access to a computer/tablet/internet, as mentioned [21].
In the dynamics of teaching and learning, teachers adopted the social networks
and applications used until then for personal purposes and became new tools for
pedagogical work, in order to find the most effective strategies for monitoring
learning. Thus, the pedagogical instruments most used by teachers were: videos;
PowerPoint’s; the manual; Platforms (Zoom, Skype, Teams, Classroom, Moodle,
Virtual School, Etwinning, Kan academy…); summative and formative cards; the
questionnaires; didactic games; Kahoot and Padlet. Kahoot and Socrative emerge
as gamification platforms that can be easily integrated into classroom activities.
These tools helped teacher to create quizzes, questionnaires, among other tasks
Assessment instruments used by teachers

Works 0.6
Google forms wanted 0.3
Oral presentations/reading 0.6
Oral questions / class 0.6
Activity book and manual 0.3
Wants and forms 0.3
observation record 0.3
Doc Sheets and Slides 0.3
audio recording recording 0.9
didactic requests 0.3
Report 1.3
Photograph 42.7
Video 28.6
Questionnaires 66.8
Rehearsal / composition / reflection 24.1
Individual work 87.5
Group work 17.5
portfolio 9.5
Summative, formative sheets 65.5
0 20 40 60 80 100
Fig. 1 Assessment methods used by teachers
that increase child protagonism, motivation and instant feedback. These applica-
tions increase motivation, and the assessment of learning through games and logical
exercises [15].
Concerning the assessment procedures and techniques, to collect the neces-
sary information to support learning, teachers mentioned they were diversi-
fied, namely: individual work; files; questionnaires; photos; videos; portfolio;
essay/compositions/critical reflection and others. They admit the impossibility of
replicating the usual assessment practices: two written tests per period, translating
the grammar school [21].
4 Conclusion
The pandemic led teachers to find several innovative solutions as we could observe in
the study, despite of the difficulties felt by some teachers in transforming the teaching
and learning modalities. The results highlight that the imposed confinement measures
affected the way of learning and teaching. Teachers used mobile devices, social
networks, virtual platforms, using the internet. Teachers and children readapted their
ways of working, teaching, studying through digital platforms. Emergency remote
teaching has allowed changes and transformations in schools, no one can remain
indifferent to current challenges and trends, to online and face-to-face modalities,
as they are connected to provide integrated learning experiences. The pandemic
accelerated the urgency of digital in education, highlighted the inequalities between

children with and without a computer, with and without connectivity. At the same
time, it opened new horizons and brought new ways of learning to school. It forced a
change in pedagogical practices, regardless of the face-to-face and distance modality.
Teachers and children must learning to learn, due to the unexpected situation. No
one was prepared nor to teach, nor to learn, out of the school. Thus, we believe that
some competences were improved, namely the autonomy.
Politicians are invited to take into account that learning spaces are no more only the
classes; curriculum and assessment must be contextualized, teachers ask for training;
schools need powerful digital devices and lots of parents and children claim for a
more inclusive education, in order that the opportunities of success became a reality
for every child, for every citizen and thus, for every family.
References
1. Oesselmann, D.: Educação em tempos de covid-19- descrições, observações e questões, a partir

de uma perspetiva alemã. Revista Saber & Educar 29/2021: “Escolas encerradas: que educação
em tempos de Covid-19?”. http://revista.esepf.pt/index.php/sabereducar (2021)
2. OCDE: Learning remotely when schools close: how well are students and schools prepared?
Insights from PISA. OECD Policy Responses to Coronavirus (Covid-19). https://www.oecd.
org/coronavirus/policy-responses/learning-remotely-when-schools-close-how-well-are-stu
dents-and-schools-prepared-insights-from-pisa-3bfda1f7/(2020)
3. Costa, J.: Entre o caos e a esperança. In: Alves, J., Cabral, I. (eds.) Ensinar e aprender
em tempo de COVID 19: entre o caos e a redenção. Prefácio, Universidade Católica
Portuguesa, Porto (2020). https://www.dge.mec.pt/noticias/e-book-ensinar-e-aprender-em-
tempo-de-covid-19-entre-o-caos-e-redencao
4. Costa, J.: As escolas fecharam, e a educação não ficou suspensa. Revista Saber & Educar
29/2021: “Escolas encerradas: que educação em tempos de Covid-19?”. http://revista.esepf.pt/
index.php/sabereducar (2021)
5. Figueiredo, A.: Os Equívocos da Educação à Distância. Sinal Aberto. Edição de 20 de junho
(2020)
6. Verdasca, J.: A escola em tempos de pandemia: narrativas de professores. Revista Saber &
Educar 29/2021: “Escolas encerradas: que educação em tempos de Covid-19?”. http://revista.
esepf.pt/index.php/sabereducar (2021)
7. Palmeirão, C.: Digitais por obrigação. In: Alves, J., Cabral, I. (org.) Ensinar e aprender em
tempo de COVID 19: entre o caos e a redenção. Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Porto
(2020). https://www.dge.mec.pt/noticias/e-book-ensinar-e-aprender-em-tempo-de-covid-19-
entre-o-caos-e-redencao
8. Moore, M., Kearsley, G.: Educação a Distância: uma visão integrada. Cengage Learning, São
Paulo (2011)
9. Almeida, M.E.B.: Educação a distância na internet: abordagens e contribuições dos ambientes
digitais de aprendizagem. Educ. Pesqui. São Paulo 29(2), 327–340 (2003)
10. Bergmann, J., Sams, A.: Sala de aula invertida: uma metodologia ativa de aprendizagem. LTC,
Rio de Janeiro (2016)
11. Hodges, C., Lockee, S., Trust, B., Bond, A.: The difference between emergency remote teaching
and online learning. EDUCAUSE Rev. Disponível em: Acesso em 03 jun. 2020
12. Murphy, M.: COVID-19 e eLearning emergencial: Consequências da securitização do ensino
superior para pedagogia pós-pandemia. Polít. Segur. Contemp. 41(3), 492–505 (2020). https://
doi.org/10.1080/13523260.2020.1761749
13. Silva, V.: COVID-19 e ensino remoto: Uma breve revisão da literatura. Sensos-E 8(1), 55–63
(2021). https://doi.org/10.34630/sensose.v8i1.3777
14. Cohn, J., Seltzer, B.: Ensino eficaz durante tempos de interrupção para SIS e
PWR. https://docs.google.com/document/d/1ccsudB2vwZGJYoKlFzGbtnmftGcXwCIwxzf-
jkkoCU/edit#heading=h.zd7qtbyoksaj (2020)
15. Filatro, A., Cavalcanti, C.: Metodologias Ativas na educação presencial, a distância e
corporativa. Saraiva Educação, São Paulo (2018)
16. Bogdan, R.C., Biklen, S.P.: Investigação qualitativa em educação: uma introdução à teoria e
aos métodos. Porto Editora, Porto (1994)
17. Quivy, R., Campenhoudt, L.V.: Manual de investigação em ciências sociais. Gradiva, Lisboa
(2005)
18. Ghiglione, R., Matalon, B.: O Inquérito. Teoria e Prática. Celta, Oeiras (2001)
19. Hill, M., Hill, A.: Investigação por Questionário. Edições Sílabo, Lisboa (2009)
20. Coutinho, C.: Metodologia de investigação em ciências sociais e humanas: Teoria e prática.
Almedina, Lisboa (2014)
21. Alves, J.: Entre o caos e a esperança. In: Alves, J., Cabral, I. (eds.) Ensinar e aprender
em tempo de COVID 19: entre o caos e a redenção, pp. 93–98. Universidade Católica
Portuguesa, Porto (2020). https://www.dge.mec.pt/noticias/e-book-ensinar-e-aprender-em-
tempo-de-covid-19-entre-o-caos-e-redencao
Canvas RGPD Model
Miguel Magalhães , Tiago C. Pereira , Eusébio Costa ,

Agostinho Sousa Pinto , José Luís Braga , and Isabel Borges
Abstract Rapid technological developments and globalization have created new

challenges in terms of the protection of Personal Data, requiring a solid and more
coherent protection framework in the European Union (EU), and it was, without a
doubt, one of the great novelties of the Regulation (EU) 2016/679 that came into force
on May 25, 2018 (RGPD). This Regulation has introduced important changes on the
protection of individuals in relation to the processing of personal data, imposing
new obligations on citizens, companies and other private and public organizations.
However, on the day it came into force, organizations were faced with four different
types of maturity in their management systems: (1) Organizations that were not
in compliance with the Regulation; (2) Organizations that initiated the compliance
M. Magalhães (B) · T. C. Pereira · E. Costa · J. L. Braga · I. Borges

CIDI-IESF, IESF—Fafe Institute of Higher Studies, Fafe, Portugal
e-mail: miguelmagalhaes@iesfafe.pt
T. C. Pereira
e-mail: tiagopereira@iesfafe.pt
E. Costa
e-mail: eusebiocosta@iesfafe.pt
J. L. Braga
e-mail: josebraga@iesfafe.pt
I. Borges
e-mail: isabelborges@iesfafe.pt
T. C. Pereira
ALGORITMI Research Center, University of Minho, Guimarães, Portugal
E. Costa · A. S. Pinto
CEOS.PP, ISCAP—Polytechnic of Porto, S. Mamede Infesta, Portugal
e-mail: apinto@iscap.ipp.pt
I. Borges
REMIT-Portucalense University—Infante D. Henrique, Porto, Portugal
CEGOT-Coimbra University, Coimbra, Portugal
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_70
786 M. Magalhães et al.
process; (3) Organizations in compliance with the Regulation; and (4) Organiza-
tions that, in addition to being in compliance, will be able to demonstrate it through
the presentation of evidence and the practices implemented. On August 8, 2019,
Law No. 58/2019 was published, which ensures the implementation of the General
Data Protection Regulation (Regulation (EU) 2016/679), regarding the protection of
natural persons with regard to concerns the processing of personal data and the free
movement of such data, where the National Data Protection Commission (CNPD) is
designated as the national supervisory authority for the purposes of the GDPR. This
new framework for the protection of personal data, the RGPD, forces a rethinking
of the business model and requires organizations to adapt it to this new reality.
Keywords Canvas · General data protection regulation (GDPR) · Personal data

protection and privacy
1 Introduction
Data protection, called the “Canvas RGPD model”. Rapid technological develop-
ments and globalization have created new challenges in terms of the protection of
Personal Data, requiring a solid and more coherent protection framework in the
European Union (EU), and it was, without a doubt, one of the great novelties of
Regulation (EU) 2016/679 that came into force on May 25, 2018 (GDPR) [1]. This
Regulation introduced important changes on the protection of individuals in relation
to the processing of personal data, imposing new obligations on citizens, compa-
nies, and other private and public organizations [2]. However, on the day it came
into force, organizations were faced with four different types of maturity in their
management systems: (1) Organizations that were not in compliance with the Regu-
lations; (2) Organizations that initiated the compliance process; (3) Organizations
in compliance with the Regulation; and (4) Organizations that, in addition to being
in compliance, will be able to demonstrate this through the presentation of evidence
and the practices implemented.
On August 8, 2019, Law No. 58/2019 was published, which ensures the imple-
mentation of the General Data Protection Regulation (Regulation (EU) 2016/679),
on the protection of individuals regarding the processing of data of personal data and
the free movement of such data, where the National Data Protection Commission
(CNPD) is designated as the national supervisory authority for the purposes of the
RGPD.
This new framework for the protection of personal data, the RGPD, forces a re-
thinking of the business model and requires organizations to adapt it to this new
reality.
Canvas RGPD Model 787
2 General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)
Rapid technological developments and globalization have created new challenge

in terms of personal data protection. The collection and sharing of personal data
have seen a significant increase. New technologies allow private companies and
public entities to use personal data on an unprecedented scale in the exercise of their
activities [3]. Individuals are increasingly making their personal information publicly
and globally available. New technologies have transformed the economy and social
life and should help to facilitate the free movement of personal data within the Union
and its transfer to third countries and international organizations, while ensuring a
high level of protection of personal data. Based on the need that the EU felt to legislate
on the protection of personal data, which resulted from several factors, namely the
increase in cross-border flows and, consequently, an increasing economic integration,
undoubtedly the result of the creation of the single market, but also as a result of
an exchange of data that is increasingly taking place between the public and private
sectors, of continuous technological evolution, an already unstoppable globalization,
an increasing collection and sharing of data, seen as a very real economic value and
measurable, and the use by all organizations, whether public or private, of personal
data on a large scale. All this evolution required, on the part of the EU, to take
a position, through the creation of a legal framework for the protection of personal
data and a rigorous application of these same rules, in order to generate the necessary
trust both for citizens, to make their data, as they will be able to have control over
them, as well as organizations, with regard to the development of the digital economy
in the EU’s internal market. Since its entry into force on 25 May 2018, Regulation
(EU) 2016/679 (GDPR) of the European Parliament and of the Council (OJ L 119
of 4.5.2016), of 27 April 2016 [1], takes on a fundamental role in the regulatory
framework for the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal
data and the free movement of data, having repealed Directive 95/46/EC [4]. Since the
date indicated above, the GDPR has become of fundamental importance in people’s
lives and in the way companies operate. Being a regulation, a binding legislative act,
of direct application in the national jurisdictional sphere of the Member States, it
allowed a greater harmonization of the legislations. On the other hand, the entry into
force of Regulation (EU) 2016/679 is imposed as a model of self-regulation in terms
of privacy and protection of personal data. Regarding the administrative offences, the
sanctioning regime is divided into serious and very serious offences, in accordance
with the provisions of article 83 of the RGPD, setting the maximum limits for the
corresponding fines, and applying the general regime of administrative offences,
in the alternative. According to Regulation (EU) 2016/679, any non-compliance
introduces administrative offenses that can go, in the most serious cases, up to fines
of 20 million euros or 4% of annual worldwide turnover, whichever is the higher. In
less serious cases of personal data breach, fines can be up to ten million euros or 2%
of annual worldwide turnover. The Portuguese legislator, through Law No. 58/2019,
introduces some novelties in the administrative offense regime, as shown in Table 1
[5].
Table 1 Administrative offenses according to Law No. 58/2019

Company size Very serious Serious
Big companies e5,000 to e20,000,000 or 4% of e2,500 to e10,000,000 or 2% of
annual worldwide turnover, whichever annual worldwide turnover, whichever
is higher is higher
SME e2,000 to e2,000,000 or 4% of e1,000 to 1,000,000 or 2% of annual
annual worldwide turnover, whichever worldwide turnover, whichever is
is higher higher
Individuals e1,000 to e500,000 e500 to e250,000
The Execution Law establishes as criteria for determining the amount of the fine,
in addition to those provided for in the GDPR, the following:
The economic situation of the agent, in the case of a natural person, or the turnover
and annual balance sheet, in the case of a legal person.
The continuing character of the infraction.
The size of the entity, considering the number of employees and the nature of the
services provided.
The fines amount collected reverts 60% to the State and 40% to the National
Data Protection Commission (CNPD). Another novelty introduced by the Portuguese
legislator was to stipulate that, except in the case of intent, the initiation of an admin-
istrative offense proceeding depends on a prior warning by the agent, by the CNPD,
to comply with the omitted obligation or reinstate the violated prohibition. within
a reasonable time. In Portugal, the CNPD is the national control authority for the
purposes of the GDPR [6]. CNPD controls and supervises compliance with the RGPD
and Law No. within the scope of the processing of personal data.
3 Starting Point of the Canvas GDPR Mode Model: The

Business Model Canvas
Osterwalder [7] developed the Business Model Ontology, which was the conceptual
basis for the publication of the book Business Model Generation by Osterwalder and
Pigneur (2009). The Business Model Canvas is a summary map of the “nine key
blocks” of the business model plan, but it does not, in itself, exclude the elaboration
of the business plan. For those unfamiliar with the Canvas model, there is a chrono-
logical order for filling the nine blocks on the canvas. First, we must identify the
customer segments (the target) to whom we want to sell the products and services.
Second, what are the products and services we want to sell. The value proposition
represents the “value” for a given specific target. Also, we must describe how an orga-
nization differentiates itself from its competitors. Which is the reason why customers
buy from one company and not another [7]. Thirdly, we must identify which distri-
bution channels we are going to use to deliver products and services to customers,
including the marketing and distribution strategy. Fourth, how will the organization
relate to the chosen targets? The company establishes links between itself and the
different targets. The relationship management process is called customer relation-
ship management (CRM). Fifth, what will the earnings model be? It will identify
itself as the organization “make money”. The business model must describe the logic
of creating, delivering and capturing value by an organization [7]. Sixth, what are
the key resources needed to allow creating “value” for the target. The assets that
are needed to maintain and support the business model are listed. Resources can be
human, financial, physical or intellectual. Seventh, what are the key activities that
will enable the organization’s value proposition to be executed. Eighth, what are the
key partners and strategic alliances that complement the business model. Finally,
ninth, we must quantify what the spending structure is and the consequences on the
business model. Still, in this context, it is important to mention that each organization
will show a different Canvas.
4 Methodological Proposal Canvas GDPR Model
The methodological proposal presented for organizations to achieve legal compliance

of privacy and data protection with the RGPD (EU) 2016/679, is based on the concep-
tual framework Business Model Canvas, which allows achieving accountability and
compliance of the management system of an organization with the GDPR. The orig-
inal model allowed organizations to define what their business model is. As well, the
Canvas GDPR model is a new layer, complementary to the economic business model.
As in the Canvas model of the Circular Economy, where two new additional layers
are identified. In addition to the economic model, two more layers were added, the
Social and the Environmental, so that the organization achieves an integrated model
of sustainability. The proposed model of the GDPR Canvas Model is an instrument
that will help ensure the accountability and compliance of organizations with the
GDPR (EU) 2016/679. But it is also a dynamic tool that will allow you to advise the
entity responsible for the processing of personal data, the EPD and its own team. The
RGPD Canvas Model that is proposed here consists of 10 blocks, and for each one,
the requirements of the ISO 9001:2015 and ISO 2700:2013 Standards are associated
with the GDPR [8]. The result of this methodology is based on the completion and
visualization on a “screen” of an organization’s accountability and compliance with
the GDPR. The sequence of filling out the Canvas GDPR model should be as shown
in Fig. 1.
The first step is in block 1, in the key activities of the Canvas GDPR model,
where all the “personal data” in physical and digital support existing in the organi-
zation would be inventoried. For this purpose, even if the management system has
not been the subject of any certification, use requirement no. 8 of the ISO 9001:2015
Standard (Planning and Operational Control) [9] and the requirement of the ISO
27003:2013 Standard [10], will be very useful by virtue of facilitating the organi-
zation’s accountability and compliance with the GDPR. However, Fig. 2 shows a
possible methodology to be followed for this purpose.
Fig. 1 “Canvas RGPD model”. Source Miguel Magalhães (2020) ©
Fig. 2 Accountability and GDPR compliance procedure. Source Miguel Magalhães (2020)
The inventory of personal data will make it possible to demonstrate the traceability
of the registration and processing of personal data captured by the organization,
allowing the elimination of transversal processes, and thus answering the questions
of the control authority.
In the second step, in block 2, designated resources of GDPR key processes, all
existing resources are inventoried, whether internal or external (in case the organiza-
tion has opted for outsourcing services to subcontracting entities). Here, all physical
infrastructures will be identified, namely, all file warehouses where personal data
are stored on paper, all hardware supports and cloud platforms, and even software,
that make the file in digital support. In terms of references, resorting to requirement
no. 7 of the ISO 9001:2015 [9] and ISO 27004:2013 [10] standards prove to be an
excellent guide to good practices for documenting existing resources.
Solove (2006) proposed a detailed taxonomy of privacy impacts that constituted
a basic reference on how blocks 1 and 2 should be completed. Solove’s taxonomy is
structured around four groups [11]:
1. How the collection of information is carried out;
2. How data processing is performed;
3. How information is disseminated;
4. And, what are the invasive acts.
This type of methodology is undoubtedly an indispensable reference for carrying
out a privacy impact analysis. However, there are many other entities that have
been developing numerous publications with enumerated methodologies for adapting
organizations to the GDPR [12–17]. In this context, WG29 issued an opinion and
recommends that the policies listed in Fig. 3 be approved and publicized, where the
information assets are subdivided into primary and secondary [18].
In block 3, the “internal responsibilities” will be defined in terms of compliance
with the GDPR, where the organization defines the “governance model” and the
“personal data protection policy”. Here, it will be considered whether or not to have
a DPO, and whether this should be internal or external to the organization. Here, it
will also be evaluated which key activities and key resources will be outsourced, that
is, sub-contracted. Being able, for this purpose, to be “guided” again by the require-
ments of Norm No. 5 of ISO 9001:2015 [9], where the importance of “leadership” is
highlighted, where the importance of “commitment” with the “goals” is mentioned
defined, as well as by the ISO 27001:2013 [10] standard, which will help establish the
internal procedures for implementing the organization’s management system. Both
references will help the organization to prepare the accountability and compliance of
Fig. 3 Lifecycle analysis of an information asset. Source Adapted from the Article 29 Data
Protection Working Group (Opinion 2/2017)
the management system [19]. In this block, the organization will understand how the
process of responsibilities and compliance with the GDPR [1] will be operational-
ized, whether or not there is a DPO. In this case, it does not matter, as the governance
model will assign or redistribute the procedures, competences and functions of the
people in the organization who will ensure the compliance of the management system
with the RGPD. It should also be defined how the articulation between the legal area
(often external to the organization), the information system and information tech-
nologies, the information security system, the marketing and sales department, pras
and supply, among others. In the event that there is no DPO, responsibilities will
have to be diluted by those responsible for the respective functional areas and may
even give rise to a new figure of “informal EDPs”. In this case, it may increase the
level of risk of possible breaches of personal data. In the event of a data breach, there
is a need for the organization to communicate “or not” to the national supervisory
entity within a maximum period of 72 h, and the latter may be subject to a high fine.
In block 4 the organization defines the “external responsibilities” in terms of
the GDPR. Choosing to subcontract for the purposes of processing personal data
and delimiting the organization’s responsibilities with other companies (joint or
autonomous) is one of the most difficult issues in practical terms to assess and
safeguard. Even if the organization contractually requires from other subcontracting
entities a declaration of responsibility for the personal data, the person responsible
for the treatment, in the event of a breach, will always be the responsible organi-
zation. Therefore, if the organization chooses to outsource personal data processing
operations, it must map and monitor the personal data transmitted. Therefore, it must
ensure two cumulative presuppositions: the purpose and the means of treatment. In
terms of means, it will imply control over resources. You can never consider that the
other entity acts as a subcontractor on your behalf. To this end, in terms of establishing
subcontracting procedures, ISO Standard 27001:2013 [9] helps to establish appro-
priate measures for the implementation of management system procedures between
the parties.
Block 5 is perhaps one of the most important blocks of the Canvas Model GDPR.
At this point, the organization will assess the “value of personal data”. Here, the
assessment of the “value of personal data” physical and digital for the management
of the organization’s business will be carried out. Once the data is inventoried, the
organization will select which “personal data” are essential or essential for the devel-
opment of its business, thus verifying the “legitimacy” in obtaining it and assessing
whether it has to obtain “consent requests” to keep them or not. It will also consider
whether or not there is a need to carry out pseudonymization or anonymization oper-
ations in order to maintain existing personal data. Furthermore, you will select the
personal data for which you will delete, update and rectify them. In short, the orga-
nization will assess whether it complies with all legal requirements emanating from
the RGPD in terms of article no. 1 and following and recitals no. 14 and following. At
this point, after filling in block 5 “value of personal data” and without going beyond
steps, the organization should, in a preliminary way, carry out a pre-assessment of the
risk and, thus, start filling in block 9 of the “risk assessment” and assess the impact
of the existence or not of non-compliances at the GDPR level.
Fig. 4 Personal data lifecycle. Source Miguel Magalhães (2020)
In block 6, the “relationship between the organization and the holder of the
personal data” is highlighted, throughout the management of the “life cycle of
personal data”, namely, how the communication process between the responsible
entity will be carried out. -vel and the holder (guaranteeing him the right to informa-
tion), how the safeguarding of a possible breach of personal data will be exercised.
In this context, the data protection working group “GT29” developed a set of good
practices within the scope of the Regulation’s application. Among which, on June 8,
2017, it approved an opinion on the processing of personal data in the work context
(Opinion of 02/2017), which suggests a methodology to analyze the “life cycle of
an asset” of information. In this context, we created a dataflow (Fig. 4), which will
serve as a roadmap to determine the “life cycle of a personal data”.
The responsible entity must guarantee the right to information to the holder and
guarantee the exercise of their rights: the right of access, rectification, erasure and
opposition. It should only process the personal data collected for a legitimate purpose.
And, whenever necessary, obtain consent explicitly from the data subject for a specific
processing purpose. It must ensure the right to limit the processing and portability of
data, register the data processing activity, keep the data only for the necessary period
and provide itself with security and control procedures that allow the responsible
organization to for the treatment to mitigate the possibility of breach of personal data.
Requirement No. 4 of the ISO 9001:2015 Standard will also help to contextualize
the organization’s relationship with the data subject.
On the other hand, in block 7, the communication channels used by the respon-
sible entity (the organization) between the holders and the Control Authority will
be identified, when necessary. For this purpose, the requirements of no. 8.2 of the
ISO 9001:2015 Standard [9] will help to define the most appropriate communication
Fig. 5 Lifecycle analysis of an information asset. Adapted from Gouveia (2018)
channels for this purpose. The completion of blocks 6 and 7 will allow the segmen-
tation of the type of personal data strictly necessary to ensure the operation of the
business and group them by categories of holders in block 8. Requirements No. 4
and 8.2 of the ISO 9001:2015 Standard [9] will help to contextualize the organiza-
tion and communication with the holders. At this moment, we must revisit block no.
9, concerning the risk management approach, taking into account the level of risk
assessment on personal data and define mitigation guidelines referred to in article 32
of the GDPR (security in the treatment), if the risk assessment so requires. Here, the
approach proposed by Gouveia (2018) for analyzing the life cycle of an information
asset can be taken into account (Fig. 5).
Once again, ISO 9001:2015 [9] standard notion to assess the added value of
personal data. The requirements of the ISO 27005:2013 Standard [9], for risk manage-
ment and information security, will be fundamental instruments for the purpose of
evaluating internal control in terms of personal data that comply with compliance
and accountability with the GDPR [1]. It should be noted that the European Network
and Information Security Agency (ENISA) published a report with technical recom-
mendations for the implementation of Article 4 of Directive 2002/58/EC [20] on
privacy and electronic communications, in particular on data breach notification in
the electronic communications sector [21]. In this context, the French Government’s
National Commission for Information Technology and Liberties establishes a set
of the level of risk and establishes the following assumptions that aim to guarantee
compliance with the GDPR [1]:
1. There are limited levels of access to data by authorized persons only.
2. Data processing is limited only to the purpose for which it was collected.
3. There is the respective consent of the holder.
4. There is a physical and/or digital archive of the data by nature and type of
processing with the respective time of possession and the period for revalidation
of consent.
5. Continuous assessment systems for the minimization of collected data, moni-
toring and protection of the possibility of security breach (sensitive data: racial
or ethnic origin, political opinions, religious or philosophical convictions, trade
union membership, genetics, biometric, health-related, sexual life or sexual
orientation).
6. What are the protection measures for databases and physical files?
Has a risk assessment been carried out for the holders?
(a) Is there a “crisis cabinet” to assess whether or not there has been a personal data
breach and re-evaluate security measures?
(b) Is there a procedure for reporting a personal data breach within a maximum
period of 72 h to the Authorities?
(c) Is there a procedure for reporting a personal data breach to the data subject?
Once the previous steps are completed, the risk assessment will proceed, proposing
the analysis framework shown in Fig. 10 (Table 2).
Having identified the technical and organizational conditions that ensure an
adequate level of security and that prove that the processing is carried out in accor-
dance with the RGPD, in article 32 no. 1 [1], it even requires that the controller and
the subcontracting entity, if where applicable, ensure a level of security appropriate
to the risk, safeguarding the protection of personal data. However, for many organiza-
tions, analyzing risk and adopting measures based on risk mitigation is nothing new.
Many organizations already have an information risk management system (SGRI)
mapped through the following procedures: identification; analyze; risk assessment,
management and monitoring. Generally speaking, the risk will be the result of the
“value of a personal data” multiplied by the “degree of probability of occurrence”.
For that reason, in block 2 of the canvas, the resources were identified, namely the
information assets, composed of systems, portals, servers, database, communication
Table 2 Risk assessment

Type of risk to the personal data Degree of probability of occurrence
Negligible Moderate Important Severe
Illegitimate access A1 A2 A3 A4
Unwanted modification B1 B2 B3 B4
Loss/theft C1 A2 A3 A4
Observations by unauthorized persons D1 D2 D3 D4
Use inappropriately E1 E2 E3 E4
Deterioration F1 F2 F3 F4
Overload/lack of space G1 G2 G3 G4
Source Miguel Magalhães (2020)
equipment, electricity, refrigeration, lighting services and maintenance contracts that

must be identified within the scope of information security with the respective asso-
ciated subcontracting entity. Filled the first 9 blocks of the screen, the 10th block,
and the last one, is related to the continuous improvement. This block assesses the
improvements in mitigation measures and the monitoring of the master data protec-
tion algorithm (presented above). For this purpose, the help of requirements no. 10
of the ISO 9001:2015 [9] standard, relating to continuous improvement and the ISO
27002:2013 [10] standard, which defines a set of good practices for safety manage-
ment, is very useful of information. Whether or not a DPO exists, this block will be
of enormous importance for the organization in order to allow it to reach an adequate
level of maturity in terms of its document management, policy, standards, rules,
processes, procedures, models and evidence that position it in compliance with the
GDPR [1].
5 Validation and Application of the “GDPR Canvas Model”
The model presented in the previous section was validated with a large Portuguese
business group with 126 companies in more than 12 different sectors of activity
(Retail, Insurance, Shopping centres, Hospitality, Transport, Health, Industry,
Financial services, Communications, among others), in a group of 43,057 holders.
6 Conclusions Regarding the Application of the “GDPR

Canvas Model”
As a result of this empirical study, the following conclusions were obtained on

the application of this methodology: Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of 25 May 2018
is a dense text, consisting of 99 articles and 173 recitals, where it is impossible to
understand the meaning of the articles, without the prior understanding of the recitals.
It is a complex text, where references and references to domestic law abound. As
well, vague and indeterminate concepts abound. It consists of long articles, with
many paragraphs and many intercalations within each one of them. This drafting
technique makes the GDPR an especially complex legal instrument. On the other
hand, Law no. regarding the processing of personal data and the free movement of
such data, where the National Data Protection Commission (CNPD) is designated as
the national supervisory authority for the purposes of the RGPD and introduces some
novelties in the regime of administrative offences. complexity, and often ambiguity,
of how to put into practice and help an organization prepare the accountability and
compliance of the GDPR management system and comply with Law No. 58/2019 of
August 8, the methodological proposal for privacy and protection of personal data
“Canvas RGPD model” was unanimous by organizations the added value that this
framework.
References
1. Regulamento (UE) 2016/679 do Parlamento Europeu e do Conselho, de 27 de Abril de 2016,

relativo à proteção das pessoas singulares no que diz respeito ao tratamento de dados pessoais
e à livre circulação desses dados e que revoga a Diretiva 95/46/CE (Regulamento Geral sobre
a Proteção de Dados)
2. Ferreira, P.: A Protecção de Dados Pessoais na Sociedade de Comunicação: Dados de Tráfego,
Dados de Localização e Testemunho de Conexão, p. 455. O Espírito das leis editora, Lda.,
Lisboa (2006). ISBN 978-9020-13-2
3. Asensio, P.A.M.: Derecho Privado de Internet, 5ª Edição, pp. 291–377. Thomson Reuters,
Civitas
4. Diretiva 95/46/CE do Parlamento Europeu e do Conselho, de 24 de Outubro, 1995, relativa à
proteção de pessoas singulares no que diz respeito ao tratamento de dados pessoais e à livre
circulação desses dados
5. Lei nº 58 de 8 agosto de 2019
6. Lei 43/2004 de 18 de Agosto, Lei de organização e funcionamento da Comissão Nacional de
Proteção de Dados
7. Osterwalder, A.: The business model ontology, a proposition in a design science approach,
these présentée à l’ecole des hautes etudes commerciales de l’Université de Lausanne, pour
l’obtention du grade de docteur en informatique de gestion (2004)
8. Heimes, R.: Top 10 operational impacts of the GDPR; part 1 – data security and breach
notification. The Privacy Advisor, Westin Research Center
9. Norma NP ISO 9001:2015, Sistemas de Gestão da Qualidade
10. ISO 27003:2013 – information security management systems
11. https://technologyincontrol2.wordpress.com/2016/12/09/impactos-en-la-privacidad-la-tax
onomia-del-profesor-solove/
12. https://www.thomsonreuters.com/content/dam/ewp-m/documents/thomsonreuters/en/pdf/
faqs/thomson-reuters-and-the-gdpr.pdf
13. Magalhães, F.M.: Regulamento Geral de Proteção de Dados – Manual Prático, 3ª Edição Revista
e Ampliada. Vida Económica, fevereiro de 2018
14. Fazendeiro, A.: Regulamento Geral Sobre a Proteção de Dados - Algumas notas sobre o RGPD,
Reimpressão da 2ª Edição. Almedina (2018)
15. Saldanha, N.: RGPD - Guia para uma Auditoria de Conformidade, Páginas 192 (2019)
16. ISBN 9789727229055, Editor: FCA
17. Saldanha, N.: RGPD - Novo Regulamento Geral de Proteção de Dados, Páginas 208. Editor:
FCA (2018). ISBN 9789727228898
18. Grupo de trabalho de proteção de dados do artigo 29 (Opinião, 2018)
19. Grupo de trabalho de proteção de dados do artigo 29 (Opinião 2/2017)
20. Joaquim, B.G.: A inovação e a criação de valor na empresa. Universidade Aveiro (2018)
21. Agência Europeia para a Segurança das Redes e Informação (ENISA) publicou um relatório
com recomendações técnicas de implementação do artigo 4.º da Diretiva 2002/58/CE
22. McDonough Braungart Design Chemistry. All rights reserved (2013)
23. Pieronia, M.P., Pigossoa, D.C.A., McAloonea, T.C.: Sustainable qualifying criteria for
designing circular business models. In: 25th CIRP Life Cycle Engineering (LCE) Conference,
30 April–2 May 2018, Copenhagen, Denmark
24. Martins, A.M.G.: Manual de Direito da União Europeia. Almedina Editora (2014)
25. O E-Commerce à luz do direito: Análise do Regulamento Geral da Proteção de Dados. A
Uniformização da União Europeia
The (Re)invention of Pedagogy Through
Digital Technologies in Time COVID-19
Susana Sá , Teresa Santos , Palmira Alves , Ana Noronha ,

Patrícia Silva , and César Freitas
Abstract The pandemic context that devastated teaching in Portugal, placing

students and teachers only connected by a screen, made emotions emerge in students,
making the accompanying teachers more attentive. In this study, we present the results
obtained from the general objective: to identify the emotions present in students in the
emerging context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Data were collected from teachers
of the 2nd and 3rd cycles of basic education (n = 377), through a questionnaire
survey that contained an open question, asking teachers to write about the challenges
encountered in managing students’ emotions. The webQDA® software was used for
the analysis and interpretation of qualitative data. The main results show that the
identification of emotions by teachers was not, systematically, unanimous, and also
differs according to the length of service. A school that is, for many, a place of
well-being and good practices, since teachers play the role of “psychologist without
training, just to listen to students”, was one of the conclusions. Thus, the monitoring
carried out by teachers with more or less time of service, even at a distance, was
relevant, considering that pedagogy was (re)invented.
S. Sá (B) · A. Noronha · P. Silva · C. Freitas

Escola Superior de Educação de Fafe, Centro de Investigação, Desenvolvimento E Inovação Do
Instituto Europeu de Estudos Superiores (CIDI-IEES), Fafe, Portugal
e-mail: susana.sa@iees.pt
A. Noronha
e-mail: ana.noronha@iees.pt
P. Silva
e-mail: patricia.silva@iees.pt
C. Freitas
e-mail: cesar.freitas@iees.pt
T. Santos
Lusófona University, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: teresasantos@sapo.pt
P. Alves
CIEC-IE, Minho University, Braga, Portugal
e-mail: palves@ie.uminho.pt
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_71
800 S. Sá et al.
Keyword Students in the 2nd and 3rd cycles of basic education · COVID-19 ·
Emotions · Teachers
1 Introdution
Given the challenges imposed by the pandemic, teaching through digital technologies
has brought some constraints due to economic, social, psychological conditions, as
well as digital skills. Teachers found that not all students were on an equal footing to
face the challenges posed by the pandemic. Interpersonal relationships and commu-
nication (verbal and non-verbal) are fundamental both for the teaching–learning
process and for the socio-emotional development of students. Teachers had to dilute
the anguish and insecurity of the students, transforming them into challenges of
self-control and empathy in response to the crisis caused by social isolation. Expe-
rience shows that there is a lack of human resources in mental health, of people to
accompany children and adolescents to develop their socio-emotional skills.
The Ministry of Education “produced resources, guidelines, gathering practices,
establishing partnerships, to support the work of schools and teachers” [1, p. 4]. In
Germany, “the first measure to be adopted was the choice of programs and platforms
that could be used to organize teaching and make videoconferences possible” and
“in an extremely short period, teachers had to obtain more training and follow-up in
teaching”. “online” [2, p. 3]. In France, the digital platform “Ma Classe à la Maison”
was created, in which students accessed pedagogical content via a computer, tablet or
cell phone [3] and the Eduscol portal was created with educational content by subject
[4, p. 17]. Amaral [4] adds that most school textbooks are now available online, free
of charge. As for Portuguese teachers, they immediately began to discuss solutions
on social networks. In this regard, [5, p. 3] points out: “the day after the closing
of schools, on their own initiative, they created the “E-learning-Support” group on
Facebook, dedicated to helping teachers. Three months later, this group had almost
30 thousand members and an intensive and uninterrupted activity of mutual help
between teachers” because, as [6, p. 8] points out: “no-one was prepared for this
situation, which reveals aspects negative effects, such as inequalities and pedagogical
impoverishment”. Despite everything, [6, p. 10] argues that “what was considered
impossible, was transformed in a few days: different learning spaces, especially at
home; different study and work schedules; different pedagogical methods, especially
through remote teaching; different evaluation procedures, etc.” Other positive aspects
are mentioned by Verdasca [7, p. 3] who states that it was “an opportunity for teachers
to experiment with new pedagogical models and new ways of using learning times
and asserting their creative power and ability to innovate”. However, teachers found
that not all students were on an equal footing to face the challenges imposed by
the pandemic. On the one hand, communication between teachers and parents has
increased, but tensions and conflicts have also been generated there, particularly
“those who live in more vulnerable and challenging contexts” [8, p. 5].
The (Re)invention of Pedagogy Through Digital Technologies in Time … 801
In this context, we highlight the perspective of Jabonero [9, p.21] states, “the
pandemic has exposed the serious problems and inefficiencies of our education
systems: inequality and worrying distance from the digital world, penalizing the
most disadvantaged”. This situation brought to light the socio-emotional challenges,
especially in basic education, where socio-emotional skills play the role of preparing
students for daily challenges because, by developing them, they become able to
understand their interpersonal and social relationships.
1.1 The Importance of Socio-Emotional Skills in Learning
Making a theoretical-conceptual review of social competence, it emerges because

of studies in the 1980s [10] based on the assumption that children either learned
social competences or showed difficulties in contexts of early socialization with the
family. Although, in the literature, it is confused with social competence, emotional
competence or social intelligence. These competences gain relevance if we frame
them in a dynamic and conflictual understanding of development and relationship.
From the perspective of Canha and Neves [11], these skills relate to interpersonal
behavior, such as empathy and assertiveness, anxiety and anger management, and
conversation skills; and those concerning the development and maintenance of inti-
mate relationships, involving communication, conflict resolution and intimacy skills.
For the author Denham [12], this concept implies the acquisition of skills underlying
the expression of emotions, socially adequate regulation, and emotional knowledge,
being implicitly related to the identity, personal history and socio-moral develop-
ment of the child and young person. It is considered a core competence in the ability
of children and young people to interact, self-regulate and establish rewarding rela-
tionships with others, in the management of affection at the beginning and in the
continuity of evolutionary involvement with peers.
The SEL (Social and Emotional Learning) Model of Social and Emotional
Learning [13], refers, in general, to the typology of programs that promote the
integrated and interrelated development of cognitive, emotional, and social compe-
tences, grouped in a structure five major domains designated as: self-knowledge; self-
management; Social consciousness; interpersonal relationship; responsible decision
making. For the authors, there is a growing awareness of the importance of socio-
emotional development in the good performance of children and young people from
pre-school education and throughout compulsory education.
Corroborating with Freire’s view [14], regarding the importance of emotional
education, he makes a reservation for other feelings that are essential for the formation
of the subject, such as respect, humility, faith, and hope. These feelings must be
worked on by the family institution and by the school institution, “of course, the
sharing of positive emotional experiences between parents and children, children
and educators and children and peers, are building blocks for the development of
well-being. being socio-emotional” [15, p. 100].
802 S. Sá et al.
From the perspective APA [16, p. 22] “interpersonal relationships and commu-
nication are fundamental both for the teaching–learning process and for the socio-
emotional development of students”. They add, teachers must provide: to students:
(i) a safe and secure environment, both physical and social, and a shared classroom
culture; (ii) provide clear behavioral expectations related to social interactions and
opportunities for all students to experience successful social exchanges; (iii) estab-
lish cooperative and supportive classroom norms, but it is also critical that teachers
establish clear orders against any form of bullying; (iv) to learn effective social skills
must include planned teaching and opportunities for practice and feedback.
With the pandemic, teachers and students began to face daily obstacles in the
face of the need to teach and learn, to continue the school year. Teachers reinvented
and reorganized themselves [17], in the operationalization of remote teaching: in
contact with students; with explanations about digital literacy to the Parents; in the
preparation of meetings and in the preparation of materials. Develop new skills
for adapting content and materials to alleviate tiredness and lack of motivation. In
addition to posting activities and/or videos recorded in virtual learning environments
or similar platforms, social interaction and verbal and non-verbal communication
motivated and involved students in synchronous and asynchronous classes. The lack
of face-to-face contact, physical absence, prevented some interactions necessary for
learning, namely in the orientation of students in “Additional or Selective Educational
Needs”. In the debate on these issues, we cannot forget the role of political decision-
makers who need to “value the social and educational role of teachers, seeing them as
reflective and constructive professionals, capable of diagnosing complex curricular
situations, of making decisions adapted to concrete realities and differentiated and
capable of recreating and improving their own pedagogical actions.” [18, p. 203].
2 Methodology
This study is of a qualitative nature [19–21] with characteristics of a case study,

carried out on the Portuguese reality, given that it reflects the perception of teachers
in the 2nd and 3rd cycles of basic education how they managed students’ emotions,
with regard to communication and interpersonal relationships, taking into account the
technologies adopted for pedagogical mediation, during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Based on the theoretical and circumstantial foundations described above and, on
the problems, presented, the following objective was established: (i) to identify the
emotions present in students in the emerging context of the COVID-19 pandemic.
During the pandemic, classes were taught in Emergency Remote Teaching (ERT)
as designated by [22]. The research started in May 2020, considering the ERT situ-
ation, the questionnaires were distributed online, using the Google Forms tool, and
sent by email to the Directors of the Groups of Public Schools of Basic Education
in Portugal. Data were collected between August 31 and September 20, 2020. The
random sample (n = 377) is made up of working teachers, without distinction of
geographical areas at the continental level and islands of Azores and Madeira. Thus,
“the construction of the questionnaire and the formulation of the questions constitute,
therefore, a crucial phase in the development of the investigation” [23, p. 118]. This
questionnaire survey, aimed at teachers of the 2nd and 3rd cycles of basic education,
contained items distributed across three dimensions: teaching, learning and assess-
ment, in which teachers indicated the degree of agreement with the statements, on
a scale Likert, in addition to the inclusion of characterization variables (gender,
age, length of service, professional situation and academic qualifications) and two
open questions, asking for a description of the constraints and the main positive
aspects arising from this type of education. All ethical standards were safeguarded,
namely the guarantee of participants’ anonymity, data confidentiality and the right
to voluntary participation.
In this study, the open questions of the questionnaire are presented and analyzed.
The answers were compressed in Excel, generated by Google forms, and then inserted
into the webQDA®—Qualitative Data Analysis Software [24] for qualitative data
analysis. Data analysis performed by webQDA® is like the basic structure of content
analysis [25]: (a) pre-analysis, with the organization of the material to be analyzed;
(b) exploration of the material, with coding and categorization; and (c) treatment of
the results, with inferential interpretations. This stage started “from the meanings
that the message provides” [25, p. 135]. It is, consequently, a process of arranging a
set of categories of meaning [26, p. 302], which we will call reference units. Content
analysis was carried out with a focus on students’ emotions, emerging the following
categories, which are shown in Table 1: (i) Curiosity to learn; (ii) Stress tolerance;
(iii) Tolerance to frustration; (iv) Enthusiasm; (v) Empathy; (vi) Respect; (vii) Trust;
(viii) Responsibility; (xix) Determination; (x) Persistence; and (xi) Focus.
Table 1 Frequency units of the categories and indicators of emotions

Categories Indicators Frequency units (n)
Curiosity to learn Tendency to be open to new experiences 17
Stress tolerance Tendency to be consistency and balance of 12
Tolerance to frustration emotional reactions, without sudden changes in 8
mood
Enthusiasm Orientation of interests towards the external 11
world, people and things
Empathy Tendency to act cooperatively and unselfishly 2
Respect 4
Trust 7
Responsibility Tendency to be organized, hardworking and 9
Determination responsible 13
Persistence 15
Focus 5
Source Authors
804 S. Sá et al.
3 Results
Triangulation matrices were made between categories, gender, length of service

and literature. We consider the “need to establish some strategies. Among them,
we highlight the triangulation of the various sources collected, that is, looking at
the same phenomenon from different angles” [27, p. 9], we also chose to privilege
data triangulation—as modality that proves whether the information collected is
consistent-signed by another (theoretical) source, and we resort to the transparency
of the entire process that guarantees the merit, credibility, and reliability of the
investigation.
3.1 Perception of Students’ Emotions and Gender of Teachers
Regarding the matrix obtained by triangulating the teachers’ gender and the students’
emotions that were most evident, the results are presented in Table 2.
From the results observed in Table 2, the female teachers, in general, identified
more emotions in the students than the male teachers. This is justifiable, since female
teachers are more sensitive to the identification of emotions in their students, because,
as defended by Canha and Neves [11] and Denham [12], these reveal themselves in
an empathic and assertive context and in closer relationships. relationships, such as
in conflict management. This situation arises naturally, because the female teachers
mostly have the position of class management, and therefore are closer to the holistic
understanding of their students and recognize the identity, personal history and socio-
moral development of the child or young person.
Table 2 Matrix obtained by

Categories Female teachers Male teachers
triangulating the teachers’
(Frequency Units (Frequency Units
gender and the students’
(n)) (n))
emotions
Curiosity to learn 8 9
Stress tolerance 7 5
Tolerance to 4 4
frustration
Enthusiasm 6 5
Empathy 1 1
Respect 3 1
Trust 6 1
Responsibility 5 4
Determination 2 11
Persistence 3 12
Focus 1 4
Source Authors
There are exceptions in persistence, in which (n = 12) by the teachers and (n =

3) by the teachers, the determination (n = 11) of the teachers against (n = 2) of
the teachers and the Focus (n = 4) of teachers and (n = 1) of female teachers.
Teachers more easily identify behaviors of persistence, determination and focus
in their students because, as defended by Durlak and his collaborators [13], these
generally relate to the ease with which technological equipment associated with
remote teaching is handled, leading children or young people to perform well in
synchronous and asynchronous classes. Remote teaching technologies were more
easily internalized by teachers than by female teachers. Although we think of a
world of gender equality, we know that this reality, in Portugal, is far from balanced.
Teachers have a life of family management that requires support and time for them
to be able to train in technologies, to the detriment of what their students need.
3.2 Perception of Students’ Emotions and Teachers’ Length

of Service
Regarding the matrix obtained by triangulating the length of service of the teachers
and the emotions of the students that showed the most, the results are presented in
Table 3.
From the results observed in Table 3, teachers with more than 16 years of service,
emphasized responsibility (n = 7), determination (n = 11), persistence (n = 7),
persistence (n = 12), stress tolerance (n = 10) and frustration tolerance (n = 5).
These results are in line with what APA [16] recommends, because being teachers
Table 3 Matrix obtained by triangulating the length of service of the teachers and the emotions of
the students
Categories Length of service <15 anos Length of service >16 anos
(Frequency Units (n)) (Frequency Units (n))
Curiosity to learn 8 9
Stress tolerance 2 10
Tolerance to frustration 3 5
Enthusiasm 9 2
Empathy 1 1
Respect 3 1
Trust 6 1
Responsibility 2 7
Determination 2 11
Persistence 3 12
Focus 5 0
Source Authors
806 S. Sá et al.
with more years of service, they have an impacting posture on behaviors, stable inter-
relationships between pairs of students and the use of active teaching methodologies
and of learning.
Teachers with less time of service indicated enthusiasm (n = 9), respect (n = 3),
trust (n = 6) and focus (n = 5). According to Cotovio [17] and Silva and Ribeirinha
[18], the teachers, with less time of service, were more active in reinventing and
reorganizing the operation of remote teaching and thus managed to mitigate the
fatigue and demotivation of their students.
4 Conclusions
Guided by the general objective of the study, to identify the emotions present in
students in the emerging context of the COVID-19 pandemic, the following were
identified: curiosity to learn, tolerance to stress and frustration, enthusiasm, empathy,
respect, trust, responsibility, determination, persistence, and focus.
The identification of emotions by teachers was not, systematically, unanimous,
and differs according to the length of service.
The results show that teachers were catalysts of persistence, determination, and
focus, with different types of intervention in remote teaching, so that learning was not
compromised by anxiety, lack of technological means, students’ lack of motivation
and failures in the internet network, leading us to questions of equity.
Teachers with more time of service had an impact on behavior, on stable interre-
lationships between pairs of students and on the use of active teaching and learning
methodologies, despite learning far from the classroom.
The school is, for many, a place of well-being and good practices, since teachers
play the role of “psychologist without training, just to listen to them”. Thus, the
monitoring carried out by teachers with more or less time of service, even at a
distance, was relevant, considering that pedagogy was (re)invented.
This study, despite having a consistent sample, leads to a limitation in the triangu-
lation of data. These could have been carried out with semi-structured interviews or
focus groups with parents/guardians of children and young people and with teachers.
In future works, it would be interesting to be able to compare the results regarding
the emotions acquired by children and young people during remote teaching and
when returning to face-to-face teaching, so that the discussion of the results and the
conclusions of the study take into account the opinion of these and the perceptions
of the pedagogical team; a summary of the practical implications for teaching and
learning policies, as well as an indication of the main consensus around relevant
measures for the respective adapted curricula and praxis.
References
1. Costa, J.: Entre o caos e a esperança. In: Alves, J., Cabral. I. (Orgs.) (eds.) Ensinar e aprender em
tempo de COVID 19: entre o caos e a redenção. Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Porto (2020).
Homepage. https://www.dge.mec.pt/noticias/e-book-ensinar-e-aprender-em-tempo-de-covid-
19-entre-o-caos-e-redencao. Last accessed 21 March 2007
2. Oesselmann, D.: Educação em tempos de COVID-19- descrições, observações e questões, a
partir de uma perspetiva alemã. Revista Saber Educar 30 (2021)
3. OCDE: Learning remotely when schools close: How well are students and schools prepared?
Insights from PISA. OECD Policy Responses to Coronavirus (COVID-19) (2020).
4. Amaral, M.: Educação em tempos de emergência. Cadernos da Pandemia 1 Educação, A Prove-
doria de Justiça na Salvaguarda dos Direitos Humanos. Provedor de Justiça (2021). Accessed
from http://www.provedor-jus.pt/documentos/educ_c1_2021.pdf
5. Figueiredo, A.: Os Equívocos da Educação à Distância. Sinal Aberto (2020)
6. Nóvoa, A.: A pandemia de COVID-19 e o futuro da Educação. Revista Com Censo: Estudos
Educacionais do Distrito Federal [S.l.] (7)3, 8–12 (2020). Accessed from: http://periodicos.se.
df.gov.br/index.php/comcenso/article/view/905.
7. Verdasca, J.: A escola em tempos de pandemia: narrativas de professores. Revista Saber Educar
29 (2021). Accessed from: http://revista.esepf.pt/index.php/sabereducar
8. Flores, M.A., Machado, E.A.., Alves, M.P., Aguiar Vieira, D.: Ensinar em tempos de COVID-
19: um estudo com professores dos ensinos básico e secundário em Portugal. Revista Portuguesa
De Educação, 34(1)1, 1–23 (2021). https://doi.org/10.21814/rpe.21108
9. Jabonero, M.: ¿Inercia o transformación. Como será a educação em 2030? In O. Granados
(Coord.), La educación del mañana. ¿Inercia o transformación? pp. 17–24. OEI (2020).
Accessed from: https://bit.ly/3oNIDmZ.
10. Carvalho, A., Almeida, C., Amann, G., Leal, P., Marta, F., Moita, M., Pereira, F., Ladeiras,
L., Lima, R., Lopes, I.: Saúde Mental em Saúde Escolar. Manual para a Promoção de
Aprendizagens Socioemocionais em Meio Escolar. Lisboa (2016)
11. Canha, L., Neves, S.: Promoção de Competências Pessoais e Sociais, Desenvolvimento de
um Modelo Adaptado a crianças e jovens com deficiência, Manual. Associação de Paralisia
Cerebral de Odemira: Instituto Nacional para a Reabilitação (2008)
12. Denham, S.: Dealing with feelings: how children negotiate the worlds of emotions and social
relationships. Cognition, Brain, Behaviour 11(1), 1–48 (2007)
13. Durlak, J., Weissberg, R., Dymnicki, A., Taylor, R., Schellinger, K.: The impact of enhancing
students’social and emotional learning: A meta-analysis of school-based universal interven-
tions. Child Dev. 82, 405–432 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01564.x
14. Freire, P.: Comunicação e Extensão. Paz e Terra (1992)
15. Vale, V.M.: Tecer para não ter de remendar. O desenvolvimento socioemocional em idade
pré-escolar e o programa Anos Incríveis para educadores de infância. (Doctoral Thesis).
Universidade de Coimbra (2012). Accessed from: http://hdl.handle.net/10316/18273
16. American Psychological Association (APA): Coligação para a Psicologia nas Escolas e na
Educação. Os 20 Princípios Mais Importantes da Psicologia para o Ensino e a Aprendizagem,
desde o Pré-Escolar ao Secundário (2015). Accessed from: http://www.apa.org/ed/schools/
cpse/top-twenty-principles.pdf
17. Cotovio, V.: Webinar—Saúde mental e qualidade de vida em ambiente de ensino digital (em
Reflexões e Práticas E@D) (2020)
18. Silva, B., Ribeirinha, T.: Cinco lições para a educação escolar depois da COVID-19. Interfaces
Científicas 10(1), 194–210 (2020)
19. Bogdan, R., Bilken, S.: Investigação qualitativa em educação. Porto Editora (1994)
20. Yin, R.: Estudo de Caso. Planeamento e Métodos. Bookman (2005)
21. Stake, R.E.: Investigación con estudio de casos. Morata (1999)
22. Murphy, M.: COVID-19 e eLearning emergencial: consequências da securitização do ensino
superior para pedagogia pós-pandemia. Política de Segurança Contemporânea 41(3), 492–505
(2020). https://doi.org/10.1080/13523260.2020.1761749
808 S. Sá et al.
23. Coutinho, C.: Metodologia de Investigação em Ciências Sociais e Humanas: teoria e prática,
2nd edn. Almedina (2014)
24. Costa, A.P., Moreira, A., Souza, F.: webQDA (version 3.1)—Qualitative Data Analysis. Aveiro
25. Bardin, L.: Análise de Conteúdo. Edições Setenta (2010)
26. Amado, J., Costa, A., Crusoé, N.: A técnica da análise de conteúdo. In: Amado, J. (Coord.) (ed.)
Coimbra (2013)
27. Sá, S.O., Costa, A.P.: Critérios de Qualidade de um Estudo Qualitativo (Carta Editorial). Revista
Eixo 5(3), 9–12 (2016). https://doi.org/10.19123/eixo.v5i3.384
Technologies and Their Impact
on the Leadership and Current
Management of Schools
Pedro Louro , Susana Sá , João Pascoinho, Laurentino Guimarães,

Eusébio Costa , Agostinho Sousa Pinto ,
and Manuel Trigueiro da Rocha
Abstract In the twenty-first century, it is undoubted that technologies reveal a great

impact on the leaders of educational organizations, playing an important and funda-
mental role in their daily management and administration. Thus, the leaders needed to
change their attitude, reinforcing the vision of the fundamental and indispensable role
of this resource, and of its contribution in the pedagogical, administrative, internal,
and external communication plans and even to change the postures and paradigms
of their communities. This study of the leaders of schools in primary school of a
Portuguese region, with a methodology of a mixed nature, predominantly qualitative
and descriptive, in which it was intended to understand the impacts of technolo-
gies on the leadership and management of schools, nowadays, and the mastery of
the concepts of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), and Digital
Information and Communication Technologies (TDIC). The analysis and interpre-
tation of the data extracted in the interviews was carried out through documental
research. The analysis of the data collected in the interview surveys was performed
using the software webQDA®—Qualitative Data Analysis Software and its inter-
pretation through the technique of content analysis and consequent categorization.
P. Louro (B) · S. Sá · J. Pascoinho · L. Guimarães · E. Costa · M. T. da Rocha

Centro de Investigação, Desenvolvimento E Inovação- CIDI-IESF), Fafe Institute of Higher
Studies, Fafe, Portugal
e-mail: 37013@iefafe.pt
S. Sá
J. Pascoinho
e-mail: joaopascoinho@iesfafe.pt
L. Guimarães
e-mail: laurentinoguimaraes@iesfafe.pt
E. Costa
CEOS-Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_72
810 P. Louro et al.
Two conclusions emerged from our investigation: (i) younger directors, with less
management experience and seniority in the profession, are the ones who most use
technology in their administrative practice; (ii) the existence of a notorious lack of
definition between the concept of ICT and TDIC in these leaderships, recognizing all
the computer resources used, hardware or software, commonly as digital resources.
Keywords Information and communication technologies · Digital information and

communication technologies · Leaderships
1 Introduction
The creation of the MINERVA project, through [1], November 15, with the aim of
promoting the introduction of ICT in non-higher education in Portugal, was essen-
tially aimed at the guardianship attempt, to boost the technological evolution of these
organizations, to allow education to accompany the digital evolution of that time.
Later, over the years, several projects and plans emerged, of which we high-
light the Technological Plan for Education (PTE), approved in the Resolution of
the Council of Ministers [2], september 18, the Training and Certification System
in ICT Skills, approved by the [3], july 7, the DigCompEdu—European Digital
Competence Framework for Educators and the DigCompOrg—European Digital
Competence Framework for Educational Organisations.
Despite these various initiatives on the part of successive governments, the school
in its educational and organizational practices has always shown strong resistance,
benefiting the traditional non-technological recurrent practices. For [4] and [5], the
main reasons come from the deficient training of teachers in Information and Commu-
nication Technologies (ICT) and according to Santos [6] the way their leaders face,
use, guide and motivate its use, in the educational practice of teachers and in their
daily management of the institution.
Currently, with the emergence of the pandemic, society and, by its inherent nature,
educational organizations, had to radically change their mentality, using technolo-
gies as an indispensable tool in the teaching–learning process, in communication, in
the management of institutions and especially in promoting equal opportunities for
all its students. If, until then, these digital tools were limited to the use of Microsoft
word and sometimes Microsoft excel, and Microsoft PowerPoint, as a way of filling
the bureaucratic work inherent to teaching, email, the various teaching, communi-
cation, and research platforms, have become common tools in daily educational and
administrative practice.
In this way, the leaders were also forced to change their attitude towards tech-
nologies, reinforcing the vision of the fundamental and indispensable role of this
resource, and of its contribution in the pedagogical, administrative, internal, and
external communication plans, and even in the change attitudes and paradigms of
their communities. According to [7, p. 112] “school leaders have been suffering
increasing pressure in relation to the integration of technologies by the educational
Technologies and Their Impact on the Leadership and Current … 811
community”. However, [6, p. 68] states that, “This is partly due to the fact that the
practical effects of these pressures are not very relevant, since, in reality, the use of
ICT in schools it depends more on the will of leaders and teachers than on pressure
from local educational communities, society and political impositions or educational
policies”.
1.1 Leadership Concept
The concept of leadership comes from the adaptation of the Portuguese language of
the English word “leader”, which has several meanings, such as, direct, lead, forward,
drive, command, persuade, etc.… Therefore, despite the same etymological origin,
there is not a single concept of leadership, but several definitions, according to the
contexts, realities in which the word is used.
In the late 1960s, [8, p. 338] defined leadership “as the exercise of authority and
decision-making”, stating that leadership only implied the action of an individual
as an authoritarian decision-maker, with no space, openness to the participation of
other actors.
Later, in the 1980s, [9, p. 338] defined the leader as a privileged element, capable
of introducing new values and ideals, thus referring to leadership as a process through
which organizational culture was formed and changed. Here, the leader begins to have
the role of developing the group, providing it with specifics, unique and identifiable.
For Kouzes and Posner [10, pp. 33–34], “Leadership is the art of mobilizing others
so that they want to fight for shared aspirations” which constitutes a concept in which
the word ’want’ is evident.
We then began to see the concern of spontaneously inducing the various elements
of the organization to have and fight for common goals, instead of defined and
imposed purposes by another, that leader.
Whitaker [11, p. 103], at the beginning of the century, defines leadership as the
“ability that influences the behaviour of people and groups to achieve certain goals”,
that is, the leader uses his abilities to incite his collaborators to work towards common
goals, pre-defined by the same, through the induction of their behaviours. Also,
[12, p. 256], mentions the concept of leadership “as a special form of influence
tending to lead others to voluntarily change their preferences (actions, assumptions,
convictions), depending on tasks and projects”.
We can, therefore, conclude that the concept of leadership had several visions
and definitions that evolved according to the ideological evolution of society, filling
in the theory that the leader is that individual who has a set of own or obtained
characteristics, which endows him with adaptability to the circumstances and context
in which your organization is inserted, exercising a positive influence on all its
members and managing in a healthy way, all emerging conflicts in the group.
812 P. Louro et al.
1.2 Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)

Versus Digital Information and Communication
Technologies (TDIC)
Currently, with the trivialization of the use of technologies in our daily lives, the
confusion between ICT and TDIC is notorious.
According to [13], most teachers associate the term “new technologies” with the
use of television and the computer in the classroom, and [14] says that the concept
of ICT is related to the use of the personal computer, and access to information in
digital format, such as text, static and dynamic images, and sounds, emphasizing that
due to this technological diversity, these can help in the teaching–learning process or,
on the other hand, disseminate students’ attention. Mendes [15] clarifies that ICTs
are a set of technological resources used to gather, distribute, and share information,
which when integrated with each other, allow automation and/or communication
in existing processes in business, teaching, and other varied global applications. In
a chronologically closer conception, [16] state that we define ICT as any type of
technology that deals with information and assists in communication, which can be
in the form of hardware, the physical part of the computer, and software, the logical
part of the computer, such as the internet and mobile phones.
Regarding Digital Communication and Information Technologies (TDIC), [17]
defines them as digital technologies connected to a network, a vision shared by
Valente [18], although he reinforces that they increase, in this way, the communication
of its users. The latter also sees TDICs, as those that come from the combination of
various digital technologies such as videos, software, applications, smartphones, etc.,
which can be grouped together to form new technologies. Schuartz and Sarmento
[19] define these technologies as artifacts that stimulate cooperation and partnership
in the production of knowledge, contributing to educational processes that go beyond
the limits between the physical and the virtual.
After analysing these and other authors, we can understand ICT as a reference to
electronic and technological devices, which includes computers, tablets and smart-
phones, and all technologies invented before the digital component, such as the
telegraph, the telephone, television and radio, and TDIC as all digital technolo-
gies that are connected to a network or as those that arise from the convergence of
various digital technologies such as videos, software, virtual games, applications,
smartphones, thus creating new technological forms.
2 Methodology
In the investigation we carried out, we were interested in observing and investigating

the Impact of Technologies on the Current Leadership and Management of Schools,
through the application of a predominantly qualitative and descriptive methodology,
with an objective and non-interventionist mode of application [20, 21].
The research strategy was to study the top leaders of several Primary Schools with
Pre-School in a region of Portugal.
2.1 Data Collection Instruments
In data collection, surveys by semi-structured interview, of the mixed type, with open
questions were used as the main source, that is, the answers were constructed and
written by the respondent himself and a question, in which the interviewee had to
choose a series of options [22].
2.2 Study Participants
Regarding the characterization of the participants in this study, as seen in Table 1, we

can say that 25% of school directors were between 61 and 65 years old, 25% were
between 56 and 60 years old, and 50% were between 41 and 45 years old, being 50%
male and 50% female.
In their basic training, the majority, 75% had a degree and 25% a master’s degree.
Regarding the teaching group, 75% were primary school teachers, teaching group
110, and 25% kindergarten teachers, teaching group 100, all with more than 15 years
of service, of which 50% with over 30 years’ service. Seniority, as a manage-
ment body, varied between those with more/less than ten years, so 50% have been
performing these functions for less than a decade and 50% for more.
Table 1 Characterization of respondents

Interviewee Age Genre Basic training Teaching Number of Number of
Base group years of years that
service plays the role
of director
I1 4 Feminine Master’s Preschool 19 6
degree Education
I2 3 Masculine Graduation Primary 21 5
School
I3 1 Feminine Graduation Primary 34 12
School
I4 1 Masculine Graduation Primary 40 30
School
Source Authors
814 P. Louro et al.
2.3 Data Collection Techniques
The analysis and interpretation of the data extracted in the interviews was carried
out through documental research. The analysis of the data collected in the interview
surveys was performed using the webQDA® software—Qualitative Data Analysis
Software—[23] and its interpretation through the technique of content analysis and
consequent categorization.
From the analysis of the surveys by interview, we can classify the results in the
following categories: (i) leader; (ii) leadership; (iii) leader and the organization; (iv)
leadership centrality; and (v) leadership and technologies. Considering our theme,
“Technologies and their Impact on Leadership and Current Management of Schools”,
we direct our research in the last category, “leadership and technologies”, whose
results are explained in Table 2, according to their reference units or frequency or
register units, which means phrases or words with meaning for the study.
After analysing Table 2, we can see that there is a relation between age, seniority
in service and performance in the management position, and the connection between
leadership and technologies. I1 (n = 4) and I2 (n = 3), younger directors, with less
management experience and seniority in the profession, are those who most use
technologies in daily tasks as management bodies, unlike I3 (n = 1) and I4 (n = 1).
This finding may occur, due to the indifference, resistance and stagnation of
educational strategies and resources, for several years, by most teachers, conse-
quently motivated by their passive leadership, as stated by [4], [6, p. 60] “factors
of an eminently cultural nature, such as resistance to change and the inertia of the
school institution, to which the attitude of teachers who, when faced with the attempt
to install ICT in schools, showed indifference, resistance or even rejection”.
About gender, there is no significant difference, since respondents with more
reference scores, I1 (n = 4) and I2 (n = 3), are female and male respectively, and
those with less reference units, I3 (n = 1) and I4 (n = 1), belong equally to the female
and male genders, respectively.
Table 2 Analysis of
Interviewee Reference units (n)
reference units related to the
category “leadership and I1 4
technologies” I2 3
I3 1
I4 1
Source Authors
120%
100% 100%
100%
75% 75% 75%
80%
60%
40% 25% 25% 25% 25%

20%
0%
Fig. 1 Forms and types of communication used by Leaders. Source Authors
In terms of basic education, although not very expressive, we emphasize that I1

(n = 4), the only director with a master’s degree, is the one that reflects a greater use
of technologies in the leadership of his school. The teaching group demonstrates the
same analysis, since I1 (n = 4) is the only interviewee who belongs to the Pre-School
education level.
Figure 1 shows some forms and types of communication that top leaders use
in the daily management practice of their organizations. In addition to the options
presented, we included the last one in the interview survey, entitled “others”, so that
respondents could describe more forms or types of communication they used and
considered relevant.
The first important note that we take from the analysis of Fig. 1 is that all the
directors interviewed use various forms of communication, with Microsoft Teams,
an online video and audio conference platform, and email, being the most common
and privileged.
However, it is interesting to note that, although we are in the age of technologies,
the old Information board and the Informative Documents continue to be a widely
used source of communication, with 75% of appeal by management bodies. Face to
face meetings stood at 50%, a margin that we consider significant, considering the
conditions and guidelines regarding the COVID-19 pandemic situation.
This sense is shared by the Education Statistics and Planning Office (GEPE) [24,
p. 5] “In the communication between the agents of the education community, there
is still a strong preference for traditional channels, to the detriment of educational
electronic communication channels, such as e-mail, instant messaging, forums, etc.”
and by [6, p. 2] “(…) the information and communication of the leaders with the
teachers, was, and continues to be in most schools, traditionally done on paper posted
in places where the concentration of teachers is more frequent, in particular the
teachers’ rooms (…)”.
816 P. Louro et al.
We also point out that there is some uncertainty in terms of digital, technolog-
ical, and non-technological terms, because if we carefully analyse the number of
respondents who selected the types of communication that correspond to each of
these options, they do not match. Only 75% of the directors selected that they use
digital media, but, however, if we check the use of email and the Microsoft Teams
platform, we have a resource of 100%, that is, all of them.
Also, about non-technological aspects, we have an indication that only 25% use
this type of communication, although when we look at Fig. 1, we find that 75% of
the respondents use information boards and internal informative documents.
We also found that there is a great doubt in the definition and inherently in the
distinction between the technological (ICT) and the digital (TDIC). When analysing
Fig. 1, we see that 100% of respondents use email and Microsoft Teams, TDIC,
while 75% say they use digital media, thus evidencing the lack of knowledge of the
concept by one of the interviewees.
This doubt is more evident in the definition of ICT, since to communicate via
email and through Microsoft Teams it is necessary to have a device, hardware, such
as a computer or a tablet, an aspect contradicted in Fig. 1, as only 25% of respondents
revealed that resorts to the use of technologies.
This question is one of the main focuses of our investigation, which has few
studies, so it is our intention to deepen it in the future.
Technologies are a fundamental information and communication tool, used by all

social and professional areas today, with management and administration being one
of the main ones covered by its development. Their enormous applicability makes
them indispensable and inseparable from the pedagogical practices of the multiple
educational and administrative disciplinary areas. Using them in the best way in the
administration and management of the school, however, depends on whether their
leaders are technological.
The category we studied, “Leadership and technologies” is an example of this,
because in the analysis of the results, we found that I1 (n = 4) and I2 (n = 3), younger
directors, with less directing experience and seniority in the profession, are those top
managements that most use these instruments in their daily administrative practice,
that is, it is here that there is a greater impact, influence on their management, the
so-called “technological leaders”.
The importance and relevance of the role of leaders in the promotion and imple-
mentation of technologies in schools has been defended over the years by several
authors, including [7, 25–28]. References [28, 29] even mention the importance of
“technological leadership”, the one that implies that the director is a technological
leader, where he must act as a model, encouraging, guiding, and sharing information
and knowledge. The leader must demonstrate a positive attitude towards technolo-
gies, as well as be highly proficient in its use. “A study by Ertmer et al. (2002) states
that being a technology leader should entail responsibilities such as acting as a role
model, providing encouragement and direction, and sharing knowledge and informa-
tion. (…) not only are technology leaders expected to have positive attitudes towards
technology, but they are also expected to be highly proficient in using technology.
Ultimately, as technology leaders, school administrators and computer teachers share
a large part of the responsibility for adopting and using new technologies in the
schools.” [29, p. 279].
Regarding the remaining factors, gender, teaching group and basic training, they
did not reveal data susceptible to relevant conclusions, although I1 (n = 4) is the one
with the highest degree of basic training, the master’s degree.
We would like to point out that this increase in the use and influence of technologies
on leaders, as evidenced in other business, industrial, social and health areas, resulted
from the emergence and consequent globalization of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Despite this exponential increase in the use of this instrument, there is a clear
lack of definition and confusion between the concept of ICT and TDIC, an aspect
that we sought to prove in our study. Most of the interviewed directors define all the
computer resources used, hardware or software, as can be seen in Fig. 1, commonly
as digital resources, not showing to dominate or even know the concept of TDIC.
However, we emphasize that the nature of the sample should have been larger,
to have been able to assess this finding more accurately, something that was not
possible for us, due to the pandemic and the conditioning caused by it, in the func-
tioning of educational organizations, and consequently, the availability of these top
management bodies to participate in the survey by interview.
Other limitations that we would like to mention are the small, almost non-existent
studies on this issue.
So, it is our prerogative, in the future, to deepen this theme, applying this study
to a larger and more diversified sample. Its approach and comparison between two
regions of Portugal, one on the mainland and the other insular, will be very interesting,
with the aim of contributing to an enrichment in the demand and supply of answers
to this problem.
References
1. Dispatch n.º 206/ME/85 de 15 de novembro

2. Resolution of the Council of Ministers nº 137/2007, September 18
3. Decree n.º 731/2009, July 7
4. Costa, F.A.: Razões para o Fraco Uso dos Computadores na Escola. Revista Diálogo
Educacional 4(12), 1–13 (2004)
5. Peralta, H., Costa, F.A.: Competência e confiança dos professores no uso das TIC. Síntese de
um estudo internacional. Revista de Ciências da Educação 03, 77–86 (2007). Accessed from:
https://repositorio.ul.pt.
6. Santos, J.R.: As TIC na escola pública portuguesa e a sua relação com as lideranças. (Tese de
doutoramento não publicada), Universidade Aberta de Portugal (2018). Accessed from: https://
repositorioaberto.uab.pt/handle710400.2/7739.
818 P. Louro et al.
7. Piedade, J., Pedro, N.: Tecnologias digitais na gestão escolar: práticas, proficiência e necessi-
dades de formação dos diretores escolares em Portugal. Revista Portuguesa de Educação 27(2),
109–133 (2014)
8. Dubin, R.: Human Relations in Administration. Prentice Hall (1968)
9. Schein, E.: Organization Culture and Leadership. Jossey Bass Publications (1985)
10. Kouzes, J., Posner, B.: O Desafio da Liderança, 7th edn. Campus (1997)
11. Whitaker, P.: Gerir a Mudança nas Escolas. ASA (2000)
12. Bolívar, A.: Como Melhorar as Escolas–estratégias e dinâmicas de melhoria das práticas
educativas. ASA (2003)
13. Kenski, V.M.: Novas tecnologias: o redimensionamento do espaço e do tempo e os impactos
do trabalho docente. Revista Brasileira de Educação 8, 58–71 (1998)
14. Petry, L.C.: O conceito de novas tecnologias e a hipermídia como uma nova forma de
pensamento. Cibertextualidades 1(1), 110–125 (2006)
15. Mendes, A.: TIC–Muita gente está comentando, mas você sabe o que é? Portal iMaster
(2008). Accessed from: http://imasters.com.br/artigo/8278/gerencia-de-ti/tic-muita-gente-est
acomentando-mas-voce-sabe-o-que-e/
16. Kilau, L.P., Rufino, E.G.: Ressignificação das TICs no processo de ensino e aprendizagem.
Revista Electrónica TES (Tecnologia–Educação–Sustentabilidade) II(2), 193–204 (2020)
17. Kenski, V.M.: Educação e tecnologias: o novo ritmo da informação. Papirus (2009)
18. Valente, J.A.: Integração currículo e tecnologia digitais de informação e comunicação: a
passagem do currículo da era do lápis e papel para o currículo da era digital. In: Cavalheiri, A.,
Engerroff, S.N., Silva, J.C. (Orgs.) (eds.) As novas tecnologias e os desafios para uma educação
humanizadora. Biblos (2013)
19. Schuartz, A.S., Sarmento, H.B.M.: Tecnologias digitais de informação e comunicação (TDIC)
e processo de ensino (2020). https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2114-7509
20. Amado, J., Costa, A., Crusoé, N.: A técnica da análise de conteúdo. In: Amado, J (Coord.) (ed.)
Coimbra (2013)
21. Creswell, J.W.: Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approach.
SAGE Publications (2003)
22. Hill, M.M., Hill, A.: Investigação por questionário, 2nd edn. Edições Sílabo (2016)
24. Gabinete de Estatística e Planeamento da Educação, Ministério da Educação (GEPE): Estudo
de implementação da plataforma electrónica de apoio à gestão escolar da rede pública de escolas
do ensino básico e secundário, Ministério da Educação (2011). Accessed from: http://www.
dgeec.mec.pt/np4/245.html
25. Tearle, P.: Enabling teachers to use information and communications technology for teaching
and learning through professional development: influential factors. Teach. Dev. 7(3), 457–471
(2003)
26. Younie, S.: Implementing government policy on ICT in education: lessons learnt. Educ. Inf.
Technol. 11, 385–400 (2006)
27. Anderson, R.E., Dexter, S.: School technology leadership: an empirical investigation of
prevalence and effect. Educ. Adm. Q. 41(1), 49–82 (2005)
28. Piedade, J., Pedro, N.: Integração educativa das tecnologias: a relevância dos líderes escolares.
Atas do II Congresso Internacional TIC e Educação - ticEDUCA2012, 30 de novembro a 2 de
dezembro de 2012, pp. 1086–1091. Instituto de Educação da Universidade de Lisboa (2012)
29. Cakir, R.: Technology integration and technology leadership in schools as learning organiza-
tions. TOJET: Turk. Online J. Educ. Technol. 11(4), 273–282 (2012). Accessed from: https://
files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ989277.pdf
Virtual Accessibility to Enhance
Research Efficiency: The Case
of Bolivian Universities
Makhabbat Ramazanova , Fátima Matos Silva , Helena Albuquerque ,

Georgina Chavez , Ing Cynthia Bojanic, Ingrid Orlandrini ,
Edgar Iñiguez, Jorge Eduardo Fuentes Ávila ,
Beatriz Margarita Barrera Zuleta , Silvia Marín Guzmán ,
and Susana Uzqueda
Abstract The main objective of this article is to explore how research management
is carried out in some higher education institutions in Bolivia, based on the analysis
of good practices developed. Furthermore, the virtual accessibility of the information
and communication in research and science is carried out. Accessibility to digital
M. Ramazanova (B) · F. M. Silva · H. Albuquerque

REMIT, UPT - Universidade Portucalense Infante D. Henrique, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: ramazanova@upt.pt
F. M. Silva
e-mail: mfms@upt.pt
H. Albuquerque
e-mail: helenaa@upt.pt
F. M. Silva
CITCEM-FLUP - Universidade de Porto, Porto, Portugal
G. Chavez
Universidad Católica Boliviana, La Paz, Bolivia
e-mail: gchavez@ucb.edu.bo
I. C. Bojanic
Universidad Privada de Santa Cruz de La Sierra, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia
e-mail: cynthiabojanic@upsa.edu.bo
I. Orlandrini · E. Iñiguez · J. E. F. Ávila · B. M. B. Zuleta · S. M. Guzmán
Universidad Mayor, Realy Pontifica de San Francisco Xavier de Chuquisaca, Sucre, Bolivia
e-mail: orlandini.ingrid@usfx.bo
E. Iñiguez
e-mail: iniguez.edgar@usfx.bo
J. E. F. Ávila
e-mail: fuentes.jorge@usfx.bo
B. M. B. Zuleta
e-mail: barrera.beatriz@usfx.bo
S. M. Guzmán
e-mail: marin.silvia@usfx.bo
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_73
820 M. Ramazanova et al.
information of the institutional Web contents of the higher education and research
institutions in Bolivia were analysed to understand if they comply with the acces-
sibility requirements contained in the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 2.0 of
the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), as enshrined in the European Parliament
Directive (EU) 2016/2102 and the European Standard EN 17,161:2019. The final
analysis revealed several weaknesses affecting users’ interest and motivation. Thus
it is recommended to take certain steps to provide virtual accessibility of HEIs in
Bolivia.
Keywords Higher education institutions · Research · Research management ·

Virtual accessibility
1 Introduction
The role of higher education institutions is crucial to develop a cutting-edge research

and contribute to the science development. Thus, HEIs invest strategically in devel-
oping and producing high-quality research and disseminating it across the globe [7].
Rapid evolution of technology, its wide use worldwide challenges educational insti-
tutions to provide virtual learning environments and ensure accessibility of research
information on the websites. In fact, higher education institutions in Latin America
are faced with the challenge of taking some steps to raise awareness of the importance
of virtual accessibility in managing research and ensuring digital accessibility for all
[2]. Therefore, this article has twofold objectives: (1) to present research manage-
ment good practices of selected HEIs in Bolivia, as well as (2) to investigate the
digital adaptation resulting from the technological innovation, to help the academic
managers in formulating research policies and enhancing research culture. This paper
is organised as follows: the second section is a brief contextualization on the issues
covered; the third section presents the method and data collection; the fourth section
presents the results and, finally, the discussion and conclusion.
2 Contextualization
Research performance and productivity are relevant indicators in higher educa-

tion institutions. It is a fundamental part of their mission along with teaching [4].
Academics role at the HEIs is in teaching, conducting research, transfer and dissemi-
nation of knowledge [6]. Rapid evolution of technology, its wide use worldwide chal-
lenges educational institutions to provide virtual learning environments and create
accessible web content. Since ICT tools facilitate quick search process, information
S. Uzqueda
Universidad Autónoma Gabriel Rene Moreno, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia
e-mail: susanauzqueda@uagrm.edu.bo
Virtual Accessibility to Enhance Research Efficiency: The Case … 821
access and retrieval, as well as interaction among users [6]. In this context, websites
of the universities providing relevant information for academic community should
fulfil accessibility standards and be accessible to all [1]. In the case of Latin America,
[2] the authors showed concern regarding the need to increase awareness at the HEIs
about the importance of website accessibility and take certain steps to facilitate the
use of the websites by the academic community.
For a website to be considered accessible, text-based alternatives must be provided
for any non-textual content. This allows for adaptation to each user’s needs, such
as large print, Braille, read-aloud, symbols and plain language. All content should
be adaptable, discernible and keyboard accessible. It is also important that there
is a help option, and multimedia elements should provide content and texts prop-
erly identified, with subtitles or audio description (https://www.w3.org/Translations/
WCAG20-pt-PT/).
3 Method and Data Collection
3.1 Case Study Methodology: Good Practices
For the identification and exploratory analysis of the good practices in research
management in higher education institutions in Bolivia, the case study methodology
is employed. Selection of the case studies is assorted according to the criteria such
as relevance within the context of Bolivia, scalability in terms of viability of the
transposition of similar schemes to other institutions of the consortium and cost-
effectiveness. The coordination of this task was carried out by the Portucalense
University, Portugal together with the Royal and Pontifical Major University of Saint
Francis Xavier of Chuquisaca, Bolivia in the scope of the work package “Needs
analysis” of the Erasmus + Innova project. To collect more detailed information about
good practices in the most efficient and effective manner, semi-structured interviews
are used and applied to responsible person in each university. The information related
to the selected good practices is presented in Table 1 and detailed description of each
case can be consulted in Sect. 4.
3.2 Methodology for the Websites Analysis
The methodology for website analysis is based on a selective sample of 11 websites,

being 4 universities and related research units’ homepages in Bolivia. In addition,
the MINEDU—Ministry of Education of the Plurinational State, the Vice-Ministry
of Science and Technology and Innova Project websites were studied. Observation
grids for compliance with the requirements of virtual accessibility were prepared
Table 1 Good practices on research management in Bolivia

Title of the good practice University
Construction of the university’s lines of research Universidad Mayor, Realy Pontifica de San
through a participatory methodology Francisco Xavier de Chuquisaca - USFX
Registration and Copyright Management in Universidad Autónoma Gabriel Rene Moreno
compliance with Bolivian regulations - UAGRM
Integration of New Researchers into the Universidad Católica Boliviana - UCB
Research Programmes
Aire Limpio-RED MÓNICA project Universidad Privada de Santa Cruz de La
Sierra - UPSA
and, after collecting the URLs, quantitative and qualitative analysis of the informa-
tion disclosed on the respective websites were conducted. Regarding the quantitative
analysis, the degree of compliance with the recommendations of WCAG 2.0 was
verified, currently implemented by AMA—Agência para a Modernização Adminis-
trativa, I. P.—Accessibility.gov.pt project (https://www.acessibilidade.gov.pt/), and
the automatic validator AccessMonitor Plus, version 2.1 was used. This software is
an automatic validator of Web accessibility practices (WCAG 2.1) that checks the
application of accessibility guidelines in HTML contents, on a scale of 1.0 to 10.0.
The three types of results are stratified by three priority levels (‘A’, ‘AA’ and ‘AAA’).
Contrary to what we have been developing in other papers [3, 5, 8, 9], we do not
privilege quantitative analysis. We only verified the A, AA and AAA level errors,
regarding accessibility and warnings (Table 3). The elements chosen for the qualita-
tive analysis were the following: existence of the accessibility symbol or reference to
the accessibility of the website, existence of search functionality and the languages
in which it is presented.
4 Results
4.1 Good Practices in Research Management
4.1.1 USFX: Construction of the University’s Lines of Research

Through a Participatory Methodology
In 2008, the Business administration department of the USFX promoted the construc-
tion research lines at the university level through a participatory methodology.
The work was carried out in all areas of knowledge with a team of teaching moder-
ators and systematisers, and with actors from society who expressed their research
demands and interests in working groups. This initiative obtained a support from
the Strategic Research Programme Foundation in Bolivia. The purpose of this initia-
tive was to determine and characterise the demand for research fields relevant to the
development of Chuquisaca region.
In order to identify research lines several round tables were organised with a
varying number of 4–6 leaders per roundtable, including moderators, systematisers
and support staff. The research team’s working groups were held once a week during
the 8 months of the project. Roundtables organised with actors from civil society,
public institutions, and the private sector. The results were a set of research lines
by areas of knowledge on the basis of which further research can be carried out.
The results of the roundtables to determine the lines of research were disseminated
through a publication entitled “Universidad y sociedad—Agenda universitaria para
la investigación en Chuquisaca” (University and society—University agenda for
research in Chuquisaca) http://www.pieb.com.bo/anterior1.php?id=2478.
4.1.2 UAGRM: Registration and Copyright Management

in Compliance with Bolivian Regulations
The creation of the Intellectual property unit within the department of knowledge
technology transfer at the UAGRM has been recognised as a fundamental unit in
knowledge management within the university, since by obtaining intellectual prop-
erty, the results of research work are disseminated, knowledge that can be used in
different social sectors. Other contributions are the obtaining of Patents in favour of
the university and registrations of Copyrights and Distinctive Signs and Trademarks,
being a national reference for having the most Intellectual Property registrations and
Network in the Bolivian University System.
Main activities carried by the unit are techno-legal assistance to the university’s
academic research units with the aim of safeguarding the ownership of the innova-
tions, promotion of innovation and creativity at the service of the economic and social
development of the community through a system and its regulation of the patent,
application of national regulations and the university’s internal regulations on legal
procedures for copyright and intellectual property patents, training in intellectual
property with the aim of informing the beneficiaries of the benefits of registration
and their property rights obtained at the time of registering the patent, among others.
The unit organises 10 trainings per year for the university staff, and if any faculty
requested specific training in their area, it is also provided. The participation rate in
the Intellectual Property training courses is 60%.
4.1.3 UCB: Integration of New Researchers into the Research

Programmes
The implementation process related to the Research initiation programme has a

strategy based on the interest and impulse of the Regional Rectorate started in 2016
to promote the generation of research at the Bolivian Catholic University (UCB), in
compliance with the universal mandate of the university, towards the generation of
knowledge. The initiation of students to research began in 2018–2019, through the
promotion and call for students. Research management process is carried out by the
research coordination, which is a unit in charge of promoting research among teachers
and students and fulfils all the tasks related to the academic, administrative, and
technical issues. To facilitate the student’s involvement, the Student Scientific Society
(SCE) was created. The management of the society is done by a guiding teacher from
the environmental engineering department. The students are invited to participate in
the activities of the research centre in Water, Energy and Sustainability (CINAES),
which is part of the environmental engineering department. Creation of the SCI,
assigning a guiding teacher, and link to a specific research centre are positive factors
contributing to new researchers’ motivation and involvement in research activities.
Students involved into the society are motivated to continue their research and to
apply for the arising scholarship opportunities.
4.1.4 UPSA: Aire Limpio—RED MÓNICA Project
The UPSA in agreement with COSUDE (the Swiss Foundation for Technical Devel-
opment Cooperation) through Swiss contact and the Municipal Government of the
city of Santa Cruz, developed this project with the objective of installing and main-
taining an air quality monitoring programme in the city of Santa Cruz, a municipality
sensitive to air pollution from vehicular traffic and industry and vulnerable to forest
fires, logging and burning. The management of the project has been done by carrying
out permanent measurements and coordinating and sending the information to the
Municipal Government, which by law is in charge of air quality in the cities.
Products of the project are implementation of the MoniCA Network (Air Quality
Monitoring Network) with measurement points according to WHO and validation of
the pollutants to be measured, local and departmental air quality reports in Santa Cruz
de la Sierra, national Air Quality Reports in Bolivia by the Ministry of Environment
and the National Institute of Statistics (INE), international publication of data in The
Clean Air Institute (CAI) magazine and Clean Air Initiative for Latin America.
Prior to this project, there was no information on air quality in the city. This project
has served to raise awareness of the importance of air quality, both in social and
climate change terms. A National Network has been formed with all the Municipal
Governments of the departments involved and is based on the experience gained
from this project.
4.2 Accessibility of Websites: Quantitative and Qualitative

Analysis Results
Given that the websites are constantly being updated, the validity of the analysis
is relatively short, so the tests carried out on the pages under analysis in access
Monitor version 2.1 were only compiled on two days, 24 and 26th January 2022.
The target audience is higher education students and teachers or candidates, as well
as researchers from various research areas.
One of the objectives is to carry out a summary qualitative analysis from the
user/consumer perspective. The elements chosen for the qualitative analysis are
shown in Table 2, Fig. 1. Although we have selected only basic elements for analysis,
these do not always exist on the webpages, namely the basic search functionality.
Regarding the placement of the accessible website symbol or reference to the acces-
sibility of the website, this presence is zero. In terms of the languages available, we
can see that Spanish is the main language. Only the UPSA website provides infor-
mation in English. Although internet functionalities allow automatic translation, if
the website is built in other languages, the level of accessibility in terms of usability
is significantly higher.
We limit our summary analysis at the best performing websites. The website of
the Innova project itself, although it is still under construction, is the only one that
achieves the value of 7.0 of compliance with the requirements of virtual accessibility,
so in the future it may reach the ideal value of 10, fulfilling the desired requirements
of full virtual accessibility. All the other websites have lower values of compliance
with the requirements of virtual accessibility, the lower limit being 4.2 (UPSA) and
the upper limit 6.3 (the page on research of the UAGRM), in addition to the 7.0
concerning the Innova project website.
We therefore conclude that the compliance of the websites analysed with the
different levels, although variable, presents average and weak values, with none of
them reaching the value of 10 or even close to it.
Given the constant changes in the websites, improvements are naturally taking
place, so it is great to observe that the website of the UCB, already has a compliance
index of 7.1 (April 15th), as a result of being made available, given the pandemic
situation by Covid-19, a virtual visit tab, accompanied by voice reporting in Spanish,
allowing access by image and audition to a greater number of people, particularly
those with sight problems, among others. This virtual visit provides a range of infor-
mation about the university campus, the central library and all the existing training
areas, as well as the research centres associated with each area.
Although the general page about research in this institution is very poor, it presents
in the tab Culture and Art, through the Centro de Edición y Escritura, interesting
elements about scientific writing, highlighting the existence of a publication called
Ciencia y Cultura which is the only magazine of Humanities indexed in Bolivia.
Unfortunately, the page of the Vice-Ministry of Science and Technology, hosted
on the website of the Ministry of Education of the Plurinational State of Bolivia,
has little information about the support for research, limited to three tabs related to
Table 2 Characterisation of some elements of the analysed websites according to the Web
accessibility practices report (WCAG 2.1 do W3C)
Website of the institution/ Index Accessibility Search Languages
research unit accessmonitor symbol or functionality
plus 2.1 accessibility
reference
Universidad Privada de Santa 4.2 No Yes 2
Cruz de La
Sierra—UPSA—https://upsa.
edu.bo/es/
UPSA—Research—https:// 5.5 No Yes 2
upsa.edu.bo/es/investigacion-
en-la-upsa
Universidad Católica 6.0 No Yes 1
Boliviana—UCB—https://lpz.
ucb.edu.bo/
UCB—Research—https://lpz. 5.5 No Yes 1
ucb.edu.bo/investigacion/
Universidad Autónoma Gabriel 5.6 No Yes 1
Rene
Moreno—UAGRM—https://
www.uagrm.edu.bo/
UAGRM—Research—https:// 6.3 No Yes 1
www.uagrm.edu.bo/unidades-
administrativas/dicit
Universidad Mayor, Real y 4.8 No Yes 1
Pontifica de San Francisco
Xavier de
Chuquisaca—USFX—https://
www.usfx.bo/
USFX—Research—https:// 4.6 No Yes 1
dicyt.usfx.bo/
MINEDU—Ministerio de 4.7 No No 1
Educación del Estado
Plurinacional de
Bolivia—https://www.minedu.
gob.bo/
Viceministerio de Ciencia 6.1 No No 1
Tecnología—https://www.min
edu.gob.bo/index.php?option=
com_djmediatools&view=cat
egory&id=61&Itemid=949
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Website of the institution/ Index Accessibility Search Languages
research unit accessmonitor symbol or functionality
reference
INNOVA project—https:// 7 No Yes 1
www.innova-project.eu/es
Proyecto INNOVA 7
MINEDU - Viceministerio de Ciencia Tecnología 6.1
MINEDU - Ministerio de Educación del Estado… 4.7
Dirección de Investigación, Ciencia y Tecnología da USFX 4.6
Universidad Mayor, Real y Pontifica de San Francisco… 4.8
UAGRM - Investigación 6.3
Universidad Autónoma Gabriel Rene Moreno 5.6
UCB - Investigación 5.5
Universidad Católica Boliviana 6
UPSA - Investigación 5.5
Universidad Privada de Santa Cruz de La Sierra - UPSA 4.2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Fig. 1 AccessMonitor Plus 2.1 indexes of the websites analysed
calls, instructions, and resolutions. The scarcity of information regarding research

and research management is a fact, as it was possible to verify in most of the websites
analysed. As the virtual accessibility is also weak, it is difficult for users to find and,
subsequently, to retrieve the information they need.
Given the index results obtained through AccessMonitor Plus, version 2.1, the
systematic quantitative analysis of these websites was not one of the main objectives
of this article, so only the quantifiable results of level A, AA and AAA errors were
chosen for analysis, regarding acceptable, not acceptable and warnings (Table 3).
These errors refer, among others, to the tests on image captions, the use of multi-
media, forms, menus, headers, main language indication, links, menus and link text,
links to information block outlines, w3c standards and, finally, metadata presentation
elements and attributes. The analytical chart is presented in Table 3 and the average
number of errors and warnings in Table 4.
The quantifiable results of level A, AA and AAA errors, regarding the acceptable,
not acceptable and warnings show very high values, especially in the results of level
A errors, highlighting the not acceptable errors, as we can see in Table 3.
In this quantitative analysis of errors per level, we found high values and, as such,
reveal the problems that the vast majority of websites have in terms of conformity
828
Table 3 “A”, “AA” and “AAA” level test results

Website Index Level A Level AA Level AAA
accessmonitor Acceptable No Warnings TOTAL Acceptable No Warnings TOTAL Acceptable No Warnings TOTAL
plus 2.1 acceptable acceptable acceptable
UPSA 4.2 3 1 8 12 0 1 2 3 0 2 1 3
UPSA—research 5.5 4 1 5 10 0 0 2 2 0 2 1 3
UCB 6.0 5 4 5 14 0 1 1 2 0 3 0 3
UCB—research 5.5 5 2 5 12 0 1 1 2 0 1 1 2
UAGRM 5.6 6 1 5 12 0 0 1 1 0 3 1 4
UAGRM-research 6.3 5 3 4 12 0 0 2 2 0 4 0 4
USFX 4.8 5 2 6 13 0 0 1 1 0 3 1 4
USFX—research 4.6 5 2 6 13 0 0 2 2 0 4 1 5
MINEDU 4.7 3 2 7 12 1 0 0 1 0 2 1 3
Vice-Ministry of 6.1 4 2 5 11 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
Science
Technology
INNOVA project 7.0 6 3 2 11 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 2
AVERAGE 5.48 4.63 2.09 5.27 – 0.09 0.27 1.09 – 0 2.36 0.72 –
M. Ramazanova et al.
Table 4 Average number of acceptable and non-acceptable errors and warnings per level
A AA AAA
Error Warning Error Warning Error Warning
6.72 5.27 0.36 1.09 2.36 0.72
with what is intended to be considered an accessible and inclusive website. The

quantitative data thus corroborate the qualitative data.
The results obtained reveal that these websites are not prepared to comply with
the European legislation guidelines, and the guidelines made public on 21 March
2019, enshrined in the European Accessibility Act and the Design for All Standard.
Naturally, Bolivia does not have to follow European standards or legislation.
However, in the absence of others, it could be important to gather existing information
towards the improvement of existing websites, bringing them closer to the parameters
that are intended for a more inclusive and accessible virtual information for all users.
The analysis of the results of the websites allowed us to obtain measurable data, which
can enhance the qualitative analysis regarding the strengths and weaknesses and the
needs for improvement that the websites analysed require, from the perspective of
any user and also of those who present, permanently or temporarily, limitations of
various kinds.
According to the data presented by Access Monitor Plus, the average compliance
with accessibility requirements is 5.48, on a scale of 1.0 to 10, not enough to pass
the level A of accessibility of online pages. For this reason, we found that none
of the websites under study is considered accessible. The research revealed several
weaknesses that affect the interest and motivations of users in the face of the many
different offers that the websites of the universities and the ministry can provide.
This raises a high concern and need of taking certain steps to increase awareness
about the accessibility as a virtual gate to search, consult and retrieve necessary
information and data. In addition, given the best practices presented in research
management, linked to cooperation with the community and society, which should
always have immediate access to the requested information, the involvement of young
researchers in the research activities of the various units, who should have access to
information more convenient and easy way. Some specific research projects, such as
“Red Monica”, where cooperation with external experts is fundamental who should
not experience barriers in accessing institutional and research units’ websites. Thus,
it is recommended to increase awareness regarding this issue among the HEIs and
Ministries in Bolivia, and call to adopt web technologies and approaches, facilitating
the interaction of diverse users with the web content, which in turn would lead to
new research improvement possibilities and opportunities.
Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the EU Erasmus + Innova
“PromotINg research MaNagement at Higher EducatiOn Institutions in Bolivia and Paraguay”
(619084-EPP-1-2020-1-BO-EPPKA2-CBHE-SP) project consortium. This project has been funded
with support from the European Commission. This publication reflects the views only of the authors,
and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information
contained therein.
References
1. Agangiba, M.A., Nketiah, E.B., Agangiba, W.A.: Web accessibility for the visually impaired:
A case of higher education institutions’ websites in ghana. In: International Conference on
Web-Based Learning, pp. 147–153. Springer, Cham (2017)
2. Amado-Salvatierra, H.R., Hernández, R., Hilera, J.R.: Teaching and promoting web accessibility
in virtual learning environments: A staff training experience in Latin-America. In: 2014 IEEE
Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) Proceedings, pp. 1–4. IEEE (2014)
3. Borges, I., Silva, F.M., Costa, E., Pinto, A.S., Abreu, A.: Infoaccessibility on the websites of
inbound markets of Portugal destination © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. Adv. Tour.,
Technol. Smart Syst., Smart Innov., Syst. Technol. 171, 117–129 (2020). https://doi.org/10.
1007/978-981-15-2024-2_10
4. Bonaccorsi, A., Secondi, L.: The determinants of research performance in European universities:
a large-scale multilevel analysis. Scientometrics 112(3), 1147–1178 (2017)
5. Costa, E., Silva, F. M., Borges, I., Pinto, A. S., Abreu, A.: Usability and accessibility of institu-
tional websites in demarcated wine regions: the cases of Vinhos Verdes and Douro. In: Advances
in Tourism, Technology and Systems (ICOTTS 2020, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technolo-
gies), vol. 1, pp. 415–429. Springer Nature, Singapore (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-
33-4256-9_38
6. Haque, M.M., Ahlan, A.R., Razi, M.J.M.: Factors affecting knowledge sharing on innovation in
the higher education institutions (HEis). ARPN J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 10(23), 18200–18210 (2015)
7. Quitoras, M.C.L., Abuso, J.E.: Best Practices of Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) for the
Development of Research Culture in the Philippines. Pedagogical Res. 6(1) (2021)
8. Pinto, A., Costa, E., Borges, I. Silva, F., & Abreu, A.: Virtual accessibility on digital business
websites and tourist distribution. In: Advances in Tourism, Technology and Smart Systems:
Proceedings of ICOTTS 2019, pp. 93–103 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-202
4-2_9
9. Silva, F., Borges, I.: Digital accessibility on institutional websites of Portuguese tourism. Tech-
nological progress, inequality and entrepreneuship: from consumer division to human centricity,
pp. 67–85. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26245-7_5
Research Management and Virtual
Accessibility: The Case of Paraguayan
Universities
Fátima Matos Silva , Helena Albuquerque , Makhabbat Ramazanova ,

José Manuel Silvero, Luciano Román , José Díaz , Carlos Montiel,
Jorge Eduardo Fuentes Ávila , Beatriz Margarita Barrera Zuleta ,
and Silvia Marín Guzmán
Abstract The main objective of this article is to analyse how research management
is carried out in some higher education institutions in Paraguay, based on the analysis
of good practices analysis developed. It also analyses the virtual accessibility of how
F. M. Silva (B) · H. Albuquerque · M. Ramazanova

REMIT-UPT, Universidade Portucalense Infante D. Henrique, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: mfms@upt.pt
H. Albuquerque
e-mail: helenaa@upt.pt
M. Ramazanova
e-mail: ramazanova@upt.pt
F. M. Silva
CITCEM-FLUP - Universidade de Porto, Porto, Portugal
J. M. Silvero
Universidad Nacional de Asunción – UNA, San Lorenzo, Paraguay
e-mail: jmsilvero@rec.una.py
L. Román
Universidad Católica «Nuestra Señora de la Asunción» – UC, Asuncion, Paraguay
e-mail: luciano.roman@uc.edu.py
J. Díaz · C. Montiel
Universidad Nacional del Este – UNE, Panambi, Paraguay
e-mail: jose.diaz@posgradoune.edu.py
C. Montiel
e-mail: carlos_montiel@une.edu.py
J. E. F. Ávila · B. M. B. Zuleta · S. M. Guzmán
Universidad Mayor, Real y Pontifica de San Francisco Xavier de Chuquisaca, Sucre, Bolivia
e-mail: fuentes.jorge@usfx.bo
B. M. B. Zuleta
e-mail: barrera.beatriz@usfx.bo
S. M. Guzmán
e-mail: marin.silvia@usfx.bo
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_74
832 F. M. Silva et al.
the information and the communication in research and science is carried out. Acces-
sibility to digital information of the institutional Web contents of these institutions
and their research units are analysed in order to understand if they comply with the
accessibility requirements of the Accessibility Guidelines for Web Content WCAG
2.0 (Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 2.0), of the World Wide Web Consortium
(W3C), as stated in the Directive (EU) 2016/2102 of the European Parliament and the
European Standard EN 17,161:2019. The final analysis revealed several weaknesses
affecting users’ interest and motivations.
Keywords University websites · Research websites · Research management ·

Digital accessibility
1 Introduction
Research is a core element in higher education institutions. The academic commu-

nity is expected to be engaged in research, produce knowledge, and contribute to
the science development. Nowadays, HEIs invest strategically in developing and
producing high-quality research and disseminating it across the globe [6]. Others state
that research should meet specific regional needs and contribute to local economic
development [5]. In this context the role of HEIs and its research units are crucial
to develop cutting edge research and in particular responding the regional needs.
First of all, it is of great value to ensure accessibility of research information on
the websites of HEIs, considering that the use of web-based resources have widely
increased among HEIs and can be served as virtual gateway to access necessary
information [1]. Therefore, this article has twofold objectives: to present research
promotion and management good practices of selected higher education institutions
in Paraguay, as well as to investigate the digital adaptation resulting from the techno-
logical innovation, in order to help the academic managers in formulating research
policies and enhancing research culture.
This paper is organised as follows: the second section is a brief review of existing
literature and conceptual background on the issues covered; the third section presents
the method and data collection; the fourth section presents the results and, finally,
the discussion and conclusion.
2 Contextualization
As research is a key element of the HEI, it is fundamental to have research manage-

ment units that enable the production of links between science and society in general.
Research management is becoming more and more indispensable and should not be
seen as just another service in the administration of the HEI, but as a unit that allows
decision making in two main areas: scientific dynamics (production and certification
Research Management and Virtual Accessibility: The Case … 833
of knowledge) and relationship with society [9]. The same author also refers that
“Research management requires a general view of a subject matter, the ability to
coordinate interdisciplinary efforts, and individuals who are highly interested in the
societal im-plications of their fields” (2010:6).
In the case of the research management units that belong to HEI, it is also neces-
sary to consider universal accessibility, which should be present in the research
management websites. The progressive need to develop and access reliable infor-
mation online has stimulated the creation of access guarantees to the content of
websites [10]. As [1] refers, websites of the universities, namely the ones related to
research management, should fulfil accessibility standards, according to the guide-
lines of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). This consortium identifies several
elements to be articulated in the interaction and development of a web page to be
accessible (W3C, 2020), namely the adaptation to each user’s needs, the adaptability,
perceptibility, and keyboard accessibility.
3 Methods and Data Collection
3.1 Case Study Methodology: Good Practices
For the identification and exploratory analysis of the good practices in research
management in higher education institutions in Paraguay, the case study methodology
is employed. Selection of the case studies is assorted according to the criteria such
as relevance within the context of Paraguay, scalability in terms of viability of the
transposition of similar schemes to other institutions of the consortium and cost-
effectiveness. The coordination of this task was carried out by the Portucalense
University together with USFX, Bolivia. In order to collect more detailed information
about good practices in the most efficient and effective manner, semi-structured
interviews are used. The information related to good practices is presented in the
Table 1.
Table 1 Good practices on research management in Paraguay

Good practice University
Specific research management policies and Universidad Nacional del Este—UNE
strategies at institutional level—Establishment
of the Office for the Transfer of Research Results
National or international fundraising and Universidad Nacional de Asunción—UNA
successful project management by the Climate
Change Working Group
Programme for the incorporation of new Universidad Católica «Nuestra Señora de la
researchers Asunción»—UC
3.2 Methodology for the Websites Analysis
The methodology followed in this research was based on a selective sampling of

three universities and related research units homepages in Paraguay. In addition, the
websites of the Ministry of Education and Science, National Science and Technology
Council and INNOVA project was also studied. Thus, the study is based on nine
websites.
The observation grids for compliance with the requirements of virtual acces-
sibility were prepared and, after collecting the URLs, quantitative and qualitative
analysis of the information disclosed on the respective websites were performed.
Regarding the quantitative analysis, the degree of compliance with the WCAG 2.0
recommendations was checked, as currently implemented by AMA—Agência para
a Modernização Administrativa, I. P.—Accessibility.gov.pt project (https://www.ace
ssibilidade.gov.pt/), and we used the automatic validator AccessMonitor Plus, version
2.1. This software is an automatic validator of Web accessibility practices (WCAG
2.1), which checks the application of accessibility guidelines in HTML contents, on
a scale of 1.0 to 10.0. The three types of results are stratified by three priority levels
(‘A’, ‘AA’ and ‘AAA’).
Contrary to what we have been developing in other papers [3, 4, 7, 8], we do not
privilege quantitative analysis. We only verified the A, AA and AAA level errors,
regarding acceptable, not acceptable and warnings to be manually checked (Table
3), whose results reinforce the analysis performed.
The elements chosen for the qualitative analysis concerning the virtual accessi-
bility of the websites included in the sample were the following: existence of the
accessibility symbol or reference to the accessibility of the website, existence of
search functionality, and the languages in which it is displayed.
4.1 Good Practices in Research Management
4.1.1 UNE: Specific research management policies and strategies

at institutional level—Establishment of the Office for the Transfer
of Research Results
The National Council for Science and Technology (CONACYT), in the framework
of the Paraguayan Programme for the Development of Science and Technology
(PROCIENCIA) invited interested institutions to apply to the call for the Creation
or Strengthening of Offices for Technology Transfer and Research Results (Oficinas
de Transferencia de Tecnología y Resultados de la Investigación, OTRI). Within this
framework, the UNE prepared the project, in accordance with the requirements of
the call, and as a result the proposal was accepted. The main requirement to obtain
the funding was to generate the information from the OTRI and to prepare two
transfer projects. The general objective of the Office for the Transfer of Research
Results (OTRI) is to plan, execute and evaluate, together with the academic units of
the UNE, activities related to the identification, protection and exploitation and/or
transfer of intellectual property rights derived from the research activities carried out
at the institution. Internally, the OTRI has structures that deal with the process of
technology transfer of research results. These include intellectual property, business
plans and technology watch.
The overall impact of the good practice is installation of documentations such
as intellectual property regulations, transfer manual, laboratory notebooks; advance
in the systematisation of technology portfolios; documents on own management
indicators and documents on market research.
4.1.2 UNA: National and international fundraising and successful

project management by Climate Change Working Group (GTCC)
The GTCC—Working Group on Climate Change (FPUNA) is responsible for the

Virtual Centre on Climate Change—Paraguay. Paraguay joins international efforts
to address the causes and consequences of climate and variability change. At the
Polytechnic Faculty of the National University of Asunción (FPUNA), the Climate
Change Working Group (GTCC), which operates within the institution’s Meteoro-
logical Centre, develops research related to this phenomenon. The main objectives
of the Virtual Centre are: disseminate and offer collaboration to generate public poli-
cies by relevant institutions; build a (virtual) entity that concentrates, organises and
coordinates information on the impacts of climate change carried out in the Faculty;
promote collaboration in the development of public policies with the capacity to adapt
and reduce the vulnerability of social sectors; create a collaborative policy frame-
work for adaptation, vulnerability and mitigation for Paraguay; promote the creation
of research networks on climate change; to make visible the work developed by the
GTCC and collaborators.
4.1.3 UC: Program for Incorporating Researchers of the Catholic

University “Nuestra Señora de la Asunción”
Relating good practices in terms of research management with the degree of virtual
accessibility achieved, we can refer to the Program for Incorporating Researchers of
the Catholic University "Nuestra Señora de la Asunción", Paraguay (UC). This is a
programme that is included in the strategic plans of the Catholic University. It seeks
to incorporate new researchers through an open competition, directed to the teachers
of the institution, adjusting to pre-established criteria, lines of research or priority
areas.
It has pre-established criteria for the evaluation of the projects presented, inspired
by the Marie Stokowski-Curie programme of the European Community, such as
excellence, impact and implementation.
The Research Centre has a website, which presents the various research centres of
the University, considering the complexity and diversity of spaces and centres: https://
www.universidadcatolica.edu.py/pensamiento-e-investigacion/. However, the infor-
mation is not attractive or accessible to potential new researchers who want to
participate in research. Currently, the programme is not in practice.
To overcome these difficulties, dissemination must be reinforced with scientific
events organised in partnership with other universities, such as congresses, where
preliminary or definitive research results are presented.
4.2 Accessibility of Websites: Quantitative and Qualitative

Analysis Results
The sample chosen, as already mentioned, is related to nine websites of three univer-
sities and research units in Paraguay. In addition, the websites of the Ministry of
Education and Science, the National Council for Science and Technology and the
INNOVA project were also studied.
These are, therefore, the organisations responsible for higher education and
research in Paraguay.
As the websites are constantly being updated, the validity of the analysis is rela-
tively short, so the tests carried out on the pages under analysis in the Monitor access
version 2.1 were compiled on only two days, 10 and 11 January 2022.
One of our objectives is to conduct a summary qualitative analysis from the
us-er/consumer perspective. The elements chosen for the qualitative analysis were
those we have mentioned and whose results are shown in Table 2 (existence of the
accessibility symbol or reference to the accessibility of the website, existence of
search functionality, and the languages in which it is presented).
The quantitative analysis on the compliance of websites, analysed with the various
levels, although variable (Table 2; Fig. 1), shows average and weak values, with none
reaching the desired value of 10.
The summary analysis is based on the best performing websites. INNOVA project
website, although still under construction, has already managed to achieve the value
of 7.0 of compliance with the requirements of virtual accessibility, so in the future it
may reach the ideal value of 10, fulfilling the requirements of full virtual accessibility
that is intended.
On the positive side, only the webpages about teaching and research at the Univer-
sidad Nacional de Asunción—UNA can be highlighter, with a rating of 8.0. These
are also the only webpages that refer to virtual accessibility issues. Moreover, with
the perspective of achieving greater dissemination and reaching different audiences,
especially those related to higher education and researchers, these webpages are
Table 2 Characterisation of some elements of the analysed websites according to the Web
accessibility practices report (WCAG 2.1 do W3C)
Website of the institution Index Accessibility Search Languages
accessmonitor symbol or functionality
reference
Universidad Nacional del 4.8 No Yes 1
Este—UNE (Paraguay)—
http://www.une.edu.py/web/
index.php
Dirección General de 5.9 No No 1
Investigación—Universidad
Nacional del Este—http://inv
estigacion.une.edu.py/
Universidad Nacional de 7.9 Yes Yes 4
Asunción-UNA
(Paraguay)—https://www.
una.py/
Investigación—Universidad 8.0 Yes Yes 4
Nacional de Asunción
(una.py)—https://www.una.
py/investigacion
Universidad Católica 5.0 No No 1
«Nuestra Señora de la
Asunción» Unidad—UC
(Paraguay)—https://www.uni
versidadcatolica.edu.py/
UC—Investigación—https:// 5.8 No No 1
www.universidadcatolica.edu.
py/investigacion/
MEC—Ministerio de 4.2 No Yes 2
Educación y Ciencias
(Paraguay)—https://www.
mec.gov.py/cms/
Consejo Nacional de Ciencia 5.0 No Yes 2
y Tecnología
(CONACYT)—https://www.
conacyt.gov.py/
Proyecto INNOVA—https:// 7.0 No Yes 1
www.innova-project.eu/es
available in several languages other than Spanish, namely English, Portuguese and
their native language, Guarani. In this way, UNA allows greater accessibility and
inclusion.
At this level only Ministry of Education and Science and the National Council for
Science and Technology (CONACYT) present their respective websites in Spanish
and Guarani.
The qualitative analysis is resulting from the study of the websites through Access
Monitor Plus version 2.1 and were chosen for the analysis only the quantifiable results
Proyecto INNOVA 7
Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACYT) 5
Ministerio de Educación y Ciencias - MEC 4.2
Investigación - UC 5.8
Universidad Católica Nuestra Señora de la Asunción -… 5
Investigación - UNA 8
Universidad Nacional de Asunción -UNA 7.9
Dirección General de Investigación - UNE 5.9
Universidad Nacional del Este - UNE 4.8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Fig. 1 AccessMonitor Plus Indexes for the websites analysed
of the level A, AA and AAA errors, concerning the acceptable, not acceptable and
the warnings. It would be tiring and useless to enunciate all errors in relation to the
tests referred to and make their analysis, so we only present the summary in the
analytical table (Table 3) and the average of errors and warnings (Table 4).
The website with the best degree of accessibility is, as we have mentioned, from
Universidad Nacional de Asunción-UNA. The websites analysed are clearly defi-
cient, as we can see, with low to very low values in terms of performance when
analysed on their virtual accessibility.
The elements that we usually select and submit to a quantitative analysis are
the image captions, the use of multimedia, the forms, the menus, the headers, the
indication of the main language, the links, the menus and the text of the links, the
links to outline information blocks, the w3c standards and, finally, the metadata
presentation elements and attributes.
The obtained data confirm that the accessibility is poor, so users will find it difficult
to find and subsequently grasp the information they need. Thus, the quantifiable
results of level A, AA and AAA errors, concerning acceptable, non-acceptable and
warnings, show very high values, especially in the results of level A errors, as can
be seen in Tables 3 and 4.
In this quantitative analysis of errors per level we found high values and, as
such, revealing the problems that the vast majority of websites present, in terms
of conformity with what is intended to be considered an accessible website aimed
at everyone. In conclusion, we can say that the quantitative data corroborate the
qualitative data.
Good practices analysis revealed that the HEIs in Paraguay recognises the value
of research development and attempts to meet regional demand. Some steps were
Table 3 “A”, “AA” and “AAA” level test results found
Websites Índex LEVEL A LEVEL AA LEVEL AAA
access acceptable Not Warnings TOTAL Acceptable Not Warnings Total Acceptable Not Warnings Total
monitor acceptable acceptable acceptable
UNE 4.8 5 1 6 12 0 1 1 2 0 2 1 3
UNE—Investigación 5.9 4 0 4 8 0 0 1 1 0 3 1 4
UNA 7.9 6 3 2 11 0 1 2 3 0 1 0 1
UNA—Investigación 8.0 6 2 2 10 0 1 2 3 0 1 0 1
UC 5.0 4 3 6 13 0 1 2 3 0 3 1 4
UC—Investigación 5.8 4 4 6 14 1 0 0 1 0 2 1 3
Research Management and Virtual Accessibility: The Case …
MEC 4.2 6 1 12 19 1 0 1 2 0 1 0 1
CONACYT 5.0 5 1 6 12 0 0 1 1 0 3 2 5
INNOVA 7.0 6 3 2 11 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 2
Average 5.95 5.2 2.0 5,11 – 0.22 0,33 1,22 – 0 1.88 0.77 –
839
Table 4 Average number of acceptable and non-acceptable errors and warnings per level
A AA AAA
ERROR WARNING ERROR WARNING ERROR WARNING
7,2 5,11 0,55 1,22 1,88 0.77
taken such as creation of offices for technology transfer in UNE, which can be
replicated in the case of other HEIs, or the development of a Virtual Centre concerning
the research of Climate Change, or the creation of a Program for Incorporating
Researchers (even being not active currently). Further actions are needed to promote
research management.
The results obtained through the Web accessibility practices report (WCAG 2.1 of
the W3C) reveal that these websites are not prepared to comply with the guidelines of
European legislation, and the guidelines made public on March 21, 2019, enshrined
in the European Accessibility Act and the Design for All Standard.
Naturally, Paraguay does not have to follow European standards or legislation.
However, in the absence of others, it could be important to gather existing information
towards the improvement of existing websites, bringing them closer to the parameters
that are intended for a more inclusive and accessible virtual information for all
users. The higher education institutions in Latin America must taking some steps to
raise awareness of the importance of virtual accessibility in managing research and
ensuring digital accessibility for all [2].
According to the data presented by Access Monitor Plus, the average compliance
with accessibility requirements is 5.95 on a scale of 1.0 to 10, which is not enough
to pass the level A of accessibility of online pages. For this reason, we found that
none of the websites under study is considered accessible.
The research revealed several weaknesses that affect the interest and motivations
of users in the face of the many different offers that the websites of the universities
and the ministry can provide.
The computer analysis of the results of the websites allowed us to obtain measur-
able data, which can enhance the qualitative analysis concerning the strengths and
weaknesses and the needs for improvement that the analysed websites require, from
the perspective of any user and of those who present, permanently or temporarily,
limitations. It can therefore be concluded that the results obtained in this research
are not satisfactory, revealing non-compliance with accessibility and no concerns at
that level.
It should be noted that the effective and efficient development of a website neces-
sarily implies knowledge of different areas, namely technical, but also accessibility
experts, and the creation of multidisciplinary teams is advisable.
The aim of the guidelines is to help organisations develop a consistent approach,
defining requirements that enable them to develop and provide products, goods or
services that can be accessed, understood and used by everyone, including people
with disabilities. As each user has their own profile of needs, characteristics, or
abilities, it is crucial to take these factors into account when planning products or
services. An accessible Internet, responding to the requirements of universal acces-

sibility, allows all people with or without special needs to participate more actively
in society [7].
Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the EU INNOVA “Pro-
motINg research MaNagement at Higher EducatiOn Institutions in Bolivia and Paraguay” (619084-
EPP-1-2020-1-BO-EPPKA2-CBHE-SP) project consortium. This project has been funded with
support from the European Commission. This publication reflects the views only of the authors,
and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information
contained therein.
References
1. Agangiba, M.A., Nketiah, E.B., Agangiba, W.A.: Web accessibility for the visually impaired:
A case of higher education institutions’ websites in ghana. In: International Conference on
Web-Based Learning, pp. 147–153. Springer, Cham (2017)
2. Amado-Salvatierra, H.R., Hernández, R., Hilera, J.R.: Teaching and promoting web accessi-
bility in virtual learning environments: A staff training experience in Latin-America. In: 2014
IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) Proceedings, pp. 1–4. IEEE (2014)
3. Bonaccorsi, A., Secondi, L.: The determinants of research performance in European universi-
ties: a large-scale multilevel analysis. Scientometrics 112(3), 1147–1178 (2017)
4. Borges, I., Silva, F.M., Costa, E., Pinto, A.S., Abreu, A.: Infoaccessibility on the websites of
inbound markets of Portugal destination © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. Adv. Tour.,
Technol. Smart Syst., Smart Innov., Syst. Technol. 171, 117–129 (2020). https://doi.org/10.
1007/978-981-15-2024-2_10
5. Costa, E., Silva, F. M., Borges, I., Pinto, A. S., Abreu, A.: Usability and accessibility of
institutional websites in demarcated wine regions: the cases of Vinhos Verdes and Douro. In:
Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems (ICOTTS 2020, Smart Innovation, Systems
and Technologies), vol. 1, pp. 415–429. Springer Nature, Singapore (2020). https://doi.org/10.
1007/978-981-33-4256-9_38
6. Haque, M.M., Ahlan, A.R., Razi, M.J.M.: Factors affecting knowledge sharing on innovation
in the higher education institutions (HEis). ARPN J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 10(23), 18200–18210
(2015)
7. Pinto, A., Costa, E., Borges, I. Silva, F., & Abreu, A.: Virtual accessibility on digital business
websites and tourist distribution. In: Advances in Tourism, Technology and Smart Systems:
Proceedings of ICOTTS 2019, pp. 93–103 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-202
4-2_9
8. Quitoras, M.C.L., Abuso, J.E.: Best Practices of Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) for the
Development of Research Culture in the Philippines. Pedagogical Res. 6(1) (2021)
9. Schcuetzenmeister, F.: University Research Management: An Exploratory Literature Review,
California Digital Library, University of California (2010) https://escholarship.org/uc/item/77p
3j2hr
10. Silva, F., Borges, I.: Digital accessibility on institutional websites of Portuguese tourism.
Technological progress, inequality and entrepreneuship: from consumer division to human
centricity, pp. 67–85. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26245-7_5
Interpreting the Unified Theory
of Acceptance and Use of Technology
from the Perspective of Teachers
of Higher Education Institutions in Brazil
Humberto M. Ferreira , Agostinho Sousa Pinto ,

Uelinton da Costa Leonídio , and Gladistone Afonso
Abstract This paper seeks to interpret how teachers of higher education institutions
(HEI) in Brazil—public and private—have adapted to the use of technology in the
period of the pandemic in the country, seeking to understand the modus operandi so
that the teaching relationships based on the trinomial Teaching Institution x Teachers
x Students were not damaged because of this new situation, also aiming to measure
which technologies were the most used by teachers in this period. There were several
challenges to the teaching–learning relationship in this period.
Keywords UTAUT · Technology · Education
1 Introduction
The guiding question is based on the fact that the Higher Education Institutions
(here called HEI) have offered effective training to their teachers for the use of new
technologies in remote study time. Derive from this main question, propositions
about the type of content for this training, tools used, support, and, finally, how the
teachers are situated in this new educational scenario in the light of the introduction
of a new teaching model, considering that the institutions were transformed and
can still explore the didactic pedagogical potential of ICTs in the teaching–learning
H. M. Ferreira (B) · G. Afonso

UNIFASE - Centro Universitário Arthur Sá Earp Neto, Petropolis, Brasil
e-mail: hmedrado@gmail.com
G. Afonso
e-mail: gladistone@dataserra.com.br
A. S. Pinto
CEOS.PP, ISCAP - Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal
U. da Costa Leonídio
Universidade Católica de Petrópolis, Petropolis, Brasil
e-mail: ueliton.leonidio@ucp.br
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_75
844 H. M. Ferreira et al.
process, but depend on the teachers’ mentality about the domain and adoption of
new digital technologies [10].
This question is supported by what Bobsin; Visentini; Rech apud [2] present
because the central authors, “demonstrated that there is a certain tendency to study
the acceptance and use of mobile technologies and virtual environments”. It is added
that the recent investments and implementation of new technologies in HEIs, and
transformation of educational processes, bring the interest, and need for the devel-
opment of research that tries to explain the relationship between acceptance and use
of technology and the expected outcomes that permeate the acceptance of the use
of technologies in education. References [6, 11., 13]. This model, in periods of the
pandemic, proved to be relevant because new possibilities could be created for the
effectiveness of the teaching work based on new technological tools.
For many HEI and many of their faculty members, the initial period of the pandemic
proved to be challenging. On one hand, the need for investments in technology that
would support the teaching process with minimum quality, and on the other hand,
the need for teachers’ engagement in this process of remote classes with the use
of technology, breaking the mental models of classic classes, adjusting contents and
practices to a reality unknown to many teachers, emphasizing a techno-psychological
procedure of inclusion of the teacher to the use of information technology.
How educational institutions managed their knowledge transfer is a relevant theme
for this work, which also reinforces how the knowledge resources needed to recon-
figure and integrate with the internal processes of the organization to ensure effec-
tiveness and efficiency, which here we will call effectiveness in overcoming these
new working conditions [9].
Saide and Cheng [9] also reinforce the fundamental principle of teaching strate-
gies, which go through the tacit models—arising from the teaching experience and
explicit—of the application of knowledge itself, from scenarios built that lead to
perfect interaction in the relationship student x teacher and teaching x learning.
To this learning construct model, for purposes of theoretical contextualization, it
can be presented the theory of Nonaka and Takeuchi [12] that deals with knowledge
management, represented by the spiral of knowledge, represented in Fig. 1.
Explaining from the authors, each variable arranged in the spiral of knowledge,
we have:
i. Socialization—It is a process of sharing experiences and, from there, the creation
of tacit knowledge, such as mental models or shared technical skills;
ii. Externalization—It is a process of articulating tacit knowledge into explicit
concepts. It is creating the perfect knowledge as tacit knowledge becomes
explicit;
Interpreting the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology … 845
Fig. 1 Model of the spiral of knowledge. Source The authors, based on Nonaka and Takeuchi [12]
iii. Combination—It is the process of systematizing concepts into knowledge

systems, which involves combining different sets of explicit knowledge;
iv. Internalization—It is the process of incorporating explicit knowledge into tacit.
It is “learning by doing”.
All sets of knowledge interact with each other at their time and time, making up
the creation of knowledge, a relevant element if applied to a new philosophy of work
such as that obtained from new movements fruit of the urgent technological diffusion
for learning, which has many critical factors for its success.
The critical success factors in the implementation of new teaching methodologies
involve, as explained by Leidecker et al. (2020) the “characteristics, conditions or
variables that, when sustained, maintained or managed properly, can have a signifi-
cant impact on the success of a company competing in a given sector”, being relevant
to understand some of these factors, which are presented in Table 1.
Table 1 presented the general critical factors for learning, whose emphasis given
by the authors of the research, highlighted in red, is on those factors that are closely
related and consistent with the objective of the proposed research, and the others are
objects of indirect perception from the research conducted.
In current times, knowledge management is directly aligned with the management
of information and communication technologies, an assertion reinforced by Meirelles
Table 1 Critical Success Factors in distance learning

Factors Descriptor
Student characteristics This factor focuses on the instructor’s environment while teaching.
It includes the instructor’s attitude, flexibility, knowledge of learning
technology, teaching style, and effectiveness in motivating students
Learning environment This factor focuses on the learning environment and facilities
offered to learners and instructors. It includes a learning
management system, technical infrastructure, interactive learning,
and access and navigation
Instructional design This factor focuses on the instructional system to meet the goals of
the institution. It includes content quality, objective clarity, learning
strategies, and learning psychology
Support This factor focuses on supporting both trainers and learners to
enhance their experience. It includes communication tools,
availability of help, and training
Information technology This factor focuses on the information technology system to deliver
learning materials and objectives. It includes ease of use, reliability,
efficiency, privacy, and information
Knowledge of technology This factor focuses on knowledge of the use of technology for both
instructors and learners. It includes the use of computers, the use of
software, and communication interaction
Curse This factor focuses on the course material and objectives. It includes
course evaluation, assessments, content development, and learning
assessments
Level of cooperation This factor focuses on the level of collaboration between faculty
members. It includes social interaction, project team supervision,
and managerial support
Knowledge management This factor focuses on management knowledge within the
educational institution for teachers and administration. It includes
management team, delivery, and maintenance management, time
management, thinking strategies, and implementation experience
Source Adapted from Alqahtani and Rajkhan [1]
and Longo [4] when they state: “The process of acceptance and effective adoption of
a given technology is a key point for its success, whether an information system, a
process or product in the digital environment”. From this premise, it starts the center
of the study is based on the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology
(UTAUT), whose model is shown in Fig. 2.
By this model, the authors sought to identify the variables that lead to technology
acceptance in the work/organizational context [7], with the meaning of each of these
variables, based on what the authors described in Table 2 and as deliberated by the
authors of our paper for study purposes:
Especially since the 90 s of the last century, the use of technology in education
has been widely discussed. At first, the transmission of content gave way to the
transmission of knowledge, which still brings many discussions about its usability.
Today, called distance learning, it seeks to have a format that includes a series of
Fig. 2 O modelo da UTAUT. Fonte: Venkatesh et al. [13]
Table 2 Meaning of the UTAUT variables

Variable Meaning
Performance expectation The degree to which an individual believes that the use of
information technology will enhance his/her performance in an
activity
Effort expectation The degree to which the individual attributes the level of ease or
difficulty to the use of given information technology
Social influence The degree to which the individual believes that other individuals
consider the use of particular information technology relevant
Enabling conditions The degree to which the individual considers that the environment
provides structure to the use of particular information technology
Intention to use It refers to the intention to consume certain information technology
Source Neves et al. [7]
pedagogical elements that range from planning to methodologies that link student
and teacher in this process [5]. For such, the knowledge of the use by this group of
teachers is a crucial element for its legitimization.
Educational methodologies are considered increasingly resized in the face of this
technological pluralization, of different learning environments and new practices that
are redesigned, using computerized environments, online applications, and partici-
pation in virtual learning communities. This process of incorporation into the school
environment demands a series of factors that go beyond the physical structure of the
teaching organisations and classrooms, impacting directly on didactic and pedagog-

ical understanding, technical knowledge, and content. The teacher becomes reticent
about its use, considering that it is not enough to know how to use the resource, but it
is necessary to integrate it into the Curriculum and the pedagogical activities of the
context [8, p. 84]. Os estudos sobre a aceitação da tecnologia perpassam décadas,
absorvendo modelos distintos que tentam explicar como esse fenômeno acontece
em sua plenitude. A UTAUT buscou unir os principais estudos em uma única teoria
explicativa para compreender em que grau de aceitação e tecnologia é percebida
pelas pessoas [3].
3 Methodology
The present work carried out an empirical investigation with a quantitative approach
through the application of a questionnaire.
The questionnaire was composed of an introductory part that explains the research
objective and clarifies the main points that help the respondents to understand the
questions clearly, which was presented by 3 teachers, who performed a careful
analysis of the content to validate the research instrument.
Throughout the analysis, the authors subdivided the answers according to their
perception of the characteristics that contemplate the variables of the UTAUT.
The work presents a brief literature review that seeks to meet the state-of-the-art
the theme, the methodology was used known as “snowball”, given the knowledge of
some respondents and the use of the web of knowledge on the part of these, which
used emails and technology tools to indicate the following respondents, following
the selection criteria of the sample, ie, with the profile of teaching performance in
higher education, this being the basic criterion for becoming able to respond to the
instrument adopted.
In total, there were 56 respondents from 8 Brazilian states.
4 Search Results
At the outset, the survey sought to indicate the Brazilian states in which the teachers
work, as shown in Graph 1.
Of the total of 56 respondents, the states that stood out the most were Rio de
Janeiro, with 59% of the total respondents, São Paulo with 16% of this total, Mato
Grosso does Sul with 11% of the respondents and Mato Grosso with 7% of the total.
We also highlight the participation of teachers from the states of Bahia, Goiás, Pará,
and Piauí, making the analyzed sample relevant.
A relevant bias for the analysis of the study is to inquire as to the course the
teacher works in, given that their training may have had more emphasis within the
course model the professional teaches, which is presented in Graph 2.
Graph 1 State in which the teachers work. Source The authors with research data
35 33
30
25
20
15
9
10
6
4
5
1 1 1 1
0
BA GO MS MT PA PI RJ SP
Graph 2 Course modality in which teachers work. Source The authors, based on research data
As explained in the graph, the vast majority—93%—of teachers teach undergrad-

uate courses.
Regarding the offer of training by Educational Institutions so that teachers could
become familiar with and/or renew their knowledge with an emphasis on the use
of information and communication technologies, the graph in Fig. 5 presents the
number of responses about this offer (Graph 3).
In fact, with 95% of the respondents indicating “yes” as an answer, it evidences
the HEIs’ concern with how teachers conduct classes and content, deducing that this
quantitative figure highly represents the relevance of training and capacity building
so that the work methodologies in times of pandemic could mitigate structural losses
Graph 3 Training offered by the HEIs. Source The authors with research data
(internet access, connection quality, behavioral perspectives, among others) that

might compromise the teaching /learning process during this period.
In the issue referring to training for remote classes, Graph 4 presented the
following structure:
There was an alignment of responses based on the regular period of faculty training
that evidences periodic planning that does not necessarily reflect the concern of many
HEIs with faculty training. Along the same lines, and by deliberation of the authors,
one may infer that the use of workshops may have been the necessary increment for
faculty comfort in preparing their classes.
Graph 5 presents the results from the standpoint of student empowerment:
There is a strong counterpoint on the part of the students regarding their training
for the use of technology in education. This is because these students are younger
and more used to the daily use of digital tools.
Graph 4 Forms of teacher training. Source The authors with research data
Graph 5 Empowerment of the student body. Source The authors with research data
As a way of the capacity-building process, Graphs 6 and 7 show the extract of

responses: legitimising.
It was not possible to ascertain the reason why participation was not more active,
even with 72% of them stating that their participation was effective, a number that
increases to 84% if it is taken into consideration. It can be inferred, as an alleged
justification, that, due to the teaching profile, many teachers could be involved in
more than one activity or even the little interest in the advent of new technological
processes.
When asked about the ability to operate digital tools, the results were as shown
in Graphs 8 and 9:
The data also show the ambiguity—of perceptions. On the one hand, at the begin-
ning of the process, there was a discomfort for the vast majority—Graph 8—consid-
ering the answers reasonable to less so, regarding ICT domain. On the other hand,
Graph 6 Teachers’ perception of the capacity-building process. Source The authors, based on
research data
Graph 7 The intensity of faculty participation in capacity building. Source The authors, based on
research data
Graph 8 Perception before the beginning of the training of the ability to operate IT. Source The
authors, based on survey data
Graph 9 Perception after the beginning of the training of the ability to teach at a distance. Source
The authors with data from the survey
Graph 10 Teachers’ perception of current ICT use. Source The authors, based on research data
Graph 11 Teachers’ perceptions of their current teaching practice. Source The authors, based on
research data
training brought comfort—Graph 9—for most respondents, inferring that training

proved to be effective in terms of its purpose.
As a result of the training, the respondents were asked how they perceive them-
selves in relation to the use of ICTs and their teaching practice. The results are
presented in Graphs 10 and 11, respectively:
In both extracts presented in Charts 10 and 11, the same amount of respondents
was obtained as well prepared (29), which demonstrates the effectiveness of the
training not only of teachers but also of the Educational Institutions—corroborated
by Chart 3—in which 95% stated that they were provided training to act facing the
challenge of the quality of teaching practice in times of pandemic.
Ratifying the objective of this work, after the exposure of the indicators that
led to the numbers presented, the correlation with the variables of the UTAUT is
presented below in Fig. 3, bringing a conceptual framework after a qualitative analysis
by the authors who linked the descriptors obtained here with the premises of the
theory, in percentage numbers, excluding the variables gender, age, experience, and
volunteerism:
From the constructs raised after the application of the questionnaire, supported
by the premises of the UTAUT, it can be inferred that:
Fig. 3 Correlation UTAUT x Teachers’ perspectives towards ICTs. Source The authors with
research data
i. individuals believe that technology may improve their performance as a teacher;

ii. The constant use of the systems (ICTs) tends to minimize the initial impact of
unfamiliarity with the tools, generating more comfort for the teacher
iii. Effective teacher participation, support among teachers, and the facilitating
practices promoted by HEIs facilitate the use of ICTs;
iv. The infrastructure of the HEIs, associated with the training and qualification
models they offer, supports and creates comfort for teachers in their professional
practice;
80% of the respondents stated that they are prepared for the use of ICTs and teaching
practice, making irrefutable the teaching commitment after training, which vali-
dates the constructs intention to use and behavior of use proposed by UTAUT and
legitimates the study proposed for this assessment.
5 Conclusions
The present work brought the perspective of the use of technology by teachers during
the pandemic period. The results showed that, even with the initial resistance, the
use of technological tools proved to be effective for the teaching exercise.
Currently, as the results pointed out, there is a comfort for teachers to continue their
tasks using this technological resource fruit of integration of procedures that permeate
the institutional chain of education, to promote events and training to their teachers,
the academic support for familiarization and emphasis on the use of technologies and
that are consistent with the break of a paradigmatic model in education, perfectly
demonstrated by the variables of the UTAU in line with the guiding questions raised
for research purposes.
Acknowledgements This work is financed by portuguese national funds through FCT—Fundação

References
1. Alqahtani, A.Y., Rajkhan, A.A.: E-learning critical success factors during the covid-19
pandemic: a comprehensive analysis of e-learning managerial perspectives. Educ. Sci. 10(9),
216 (2020)
2. Alves, J.N., Pereira, B.A.D.: Análise da Teoria Unificada de Aceitação e Uso de Tecnologia em
uma grande rede interorganizacional de cooperação. VIII Encontro de Estudos Organizacionais
da ANPAD, pp. 1–16 (2014)
3. Bobsin, D., Visentini, M,S., Rech, I.: Em busca do estado da arte do UTAUT: ampliando as
considerações sobre o uso da tecnologia. INMR-Innov. Manag. Rev. 6(2), 99–118 (2009)
4. Meirelles, F.D.S., Longo, L.: Adoção de plataforma estratégica de tecnologia de informação
e comunicação: análise baseada no modelo UTAUT. Rev. FAE, Curitiba, v. 17(1), 110–125
(2014)
5. Miranda, A.C.C.: Aceitação E Uso Do Ambiente Virtual Da Aprendizagem: Percepções Dos
Docentes Nos Cursos De Licenciaturas Na Área De Ensino Das Ciências E Matemática Da
UFRPE. Dissertação de Mestrado apresentada ao Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ensino das
Ciências. Pernambuco (2020)
6. Nganga, C.S.N.: Aceitação do uso de recursos tecnológicos pelos docentes de Pós-graduação
em Contabilidade. Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Dissertação (Mestrado em Contabili-
dade Financeira) - Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia (2015)
7. Neves, R.D.M.C. et al.: Correlação entre a intenção de uso e uso das tecnologias de método de
pagamento on-line Pix e MB WAY. Dissertação de Mestrado. ISCAP (2021)
8. Pasinato, N.M.B., Motta, E.L.O.: Tic na formação de professores em Cingapura: intenções e
ações de uso. Revista e-Curriculum 19(1), 82–103 (2021)
9. Saide, S., Sheng, M.L.: Knowledge exploration–exploitation and information technology: crisis
management of teaching–learning scenario in the COVID-19 outbreak. Technol. Anal. Strat.
Manag. 33(8), 927–942 (2021)
10. Samussone, L.B., Silveira, S.D.F.R., Brunozi Júnior, A.C., Alexandre, D.C.S., Reis, A.O.:
Conditioning factors for the trend in the use of information and communication technologies
(ICT) in higher education in Mozambique. Res. Soc. Dev. [S. l.] 10(6), e56910616053. https://
doi.org/10.33448/rsd-v10i6.16053
11. Salles, A., Silva, N., Fonseca, P., Santos, E.: Adoção de tecnologia em organizações públicas
brasileiras à luz do modelo UTAUT: uma revisão sistemática da literatura. Revista dos
Mestrados Profissionais–RMP 9(2) (2020)
12. Takeuchi, H., Nonaka, I.: Gestão do conhecimento. Elsevier (1997)
13. Venkatesh, V., et al.: User acceptance of information technology: toward a unified view. MIS
Q 27(3), 425–78 (2003). https://doi.org/10.2307/30036540. Accessed 18 April 2022
Remote Leadership: A (Re)qualification
of School Leaders in Portugal
Joana Oliveira-Pereira , Susana Sá , João Pascoinho ,

Laurentino Guimarães , Eusébio Costa , and Agostinho Sousa Pinto
Abstract The COVID-19 pandemic brought about new challenges to schools’ orga-
nization leaderships and to school leaders. This study, of qualitative nature, aims at
understanding the impact occurred in the area of school management, in pandemic
times, from the leaders’ perspective, in Portugal. The investigation question is: what
prevailed during the remote school management of the leader’s team amidst the
COVID-19 pandemic time? The sample is a video, with 2 min and 47 s, done by the
Leader of a Cluster of Schools, in the North of Portugal, within the context of activi-
ties related to affection, promoted by the group of Schools’ Libraries, entitled “Month
of Affections”, when COVID-19 lockdown was mandatory. The content analysis was
done using the webQDA® software. All ethical rules were accounted for. The main
results are: (i) adaptation and remote management; (ii) challenges to leadership and
(iii) vision for the future. It was concluded that, due to the mandatory social distance,
the Leader chose for an active and creative virtual presence (re)qualifying his leader-
ship. The concept of this remote leadership kept the organizational balance, leading
his co-workers to achieve the defined objectives. The remote leadership will have to
J. Oliveira-Pereira (B)
Agrupamento de Escolas D. Maria II, Braga, Portugal
e-mail: joanapereira7@gmail.com
S. Sá · J. Pascoinho · L. Guimarães · E. Costa
Instituto de Estudos Superiores de Fafe, CIDI-IESF, Fafe, Portugal
J. Pascoinho
e-mail: joaopascoinho@iesfafe.pt
L. Guimarães
e-mail: laurentinoguimaraes@iesfafe.pt
E. Costa
CEOS-Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2_76
858 J. Oliveira-Pereira et al.
be a dialogical field in the Public Policies of the Ministry of Education and Science
in Portugal.
Keywords Remote leadership · School leader · COVID-19
1 Introduction
Well-being [1] should be a main concern in all schools. The leaders’ well-being,
the teachers’, the staffs’, the students’ and the parents’ well-being is intrinsically
connected and its dynamics interact constantly, therefore, when pressure hits one
area, it affects them all. One can effortlessly conclude that, due to the COVID-19
pandemic, a stream of unprecedented events, put schools under a lot of pressure and
took a heavy toll over the past two years [2], in addition to managing the increased
strain that can result from transitioning to remote working (particularly for those
not accustomed to such autonomous work environments), employees are having to
manage increased childcare concerns with the widespread suspension of schools and
child-care services, and cope with constant concerns over the health and safety of
family and friends [3, p. 116].
All stakeholders had to go beyond what they felt were their capabilities to over-
come the challenges of maintaining the education field going while a global pandemic
unfolded. From teachers who requalified themselves at the speed of light to make
learning possible in remote activities, to school leaders who supervised teams and
levels of unimaginable logistical complexity, inherent to school management, in
remote format [4]. “Educational institutions that have inculcated the use of emerging
technologies in their systems before the outbreak of COVID-19 had a comparative
advantage over those who were yet to embrace technology in their operations” [2,
p. 113].
School leaders showed exceptional determination and courage in leading remotely
[5] the teams of teachers who, in turn, supported the students in what was an extremely
difficult period. However, as a result of the effort spent during the pandemic and the
difficulties experienced, one of the hypotheses that arises is that the school leaders
decide not to remain in the school leadership for the initially planned time. Are we
witnessing a post COVID-19 revolution that will influence how school leadership
will change in the future [6] a second hypothesis is: given the imminent exodus of
exhausted school leaders [4], are we facing a historic moment in which teachers
become leaders by accident, that is, where some teachers will be “pushed” into
school management? Another hypothesis that appears to us is: what kind of school
leadership will be able to mobilize the school community for a dialogue around
common values, that is able to develop an organizational culture that contributes to
cohesion and simultaneous flexibility, in complex and unpredictable scenarios, as
we have seen during the COVID-19 pandemic, to deal with risk and uncertainty or
in contexts of constant change, such as the school context?
Remote Leadership: A (Re)qualification of School Leaders in Portugal 859
There is no doubt that this period of COVID-19 pandemic has been a difficult time
for schools around the world [2], with school leaders, teachers and students facing
unprecedented challenges in their lives, at home and at school. However, what stands
out is the resilience [7] of the different stakeholders, with everyone demonstrating
confidence in their abilities, continuing to enjoy their roles, and maintaining strong
relationships with students and fellow teachers. As Wolor et al. [6, p. 449] refer, “it
was important to implement strategic steps related to technology and life balance
and work in supporting the improvement of employee motivation and performance”.
1.1 The Core Importance of the Leader
With the transition from traditional educational institutions to virtual organizations,

in order to maintain teaching and teaching practices, school leaders were faced with
new challenges [8]. Leaders who have a more adaptative thinking are avble to acquire
knowledge more quickly, respond to the diverse needs of the context and encourage
their co-workers to act quickly and effectively [7, 9]. This type of leader can more
easily remain calm in situations of great stress, managing change in the best way and
extracting the best possible from it. In times of insecurity and change, the leader of an
organization has the role of perceiving the context, defining a strategy, strengthening
the organization, involving people and knowing how to influence and lead, both others
and himself. According to Shoaib et al. [7, p. 7] “task oriented and relation-oriented
leadership behaviours facilitate academic staff in managing stress by encouraging
optimism, resilience, mindfulness and coping behaviour”. Thus, the pandemic put
the leadership of many schools to the test, showing that having a good leader, in a
period as intricate as the COVID-19 pandemic, can help prepare the organization to
respond adequately to this type of event [10].
1.2 Transitioning to Remote Leadership in the COVID-19

Era
Due to the accelerated spread of the pandemic, the digital environment had to be
implemented quickly in all schools. Therefore, working remotely and managing
teams at a distance showed itself a challenging task for school leaders, since well
known successful daily practices were no longer possible.
Many face-to-face practices in traditional organizations are incompatible with
a virtual organization configuration. These differences may be problematic (Serrat
2017). Visiting a co-worker in the next office or cubicle down the hall, meeting for
lunch, impromptu gatherings in the conference room or breakroom, and supervisors
walking around seeing how and what people are doing in the traditional structure
are not possible and are different in the virtual organization. The type and level of
workplace engagement varies greatly [5, p. 3].
1.3 Strategies Adopted During Remote Leadership
Most organizations increased communication, creating new online models of logis-

tics and engagement, and school leaders were no exception. In this sense, they
sought different virtual ways to keep in touch with the remaining members of the
school’s board, operational assistants, teachers, students and parents, promoting a
new emotional approach and motivating a performance adapted to the pandemic
context by all. Therefore, management and planning meetings to oversee the work
carried out by teams remotely increased in number and were improved. The constant
motivation of team members became fundamental, and the pandemic has shown that,
even if it is just a click away and under certain conditions, school leaders still had
all the conditions to continue to be effective and to maintain the impact on the lives
of co-workers.
In summary, the key takeaways for virtual teams in the Pandemic include: (1)
monitor trust, (2) focus on process gains, (3) foster inclusion through psychological
safety, and (4) assess teamwork often. Although the current context adds another
layer of complexity, there are ways to continue to be productive in an innovative but
yet humane way. Managers that are most likely to succeed during this time are those
that can adapt, understand differences, and serve as the glue between team members
[11, p. 3].
Due to the required social distancing, it was necessary to have a more active and
creative virtual presence [12]. The use of remote leadership tried to maintain the
balance between the working conditions, and, at the same time, the goals set, while
motivating the co-workers [13].
1.4 Features of Leadership in a Remote Context
According to [5, p. 4], this new context requires a different leadership from the usual
one, involving certain skills to improve the organization’s functioning in virtual
environments, as well as a high degree of flexibility and ability to embrace diversity:
virtual managers need a broader skill set than those managers working with co-located
traditional teams. Virtual managers must have the ability to switch between skill sets, based on
the diversity of their team members and the distance between them (...) it requires managers
who are flexible and embrace diversity.
Communication must be one of the priorities of these leaders as they must choose
the best communication tool to provide reliable and contextual information [13]. It
is also important to point out that it is of the leader’s responsability to provide means
and strategies, trough good communication, so that co-workers are able to create
their own resilience to the imposed new way of working:
leaders in today’s virtual environment need to be strong in relationship building founded
on trust, built to be sustainable, enhance team spirit, and motivated by achieving form and
functionality. Leaders must also have well-developed technical skills along with superior
leadership skills. Furthermore, they must be empathetic enough to handle the frustration
faced by their staff members [5, p. 4].
As such, remote leadership required a model of improved management skills,

it was necessary to organize and plan remote team meetings and activities, as all
communication was done exclusively online. In addition, it was necessary to ensure
a more direct type of communication so that misunderstandings would not occur.
Although all these challenges already existed before, the fact is that they intensified
even more with the pandemic. Thus, remote leadership must consider skills that can
help make it more effective in unexpected situations. Therefore, remote leadership
must consider a set of skills that can help make it more effective in unexpected
situations: “communication skills, ability to motivate, and a functional level of tech-
nological competence were important. Another identified leadership skill is creating
confidence on and leading the team” [5, p. 11]. Regarding this last reference, it is
inferred that co-workers should be at the top of the school leader’s list of priorities
since building confidence promotes the involvement and the loyalty of the organiza-
tion’s co-workers. Another concern that has arisen in this pandemic context is data
protection. “Data are at the heart of the digital economy and its protection will be
critical” [5, p. 11].
1.5 Future of Remote Leadership
In an unprecedented pandemic environment, school leaders faced several challenges

to preserve the trust of their co-workers, assess the well-being of the school commu-
nity and safeguard the data protection of schools. Therefore, a new era of leadership
is expected, in which tasks carried out remotely will remain, but perhaps a hybrid
model is the most adjusted to the school context, gathering a greater consensus:
“scholars compared the impact of transformational leadership on both traditional
and virtual teams. The results showed that transformational leadership had a greater
impact on performance of virtual teams than on performance of traditional teams”
[14, p. 150].
2 Methodology
This study aims to assess the impact that occurred in school management, in a time
of pandemic, from the point of view of leaders, in Portugal, in order to answer the
following research question: what prevailed in the remote school management of the
leader’s team in COVID-19 pandemic time?
Within qualitative research studies, video analysis is a method that has been
developed [15]. In the educational field, it is becoming increasingly more impor-
tant following the growing presence of the potential of audio-visual technologies,
used for the production and dissemination of knowledge [16]. A literal transcription
of a speech was performed, as evidence of a statement/interpretation made by the
researcher, author of the paper [17]. There are several types of research analysis: (a)
in a real context; (b) classroom interactions; (c) analysis of teaching skills [18]. But
the one that will be used will resort to the webQDA® software [19], which provides
users with video data analysis, which is non-numeric and unstructured data.
After storing and watching the video, data with significant meaning for the ques-
tion raised was identified. During this observation, the researcher, and author of
the study, looked for units of meaning that supported categories of analysis. This
construction process implied an ideographic approach since the categories were
defined a priori, based in Rocha’s study [20].
To maintain the confidentiality of the context as well as the confidentiality of the
leader one proceeded to his identification as V1.
2.1 Study Sample
The study was conducted in March 2022. The sample consists of a video done by
a school leader addressing the whole school community of a school in the North of
Portugal, who voluntarily participated in the research. The video consisted of 2 min
and 47 s, downloaded to a folder in the Dropbox™ with the objective of ensuring
the data corpus for further analysis.
The school leader has 40 years of experience at the school’s leadership. The video
shows an empathic communication from the school leader to teachers, staff, students,
and parents, in February, of the pandemic year, since it would not be possible to
carry out the activities related to the “Month of Affections”, proposed by the group
of school Libraries, due to COVID-19.
2.2 Data Collection
The data collection procedure was performed by invitation for investigation in

writing. It was asked for permission to the school leader in writing to use the recording
in research, safeguarding the anonymity of the school leader, the school where the
study took place and all ethical issues involved.
2.3 Categories and Indicators
Considering the aim of the study, one tried to provide a detailed and rigorous descrip-
tion to guarantee the validity or credibility of the qualitative study [21]. Some authors
[22, p. 9] refer to the “need to establish some strategies. Among them, we highlight
the triangulation of the different collected sources, that is, we look at the same
phenomenon from different perspectives”; it was also done data triangulation, using
the results of the analysis of the video and the literature.
With the webQDA® software one included the video in external sources. As the
video was running, one stopped to categorize that frame. The frames were catego-
rized. The categories that one had a priori were: adaptation to remote management;
challenges to leadership and vision for the future, adapted from Rocha [20].
Remote adaptation and management means communication during remote work
and remote work practices. The challenges to leadership include age, digital skills,
emotional management of the team and organizational culture.
The vision for the future includes new leadership skills, data security and the
perception of future remote teamwork.
In this study, one will present the categories and indicators of the data, represented
in Table 1.
Table 1 Categories and

Categories Indicators
Indicators of remote
leadership Adaptation and remote Communication during remote
management work
Practices of remote work
Challenges to leadership Age and digital skills
Emotional management of the
team
Cultural Organization
Concern with school results
New leadership skills
Interpersonal relationships
Management processes
Wish to abandon leadership
Vision for the future New leadership skills
Data security
Perception of remote teamwork
Source Adapted from [20]
After completing the previous steps, data was analysed to answer the research
question.
Initially, the results of the school leader’s video were analysed.
After the categorization, recording units are obtained, which are words or phrases
with meaning for the study, as we can see in Table 2.
3.1 Category: Adaptation and Remote Management
The school leader in his speech mentioned communication during remote work (n =
4), given that this had been a concern during the previous school year, since teachers,
staff, students and parents had learnt a lot and revealed traits of an excellent team.
The main concern of the leader is the well-being of all, as [1, 2] state.
Remote work practices were highlighted in the speech (n = 7), since, in the daily
work as a leader of a team, remote management practices were mainly used, either
with authorities or with other elements of the organizational community or with
other elements external to the school’s organization. The school leader also showed
concern with the health and safety of the entire organizational community, including
students and their families and all elements of the school community, as stated by
[3].
Table 2 Reference units of

Indicators References units (n)
remote leadership indicators
Communication while working remotely 4
Remote work practices 7
Age and digital skills 0
Emotional team management 0
Organizational culture 0
Concern with school results 6
New leadership skills 4
Interpersonal relationships 9
Management processes 0
Desire to relinquish leadership 1
New leadership skills 3
Data security 0
Perception of remote team work 0
Source Authors
3.2 Category: Challenges to Leadership
Despite remote teaching and excessive distance practices, the school leader’s concern
focused on the school results of his students (n = 6). The concern about the fact that
it was an exceptional year, with exceptional measures, became visible; the focus is
placed on how quickly and efficiently everyone involved was able to turn to remote
teaching; and in overcoming immense challenges, as corroborated by [4].
The school leader focused on aspects related to new leadership skills required of
him (n = 4), such as: (i) a more adaptive thinking; (ii) managed to acquire knowledge
much more quickly; (iii) answered the assorted needs of the context; and (iv) encour-
aged his co-workers to act quickly and effectively, as [7, 9] defend. The school leader
showed exceptional determination and courage when leading remotely, as highlighted
by [5].
The focus of the speech of the school leader in the video was on interpersonal
relationships (n = 9), demonstrating how to strengthen the organization and how
to involve all people in the school organization, influencing and leading both co-
workers and himself, revealing the so needed skills that are present in the study of
[7].
3.3 Category: Vision for the Future
The school leader’s speech focused on the academic year that was unfolding and
mentioned how he and his team would be working on behalf of the school community
and mentioned the need to have acquired new leadership skills (n = 3), mentioning
resilience as a cornerstone of his own and the team’s daily work, the need to expand
the knowledge concerning new technologies and the acquisition of more adaptive
thinking.
Management meetings and the planning to oversee the work performed by teams
remotely were increased and improved. The constant motivation of the teams also
became fundamental, and the pandemic has shown that, even if it is just a click away
and under certain conditions, the school leader has all the conditions to continue to
be effective and maintain an impact on the lives of co-workers, which corroborates
the study of [11]. Thus, becoming a different leadership involving certain skills to
improve the organization’s functioning in virtual environments, as well as a high
degree of flexibility and ability to embrace diversity, as corroborated in the study of
[5].
The leader will focus on the various challenges in order to preserve the trust of his
co-workers, assess the well-being of the school community and safeguard the data
protection of the school’s members, which is in accordance with the study [14].
4 Conclusions
In response to the research question: what prevailed in the remote school management
of the leader’s team members in COVID-19 pandemic time? it appears that due to the
required social distancing, it was necessary for the leader to have a more active and
creative virtual presence. The concept of remote leadership came to try to maintain the
balance of working conditions, while motivating co-workers to achieve the defined
goals [12, 13, 20].
The impact that occurred on school management, in the time of the COVID-19
pandemic, by the leader, was taken care of, as far as possible, using an adequacy
in remote management, overcoming the challenges of leadership using strategies
that ensure well-being and emotional security, and beyond, of all co-workers and
with a vision for the future of hope and motivation, using new leadership skills as a
consequence of the pandemic time that everyone lived together.
The emphasis was placed on the required social distancing, where the leader
needed to have a more active and creative virtual presence [12]. This leader faced
the concept of remote leadership by maintaining the balance of working conditions
while motivating co-workers to achieve goals [13].
The discussion and the results presented with qualitative methodology point not
only to the openness to discussion about leadership in times of COVID-19 pandemic,
but also an important window of opportunity for the consolidation of remote lead-
ership in a dialogical field in the Public Policies of the Ministry of Education and
Science in Portugal.
A limitation of this study is that the sample available is too small (1 video of one
school leader). It would only be assumed to be correct in a similar study. The sample
is too small to generalize, but it would be interesting to replicate this data with other
leaders and compare the results.
References
1. Tuzovic, S., Kabadayi, S.: The influence of social distancing on employee wellbeing: a
conceptual framework and research agenda. J. Serv. Manag. 32, 145–160 (2020)
2. Onyema, E.M., Nwafor, C.E., Faith, A.O., Shuvro, S., Fyneface, G.A., Aabha, S., Alhuseen,
O.A.: Impact of coronavirus pandemic on education. J. Educ. Pract. 11, 108–121 (2020)
3. Carnevale, J.B., Hatak, I.: Employee adjustment and well-being in the era of COVID-19:
implications for human resource management. J. Bus. Res. 116, 183–187 (2020)
4. Burke, J., Dempsey, M.: Wellbeing in post-covid schools: primary school leaders’ Reimagining
of the Future. Maynooth University, Maynooth (2021). ISBN: 978-1-910998-03-8
5. Kohntopp, T., McCann, J.: Leadership in virtual organizations: influence on workplace engage-
ment. School of Management Publications (2020). Accessed from: https://scholarworks.wal
denu.edu/sm_pubs/141.
6. Wolor, C.W., Solikhah, N.F., Deniar, P.L.: Effectiveness of E-training, E-leadership, and work
life balance on employee performance during COVID-19. J. Asian Finan. Econ. Bus. 7, 10
(2020)
7. Shoaib, M., Ayesha N., Korsakien, R., Zámeˇcník, R., Rehman, A., Raišien, A.: Performance of
academic staff during COVID-19 Pandemic-induced work transformations: an IPO model for
stress management. Economies 10(2), 51(2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/economies10020051
8. Roache, D., Rowe-Holder, D., Muschette, R.: Transitioning to online distance learning in
the COVID-19 era: a call for skilled leadership in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs). J.
Commonwealth Council Educ. Adm. Manag. 48(1), 103–110 (2020)
9. Dunn, R.: Adaptative leadership: leading through complexity. Int. Stud. Educ. Adm. 31–38
(2020)
10. Gurr, D., Drysdale, L.: Leadership for challenging times. Int. Stud.n Educ. Adm. 24–30 (2020)
11. Feitosa, J., Salas, E.: Today’s virtual teams: adapting lessons learned to the pandemic context.
Organ Dyn. (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2020.100777
12. Gibson, C.: From “Social Distancing” to “Care in Connecting”: an emerging organizational
research agenda for turbulent times. Acad. Manag. Discov. 165–169 (2020)
13. Contreras, F., Baykal, E., Abid, G.: E-leadership and teleworking in times of COVID-19 and
beyond: what we know and where do we go. Front. Psychol. 11 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3389/
fpsyg.2020.590271
14. Radulović, A., Epitropaki, O.: Leadership in virtual teams. FINIZ 2020—People in the focus
of process automation (2020). https://doi.org/10.15308/finiz-2020-147-151
15. Baer, A., Schnettler, B.: Hacia una metodología cualitativa audiovisual. El vídeo como instru-
mento de investigación social. In: Merlino, A (ed.) Investigación cualitativa en Ciencias
Sociales. Temas, problemas y aplicaciones, pp. 1–38. Cengage Learning, Buenos Aires (2014)
16. Costa, A.P., Neri de Sousa, F., Moreira, A., Neri de Souza, D.: webQDA—Qualitative data anal-
ysis software: usability assessment. In: 2016 11th Iberian Conference on Information Systems
and Technologies (CISTI), pp. 1–6. Las Palmas, IEEE (2016). https://doi.org/10.1109/CISTI.
2016.7521477
17. Gonçalves, S.P., Gonçalves, J.P., Marques, C.G.: Manual de Investigação Qualitativa: conceção,
análise e aplicações. Edições Pactor, Lisboa (2021)
18. Schnettler, B., Knoblauch, H., Baer, A.: Videoanálisis interpretativo de situaciones sociales:
Etnografía, análisis secuencial y hemenéutica. In: Arroyo, M., Sádaba, I. (eds.) Metodología de
la investigación social. Técnicas innovadoras y sus aplicaciones, pp. 251–269. Síntesis, Madrid
(2012)
20. Rocha, J.: Impactos no comportamento do líder com a gestão a distância em empresas brasileiras
durante a pandemia COVID-19. (Dissertação de mestrado). Fundação Getulio Vargas (2021)
21. Amado, J., Costa, A., Crusoé, N.: A técnica de análise de conteúdo. In Manual de Investigação
qualitativa em educação, 2nd ed, pp. 301–355. Coimbra Universty Press, Coimbra (2017).
https://doi.org/10.14195/978-989-26-0879-2
22. Sá, S.O., Costa, A.P.: Critérios de Qualidade de um Estudo Qualitativo (Carta Editorial). Revista
Eixo 5(3), 9–12 (2016). https://doi.org/10.19123/eixo.v5i3.384
Author Index
A Becerra, Eulalia, 175

Abreu, António, 643, 729 Benavides, Arturo, 441
Abreu, Zilpa Lovisi, 29 Bernardes, Óscar, 399
Abrori, Fadhlan Muchlas, 375 Bernardino, Jorge, 655
aes, Luis Gonzaga Magalh, 691 Bernardino, Susana, 199
Afonso, Gladistone, 843 Bohórquez, Emanuel, 441
Aguiar de, Fernanda R., 85 Bojanic, Ing Cynthia, 819
Aguiar, Micaela, 513 Borges, Isabel, 785
Aguilar, María Alejandrina Almeida, 209, Braga, Inês, 729
287 Braga, José Luís, 785
Albuquerque, Helena, 819, 831 Brito, Pedro Quelhas, 543
Aldana-Burgos, Leidy Marcela, 501
Almeida de, Marcio Vieira, 131
Álvarez, Elsa, 333 C
Alves, Palmira, 775, 799 Calvo, Sara, 99, 109
Amorim Silva, Rafael de, 243 Camarinha, Ana Paula, 643
Andaluz, Víctor H., 477 Cardoso, Alexandre, 387, 691
- Branko, 375
Andić, Caridade, Cristina M. R., 375
Anjos, Patrícia, 463 Carrança, Paulo, 667
Araújo, Sílvia, 513 Carvalho, João Vidal, 609
Arceo Moheno, Gerardo, 287 Carvalho Rutz da Silva de, Sani, 491
Armas, Reinaldo, 567 Castanho, Rui Alexandre, 13, 99, 109, 633
Armendariz, Sebastián, 219 Castelo, Adelina, 521
Arroba, Gabriel, 323 Castro, John W., 333
Arrobo-Agila, Juan Pablo, 555 Cavalcanti, Joana, 749
Avalos-Bravo, Vladimir, 1 Chamba-Rueda, Laura Magali, 567
Ávila, Jorge Eduardo Fuentes, 819, 831 Chavez, Georgina, 819
Clery, Arturo, 323
Cobos, Miguel, 275
B Correia, A. I., 677
Babo, Lurdes, 185, 375 Correia, Alexandra, 463
Baptista, Isabel, 759, 767 Correia, Alexandra I., 667
Bastos, Susana, 37 Costa, Eusébio, 785, 809, 857
Bazán-Velásquez, Silvia Milagritos, 311, Costa Leonídio da, Uelinton, 843
345 Cozea, Andreea, 415
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license 869
to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6585-2
870 Author Index
Cyrino, Gabriel, 387 H

Halmenschlager, Graziele, 85
Henriques, Pedro Rangel, 691
D Herrera, Reinaldo Armas, 533, 587
Díaz, José, 831 Huerta, Shirley, 323
Díaz, Laura López, 209
Di Michele, Pierina D’Elia, 587
Dominique-Ferreira, Sérgio, 543 I
Durão, Marilia, 153 Iñiguez, Edgar, 819
Injante-Córdova, Inés Reyna, 59
Dutra, Alessandra, 491
J
E Jadán-Guerrero, Janio, 577
Escobar, Lucía, 175 Jiménez-Palacios, Ricardo, 59
Espinoza-Vidaurre, Sam Michael, 311
K
F Kocadere, Selay Arkün, 375
Fernandes, Dárida, 715 Kokkinos, Evangelos A., 375
Fernandes, Joana, 625
Fernandes, Paula Odete, 451, 463, 597,
667, 703 L
Fernandes, Sandra, 153 Lamounier, Edgard, 387
Fernández-Simo, Deibe, 29 Lara, Laura, 45
Ferreira, Fernanda A., 667 Laura-De La Cruz, Kevin Mario, 59, 311,
Ferreira, Humberto M., 843 345
Ferreira, Jessica, 597 Lavicza, Zsolt, 131, 375
Figueiredo, Fernando, 739 Lázaro, Carlos Mario Flores, 287
Finnegan, Roger, 265 Lebens, Mary, 265
Flores-Arocutipa, Marisol Isabel, 59 Lima, Lazaro, 691
Fonseca, Manuel, 667 Llerena, Lucrecia, 333
Fortes, Nuno, 363 Llerena, Rosa, 333
Freitas, César, 799 Lopes, Isabel Cristina, 399
Lopes, Isabel M., 703
Lopez, M. Xavier, 143
Lourenço, Justino, 739
G Louro, Pedro, 809
Gaona-García, Paulo Alonso, 501 Lucas, Catarina O., 253
García-Mora, Fernando, 353
Gomes, Helena, 543
Gomes, Luís M. P., 185 M
Gómez, Angel Higuerey, 533, 587 Machado, Renata, 759
Gómez, José Manuel Naranjo, 633 Madeira, Filipe, 243
Gonçalves, Bruno F., 231 Magalhães, Miguel, 785
Gonçalves, Maria José Angélico, 399 Manea, Gheorghe-Cosmin, 415
Gonçalves, Vitor, 231 Marques, Artur, 243
González, Jorge Toro, 1 Martinez, Veronica E., 143
González-Rentería, Verónica, 555 Martins, Rosa, 749
Gouveia, Luís Borges, 165 Mattioli, Leandro, 387
Guedes, Hugo Filipe Antunes, 609 Meirinhos, Manuel Florindo Alves, 491
Guerrero, Fidel N., 477 Melo, C., 677
Guimarães, Laurentino, 809, 857 Méndez, Eric Ramos, 209
Guzmán, Silvia Marín, 819, 831 Mendonça, Jorge, 185, 375
Author Index 871
Mendoza-Gómez, Cecilia Rosario del Pilar, Pereira, Arianne S. N., 253

345 Pereira, Tiago C., 785
Meyer, Daniel, 633 Pérez, Eduardo, 441
Michele Di, Pierina D’Elia, 533 Pérez, Maritza, 441
Moheno, Gerardo Arceo, 209 Pérez, Yaravid García, 1
Molina, Lilian, 323 Pérez-Yufra, Domingo Nicolás, 345
Monteiro, Jéssica, 655 Petridis, Konstantinos, 375
Monteiro, José, 513 Pinho, Maria Inês, 715
Montenegro-Marín, Carlos Enrique, 501 Pinto, Agostinho Sousa, 785, 809, 843, 857
Montesinos-Valencia, Cecilia Claudia, 311 Pinto, Carla M. A., 375
Montiel, Carlos, 831 Pinto, Helder Rodrigo, 165
Morais, José Carlos, 739 Pires, Dália, 363
Morales, Andrés, 99, 109 Prentice, Catherine, 543
Mora-Rivera, Jorge, 353 Prestes, Lucas P., 85
Moreira, Catarina, 715 Proaño, Karen A., 477
Moreira, Jacinta, 13 Pulido, Félix González, 533, 587
Moura, Isabel Santos, 729
Munmun, Mousumi, 265
Q
Quevedo, Noemí Vásquez, 353
N Quispe-Vargas, Miliam, 311
Naranjo, Cesar A., 477
Naranjo, Jose E., 143
Navas, Eduardo, 219 R
Neves, Augusto, 153 Rahmadi, Imam Fitri, 375
Neves, Nelson, 739 Ramazanova, Makhabbat, 819, 831
Nikolopoulos, Christos D., 375 Ramos, Daniel, 387
Noa-Copaja, Stefany Juliana, 59 Ramos, José Luis Gómez, 209
Nogueira, Joana, 749 Ramos Méndez, Eric, 287
Nogueira, Sónia, 153 Rasteiro, Deolinda M. D., 375
Nogueiro, Teresa, 297 Reis, Ingrid Weingartner, 119
Noronha, Ana, 799 Ribeiro, Bárbara, 643
Nunes, Alcina, 451, 463, 667 Rocha, Manuel Trigueiro da, 809
Rodrigues-Carvalho, Joana, 749
Rodríguez, Nancy, 333
O Román, Luciano, 831
Oliveira Andrade de, Gustavo, 491 Romeiro, Artieres Estevão, 119
Oliveira, Helena Costa, 37 Rossi, Andrea, 45
Oliveira-Pereira, Joana, 857 Rubio, Diego H., 143
Oliveira, Ricardo, 749
Orlandrini, Ingrid, 819
Orrala, Lilibeth, 323 S
Ortíz, Karla, 323 Sá, Filipe, 655
Salazar, Jesus Victoria Flores, 71
Salum, Sara, 45
P Salvador, Patricia, 275
Pais, Luís S., 703 Sampaio, H. A., 677
Pardo-Cueva, Mariuxi, 567 Santos Dos, José Manuel, 131
Pascoinho, João, 809, 857 Santos, Eleonora, 13, 109
Paulo, Joana Becker, 253 Santos, J. Freitas, 199
Payró, Martha Patricia Silva, 287 Santos, Mário Costa, 739
Pereira Abar, Celina Aparecida Almeida, Santos, Sónia, 667
131 Santos, Teresa, 775, 799
Pereira, Adalmiro, 427 Saracostti, Mahia, 45
872 Author Index
Saraiva, Francisco, 691 Trigo, Miguel, 165

Saraiva, Margarida, 297
Sá, Susana, 739, 775, 799, 809, 857
Scalabrini, Elaine, 667 U
Shehada, S., 677 Ulbrich, Eva, 375
Silva, A., 677 Uzqueda, Susana, 819
Silva, Aldina Sofia, 749
Silva da, Patrícia F., 85
Silva, Fátima Matos, 819, 831 V
Silva, Goretti, 667 Valdivieso, Karina Delgado, 577
Silva Moreira da, Manuel, 399 Valente, Iolanda, 399, 729
Silva, Patrícia, 799 Vara, Tito Nelson Peñaloza, 71
Silva, Patrick, 185 Vardiambasis, Ioannis O., 375
Silva, Pedro, 199 Vaz, Ângela, 427
Silvério, Ana Cristina, 597 Vaz, Cindy, 767
Silvero, José Manuel, 831 Vaz, Márcia, 597
Sotomayor, Belen, 45 Veloso, Cláudia Miranda, 667
Sousa, Bruno Barbosa, 29 Vieira, Elvira, 667
Suing, Abel, 555 Vieira, Maria Isabel, 451
Vivas-Pachas, Jorge Luis, 71
T
Tapia, Ana, 323 Y
Tavares, Célia, 399 Yedra, Rubén Jerónimo, 209, 287
Teodoro, Pablo, 387
Terra, Ana Lúcia, 399
Ticahuanca-Mullo, Niria Rocío, 345 Z
Tituanã, Gladys I., 143 Zaro, Milton A., 85
Toro de, Ximena, 45 Zorcot, Emmanuele, 387
Torres, Paulo C., 143 Zuleta, Beatriz Margarita Barrera, 819, 831

Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 320

Perspectives and Trends

João Vidal Carvalho Cristina Helena Pinto de Mello

ISSN 2190-3018 ISSN 2190-3026 (electronic)

This book—Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology: Selected Papers

Porto, Portugal Anabela Mesquita

Education 4.0 Approach for New Careers at Mexico City-IPN . . . . . . . . . 1

Mental State Equalization for Neuroeducation: Methodology

Video Tutorials as a Didactic Strategy for the Knowledge

Impact of Lecturer Training on Absenteeism and Job Performance:

Organizational Climate and Its Importance for Organizational

Contribution of Social Networks in Learning: A Study in Higher

AR-Based Resources to Train Computational Thinking Skills . . . . . . . . . . 691

Technologies and Their Impact on the Leadership and Current

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869

António Abreu is Professor at the Instituto Superior de Contabilidade e Adminis-

João Vidal Carvalho is Adjunct Professor at Institute of Accounting and Admin-

Vladimir Avalos-Bravo , Jorge Toro González, and Yaravid García Pérez

Keywords Education 4.0 · Mexico City-IPN · E-learning · Blended learning ·

1.1 Instituto Politecnico Nacional

Mexico City-IPN is the state educational institution created to consolidate, through

Table 1 Academic programs in operation and students enrolled 2019–2020 [10]

face with justice, sovereignty, independence, nationalism and cosmopolitanism, the

1.2 Education 4.0

Fig. 1 Education 4.0 evolution [11]

● Communication as the main vehicle for learning.

2 Mexico City-IPN General Strategic Transformation

Instituto Politecnico Nacional as an institution of the Mexican State, has responded to

2.1 Strategic Actions

Fig. 3 Transformation General Strategy [15]

Fig. 4 General scheme for curriculum design at Mexico City-IPN [16]

2.2 Mexico City-IPN Methodology for Plans and Programs

3 Discussion and Results

Eleonora Santos , Jacinta Moreira , and Rui Alexandre Castanho

Keywords University-industry collaboration · Innovation · Business strategies ·

E. Santos (B) · J. Moreira

Low innovation contributes to low productivity and stagnation. Thus, innova-

University-Industry R&D collaboration allows companies to expand and update their

curriculum development is to develop human resources, through lectures in different

3 R&D in the Portuguese Pharmaceutical Industry

Fig. 1 Investment by scientific domain, 2019

Fig. 2 Type of promoter

Fig. 3 Investment in R&D, 2010–2019

Fig. 5 Investment by type of research, 2019

Fig. 6 Distribution of clinical trials by therapeutic area

4 Data and Methodology

focus on research, scientific knowledge and innovation, to consolidate its position as

Fig. 7 Features of the university-pharmaceutical industry collaboration

Fig. 8 The beneficial mechanism of the strategy based on production flexibility

treat, resulting in significant inhibition of tumour growth, comparing to conventional

Coimbra. This new factory is a high-power unit, of very cancer-oriented medicines,

itself in a system that privileges technological progress and economic development

1. Weerasinghe, I.M.S., Dedunu, H.H.: Contribution of academics to university–industry knowl-

Keywords Ethics · Education · Peace · Covid-19 · Social integration · Cultural

influenced companies’ behavior and respective communication actions, particularly

2 Ethics, Social Integration and Cultural Marketing

According to [6], ethics is a set of moral principles or values of society, which

brand, “as it is something that, in addition to facilitating recognition, favors loyalty

In order to establish a state of peace, it is necessary to count on the voluntary coop-

5 Final Considerations and Next Steps

As for business ethics, although it also depends on the employee’s commitment, it is

constant innovation. In social and education marketing campaigns one understands

Acknowledgements This work is financed by national funds through FCT—Foundation for