Ravi Kumar Yadav

History: Ancient India
Ancient India 9
Chapter
01 Prehistory Notes
• Prehistory is the period that begins with the appearance of the human
being, about five million years ago, and finishes with the invention
of writing. The history of the development of mankind during this
period is reconstructed through archeological and ethnological
findings as there are no written records about this period.
Concept Builder
The part of history, which is known to us exclusively from the
sources other than the written or epigraph one is called Pre History.
The term Proto History signifies those ancient cultures which have left
no written or epigraphic evidences but yet we have rich other forms of
evidence available that suggest that they were quiet developed.
STAGES IN PREHISTORY
The Palaeolithic Age
• The term Palaeolithic is derived from two Greek words meaning Old
Stone. The name Palaeolithic is applied to the earliest people as
the only evidence of their existence is given by a number of crude
stone implements.
• The Palaeolithic Age in India is divided into three phases according
to the nature of the stone tools used by the people and also
according to the nature of change in the climate. The first phase is
called Early or Lower Palaeolithic, the second, Middle Palaeolithic
and the third Upper Palaeolithic.
• The characteristics feature of Lower Palaeolithic or the Early Old
Stone Age is the use of hand-axes, cleavers and choppers. Lower
Alternative Learning Systems Limited

Palaeolithic remains in India are made of a peculiar kind of rock
called “Quartzite”. From this fact, the Palaeolithic men in India are
also known as ‘Quartzite men’.
• Stone tools were used mainly for chopping, digging and skinning.
The Early Old Stone Age sites are found in the valley of river Soan
or Sohan in Punjab, now in Pakistan. Several sites have been
found in Kashmir and the Thar Desert. The Lower Palaeolithic tools
have also been found in the Belan valley in Mirzapur District in Uttar
Pradesh. The caves and rock shelters of Bhimbetka near Bhopal in
Madhya Pradesh roughly belong to 100,000 BC. The rocksheters
may have served as seasonal camps for human beings.
Concept Builder
No Palaeolithic graves have been found in India and the dead were
left probably to natural decomposition or to be devoured by beats.
• The Middle Palaeolithic Industries are mainly based upon flakes.

The principal tools are varieties of blades, points, borers and
scarpers made of flakes. The artefacts of this age are also found
at several places on the river Narmada and also at several places,
south of the Tungabhadra river.
General Studies for Civil Services Exam

10 Ancient India
• The Upper Palaeolithic phase was less humid. In the world context
it marks the appearance of new flint industries and of men of
the modern type (Homo sapiens). In India, we notice the use of
Notes blades and burins, which have been found in Andhra, Karnataka
Maharashtra, central Madhya Pradesh, southern Uttar Pradesh,
south Bihar plateau and the adjoining areas. Caves and rockshelters
for use by human beings in the Upper Palaeolithic phase have been
discovered at Bhimbetka, 45 km south of Bhopal.
Concept Builder
Homosapiens i.e. the modern human beings developed for the first
time in the Upper Paleolithic age.
• It would thus appear that Palaeolithic sites are found in many hilly
slopes and river valleys of the country; they are absent in the alluvial
plains of the Indus and the Ganga. The Palaeolithic man in India
was a savage who lived in the ‘drifts of rivers or lakes and caves.”
He ate roots, fruits, nuts and the flesh of wild beasts.
The Mesolithic Age: Hunters and Herders

• Around 9000 B.C. began an intermediate stage, intervened as a
transitional phase between the Palaeolithic Age and the Neolithic
or New Stone Age. The Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing
and food gathering: at a later stage they also domesticated animals.
The first three occupations continued the palaeolithic practice, while
the last was interrelated with the Neolithic culture.
Do You Know?
Paleolithic sites are absent in the alluvial plains of the Indus and the
Ganga because the thick forests were located in these regions. The
tools and weapons of this age were not sophisticated enough to clear
thick forests for human survival.
• The characteristic tools of the Mesolithic Age are microliths. The

Mesolithic sites are found in good numbers in Rajasthan, southern
Uttar Pradesh, central and eastern India and also south of the river
Krishna. Of them Bagor in Rajasthan is very well excavated. It had
a distinctive microlithic industry, and its inhabitants subsisted on
hunting and pastrolism.
Do You Know?
The characteristic tools of the Mesolithic Age are microliths. These
are small stone tools, used to make arrow heads, spears, and other
weapons and tools.
• The Mesolithic culture continued to be important roughly from 9000

B.C. to 4000 B.C. There is no doubt that it paved the way for the rise
of the Neolithic culture
The Neolithic Age: Food Producers

• The term Neolithic meaning New Stone. Neolithic sites in India have
been found near the sea, lake and mining and fishing areas such

Ancient India 11
as Maski and Tinnevelly. The important factor which decided the

settlement of Neolithic men in India was the availability of the black
coloured rock, which is more tough and tenacious than quartzite.
Notes
Concept Builder
Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh is a striking site. Situated in the
Vindhyan range, 45 km south of Bhopal, it has more than 500 painted
rock shelters, distributed in an area of 10 sq km. The rock paintings
extend from the Palaeolithic to the Mesolithic period.
• Some Neolithic sites found on the northern spurs of the Vindhyas

are considered as old as 5000 B.C.
Concept Builder
The Neolithic man occupied practically the whole of India except the
portion below the Kaveri. There were no Neolithic settlements in the
extreme south.
• In the north-west, the Kashmiri Neolithic culture was distinguished

by its dwelling pits, the range of ceramics, the variety of stone
and bone tools and the complete absence of the microliths. An
important site is that of Burzahom, which means ‘the place of birth’.
The Neolithic people in Kashmir used not only polished tools of
stone but what is more interesting they used numerous tools and
weapons made of bone. The only other place which has yielded
considerable bone implements in India is Chirand, which is 40 km
west of Patna on the northern side of the Ganga.
Concept Builder
The only Neolithic settlement in the Indian subcontinent attributed to
7000 B.C. lies in Mehrgarh, which is situated in Baluchistan, a province
of Pakistan.

• It is interesting that in Burzahom domestic dogs were buried with
their masters in their graves. Pit dwelling and the placing of domestic
dogs in the graves of the masters do not seem to be practice with
Neolithic people in any other part of India.
• The second group of Neolithic people lived south of the Godavari
river. They usually settled on the tops of granite hills or on plateaus
near the river banks. They used stone axes and also some kind of
stone blades.
• The third area from which Neolithic tools have been recovered is in
the hills of Assam. Neolithic tools are also found in the Garo hills
in Meghalaya on the north-eastern frontier of India. In addition to
this, we also find a number of Neolithic settlements on the northern
spurs of the Vindhyas in Mirzapur and Allahabad districts of Uttar
Pradesh. Neolithic sites in Allahabad district are noted for the
cultivation of rice in the sixth millennium B.C.
• The occupations of the people were hunting and fishing. Fishing
must have been done on a large scale. The people also started
domesticating animals. Towards the end of the Neolithic period,
agriculture also became one of the main occupations of the people.

12 Ancient India
• The Neolithic settlers were the earliest farming communities.

Besides polished tools of stone, they used microlithic blades. They
lived in circular or rectangular houses made of mud and reed. It
Notes is held that the primitive people living in circular houses owned
property in common. In any case these Neolithic people led a
settled life. They produced ragi and horsegram (kulathi).
• The Neolithic people of Mehrgarh were more advanced. They
produced wheat, cotton, and lived in mud-brick houses.
• Pottery first appears in this phase. Hand-made pottery is found in
the early stage. Later their pottery included black-burnished ware,
grey ware, and mat-impressed ware.
• The Neolithic Age in the Indian subcontinent began around the sixth
millennium B.C. Some of the important crops, including rice, wheat
and barley, came to be cultivated in the subcontinent in this period
and a few villages appeared in this part of the world. It appears that
the people were now on the threshold of civilization.
Concept Builder
1. Mankind became food producer from food gatherer.
2. Agriculture was practiced for the first time.
3. Cattle rearing were practiced for the first time.
4. Pottery was invented during this age.
5. There was no sign of urbanization during this age.
6. Use of fire for cooking purposes was another important feature of
the life of the Neolithic people.
THE AGE OF METALS

• The Neolithic Age was followed by the age of metals. This is proved
by the fact that the use of stone and metallic implements is found
side by side. However, there is no uniformity regarding the use of
metals in different parts of India.
• In the case of Northern India copper replaced stone as the ordinary
material for tools and weapons. It was after the lapse of many
centuries that iron came to be known and was gradually used as
a substitute for copper. However, that was not so in southern India
where the Iron Age immediately succeeded the Stone Age.
• Bronze is an alloy made up of nine parts of copper and one part of
tin. It is true that bronze implements of early date have been found
in India along with those of copper, but it does not follow that bronze
was generally used in India to the exclusion of copper.
• Among the metals, copper was the first to be used during the period
following the Neolithic Age. So it is termed as chalcolithic period
which signifies the stone-copper phase.
• Jorwe, Nevasa, Daimabad, Inamgaon, Prakash, Nasik, etc. (all in
Maharashtra) are some of the most prominent chalcolithic sites
in India. Among other important sites one can mention those in
Allahabad district, Chirand (near Patna) and Pandu Rajar Dhibi and
Mahishadal in Bengal.
• At sites like Ahar and Gilund in Rajasthan, Copper objects have
been found in good numbers. Black-and-red ware was the most
prevalent type of pottery found in the Chalcolithic phase. The
chalcolithic people were technologically well-developed. Spindle

Ancient India 13
whorls discovered in Malwa clearly reflect that they had a fairly good
knowledge of spinning and weaving. Terracotta figures of women
have been found at many sites which suggest that chalcolithic people
were worshippers of the mother goddess. The dead were buried Notes
rather than cremated during this period. Chalcolithic settlements
found in India can be divided into three categories, namely, pre-
Harappan, Harappan and post-Harappan. The chalcolithic people
had the distinction of being the first community to use painted
pottery.
UPSC Sermon
Aspirants generally ignore this topic as they find this section boring
and monotonous. If we analyse the number of questions asked by
UPSC in past years, not many questions have come from this section.
Still if aspirants have conceptual clarity about this section, they can
very easily score in this section. The following are important aspects
for the preparation:
1. Timelines are not important.Stop mugging up the years.
2. Understand the important features of different stages of Pre-History
3. Mehrgarh and Bhimbetka are two important sites which are the
favourite of the examiners. Aspirants must know there relevance.
4. There were certain interesting and unconventional features that
have been discovered, like sites in Kashmir where people used to
live in underground pits and sites in Kashmir and Bihar where the
bone implements were used apart from stones. Aspirants must be
conceptually clear about these exceptions.
5. The type of stone weapons and the material used in different stages
are also very important.
6. Mesolithic age and the the weapons used in the same i.e. microliths
have also been asked various times in UPSC and State Services
Exam.
7. In the metal age the sites and the present states to which they

belong can come as the “Match the following” type questions.

14 Ancient India
Notes & Updates...


Ancient India 15
Chapter
02 Indus Valley Civilization Notes
Concept Builder
For the first time the Brozne was used by the people of Indus Valley
Civilization, therefore is also called Bronze Age civilization. However
the majority of implements during the Indus Valley Civilization were
made of stone followed by copper.
• Indus Valley Civilization is earliest known urban culture of the Indian

subcontinent. It was first identified in 1921 at Harappa in the Punjab
region and then in 1922 at Mohenjo-daro (Mohenjodaro), near
the Indus River in the Sindh (Sind) region, now both in Pakistan.
Subsequently, vestiges of the civilization were found as far apart
as Sutkagen Dor, near the shore of the Arabian Sea 480 km west
of Karachi and Rupnagar in India. Later exploration established its
existence southward down the west coast of India as far as the Gulf
of Khambhat and as far east as the Yamuna.
• Though people used to live on the banks of the Indus River before
this period but it was only during Bronze Age when they actually
started living as civilized and urban societies. Harappa and Mohenjo-
daro were the two prominent cities of Indus Valley Civilization.
• Approximately 1052 cities and settlements belonging to the Indus
Valley Civilization have been excavated till date, mainly in the
general region of the Ghaggar and Indus Rivers and their tributaries.
The concept of urban planning is also widely evident. There is also
the existence of the first urban sanitation systems in the world.
• Dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms and protective

walls have been found in almost all the cities of the Indus Valley
Civilization.
Concept Builder
Initially it was believed that Indus Valley Civilization was exported from
Mesopotamia. However the modern day researches prove that this
civilization has local antecedents.
GEOGRAPHICAL EXTENT
• The sites belonging to Indus Valley Civilization are spread over
1,299,600 sq. km which makes it the largest early civilization. The
following are the sites of Indus Valley Civilization that were located
on the extreme ends of the Civilization:
Westernmost Site Suktagendor (Markan Coast Pakistan)
Easternmost Site Alamgirpur (Meerut District)
Northernmost Site Gumla (Jammu and Kashmir)
Southernmost Site Malavana (Surat District)

16 Ancient India
Concept Builder
The Indus Valley Civilization was a highly complex and advanced
civilization, achieving feats of architecture and engineering that were
Notes unmatched for thousands of years.
Important Sites and their geographical location

Modern Location Indus Valley Sites
Mohenjodaro, Chanudaro, Amri, Kot Diji, Ali Murad,
Sindh (Pakistan)
Rahman Deri, Ranagundai
Punjab (Pakistan
Harappa (Pakistan), Bara (Pakistan), Ropar (India)
and India)
Haryana Rakhigarhi, Mithathal, Banawali, Kunal
Rajasthan Seeawal, Balathal, Kalibangan
Afghanistan Shortughai
Baluchistan Suktagendor, Sutkakoh, Balakot, Dabar Kot
Deshalpur, Surkotda, Dholaveera, Rangpur, Rozdi,
Gujarat
Lothal, Malwan, Bhagtaru
Bahawalpur Kudwalather
SOCIETY AND POLITY

• Though the Indus Valley Civilization represents the first urbanization
of India, the majority of the people lived in rural areas.
Concept Builder
Slaves were present in Harappa.
• No temples have been found at any Harappan site. We have no

religious structures of any kind except the Great Bath, which may
have been used for ablutions. There are some indications of the
practice of fire cult at Lothal in Gujarat in the later phase but no

temples were used for the purpose.
• The Indus Valley Civilization was probably ruled by a class of
merchants. Since no temple or religious structures are found (except
the fire altars of Kalibangan and the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro) it
seems improbable that priests ruled.
• The Indus Valley society was patriarchal in nature. The Indus
Valley civilization comprised people who were found to be a mix
of Mediterranean, Proto Australoid, Alpine and Mongoloids. The
society was highly stratified as evident by the sizes of houses found.
Also from Harappa 30 coolie barracks like structure have been
unearthed, which suggest inequality prevailing in the society. Also
various Indus Valley sites were divided into two parts. One consists
of citadel, in which probably the ruling class lived(upper town). The
other part of the sites was inhabited by the commoners(lower town).
Town Planning and Houses

• At Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Kalibangan and Surkotda, a ‘citadel’
smaller in area than the lower town and invariably located to the
west. At Lothal no citadel has been found.

Ancient India 17
Concept Builder
Stone was not used in making houses during Indus Valley Civilization
• Entrance of the houses was from the road-ward side of building Notes
which was a plain blank façade. Houses had no windows; wooden
frames were used for doors, set in a corbelled arch. Sometimes
kitchens had a serving hatch (the aperture between the kitchen and
the dining room). Kitchen waste water was drained from a pottery
vessel with a hole sunk into the earth. Latrines and bathrooms
were on the street side, drainage being through pottery pipes
and spigots. Men and animals lived in the same house which had
feeding bins. All cities had drains covered by brick or stone which
went to soak pits or jars. All this efficiency suggests a municipal
authority.
• The houses were often two storied and usually had a bathing area
supplied with water from a neighborhood well. All of the houses
were connected to an elaborate city-wide drainage system that
reflects a well organized civic authority.
Concept Builder
The special attention paid by the people of Indus Valley towards
cleanliness was hardly due to the knowledge of hygiene; however it
was due to the religious state of mind
• The main street ran from North to South and cross streets
were at right angles and ½ of ¼ of the main street. The general
population lived in the lower town. The citadel probably housed the
administrative centre.
• Harappan and Mohenjo-Daro houses made of kilnburnt bricks.
In Kalibangan and Lothal houses were of mud brick but drains,
dockyard of Lothal, etc. were made of kiln burnt bricks.
• The walls of citadels were built of mud bricks, externally riveted with

burnt bricks and were tapered. The walls had rectangular towers.
Generally the burnt and sun-dried bricks were used. Normal size
of bricks was 28x14x7 cm: ratio 4:2:1, made by an open mould.
The uniformity of the bricks and other artifacts suggest existence
of a centralized authority. For wells, wedge shaped moulded bricks
were used.
Seals
• Seals were found in plenty in Indus valley sites and were generally
made up of steatite. Their shape was generally square. Some seals
were round as well. The seals have intaglio design (i.e. engraved
with a sunken pattern so that impression appears on relief.) Unicorn,
tiger, elephant, antelope, crocodile, humped bull were represented
on the seals.
Concept Builder
The most common animal depicted on seals was unicorn. Cow was
nowhere depicted on the seals. The square seals have the craved
animal as well as inscription engraved on them. On the other hand the
rectangular seals have inscription only.

18 Ancient India
Terracotta
• The terracotta figures like toy carts, doves, cat/tiger and grotesque
animals are found from the Indus Valley Sites. On terracotta figurines
Notes animal are portrayed more realistically than humans. Some of the
figurines were produced from casts while many were pinch made.
Female Mother Goddess had a painted head dress, short skirts and
jewels. Bulls are represented but not the cow, hens but not cocks.
Entertainment
• Kids played with terra-cotta toys clay cart, rattles, bird shaped
whistle, bulls with movable heads, monkeys with movable arms,
figures which ran down strings, marbles of jasper and chart. Dice
was used for gambling.
Dress
• Ladies were scantily clad in skirts. Men wore a shawl and dhotis.
A pothead from Harappa shows the dhoti. Men’s hair styles were
several: hair parted in the middle and tied with a fillet: hair gathered
in a bun; a short beard was kept and the moustache shaved off.
• Women wore jewels of gold, silver, electrum, bronze and beads of
semi precious stones: carnelian, jasper, agate onyx, lapis lazuli,
chalcedony, turquoise. Nose pins, bangles, bracelets and hair pins
were used.
Agriculture
• The largest numbers of people on the Indus Valley Civilization were
agriculturalists followed by those involved in the cattle rearing.
These people did not know about the artificial irrigation systems.
They also had no knowledge of manures. The evidence of the
following crops has been found from various sites of Indus Valley
Civilization: Wheat, Barley, Peanuts, Dates, Cotton, Gram, Rice,
Mustard, Seasum and Leguminous Plants.
Concept Builder
Ragi has not been found from any of the Indus Valley site. Rice has
been found from Lothal and Rangpur. Barley has been unearthed from
Banawali.
Use of Cotton
• The Indus Valley Civilizations was the first to use cotton for textiles.
The Greeks called it Sindon (from Sind).
• A piece of woven cotton has been found at Mohenjo-Daro. Spindle
whorls were made of pottery, shell and faience. The statue of the
bearded man indicates the art of embroidery. Awls of bone, ivory
and copper were used for matting. Needles and buttons show that
some of the clothes were stitched.
Trade
• There are both archeological and literary evidences that corroborate
the extensive trade relations of Indus Valley civilization with
Mesopotamian civilization.

Ancient India 19
Concept Builder
Indus Valley seals have been unearthed from Mesopotamian sites like
Susa, Ur and Kish
Notes
• The Harappans carried on considerable trade in stone, metal, shell,
etc., within the Indus culture zone. They did not use metal money.
Most probably they carried on all exchanges through barter. They
practiced navigation on the coast of the Arabian Sea. They knew
the use of wheel and carts with solid wheels were in use in Harappa.
Concept Builder
The major reasons for the extensive trade relations of Indus Valley
people with others were demand for the luxury goods and search for
the raw material.
• The Harappans had commercial links with Afghanistan and Iran.

Their cities also carried commerce with those in the land of the
Tigris and the Euphrates, it seems that the Harappans imitated
some cosmetics used by the urban people of Mesopotamia.
• The Harappans carried on long-distance trade in lapis lazuli. The
Mesopotamian records from about 2350 B.C. onwards refer to trade
relations with Meluha, which was the ancient name given to the
Indus region. The Mesopotamian text speaks of two intermediate
trading stations called Dilmun and Makan which lay between
Mesopotamia and Meluha. Dilmun can probably be identified with
Bahrain on the Persian Gulf.
Concept builder
Indus Valley Civilization has been termed in Mesopotamian literature
as “Meluha”
Domestication of Animals

• Indus Valley people were the first to domesticate the water buffalo
and the fowl. They also domesticated humped and humpless bull,
sheep, goat and pigs. Asses and camels were beasts of burden. Cats
and dogs were pets whose foot prints have been found. Ghundai
(pre Harappan) yielded teeth of horses, Lothal yielded a terra-cotta
horse, Surkotda provides horse bones.
• The Gujarati Harappans domesticated elephant. From Kalibangan
the camel bones have been found.
Concept Builder
Although the remains of horse have been found from sites like Surkotda
but it is accepted that horse was not present during the Indus Valley
Civilization.
THE HARAPPAN SCRIPT

• The Harappan invented the art of the writing like the people of
ancient Mesopotamia. Although the earliest specimen of Harappan
script was noticed in 1853 and the complete script discovered by
1923, it has not been deciphered so far.

20 Ancient India
• Unlike the Egyptians and Mesopotamians, the Harappans did not

write long inscriptions. Most inscriptions were recorded on seals and
contain only a few words. The Harappan script is not alphabetical
Notes but mainly pictographic.
Weights and Measures
• Numerous articles used for weights have been found. They show
that in weighing mostly 16 or its multiples were used; for instance,
16, 64, 160, 320 and 640. Interestingly the tradition of 16 has
continued in India till modern times and till recently 16 annas made
one rupee. The Harappans also knew the art of measurement. We
have come across sticks inscribed with measure marks; one of
these is made of bronze.
IMPORTANT SITES AND IMPORTANT ASPECTS
ASSOCIATED WITH THEM
Harappa
• It was situated on the bank of the river Ravi. The first among different
Harappan sites to be discovered in 1921 A.D. by D.R. Sahni.
• A citadel and an unfortified lower town. 10 workmen’s quarters and
close to these workmen’s quarter were 16 furnaces have been
unearthed.
• 12 granary buildings have been discovered. 891 seals have been
found. Red stone torso of a naked male figure (the prototype of Jiva
or Yaksha Figure)
Mohenjodaro (The mound of Dead)
• It was situated on the bank of the river Indus. The 3rd largest (in
area coverage) among the Harappan sites.
• The city has been stratified into two parts.The western low mound
had a citadel and the eastern mound had the unfortified lower city.
• The Western mound is crowned by a Buddhist stupa built in the 2nd
century B.C.
• The Great Bath (The most famous building of Mohenjodaro) was
excavated by Sir John Marshall. It was made entirely of burnt

bricks and attached with stair cases. There was also the provision
of changing the water and was connected with a large oval well to
be watered regularly. The floor of the great bath was layered with
mud and mortars divided by a layer of bitumen to prevent seepage.
It had a safe bathing place for the children and attached with 8
bathrooms on the north side of it. The great bath was perhaps used
only on ceremonial occasions.
• The Great Granary Hall: It is the largest building of Harappan times
so far discovered. Its size was 45.71mx15.23 m.
• A Long Collegiate Building (Which contains the Great Bath)
• 1398 seals have been unearthed. The depictions on the seals
throw light on animal sacrifice, mother goddess cult, animal and
tree worship and a belief in the proto form of Shiva Pashupati.
• Bronze Images-The famous Dancing girl and Few vessels of
copper-bronze
Dholavira
• Situated in Kutch district of Gujarat. At present, it is the latest Indus
Valley site to be discovered. It is the largest among the sites within
the present day political territory of India.

Ancient India 21
• Its unique feature is that here there are 3 principal divisions (instead
of 2 in others cites) of the site. There is the citadel and fortified lower
city with the middle town.
Suktagendor Notes
• Situated at a distance of 500 kms to the West of Karachi.
• It was originally a port of Harappan days but later on cut off from
the sea due to coastal uplift.
Lothal
• Situated at 80 Kms south of Ahmedabad, Lothal is world’s first tidal
sea port construct by the Harappans. In its structure it can be called
as a mini Harappa or a mini Mohanjodaro.
• The trapezoid citadel also possesses the residence of the ruler.
Evidence of a Dockyard.
Chanhudaro
• Situated at 130 Kms south of Mohanjodaro. It was on the bank of
the river Indus.
• A major centre of production of beautiful seals. The evidence of
bead-makers shops are found.
Kotdiji
• Situated at a distance of 50 Kms to the East of Mohanjodaro. It
was on the bank of the river Indus. Evidence of pre Harappan and
Harappan culture has been discovered.
Concept Builder
From Ropar the evidence of burying a dog before the human burial has
been found.
Surkotda
• Situated at a distance of 160 kms to the N-E of Bhuj. Bones of
horses have been discovered.
Kalibangan
• Situated in Ganganagar district of Rajasthan. It was on the Southern

bank of the river Ghaggar.
• Evidences of pre-Harappan and Harappan culture. The discovery
of ‘fire Altars’.
• The evidence of ploughed field. The discovery of cattle bones, deer
bones and camel bones.
• Citadel and fortified lower town. The discovery of cylindrical seals (a
Mesopotamian counterpart)

22 Ancient India
Notes & Updates...


Ancient India 23
Chapter
03 Rig Vedic Age Notes
• The Harrapan cities began to decline around 1900 BC and around

the same time we find archaeological evidence of the arrival of
new people known as Aryans or Indo-Aryans on the outskirts of
the Harappan region. With the arrival of Indo-Aryans, Vedic Age
started in India.
• Prior to Vedic Age the history is reconstructed with the help
of archeological evidences. The four Vedas and the literature
associated with them give us a great deal of information about
the material and other aspects of life of Rig Vedic and later Vedic
period.
Do You Know?
Although we get the information about Rig Vedic age from the literary
sources but people during that period did not know either to read or
write.
• The knowledge was passed through one generation to the other

orally. It was only during the later periods this oral knowledge was
compiled and written. The original knowledge which was in form
of hymns and mantras was considered divine and sacrosanct.
Therefore the literary sources which give us information about
this age even though were compiled after centuries are free from
extrapolations and manipulations to a great extent.
• The authors of the Vedic hymns were the Aryans. In the 19th
century, Aryans were considered a race. Now it is thought of as a

linguistic group of people who spoke Indo-European language from
which later emerged Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek etc.
• The Aryans started ‘migrating around 2,000 B.C. from the region of
the steppes extending from Poland to central Asia. They reached
India through the Hindukush and Iran. This migration introduced
new features into the cultural background of North Western India.
• Rig Veda refers to Saptasindhu or the land of seven rivers. This
includes the five rivers of Punjab namely Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi,
Beas and Sutlej along with the Indus and Saraswati. The political,
social and cultural life of the Rig Vedic people can be traced from
the hymns of the Rig Veda.
Rig Vedic Period
• When the Aryans migrated to South Asia there economy was
predominantly pastoral and they led a nomadic life. The polity was
tribal. The social stratification was in its rudimentary stage and the
metals like iron were not known. This initial period when the Aryans
migrated to South India is known as Rig Vedic Age.
Concept Builder
The term Aryan initially refers to the group of languages

24 Ancient India
• With time the Aryans advanced in technology and lifestyle. The

pastoral economy gradually transformed into the agrarian economy
and the settled life started. The society started producing the
Notes surplus which led to stratification and conflicts to gain supremacy
over the surplus produced. The tribal polity of Rig Vedic Age got
replaced with monarchy and royal officers. This is termed as the
Later Vedic Age. The principal literary sources from this period are
the Sama, the Yajur, and the Atharva Veda (mainly ritual texts),
the Brahmanas (manuals on ritual), the Upanishads (Upanisads)
and Aranyakas (collections of philosophical and metaphysical
discourses).
GEOGRAPHICAL EXTENT
• Areas known to early Aryans were majorly confined around Indus
and its tributaries. The Aryans during this age reached the Yamuna
(mentioned only once in Rig Veda) but didn’t cross it. Ganga and
Sarayu are mentioned. Himalayas are directly mentioned with one
Peak Mujavat, the source of Soma, which was probably in Kashmir.
The word Samudra is used in Rig Veda but it denotes a large
collection of water and not sea. Punjab was called Saptasaindhava.
Hariyupiya town mentioned is which could be Harappa. Afghanistan
is mentioned as Khamboja Ganddhara.
Interaction with indigenous tribes
• Aryans began to call the people they encountered in North India
as dasus and dasyus and referred to them as dark-skinned. The
Aryans overpowered these indigenous tribes and assimilated these
as slaves. Thus the terms dasus and dasyus which earlier were
used in context of dark-skinned people became synonymous with
slaves and slavery.
• The Aryans recognized and accepted social heterogeneity, the
existence of social differences and conceptualizing groups into
categories in a single hierarchical system. The first major conception
of difference was distinguishing between the Arya-varna and the

dasa-varna. The word Varna means color and probably referred
to the difference in skin color between the fairer Aryans and the
indigenous.
• The interaction with the local people resulted in the first social
stratification on the basis of the color of the skin or Varna thus it
became the first instrument of social stratification.
Concept Builders
Dasa: They consist of both Aryan and non Aryan tribes who were
defeated in the wars.
Dasyus: The term refers to the indigenous people of India.
Panis: They were the cattle breeders.
RIG VEDIC LIFE

• The Rig Vedic society was patriarchal. The basic unit of society was
family or graham. The head of the family was known as grahapathi.
Monogamy was generally practiced while polygamy was prevalent.
The wife took care of the household and participated in all the major
ceremonies.

Ancient India 25
• Women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual

and intellectual development. There were women poets like Apala,
Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic period.
Women could even attend the popular assemblies. There was no Notes
child marriage and the practice of sati was absent.
Do You Know?
The concept of property rights were not developed during the Rig
Vedic period
• Both men and women wore upper and lower garments made of
cotton and wool. A variety of ornaments were used by both men
and women. Wheat and barley, milk and its products like curd and
ghee, vegetables and fruits were the chief articles of food. Chariot
racing, horse racing, dicing, music and dance were the favorite
pastimes. The social divisions were not rigid during the Rig Vedic
age.
• The 10th Mandal of Rig Veda contains Purushsukta in which
the four varnas i.e. Bhramin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra are
mentioned for the first time.
Concept Builder
A large number of words are derived from the word GO (Gau) meaning
cow. A wealthy person was known as gomat and the daughter called
duhitri which means one who milks the cow. The word gaveshana
literally means search for cows, but it also means battle since many
battles were fought over cattle. This explicitly reflects the importance
of cow in the Aryan society. The cows were thought of as providers of
everything.
• The Indo-Aryans, while sharing the ancient Iranian veneration for

the cow, felt no scruple about sacrificing both bulls and cows at

weddings or on other important occasions. Milk was an important
article of food and was supplemented by cakes of barley or wheat
(yava), vegetables and fruit.
• The people freely indulged in two kinds of intoxicating liquor
called soma and sura. Sura probably was a kind of beer. Soma
juice was considered to be particularly acceptable to the Gods and
was offered with elaborate ceremonial.
Economy
• Cattle Breeding was the primary occupation. Although they used
several animals, the horse played the most significant role in their
life.
• Although the Rig Vedic people possessed good knowledge of
agriculture but agriculture was only the secondary occupation.
Ploughshare is mentioned in the earliest part of the Rig Veda
though some consider it an interpolation.
• Trade was present during the Rig Vedic Age but its influence on the
economy was negligible. Clothes and leather goods were the most
traded items.
• There was no sign of urbanization and it was a rural economy. The
term for war in the Rig Veda is gavisthi or the ‘search for cows’.

26 Ancient India
• The Rig Veda mentions occupations such as artisans as the

carpenter, the chariot-maker, the weaver, the leather worker, the
potter, etc.
Notes • The term ayas used for copper or bronze shows that metal working
was known.
• Bali was the earliest tax but it was voluntary and there was no officer
or functionary who was associated with tax collection.
Indus Valley Civilization vis-à-vis Rig Vedic Age

Indus Valley Civilization Rig Vedic Age
Confined to Sapthsindhu
From Jammu and Kashmir
Geographical i.e. North Western part of
to Maharashtra in India and
Extent India and areas adjoining
Pakistan.
Pakistan.
Cosmopolitan in nature with Rig Vedic Aryans were
People
different races homogeneous by race
Agriculture was the main
Chief Cattle rearing were the
occupation. The trade and
Occupation main occupation.
crafts were highly developed
Majority of sites were rural,
Rig Vedic Aryans led a
however some sites had
nomadic life. The houses
Dwellings and remarkable urban features.
were made up of wattle and
lifestyle In urban sites town planning
daub. There was no sign of
and use of bricks was an
urbanization.
outstanding feature
Localized trade very less
Trade was highly developed.
developed vis-à-vis Indus
Trade Long distance trade with west
Valley trade. No sign of
Asia was in vogue
trade with other regions.
The script was pictographic;
Language Rig Vedic Aryans did not
however it has not been
and Script know how to read or write.
deciphered so far.
The traders were the ruling Existence of a tribal polity.

Polity class. A centralized authority The basic unit of society
or municipal authority existed. was family or graham.
Indra, Agni and Som were

Mother Goddess, Great Bath, the chief deities. Prayers
Religion and
Fire Altars, Proto-Pashupati through sacrifice and
rituals
etc were worshipped chanting of hymns in the
glory of God.
Popular Unicorn and bull. Horse was
Cow and Horse.
animals not known
Polity
• Kinship was the basis of social structure during the Rig Vedic age.
People gave their primary loyalty to the tribe which was called Jana.
The family was a very large joint unit. Since it was a patriarchal
society, the birth of male child was desired again and again.
• The basic unit of political organization was Kula or family. Several
families joined together on the basis of their kinship to form a village
or Grama. The leader of grama was known as Gramani. A group

Ancient India 27
of villages constituted a larger unit called Vis. It was headed by

Vishayapati.
• The highest political unit was called Jana or tribe. There were
several tribal kingdoms during the Rig Vedic period such as Notes
Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus.
• The head of the kingdom was called as Rajan or king. The Rig
Vedic polity was normally monarchical and the succession was
hereditary. The king was assisted by purohita or priest and senani
or commander of the army in his administration.
• The post of the chief was not hereditary. The tribe generally elected
him. Though the succession in one family was known but that was
not based on the rule of primogeniture (i.e., the eldest son acquiring
the position).
• The Purohita assisted and advised the chief on various matters.
Senani, kulapa, gramani, etc. are some of the functionaries which
find mention in the Rigveda. The sena or army was not a permanent
fighting group and consisted of able bodied tribesmen who were
mobilized at the time of the wars. Takshan the carpenter and
Rathakara the chariot maker were responsible for making chariots.
There is no official mentioned as a collector of taxes.
• The people offered to the chief what is called Bali. It was just a voluntary
contribution made by the ordinary tribesmen on special occasions.
• The important decision making in the Rig Vedic age took place in
popular tribal institutions Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana. Women
were not allowed to attend Samiti. The oldest and most important of
these assemblies was Vidhata.
Concept Builder
The age of marriage during Rig Vedic period was about 16-17 years.
There is no evidence of child marriage or infant marriage
Marriage and Status of Women

• The institution of marriage was established although symbols of
primitive practices survived. The status of women was equal to
men and they received Upanayana and education, they were also
permitted to study Vedas and some of them even rose to the rank
of seers composing Vedic hymns. Monogamy was established,
though polygamy and polyandry were also known. There was no
prayer for the birth of female child yet the birth was not unwelcomed.
Do You Know?
Women participated in wars during Rig Vedic period
Religion
• Animals were not worshipped. There is no evidence of tree worship.
No sign for Animism
• The Rig Vedic Aryans worshiped the natural forces like earth, fire,
wind, rain and thunder. They personified these natural forces into
many gods and worshipped them. The important Rig Vedic gods
were Prithvi (Earth), Agni (Fire), Vayu (Wind), Varuna (Rain) and
Indra (Thunder)

28 Ancient India
Concept Builder
The only feature that was common between the Indus Valley Civilization
and Rig Vedic religion was fire worship
Notes
• Indra was the most popular among them during the early Vedic
period. Next in importance was Agni who was regarded as an
intermediary between the gods and people. Varuna was supposed
to be the upholder of the natural order. There were also female
gods like Aditi and Ushas. Prayers were offered to the gods in
the expectation of rewards. Ghee, milk and grain were given as
offerings. Elaborate rituals were followed during the worship.
• The Aryans through their prayers wanted to evoke sky gods who
could actively help them fight against their enemies. The Vedic
hymns were recited at sacrifices to Aryan gods which they called
devas. Devas were believed to control the forces of nature, they
were divine power.
Do You Know?
The concept of soul and salvation were unknown to the people of Rig
Vedic age. It’s only during the later Vedic period these concepts came
to the fore.
• Rita provided a structure for the other celestial powers.
Rig Vedic Literature

• The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the root ‘vid’ which means to know.
The Vedic literature consists of the four Vedas – Rig Veda, Yajur
Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda.
• The Rig Veda is the earliest of the four Vedas. The hymns were
sung in praise of various gods. Rigveda oldest religious text in the
world, compiled in 1500-1000 B.C. has 1028 hymns (1017 + 11
valakhilyas) divided into 10 Mandalas or 8 Astikas written by family
of seers: Atri, Angiras, Bhardwaj, Gritsamad, Kanva, Viswamitra,

Vamdeva, and Vasistha.
• Books II to VII are earliest while I, VIII and X are later additions
and Book IX is compilation of Soma hymns of the other books. It
is the foundation of all Vedic literature consists mainly of lyrics in
praise of different gods mainly Indra, Varuna and Agni and a host of
minor gods. Book X has the Purusasukta hymn dealing with origin
of varnas.
• The Yajur Veda consists of various details of rules to be observed at
the time of sacrifice. The Sama Veda is set of tune for the purpose
of chanting during sacrifice. It is called the book of chants and the
origins of Indian music are traced in it. The Atharva Veda contains
details of rituals. Besides the Vedas, there are other sacred works
like the Brahmanas, the Upanishads and the Aranyakas.
• The Brahmanas are the treatises relating to prayer and sacrificial
ceremony. The Upanishads are philosophical texts dealing with
topic like the soul, the absolute, the origin of the world and the
mysteries of nature. The Aranyakas are called forest books and
they deal with mysticism, rites, rituals and sacrifices.

Ancient India 29
Frequency of Important Words Mentioned in Rig Veda

Word Times Mentioned Word Times Mentioned
Pita 335 Rajya 1 Notes
Ashva 315 Kulpa 1
Jana 275 Ganga 1
Mata 234 Samudra 1
Indra 250 Sabha 8
Gau 176 Samiti 9
Vish 171 Grama 13
Vidata 122 Vidatha 122
Brahmana 14 Yamuna 3
Surya 10 Rashtra 10
Kshatriya 9 Krishi 33
Yamuna 3 Sena 20 Approx.
Raja 1 Rudra 3
Sudra 1 Vrihaspati 11
Vaishya 1 Prithavi 1

30 Ancient India
Notes & Updates...


Ancient India 31
Chapter
04 Later Vedic Age Notes
Geographical extent
• The geographic focus of the later Vedic corpus moves from the
Sapta Sindhu region into the Ganges-Yamuna Doab and the
territories on its fringe. The areas within this land of the aryas called
Aryavarta were named after the ruling clans. By the end of the
period, clan identity had changed gradually to territorial identity and
the areas of settlement came eventually to form states.
• Later Vedic texts were composed in the land of Kurus and Panchalas:
Western Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, adjoining parts of Punjab and
Rajasthan i.e. Indo Gangetic divides and Upper Gangetic plains.
• Various tribes and kingdoms find mention in the later Vedic
literature. The Purus and the Bharatas were amalgamated to form
the Kurus. The Kuru kingdom corresponds to modern Thanesvar,
Delhi and the upper Gangetic Doab. The Atharva Veda speaks of
the Kuru king Parikshit in whose reign this kingdom flourished. His
descendant, Janmejaya, who performed as asvamedha, was a
great conqueror.
• The Panchalas, according to the Satapatha Brahmana they were
formerly called Krivis, who may have been one of the constituent
tribes. The territory of this tribe roughly corresponds to the Bareilly,
Badaun, Farukhabad and adjoining districts of today.
• After the downfall of the Kurus and the Panchalas; Kosala, Kasi
and Videha came into prominence in later Vedic age. Kosala was
the first to be influenced by the Vedic civilization. It was under the
domination of the house of Ikshavakus. Its early capital, Ayodhya,
was later replaced by Sravasti. This kingdom roughly corresponds

to Oudh. Its most famous ruler was Para.
• The famous ruler of Kasi was Ajatashatru. The twenty-third Jaina
tirthankara Parsvanatha, who died 250 years before Mahavira, was
the son of King Asvasena of Kasi.
• Videha, with its capital at Mithila is identical with modern Tirhut. The
most notable ruler was Janaka the royal scholar and philosopher of
the Upanishads. His court was adorned by Yajnavalkya.
• Magadha, Anga and Vanga seems to be the eastern most tribes.
Magadha corresponds roughly to southern Bihar. Angas set up their
settlements on the rivers Son and the Ganges. Vangas appear to be
the residents of eastern Bengal. The Magadhas are also associated
with the Vratyas. The Yajur Veda includes Magadha in the list of
victims of purushamedha.
• The three later Vedas give three broad divisions of India, viz.
Aryavarta (northern India), Madhyadesa (central India) and
Dakshinapatha (southern India). But Aitareya Brahmana divides
the whole country into five parts, viz. (a) eastern, (b) western, (c)
northern, (d) central and (e) southern.
• Ahichchatra, Atranjikhera, Asandivant (Hastinapur) Kausambi, Noh
and Jodhpra are the important sites belonging to later Vedic age.

32 Ancient India
Use of Iron
• Various terms for iron have been used in the later Vedic literature
like Syama in Vajasaneyi Samhita; Syamena and Syamaayas in
Notes Athrva Veda; Krisna ayas and Karasanayas in Jamini Brahmana.
There was limited use of iron and mainly as weapons (arrowheads,
spear heads) and nails, axes etc.
Role of settled agriculture
• Land was not an item of private property since it couldn’t be staked
away. Land could theoretically be granted by the king only with the
consent of the clan. Land was the chief instrument of production.
There is no evidence that princes/priests owned larger portions of
arable land, pastures or waste lands. Unequal distribution of land
products started. Brahmanas (priests) and Rajanyas (ruling class)
claimed grain from vaisyas the peasant class. Slave women were
used for domestic work. There was no mechanism for assessment and
collection of taxes. Mechanism of rituals was developed to establish
fiscal and administrative control of Rajanyas and Brahmanas.
• With time the agricultural practices improved in the later Vedic age.
The literature associated with this periond speaks of ploughing with
yokes of six and eight oxen. The buffalo had been domesticated
for the Agricultural purposes. This animal was extremely useful in
ploughing the swampy land.
• The God Indra acquires a new epithet ‘Lord of the Plough’ in this
period. Apart from barley, people now cultivated wheat, rice, pulses,
lentils, millet, sugarcane etc. The items of dana and dakshina
included cooked rice. Thus with the beginning of food production
agricultural produce began to be offered in the rituals.
• The main factor in the expansion of the Aryan culture during the later
Vedic period was the beginning of the use of iron around 1000 BC.
The Rigvedic people knew of a metal called ayas which was either
copper or bronze. In the later Vedic literature ayas was qualified
with shyama or krisna meaning black to denote iron.

• There has been a continuous increase in the population during the
later Vedic period due to the expansion of the economy based on
agriculture. The increasing number and size of Painted Grey Ware
(PGW) settlements in the doab area shows this. With the passage of
time the Vedic people also acquired better knowledge of seasons,
manuring and irrigation.
Later Vedic society
• The family remains the basic unit of the Vedic society. However, its
composition underwent a change. The later Vedic family became
large enough to be called a joint-family with three or four generations
living together.
• Monogamous marriages were preferred even though polygamy was
frequent. Some restrictions on women appeared during this period.
Women had to stay with her husband at his place after marriage.
The participation of women in public meetings was restricted.
However the most important change was the rise and growth of
social differentiation in the form of Varna system. The four varnas in
which society came to be divided were the brahmanas, kshatriyas,
vaishyas and shudras.

Ancient India 33
• The growing number of sacrifices and rituals during the period

made the Brahmanas very powerful. They conducted various
rituals including those related to different stages of agricultural
operations. This made them all the more important. The Notes
kshatriyas, next in the social hierarchy, were the rulers. They
along with brahmanas controlled all aspects of life. The Vaishyas
were engaged in agriculture as well as in trade and artisanal
activities. The brahmanas and the kshatriyas were dependent on
the tributes (gifts and taxes) paid to them by the vaishyas.The
shudras were at the bottom of the social hierarchy. They were
ordained to be in the service of the three upper varnas. They
were not entitled to the ritual of upanayana samskara (investiture
with sacred thread necessary to acquire education). The other
three varnas were entitled to such a ceremony and hence they
were known as dvijas.
• Another important institution that began to take shape was
ashrama or different stages of life. Brahmacharya (student life),
grihastha (householder), and vanaprastha (hermitage) stages are
mentioned in the texts. Later, sanyasa, the fourth stage also came
to be added. Together with Varna it came to be known as varna-
ashrama dharma.
Later Vedic Religion
• Vishnu and Rudra which were smaller deities in the Rigveda
became extremely important.
Do You Know?
We do not have any reference to different incarnations or avataras of
Vishnu.
• Another important feature was the increase in the frequency and

number of the yajna which generally ended with the sacrifices of
a large number of animals. This was probably the result of the
growing importance of a class of brahmanas and their efforts to
maintain their supremacy in the changing society. These yajnas
brought to them a large amount of wealth in form of dana and
dakshina. Some of the important yajnas were - ashvamedha,
vajapeya, rajasuya etc. Firstly, it established the authority of the
chiefs over the people, and secondly, it reinforced the territorial
aspect of the polity since people from all over the kingdom were
invited to these sacrifices.
• A large number of cattle and other animals which were sacrificed
at the end of each yajna. As a result a reaction against this also
was seen in the society. Therefore, a path of good conduct and
self-sacrifice was recommended for happiness and welfare in the
last sections of the Vedas, called the Upnishads. The Upnishads
contain two basic principles of Indian philosophy viz., karma and the
transmigration of soul, i.e., rebirth based on past deeds. According
to these texts real happiness lies in getting moksha i.e. freedom
from this cycle of birth and re-birth

34 Ancient India
Concept Builder
The Chief priests who were engaged in performing the sacrifices were:-
1. Hotri: The invoker, he recited hymns from Rig Veda
Notes 2. Adhvaryu: The executor, he recited hymns from Yajur Veda.
3. Udgatri: The singer, he recited hymns from Sama Veda.
• Basic doctrine of Brahmanas: Sacrifices now mystically repeated.

Old gods become unimportant. Visnu and Rudra (called Siva, the
propitious), originally deprecatory gain prominence
Some important ceremonies related to the Vedic Age

• Rajasuya: The King’s influence was strengthened by rituals. He
performed this sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme
power on him.
• Ashvameda: A King performed the Asvamedha, which meant
unquestioned control over the area in which the royal horse ran
uninterrupted. The ceremony lasted for three days at the end of
which horse sacrifice was performed.
• Vajapeya: A king performed the Vajpeya or the chariot race, in which
the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen. The
ritual lasted for seventeen days and was believed not only to restore
the strength of the middle-aged king but also to elevate him from the
position to raja of that of samrat
Later Vedic Age Rig Vedic Age

Geographical Ganges-Yamuna Doab and the territories Confined to Sapthsindhu i.e. North Western
Extent on its fringe part of India and areas adjoining Pakistan.
Agriculture was the main occupation.
Chief The trade and crafts were
Cattle rearing were the main occupation.
Occupation relatively developed as compared to Rig
Vedic Age
Level of
No urban settlements No urban settlements
Urbanization
Dwellings and Rig Vedic Aryans led a nomadic life. The
Later Vedic people led a settled life.
lifestyle houses were made up of wattle and daub.
Language and Later Vedic Aryans did not know how to Rig Vedic Aryans did not know how to read or
Script read or write write.
Existence of a tribal polity. The basic unit of
Tribal polity got replaced with the society was family or graham. The institutions
monarchies and royal officers. The like Sabha, Samiti, Gana and Vidhata were
Polity
important royal officers are mentioned in important decision making bodies. Although
the Later Vedic literature for the first time. king or Raja existed but his primary duty was
to lead the tribe in the war.
The sacrifice cult became complex and
Indra, Agni and Som were the chief
important during this period. Vishnu and
deities. The prayers were offered for the
Rudra as the deities gained prominence
Religion and accomplishment of the worldly desires like
over the Rig Vedic Gods.
rituals victory in war, birth of male child etc. Rituals
In Upanishads the other worldly concepts
and sacrifices were relatively simpler vis-à-vis
like rebirth, soul and its transmigration
later Vedic Age.
are discussed for the first time.

Ancient India 35
• Garbhadhana: A ceremony which is performed to promote

conception in women
• Pumsayam: This ritual is performed to procure a male child
• Semontonayam: It is ritual performed to ensure the safety of the Notes
child in the womb.
• Jatkarma: It is a birth ceremony performed before the cutting of the
umbilical cord.
• Culakarma: It is a ritual, also known as tonsure, performed for boys
in their third year.
• Upanayana: It is an initiation ceremony to confor dvija(twice horn)
status of boys of the higher varnas in their eight year.
Concept Builder
Brahadaranyaka Upanishad is the first to give doctrine of transmigration
of soul (Samsara) and Karma. As per this Upanishad the soul passes to
world of fathers then to the moon then empty space, then air, descent
on earth as rain, grows in plant, eaten by humans, giving birth to child.
Later Vedic Polity

• The nature of chiefship changed in this period. The chiefship had
become hereditary. The territorial idea gained ground.
• The elaborate coronation rituals such as vajapeya and rajasuya
established the chief authority. As the chiefs became more powerful,
the authority of the popular assemblies started waning. The officers
were appointed to help the chief in administration and they acquired
the functions of the popular assemblies as main advisors.
• A rudimentary army too emerged as an important element of the
political structure during this period. All these lived on the taxes
called bali, the shulka, and the bhaga offered by the people.

36 Ancient India
Notes & Updates...


Ancient India 37
Chapter
The Rise of
05 Territorial States Notes
• Sixteen territorial states came into existence in 6th Century B.C.,

they were also called Mahajanapads. These Mahajanapadas were
either monarchical or republican in character. The geographical
locations of monarchies and republics were unique with the fact that
monarchical kingdom occupying the Ganga-Yamuna valley and the
republics being located near the foothills of the Himalayas.
The State formation in Later Vedic Age

• As per the Vedic texts Aryan tribes were known as the Janas,
which were the largest social units. The term janapada composed
of Janas means “people” or “subject” and pada “foot”.
A janapadin was the ruler of a janapada. Ancient Sanskrit texts like
Ashtadhyayi, Ramayana, Mahabharata and numerous Puranas
refer to many Janapadas of ancient times.
• From the sixth century B.C. onwards, the widespread use of iron
in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Western Bihar, as evidenced from
excavations at Raj Ghat and Chirand, led to the formation of large
territorial states which were better equipped militarily and in which
warrior class played the main role.
MONARCHIES REPUBLICS
• Divinity of the king • Meeting of the representatives of the tribes

• Theoretically the land was owned by the king and 1/6th of or the head of the families in the public
the produce was the general rate of land tax. assembly
• A number of tax collecting officers were there most • This Assembly was presided over by the

important of them were the Tundiyas and Akasiyas who raja which simply was a title given to the
were to collect taxes, from the people either by beating chief, who was not a king.
and binding or by dispossessing them from their earnings. • The office of the raja was not hereditary.
• The possession of a royal standing army, the tax system • The administration was in the hands of the
became more elaborate and complex. officials.
• The basic units of social and economic organization in • The elder members of the aristocratic
general were the villages. Each village was under the families, known as rajakulas were credited
jurisdiction of a head man who was responsible for with the right of declaring wars.
collecting taxes which were brought to the royal treasury • There was an elaborate judicial procedure.
by other officials. The Gramani was also called Gramika • The terms Maharatta and Amatya were used
or Gramadhyksha. to describe the officials both in the republics
• The Senaadayaka occupied an exalted place in the list and in Kingdoms.
of high functionaries.
• At first the private ownership was not widespread but
later it was possible.
• The jungles were under the jurisdiction of the state.
• The Shudras were generally the cultivators.
• The untouchables as a category emerged.
• The sabha and samiti began to lose their importance
towards the end of the Vedic period.

38 Ancient India
• In the post-Vedic period, the entire northern territory mostly situated

north of the Vindhyas and extending from the North-West frontier
to Bihar was divided into sixteen territorial states called Sodasha
Notes Mahajanapadas.
• The Buddhist literature, particularly the Anguttara Nikaya lists the
sixteen mahajanapadas given as – Gandhara, Kamboja, Assaka,
Vatsa, Avanti, Surasena, Chedi, Malla, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya,
Vajji, Anga, Kosala and Magadha.
MONARCHIES
Kashi
• With its capital at Banaras, Kashi was at first the most powerful
among the sixteen states and perhaps played an important part
in the subversion of the Videhan monarchy. Eventually it had to
submit to the power of Kosala and later annexed by Ajatashatru to
Magadha.
Kosala
• It embraced the area occupied by eastern Uttar Pradesh and has its
capital at Shravasti. Kosala was bounded on the west by the river
Gomati, on the south by the Sarpika or Syandika (Sai), on the east
by the Sadanira (Gandak) which separated it from Videha and on
the north by the Nepal hills.
• Ayodhya, Saketa and Shravasti were important cities. Prasenjit,
the Kosalan king was the contemporary of king Bimbisara and king
Ajatasatru of Magadha.
• Though Prasenjit did not embrace Buddhism, one of the Bharhut
sculptures highlights cordiality between Prasenjit and Buddha.
Anga
• Anga in the east of Magadha roughly corresponds to the modern
districts of Monghyr and Baghalpur. Its capital Champa, situated on
the bank of the river of the same name, was noted for its wealth and
commerce. It was annexed to Magadha in the time of Bimbisara.

Magadha
• Between Anga and Vatsa there lay the kingdom of Magadha,
corresponding to modern Patna and Gaya districts, bounded on the
north and west by the rivers Ganga and Son, on the south by the
Vindhya outcrop and on the east by the river Champa. Rajagriha or
Girivraja, rendered impregnable by a perimeter of five hills, was the
Magadhan capital. The earliest dynasty of Magadha was founded
by Brihadratha. However, Magadha came into prominence under
Bimbisasra and Ajatsatru.
Vatsa
• The Vatsa country had a monarchical form of government. Its
capital was Kausambi. Udayana, the ruler of this country in the sixth
century B.C. had to struggle against king Ajatasatru of Magadha
and king Pradyota of Avanti.
• To begin with, Udayana was opposed to Buddhism but later on
he became a follower of Buddha and made Buddhism the state
religion. Later, during the reign of Palaka, Vatsa was annexed to
the Avanti kingdom.

Ancient India 39
Avanti
• The state of Avanti roughly corresponded to modern Malwa. The
river Vetravati divided Avanti into north and south. Territorially, it
was a big kingdom and its capital was Ujjayini or modern Ujjain. The Notes
ruler of Avanti in the time of Buddha was Chanda Pradyota. He was
a contemporary of Udayana of Kausambi. Although he was given
the nickname of Chanda on account of his ferocity, he became a
convert to Buddhism.
• Avanti became a very important centre of Buddhism. The kingdom
of Avanti was finally annexed to Magadhan Empire by Sishunaga.
Gandhara
• The state of Gandhara roughly corresponded to modern Kashmir
and extended upto the Kabul valley. Its capital was Taxila which
was a famous seat of learning where scholars came from all over
the world. According to the Buddhist tradition, the Gandhara King
Pukkusati exchanged gifts with Bimbisara in Magadha and went on
foot to see the Buddha.
Kamboja
• It was the country adjoining Gandhara in the extreme North-
West with Dwarka as its capital. A little before 530 B.C. Cyrus,
the Achaemenid emperor of Persia crossed the Hindukush and
received tributes from the people of Kamboja, Gandhara and the
trans-Indus area. During Kautilya’s time, Kamboja transformed from
a monarchy to a republic.
Matsya
• The Matsyas were to the south of the Kurus and west of the Yamuna.
The Matsya country corresponded roughly to the former state of
Jaipur in Rajasthan.
Kurus
• The Kuru country roughly corresponded to the modern Delhi and

the adjoining doab region. It was the most important kingdom of the
later Vedic period but during the sixth century B.C. the Kurus did not
occupy the same position. They set up their capital at Hastinapur.
Panchala
• The Panchala kingdom covered the modern districts of Bareilly,
Badaun and Farukhabad lost its prominent position as in the Vedic
period. Their capital was at Kampila.
Surasena and Chedi
• The Surasena kingdom was south of the Matsyas with its capital at
Mathura. The kingdom of the Chedis corresponded roughly to the
eastern parts of Bundelkhand and adjoining areas
REPUBLICS
Vajjis
• The Vajji territory lay north of the Ganga and stretched as far as the
Nepal hills. The Vajji state is said to have been a confederation of
eight clans (atthakula) of whom the Videhans, the Lichchhavis, the
Jnatrikas and the Vrijjis were the most important.
• In all likelihood the Vajji confederation was organised after the
decline and fall of the Videhan monarchy and was a republican state

40 Ancient India
in the time of Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. The most powerful of

them were the Lichchhavis with their capital at Vaishali.
Mallas
Notes • The territory of the Mallas, a republican, was divided into two parts,
each having its own capital. The two capital cities were Kushinara
and Pava. The importance of these two cities is very great in the
history of Buddhism as Buddha took his last meals and was taken
ill at Pava and at Kushinara, he died.
Assaka
• The kingdom of Assaka (Asmaka) was situated near the river
Godavari in the South. Its capital was Patlia or Potna.
Concept Builder
In the sixth century BC only 4 states-Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha
survived. The political history of India from the sixth century BC
onwards is the history of struggle between these states for supremacy.
Ultimately the kingdom of Magadha emerged to be the most powerful
and succeeded in founding an empire.
HARYANKA DYNASTY
Bimbisara (544 BC – 492 BC)
• Annexed Anga and controlled some important trade centres and trade
routes.
• The earliest of the Indian Kings to stress the need for an efficient
administration.
• Matrimonial alliances:
a) Married to the Kosalan princess (Prasenjit’s sister)
b) Married to the Lichchavi princess Chellana (daughter of Chetaka)
c) Married to the Madra princess Khema.
• Diplomatic relations with Avanti and Gandhara.
• Sent the physician Jivaka to Ujjain for the treatment of Pradyota,
the ruler of Avanti

• Exchanged letters with Pukkusati of Gandhara, contemporary of
Buddha.
Ajatashatru (492 BC – 460 BC)
• Began the era of conflict between Magadha and Kosala.
• Prasenjit’s own minister Dirgha charayan betrayed him.Prasenjit
died in Rajagriha. Kosala was annexed to Magadha without fighting.
• Took 16 years to suppress the Vrijji confederacy, especially the
Lichchavis. In thiscase his Brahmin minister Vassakara had to play a
dominant role.
Udayin (460 BC – 444 BC)
• Shifted the capital to Pataliputra.
SISUNAGA DYNASTY
• Temporarily the capital was shifted to Vaishali.
• Annexed Avanti and thus the 100 years old rivalry between Avanti
and Magadha come to an end.
Kalasoka (396 BC – 391 BC)
• The ruler of Magadha when the second Buddhist council was held
at Vaishali.

Ancient India 41
THE NANDA DYNASTY

Mahapadma Nanda
• The Nanda were the first of a number of non-kshatriya dynasties.
The Nanda are called the first empire builders of India. Notes
• Founder of the Nanda dynasty. He was Ekarat, Sarvakshatrantaka
and the second Parshuram.
• Conquered Kalinga and suppressed a rebellion Kosala.
Dhanananda
• The ruler of Magadha when Alexander’s invasion took place.
SOCIO ECONOMIC CONDITIONS AND ADMINISTRATION

Royal Officials
• A large number of officers called Mahamatras were appointed. Those
Mahamatras who were incharge of work of general nature were called
Sarvathaka. The Mahamatras in charge of the administration of justice
were known as Vyavaharika. The Mahamatras who looked after the
army were called Senanayaka. Dronamapakas were in charge of
revenue. Rajjugrahakas were in charge of the work of cadastral survey.
Justice
• The King was considered to be the fountain head of the justice and
it was his duty to administer the same. The procedure was different
at different places and it was the duty of a judge to administer justice
according to the local custom. Consideration of castes, family and
locality played their part in the administration of justice.
Army
• The king, to protect the people, had to keep a strong army. Generally
there were four divisions of the army, viz., elephants, chariots,
horses and foot-soldiers. The weapons used in the wars were bows,
iron-tipped arrows, spears, swords etc. We are told that Ajatasatru
had a new type of chariot called Pathamusala and a machine to hurl

big stones called Mahasilakantaga.
Sources of Revenue
• Some money came from the vassal states in the form of tribute.
Some money was realized from the tax called Bali. However, the
most important source of income was from land. The Bhaga or share
of the king of the grains produced was one-sixth of the produce and
was collected by officials known as Bhagadughas.
• Grama-bhojaka was the village headman and was also the important
revenue official. He was either elected by the village council or was
a hereditary officer. Traders paid octroi duties and other taxes.
People also gave gifts to the king. What was called “milk money”
was given to the king on the occasion of the birth of an heir to the
throne.
Economic Conditions
• Most of the people lived in villages and agriculture was their main
occupation. The herdsman was known as Gopalak who were landless
labourers and slaves who were employed by others to work in the
fields. Every village was practically self-sufficient.
• Rice was the staple food. Sugarcane, fruits, vegetables and flowers
were also cultivated.

42 Ancient India
• Guild (Sreni) system seems to have been in existence. At the head of

each Guild was a President. There were many Guilds of workers and
their number is usually given as 18. There is a reference to the terms
Notes Setthi which probably means a head merchant. The barter system
had ceased to exist and the system of standard currency and token
coins issued and regulated by the Government had not yet arisen
Social Condition
• Indian society was divided into four castes, viz., the Brahmanas, the
Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas and the Sudras. Castes were an important
factor in the social life.
• The Kshatriyas and Brahmanas were exempted from taxes which
were paid by the middle classes.
• The Brahmanas went through the four Ashramas prescribed by the
Hindu law-givers. They were employed by the king for the performance
of sacrifices and the prediction of the future.
• The Kshatriyas were the representatives of political power. They
symbolized the idea of the state. They attached great importance to
the purity of blood and did not consider any person of pure blood who,
through his mother or father, belonged to another caste.
• The Vaishyas were better known by the word ‘Gahapati’.
Slavery
• Persons who were captured or whose death sentences were
commuted became slaves. People were also made slaves for debts
due from them. Criminals were also made slaves. Slaves could be
given as gifts. They were also sold. Some people were born slaves
and they could not own property. It is true that they could be beaten
or treated harshly but generally they were treated with kindness.
A slave could get his freedom either by pleasing his master or by
making a payment of money to him.

Ancient India 43
Chapter
06 The Mauryas Notes
SOURCE OF INFORMATION
Literary Sources
• Arthashastra by Kautilya, Indica by Magesthenese, Mudrarakshasa
by Vishakadatta, Brihad Katha Manjiri by Kshemendra,
Kathasagarsarita by Somdeva
• Puranas, Buddhist literature that include Jataka stories,
Dighanikaya etc, Jaina literature: Kalpasutra written by Bhadrabhau,
Paristhaparvan by Hemchandra
• Tamil literature: Mamulnar and Parnar
Other sources
• Punch Mark Coins: They are the first set of coins issued in India.
They are mainly of silver but also of copper. The regular symbol was
of a central authority, punched on an entire sheet, before cutting.
Concept Builder
During Mauryan period, the punch marked coins (mostly of silver) were
the common units of transactions.
• Ashokan Edicts: Rocks, Pillars and Caves

• Inscriptions at Soughara and Mahasthan (Bangladesh). The latter
informs us about the famines during the Mauryan period.
• Pottery: Various types of pottery were used: Red Ware, Black Ware,
Grey Ware and NBPW (Northern Black Polished Ware). NBPW
is the distinctive pottery, used largely for dishes and small bowls
produced in the Ganges basin in the neighborhood of Kausambi
and Patna.

Chandragupta Maurya
• Kautilya/Chanakya aided Chandragupta in the struggle against
Nandas and captured the throne of Magadha.
• The foreign writers like Justin, Arien and Strabo call Chandragupta
as “Sandrocottus”.
• Chandragupta met Alexander in 326-325 B.C, crowned himself in
321 B.C. Occupied Avanti in 313 B.C,
• Fought with Seleucus, the commander of Alexander in 305 B.C.
and concluded a treaty with him in 303 B.C which also resulted into
the matrimonial alliance. He acquired Gedrosia, Arachosia, Aria
and Paropamisadae through the treaty with Seleucus.
• According to Jaina literature Chandragupta was converted to Jainism,
abdicated in favor of son Simhasena, went with Bhadrabahu to
Shravana-Belagola where he died of slow starvation.
Bindusara
• Known as Simhasena of the Jain tradition. Known as Amirochates
which is the Greek version of the Sanskrit Amitraghata – slayer of
foes. He asked Antiochus I for some sweet wine, dried figs and a
sophist.

44 Ancient India
• Bindusara aided the Ajivikas and Pingalavatsa, an Ajivika saint

prophesied that Asoka would succeed to the throne.
• Bindusara on dying wished to appoint Susima/Sumana the eldest
Notes son to the throne but his ministers (primarily Radha Gupta) preferred
Asoka.
Ashoka
• He was sent to Taxila by Bindusara to quell a revolt. He was then
awarded the viceroyalty of Ujjain. After Bindusara’s death, there
was a power struggle for 4 years.
• The Allahabad pillar mentions Kaurvaki, the mother of Tivara. She
could have adopted the name Tissarakkha on being the chief queen.
Epithets of Ashoka
• Fa-Haien and Buddhist sources call the young Asoka, Chanda
Asoka (Asoka the cruel), who built a hell on earth.
• Rock Edicts states only ‘Devanamapiya’. Piyadassi is his name on
the edicts and means he who regards ‘amiably’ or of gracious mien.
Devanamapiya means ‘dear to the gods’
Society and Economy
Do You Know?
Megasthenes in his Indica had mentioned 7 castes in Mauryan society.
They were philosophers, farmers, soldiers, herdsmen, artisans,
magistrates and councilors.
• The expansion of the agrarian economy under single political control

facilitated the administrative system in the evaluation of taxes. The
position of Brahmanas and Kshatriyas was interchangeable. By the
Mauryan period, the Brahmans had consolidated their position.
• The king being the representative of the state was regarded as the
owner of the land. The crown lands of the Arthshastra were lands
owned personally by the king. The rest of the land theoretically
belonged to the state. Brahmanical law made a distinction between

ownership of land (svam, svatra, svamya) and enjoyment of land
(bhoga). Land could be bought and sold but this land was not the
absolute property of the individuals.
Concept Builder
Sudras were involved in agriculture for the first time during Mauryan
period. Prior to Mauryan period, they were involved in the services of
the upper varnas.
Do You Know?
The most important route during Mauryan period was the Royal
Highway from Pataliputra to Taxila, which was extended eastwards to
reach Tamluk and was the chief trade route with the West, Taxila being
the exchange centre.
• Land tax varied according to fertility of the land. It was one fourth in
the fertile Patliputra and its environs and one sixth in Lumbini which
Ashoka changed to 1/8. A tax was levied on the type of irrigation
from one fifth to one third of the produce.

Ancient India 45
• Villages were listed as:

a) Pariharaka- exempted from taxes
b) Ayudhiya- those supplied soldiers
c) Hiranya- paid taxes in form of grains, cattle, gold Notes
d) Kupya- supplied raw material
e) Visti- supplied free labor and dairy product in lieu of taxes
f) Sita- Crown village.
Artisan craftsmen
• All the artisans and craftsmen used to pay tribute to the state; except
armours, shipbuilders and implement makers who were directly
employed by the state. These and were paid wages by the state.
Finished goods were taxed immediately and stamped to distinguish
from old unsold goods.
• Areas of city were inhabited by tradesmen of a specific craft. There
were tradesmen villages where one craft was patronized due to
easy availability of raw material. This led to the formation of sreni
or guilds.
Guilds
• Guild leaders in the urban centers had the factual control of urban
institutions. Most from them were the supporters of the heterodox
sects particularly Buddhism.
• Three pre-requisites for guild (sreni) formation were:

i) Localization of occupation
ii) Hereditary character of profession
iii) Acceptance of guild leader
• Guilds were registered by local officials and had a recognized status.
Guilds other than local co-operative ones were prohibited from
entering villages. A guild couldn’t move from one area to another
without official permission. They developed a social hierarchy

within their class based on occupation. Guilds acted as a check on
fraudulent practices. These guilds fixed the wages and ensured the
quality of work. There was strict supervision of production. It was
difficult for individual to work outside guilds.
• Gold, copper, silver, iron, lead and antimony were used. Precious
stones were important. The period witnessed a transition from wood
work to stone work. Cities were built mainly of wood though brick
also employed.
Concept Builder
During Mauryan rule, though there was banking system in India, yet
usury was customary and the rate of interest was 15% per annum on
borrowing money. In less secure transactions (like sea Voyages etc)
the rate of interest could be as high as 60% per annum
• Merchants were prevented from making too much profit; percentage

of profit was fixed. Supply and demand were regulated. Sale and
mortgage of goods was only in the presence of a superintendent.
Taxes varied on each commodity, the general tax being about 10%.
It was punishable offence to buy untaxed goods. Taxes on foreign

46 Ancient India
goods could be remitted. Fraudulent practices in weights and

measures were severely punished. Kautilya presents the picture of
an ideal state. Goods were confiscated and fines imposed for tax
Notes evasion. People stole from the tax collector.
Do You Know?
Tamralipti/ Tamuk, Broach and Sopara were the main ports during
the Mauryan period. Tamralipti in the Gangetic delta was the most
prosperous port on the East coast of India.
Condition of Women
• Women were subordinate to men and later law givers regarded them
as inferior, unfit for education, primarily a child bearer. Megasthenes
states polygamy was general.
• Prostitutes were taxed and protected from mal-treatment and were
used as spies. Women were used as armed bodyguards to protect
the king.
• Widows could marry outside the in-laws family after the consent of
her father-in-law. Divorce was permitted if both husband and wife
wished in 3 types of marriage (i) voluntary unions (ii) abductions (iii)
marriage with high bride price. Respectable marriage couldn’t be
dissolved.
Slaves
Concept Builder
According to Megasthenes there were no slaves in India, this is factually
incorrect as slaves existed in India.
• Hired labor was used by artisans in houses as domestic labor and

on ships. In Indian literature the term used for forced labor is Visti.
Dandadasa was slavery as a result of punishment. They were used
mainly in domestic services and sometimes for agriculture. The
owner’s child through a female slave made both free.
Outcastes
• The outcaste or Hinajati were the lowest in the hierarchy, below the
slaves. They were considered unclean and there were completely
segregated from the others. Many of them were not permitted to
live in the cities and villages. They lived on the outskirts of the cities
and villages.
• Chandalas worked as public executioners, cleaners of cremation
grounds etc. Rathakaras handled leather hence considered impure.
Venas made baskets. Nisada were hunters and fishermen. They
were deliberately kept uneducated.
Administration
Do You Know?
Mauryan state was highly centralized in which the state controlled
almost every realm of the lives of its subjects. In terms of centralization
Mauryan state was at its apex in Indian history.
• The Mauryan state represented the triumph of monarchy over tribal

republics (sangha).

Ancient India 47
Concept Builders
The state officers during Mauryan period were paid salary in cash.
• Under Asoka the king had complete control over all spheres of social Notes
and political life including the welfare of the people, as evident in the
Dhauli edict- “All men are my children”. During Mauryan period, the
titles like Devanamapiya were used by the kings. This was done to
emphasize the connection between kingship and God.
THE MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION

The King
The Mauryan government was a centralized bureaucracy of which the
nucleus was the king (the king was a paternal despot according to
Ashokan interpretation).
The Mantri Parishad
a) Some mantris
b) The Yuvaraj
c) The Purohita (the chief priest) with a salary 48,000 panas per year
d) The Senapati (the commander in chief of the army) with a salary of
48,000 panas per year
IMPORTANT OFFICIALS
• Amatyas: The Secretaries
• Adhyakshas: The Superintendents. Each department had a large
staff of superintendents. They worked at local centers and were a
link between the local administration and the central government.
• Sannidhata: Chief treasury officer (salary was 24000 panas per
year)
• Samaharta: The collector general of Revenue (salary was 24000
panas per year)He was assisted by a body of clerks to keep the
records of taxes which came from different parts of the country.
• Durgapala: Governor of fort

• Antapala/Antamahamatra: Governor of the frontier.
• Akshapatala: Accountant General
• Vachabhumika: Officer in charge of the rest houses, groves and
wells etc.
• Dhamma mahamatras: Empowered with the dual functions of
propagating Dhamma (A new post created by Ashoka) and taking
care of the common folk for their material well being.
• Lipikaras: Scribes (salary was 120 Panas/year)
• Prativedikas: Reporters.
• Kumaras: The viceroys in charge of a province. Generally they
were of regular though the exceptions were also there.Inorder to
check the growing power of the viceroys the provincial ministers
were empowered sufficiently.
• Pradesikas: They were the modern district magistrates and in
charge of district. They were to make tours once in every 5 years
& inspect the entire administration of the area was under control.
• Rajukas: They were the later day Patwaris. They were responsible
for surveying and assessing the land. In rural areas they were the
judicial officers.

48 Ancient India
• Yukta: A subordinate revenue officers of the district level.He was

responsible for the secretarial work of accounting.
• The Pradesikas, the Rajukas and the Yuktas were the district
Notes level officers.
• Between the districts and the gramas, there was also an
intermediate unit consisting of 5 or 10 villages. The chief officials
of this unit were
• Gopa: Responsible for the accounting of the unit
• Sthanika: The tax collecting officer directly under the control of the
Pradesikas.
The Village Level Officers

• Gramika: Head of a village. He was generally elected by the people.
He was not a paid servant.
• Gramvriddhas: Village elders (to assist the Gramika in his work.)
• Every village had its own Pandhayat to settle the disputes.
The Municipal Administration

(For big cities like Pataliputra, Taxila, Ujjain, Kaushambi, Somapa etc.)
The Nagaraka : the officer in charge of the city administration.
For Patliputra
Six Boards of 5 members each
1. The Board of Industries and Handicrafts
2. The Board of Visitors to the city
3. The Board of Census
4. The Board of Vigilance of Manufactured goods and sale of
commodities.
5. The Board of Trade regulations (licensing etc.)
6. The Board of Tithes (1/10 of all the goods sold in the city)·
The members of these boards were not elected rather appointed.·
The city of Taxila was Nigama and had the right to issue it’s own
currency.
Concept Builder
Pataliputra had a special committee for foreigners.
Do You Know?
The fiscal year in Mauryan age commenced from Asadha (July) with
354 working days.
i) Sitadhyaksha: supervised agriculture of the king’s domain (Sita).

ii) Panyadhyaksha controlled commerce.
iii) Samsthadhyaksha: Regulation of markets.
iv) Pautavadhayaksha: looked after weights and measures
v) Sulkadhyaksha: Regulation of tolls.
vi) Navadhyaksha: Regulation of ships.
vii) Akaradhyaksa: Regulation of mines.
viii)Lohadhyaksha: Regulation of iron.
ix) Ganikadhyaksha: Regulation of prostitutes.

Ancient India 49
Concept Builder
There were four provinces in the Mauryan period which were
administered by Aryaputras or the close members or the royal family.
The following were the four provinces: Taxila-North, Suvarnagari- Notes
South, Ujjain-West, Tosali- East
• The council of ministers at the provincial levels had more powers

since they had direct contact with the king. This acted as check and
balance for the prince Viceroys or the in-charge of the provinces.
• The village administration was carried on by headman chosen
from village elders, who supervised tax collection and matters of
discipline and defense.
• A new service began in the 14thyear of Ashoka’s reign. It was
concerned with propagating Dhamma called Dhammamattas.
More importantly they could interfere with the functioning of various
religious sects and secular institutions though initially they were
concerned only with the welfare of the people.
Ashokan Edicts
• The edicts of Ashoka are a series of inscriptions on stone pillars
and boulders of which over 150 have been found and studied by
scholars. The Asokan edicts and inscriptions inform us not only
about Asoka’s personality but also about the main events of his
reign.
• The inscriptions are in (a) the Prakrit language (which varies
according to zonal requirements) and the Brahmi script (b) North-
Western Prakrit and the Kharosthi script (c) the Greek language
and script and (d) the Aramaic language and script.
• The Edicts are classified according to the surfaces on which they
have been inscribed – rocks, pillars and caves.
Do You Know?

Only from Allahabad, both minor and major Rock Edicts have been
unearthed.
MAJOR ROCK EDICTS

• 14 Major Rock Edicts are discovered at Kalsi, Manshera,
Shahbazgarhi, Girnar, Sopara, Yerragudi, Dhauli and Jaugada,
and apart from these two separate edicts are discovered at Dhauli/
Tosali and Jaugada/Samapa.
• Rock Edict 1: Prohibition of animal sacrifice and some evil
causing festivals.
• Rock Edict 2: It describes the medical missions sent everywhere
(land of Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras, Ceylon) for men and
animals.
• Rock Edict 3: In the 12th year of Ashoka’s reign the officers like
Yuktas, Rajukas and Pradesikas were ordered to tour and propagate
Dhamma.
• Rock Edict 4: The sound of the drum (Bherigosha) has become the
sound of Dhamma (Dhammagosha)
• Rock Edict 5: The officers called Dhamma-mahamatas were
appointed in the 13th year of reign of Ashoka.

50 Ancient India
• Rock Edict 6: Ashoka is available anywhere for the quick dispatch

of business.
• Rock Edict 7: All sects should dwell everywhere and in peace.
Notes • Rock Edict 8: After 10 years consecration, Ashoka visited the Bodhi
tree, ended pleasure tours, hunting and began dhamma tours.
• Rock Edict 9: All ceremonies are useless except Dhamma which
includes respect for other and regard even for slaves/servant.
• Kalsi version-Dhamma ceremony produces merit in future and
present life.
• Girnar version-gift of dhamma is best and leads to heaven.
• Rock Edict 10: Ashoka has no desire for fame and glory except
that people obey Dhamma.
• Rock Edict 11: Gift of Dhamma is best which brings gain in this
world and merit in the next.He elaborates on Dhamma
• Rock Edict 12: Asoka honors all the sects, ascetics and laymen
and prefers the advancement of the essential doctrines of all sects.
All officers-(dhamma mahamattas, women officers, managers of
state farms) are concerned with it.
• Rock Edict 13: In the 9th year of his reign, Kalinga was conquered
and 100,000 people killed, many more perished and 150,000
deported and resulted in overall remorse.
• Forest tribes repent or they will be killed. Dhammavijaya is the
foremost victory which he has gained in areas of Antiochus,
Ptolemy, Antigonus, Magas, Alexander, Cholas, Pandyas,
Ceylon, Kambojas, Nabhakas, Nabhapanktis, Bhojas, Pitinikas,
Andhras and Parindas. Successors shouldn’t think of future
conquest.
• Ashoka’s regret and remorse at the sufferings caused by the
Kalinga war leading to propagation of his new idea of Dhamma
Vijaya
• This is the longest of the 14 major Rock Edicts.
• Rock Edict 14: These inscriptions were ordered to be engraved by
Asoka and exist in abridged, medium length and extended versions.

• 1st Separate edict at Dhauli and Jaugarh - All men are my
children.
Minor Rock Edicts
• God mingle with men on earth due to Asokas efforts. The
announcement was proclaimed while on tour. 256 nights spent on
tour. Rajukas will receive instructions and then instruct others.
Other Edicts
• Queen Edict : mentions about second queen of Asoka
• Barbara cave Inscription: giving away the Barbara cave to Ajivika
sect
• Kandhar Bilingual Rock Inscription: Expresses satisfaction over
Asoka’s policy
Buddhist Related Inscriptions
• Bhabra: King of Magadha, Buddha, Rahula, Upatissa were
mentioned
• Rummindei Pillar: in 30th year Piyadasi visited Lumbini and here
exempted people from land tribute and fixed contribution at 1/8
(atthabhagiye)

Ancient India 51
• Nigalisagar pillar: On 15th year the stupa of Buddha Konakamana

was enlarged.
• Schism edict: This edict has been found at Kausambi (the Allahabad
pillar) Sanchi and Sarnath. All dissenting monks and nuns to be Notes
expelled and made to wear robes and the laymen and officials are
to enforce this order on confession (Uposatha) days.
Ashoka’s Policy of Dhamma
• Asoka’s dhamma was neither a new religion nor a new political
philosophy. Rather, it was a way of life, a code of conduct and a
set of principles to be adopted and practiced by the people at large.
• It may have been influenced by Buddhist and Hindu thought but it
was in essence an attempt on the part of the king to suggest a way
of life which was both practical and convenient as well as highly
moral.
Later Mauryas
• Mauryan dynasty lasted for about 137 years. The first three Mauryan
kings i.e. Chandragupta, Bindusara and Ashoka ruled for 90 years
and the later Mauryas for next 47 years.
• According to some historians after the death of Ashoka the empire
was divided into two parts i.e. eastern and western. The western
part was ruled by Kunala and then for a short while by Samprati.
The eastern part with Pataliputra as capital came under the rule
of Dasaratha. According to the Puranas, the reign of Dasratha
lasted for eight years and also in the same year Kunala died. As
a result Samprati united the two parts and started ruling over both
of them. The last ruler from Mauryan dynasty who ruled Partliputra
was Brihadratha. He was assassinated by his military commander
Pushyamitra Sunga in 184 B.C.

52 Ancient India
Notes & Updates...


Ancient India 53
Chapter
07 Post Mauryan Period Notes
• After the decline of Mauryas, the regional kingdoms were formed.

Unlike Mauryas none of these regional kingdoms could extend their
political authority over the large area equivalent to that of Mauryan
Empire.
a) Sunga dynasty ruled from Videsha in Madhya Pradesh
b) The Kanvas ruled from Patliputra
c) The Indo-Greek rulers ruled over the north western part of the
country
d) The Satvahanas became the dominant power in Deccan and
Central India with Pratishtana or Paithan as the capital
e) The Chedi dynasty ruled over Kalinga
Sunga dynasty (185–73 BC)
• Sunga Dynasty was established by Pushymitra Sunga, a Brahmin
Commander-in-Chief of last Mauryan ruler named Brihadratha in
185 BC.
• The capital of Sungas was Videsha in modern Madhya Pradesh.
Pushyamitra didn’t adopt any royal title and ruled with the name of
Senani.
• He performed two horse sacrifices (Ashwamedha) and one of
these was performed by Patanjli, the great grammarian.
Do You Know?
The famous Grammarian Patanjali was in the court of Sunga king
Pushymitra Sunga.

• During the reign of Sungas, there was a revival of Brahminical
influence. The Bhagavata religion became important.
• The great Buddhist Stupa at Bharhut (in MP) was built during the
reign of Sungas.
• The fine gateway railing which surrounds the Sanchi stupa, built by
Ashoka, was constructed during the Sunga period.
• Pushyamitra was succeeded by his son Agnimitra, the hero of
Kalidasa’s drama ‘Malvikagnimitra’.
• The Greek king Antialcidas ‘I’ sent his ambassador named
Herodotus to the court of Sungas. Herodotus constructed a pillar
“Garudadhwaja” in the honour of God Vasudeva.
• In around the second quarter of the first century BC, the last of
the Shunga ruler Devabhuti was killed treacherously by his minister
Vasudeva.
Kanva dynasty (73 to 28 BC)
• In 73 BC, Devabhuti, the last ruler of the Sunga dynasty, was
murdered by his minister Vasudeva, who usurped the throne and
founded the Kanva dynasty.
• The dynasty was confined to Magdha only. The period of Kanva

54 Ancient India
rule came to an end in 28 BC when their kingdom was annexed by

Satvahanas or Andharas.
Satvahana Dynasty (60 BC to 225 AD)
Notes • The most important native successors of the Mauryas in the
Deccan and Central India were the Satvahanas. Their capital was
Pratishtana or Paithan while Bhrauch was the most important port
city.
• The early Satvahana kings appeared not in Andhra but in
Maharashtra but most of their early inscriptions have been found
in Andhra.
• Simuka (60 BC – 37 BC) was the founder of the Satvahana dynasty.
He was immediate successor of Ashoka in this region.
• The third ruler of the dynasty Satakarni I raised the power and
prestige of the dynasty by conquests. He performed Vedic sacrifices.
• Hala, its 17th ruler, was the author of ‘Gathasaptasati’ or Sattasai in
Prakrit. The text contains the love lures.
• The names of the kings of this dynasty are matrilineal but the society
was patriarchal
• The 23rd ruler of the dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni (106 –
130 AD) who revived the Satvahana power and defeated the Saka
Ksatrap Nahapana. He was the greatest Satavahan ruler.
• The achievements of Gautamiputra Satakarni are recorded in the
Nasik inscription by his mother Gautami Balasri
Concept Builder
In the names of Satavahanas king their mother’s name was associated
• Vasishthiputra Sri Satakarni, its 24th ruler, was married to the

daughter of Saka Kstrapa Rudradaman. Yajna Sri Satakarni, its
27th ruler, was the dynasty’s last great ruler.
• Satavahanas were a great naval power. Pulamavi III, its 30th ruler,
was the last Satvahana ruler.

• Satvahanas were finally succeeded by the Vakataka dynasty in
Maharashtra and Ikshvaku dynasty in Andhara Pradesh.
• Satvahanas started the practice of donating land with fiscal and
administrative rights to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks, which
eventually weakened their authority and resulted in the rise of
feudalism in the later period.
• The earliest inscriptional evidence of land grant in India belongs to
1st Century BC during the reign of Satvahanas
• The famous Stupas built during the Satvahana period are located at
Amravati and Nagarjunakonda.
• The official language of the Satvahanas was Prakrit. They issued
their coins in lead (mainly), copper and bronze.
• Satvahana kingdom was divided into subdivisions called aharas or
rashtras meaning districts. The lowest level of administration was a
grama which was under the charge of a Gramika. There were also
officers called Matyas who were perhaps ministers or advisors of
the king. Revenue was collected both in cash and kind. Satvahanas
kings were the first in Indian history to make tax free land grants to
Buddhists and Brahmanas to gain religious merit.

Ancient India 55
Chedi Dynasty
• After Mauryas, the Chedi dynasty emerged in the Kalinga region,
i.e. modern Odisha. The capital city of this dynasty was Sisupalgarh.
The important ruler of this dynasty was Kharavela. Notes
• Kharavela patronized Jainism and the Hatigumpha inscription gives
a reference of his victories.
The Indo-Greek kings
• After the death of Alexander in 323 BC, many Greeks came to
settle on the North western boarders of India with Bactria (area to
the north-west of the Hindukush mountains in the present day north
Afghanistan) as an important centre. The rulers of Bactria came to
be called the Bactrian-Greeks because of their Hellenistic (Greek)
ancestry. One of the rulers of the line named Demetrius came into
conflict with Pushyamitra the founder of Sunga dynasty.
Concept Builder
Indo-Greek king Menander is mentioned in the famous Buddhist text
Milindapanho which contains philosophical questions that Milinda
asked Nagasena (the Buddhist author of the text) and informs us that
impressed by the answers, the king accepted Buddhism as his religion
• However the most celebrated Indo-Greek ruler was Menander.

His empire appears to have included southern Afghanisthan and
Gandhara, the region west of the river Indus. Menander is believed
to have ruled between c. 155 BC and 130 BC. The last Indo-Greek
king was Hesatrius.
The Sakas
• Saka is the Indian term used for the people called Scythians who
originally belonged to Central Asia. Defeated by their neighbours
the Yueh-chis (the tribal stock to which the Kushanas belonged)
they gradually came to settle in Northwestern India around Taxila

in the first century B.C. Under the successive Shaka rulers their
territories extended up to Mathura and Gujarat.
• Among the five branches of Sakas with their seats of power in
different parts of India, the most important was the one which ruled
in Western India till the 4th Century AD. The five seats of power or
Satraps were:
a) Kapisa (Afghanistan)
b) Taxila (Pakistan)
c) Mathura (Uttar Pradesh)
d) Upper Deccan
d) Ujjain
• The most famous Saka ruler in India was Rudradaman (130 AD
-150 AD). He is famous not only for his military conquests but also
for his public works
• He repaired the famous Sudarshan lake of the Mauryan period and
gave patronage to Sanskrit language
• The Junagarh inscription in Gujarat is attributed to Rudradaman is
first ever inscription written in Sanskrit
• Other important Saka rulers in India were Nahapana, Ushavadeva,
Ghamatika, Chashtana etc.

56 Ancient India
• In about 58 BC a king of Ujjain, Vikramaditya – is supposed to have

fought effectively against the Sakas. An era called Vikrama Samvat
is reckoned from 58 B.C.
Notes The Parthians or Pahlavas (1st Century BC – 1st Century AD)
• The Parthians were of Iranian origin and because of strong cultural
connection with the Sakas these groups were referred to in the
Indian sources as Saka-Pahlava.
• The important inscription indicating the Parthian rule in Northwestern
area of Pakistan is the famous Takht-i-Bahi inscription recovered
from Mardan near Peshawar.
• The inscription, dated in 45 AD, refers to Gondophernes or
Gondophares as a Parthian ruler. Some literary sources associate
him with St. Thomas, who is said to have converted both, the king
and his brother, to Christianity. Pahlavas restricted themselves to
issuing copper coins and in rare instance silver money.
The Kushans (1st - 3rd Century A.D)
• The Kushans were one of the five Yeuchi clans of Central Asia.
They replaced the Parthians in North-Western India and then
expanded to the lower Indus basin and the upper and middle
Gangetic basin.
• The Kushans controlled famous silk route which was a source of
great income to the Kushans. The Kushans were the first rulers in
India to issue gold coins on a wide scale.
• The dynasty was founded by Kadphises I or Kujul Kadhphises. The
second king was Kadphises II or Vema Kadphises and was the first
king who issued the gold coins.
• The most famous Kushan ruler was Kanishka (78 AD – 101 AD)
also known as ‘Second Ashoka’. He started an era in 78 AD
which is now known as the Saka era and is used officially by the
Government of India.
• The empire of Kanshika was spread over a large area in the portion
of five countries i.e. Russia, Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan and India.

His capital was Peshawar
• Kanishka was a great patron of Mahayana Buddhism. In his reign
4th Buddhist council was held in Kundalavana, Kashmir where the
doctrines of the Mahayana form of Buddhism were finalized.
• Kanishka patronized various scholars like Nagarjuna, Ashvagosha,
Vasumitra, Parsava, Chakra and Mathara.
• Large size headless statue of Kanishka is found at Mathura. He
built in the city of Purushpura, a giant stupa to house the Buddha’s
relics.
• The last great Kushan ruler was Vasudeva I.
• Their vast empire helped in the growth of internal and external
trade. It resulted in the rise of new urban centres. The rich state
of economy under the Kushanas is also evidenced by the large
number of gold and copper coins that they struck.
• Charaka, known as father of Ayurveda, wrote a book on medicine
called Charaksamhita whereas Ashvaghosha, a Buddhist scholar,
wrote Buddhacharita, a full length biography of the Buddha. Both
these scholars were believed to be the contemporaries of king
Kanishka.

Ancient India 57
• The Kushanas patronized the Gandhara and the Mathura schools

of sculptural art which are known for producing the earliest images
of Buddha and Buddhisattavas.
• The whole empire was divided into provinces each ruled by a Notes
Mahakshatrapa (a military governor) who was assisted by a
kshatrapa. Sources indicate that Kushana horsemen wore trousers
while riding. A headless statue of Kanishka found at Mathura
reflects the same. A prominent feature of Kushana polity was the
title of devaputra i.e. Son of God used by the Kushana kings. It
indicates the claim to divinity by the Kushana kings.
Religion and Society
• The term Varnasamkaras refer to the revolt against the Varna
order. The term refers to a situation where in the duties and rights
assigned by the Varna order were violated by the people
• The period witnessed an increasing trend in the Varnasamkaras
as a result the law givers of the period like Manu have made very
stringent laws against those who violated or tend to violate the
Varna order.
• In this period the widow remarriage was prohibited, child marriage
came in vogue and women were denied property rights.
• The concept of Avtars of different Gods started during this period.
Some of the foreign rulers were converted to Vaishanavism. The
Greek ambassador Heliodoros set up a pillar in honour of Vishnu
near Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh.
• The famous Greek ruler Menander was converted to Buddhism.
The Kushan rulers worshipped both Shiva and Buddha and the
images of these two gods appeared on the Kushan coins.
Economy
• The most important feature of the post-Mauryan period was the
growth of trade and commerce both internally as well as externally.
There were two major internal land routes in ancient India. First

known as Uttarapatha connected Northern and Eastern parts of
India with the Northwestern fringes, i.e., present day Pakistan and
further beyond.
• The Dakshinapatha was the second and the major route that
connected North and South India. It started from Kaushambi near
Allahabad and running through Ujjaiyini (modern Ujjain) extended
further up to Bhrigukachchha or Broach, an important port on
western coast. The Dakshinapatha was further connected with
Pratishthana (modern Paithan) the capital of the Satvahanas.
• Important ports of India on the western coast were Bharukachchha
Sopara, Kalyana, Muziris, etc. Ships from these ports sailed to the
Roman Empire through the Red Sea. Trade with Southeast Asia was
conducted through the sea. Prominent ports on the eastern coast
of India were Tamralipti (West Bengal), Arikamedu (Tamil Nadu
Coast) etc. Sea trade was also conducted between Bhrigukaccha
and the ports of Southeast Asia.
Trade with West and Central Asia
• An important feature of the commercial activities in the post-
Mauryan period was the thriving trade between India and the West
where the Roman Empire was at its height.

58 Ancient India
• The best account of Indo-Roman trade is given in the book called

Periplus of the Erythrean Sea which was written in the first century
AD by an anonymous author.
Notes • Spices exported from India to the Roman Empire included pepper
also called yavanapriya). Romans also imported several precious
and semiprecious stones like diamond, carnelian, turquoise, agate,
sapphire etc besides pearls, indigo, sandalwood and steel etc.
• Against this import Romans exported gold and silver to India. It
is proved by a large number of Roman coins of the first century
AD found in the subcontinent. Other important items of export
from the Roman Empire included wine which is indicated by wine
amphorae and sherds of Roman ware found in significant numbers
at Arikamedu in south India. Besides, the western traders also
brought tin, lead, coral and slave girls.
Concept Builder
In 46-47 AD Hippalus, a Greek sailor discovered the monsoon sea-
route to India from West Asia. This gave fillip to the trade with India
• Crafts production started growing in this period with tremendous

impetus. The text called Milindapanho mentions 75 occupations of
which 60 were associated with crafts. The level of specialization
was very high and there were separate artisans working in gold,
silver, precious stones etc.
• Ujjain was a prominent bead making centre. Textile industry was
another prominent industry. Mathura and Vanga (east Bengal) were
famous for variety of cotton and silk textiles. The discovery of some
dying vats at some sites in south India indicates that dying was
a thriving craft in the area during this period. The artisans in this
period touched new heights of prosperity and there are numerous
inscriptions which refer to the donations made by artisans to
monasteries.
Guilds
• The communities of merchants were organized in groups known
as Shreni or guilds under the head called sreshthi. Another type
of mercantile group was called sartha which signified mobile or
caravan trading corporation of interregional traders. The leader of
such a guild was called sarthavaha. Like merchants almost all craft
vocations were also organized into guilds each under a headman
called Jyestha. These included weavers, corn dealers, bamboo
workers, oil manufacturers, potters etc.
Art and Architecture
• Art in the post-Mauryan period was predominantly religious. Two
most important features concerning art and architecture of this
period are the construction of stupas and development of regional
schools of sculpture. Idols of the Buddha were carved out for the
first time in this period.
Stupas
• A stupa was a large hemispherical dome with a central chamber
in which relics of the Buddha or some Buddhist monk were kept in

Ancient India 59
a small casket. The base was surrounded by a path for clockwise

circumambulation (pradakshina) enclosed by wooden railings
which were later made in stone. Prominent stupas of this period are
at Bharhut and Sanchi (both in M.P) originally built by Ashoka but Notes
enlarged later and Amravati and Nagarjunkonda (both in Andhra
Pradesh). The Bharhut stupa is important for its sculptures. Its
railings are made of red stone.
• Three big stupas were constructed at Sanchi in this period. The
biggest of the three which was built originally by emperor Ashoka,
was enlarged to twice its size sometime in the second century BC.
A number of stupas were also constructed in south India during
this period but none has survived in its entirety. The Amravati
stupa situated at Amravati in Andhra Pradesh took its final shape
sometime in the second century AD. The sculptures on stupas are
drawn on the themes based on Jataka and other Buddhist stories.
Rock Cut Architecture
• This period also marks a progress in rock cut architecture. A large
number of temples, halls and places of residence for monks were
cut out of the solid rocks near Pune and Nasik in Maharashtra under
the Satvahanas. The place of worship generally had a shrine cell
with a votive stupa placed in the centre. This place was known as a
chaitya and the rock cut structure used as the residence for monks
was called a vihara.
Schools of Sculptural Art
• The first century witnessed the division of Buddhism in two parts
Hinayana and Mahayana. Mahayana Buddhism encouraged
Buddha’s worship as a god in human form. As a result a large
number of Buddha images were built in different regions. There
were three major schools of sculptural art which developed in this
period.
• The Mathura School: The most prominent contribution of the

Mathura school to the contemporary art was the images of Buddha
which were carved for the first time perhaps in this art form. The
Mathura artists used local red stone with black spots to make the
images. Mathura has also yielded large numbers of sculptures
of Jaina deities besides the ayagapatas or stone slabs to place
objects of worship. The Brahmanical influence on the art school
of Mathura is also evident. During the Kushana period a number
of sculptures of brahmanical deities were carved which included
Kartikeya, Vishnu, Kuber.
• The Gandhara School of Art: The Gandhara region was situated
in the northwestern part of the Indian Subcontinent. The school of
art which developed here around the beginning of the Christian
era has been called variously as Graeco-Roman, Indo Greek or
Graeco-Buddhist. This is perhaps because this school has all the
influences-Roman, Greek and Indian. The theme of sculptures in
predominantly Buddhist but their style is Greek. The chief patrons
of Gandhara art were the Shakas and Kushanas.
• The stone used was predominantly blue-grey schist. It has a
beautiful portrayal of human figures with distinguished muscles of
the body. Buddha is depicted with a garment draped in Graeco-

60 Ancient India
Roman fashion and with very curly hair. These beautiful images of
the Buddha are ranked among the best pieces of sculptures.
• The Amravati School of Art: The Amravati school of art flourished
Notes in the region of Andhra Pradesh between the lower valleys of
rivers Krishna and Godavari. The main patrons of this art form
were the Satvahanas but it was patronized by their successor
Ikshavaku rulers as well. Sculptures of this school are mainly found
on the railings, plinths and other parts of stupas. The thematic
representations include the stories from the life of the Buddha.
• An important characteristic of the Amravati school is the ‘narrative
art’. The medallions were carved in such a manner that they depict
an incident in a natural way. For example one medallion depicts
a whole story of ‘taming of an elephant by the Buddha’. Another
important feature of Amravati art is the use of white marble like
stone to carve out the figures. There is prominence of human
figures rather than of nature.

Ancient India 61
Chapter
08 The Age of Guptas Notes
• After the decline of the Kushanas, North India witnessed the rise
of the Gupta dynasty. The Guptas had certain material advantages
that helped them to carve an empire. They operated from eastern
UP and Bihar which was very fertile. They could also exploit the iron
ores of central India and Bihar to their advantage. Their period was
marked by great progress in art, architecture and literature.
• They ruled up to circa A.D550. After their collapse there emerged
various regional kingdoms in north India. South India too witnessed
the rise of two important kingdoms under the Chalukyas and the
Pallavas respectively during AD 550–750.
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Literary sources
• Kamandaka’s Nitisar belonging to the period of Chandragupta I,
Devichandraguptam by Vishakadutta, Mrichachakathika by Sudraka,
Kathasagarsarita by Somdev, Swapanwasavadatta by Bhasa
Archeological sources
• Allahabad pillar of Samudragupta, Paharpur copper plates of
Buddhagupta, Poona copper plate of Prabhavatigupta, The coins
belonging to the Gupta period
Political history
• The founder of the dynasty was Sri Gupta. He used the simple title
of Maharaja.

Chandragupta I
• He was the first Gupta ruler to assume the title of Maharajadhiraja.
He started the Gupta era i.e. 320 A.D.
• He strengthened his kingdom by matrimonial alliance with the
powerful family of Lichchhavis who were the rulers of Mithila. He
took advantage of the situation and occupied the whole of fertile
Gangetic Valley.
• Chandragupa I was able to establish his authority over Magadha,
Prayaga & Saketa.
Samudragupta (335 – 380 A.D)
• Samudragupta was the greatest king of Gupta dynasty. He took the
title Lichichhavidhutra as his mother was Lichichhavi princess
• The most detailed and authentic record of his reign is preserved in
the Prayaga Prasasti/Allahabad pillar inscription composed by his
court poet Harisena.
• Samudragupta’s military compaigns justify description of him as the
‘Napoleon of India’ by V.A. Smith.
• Titles: Kaviraja i.e. king of poets (Prayaga Prasasti), Param Bhagavat
(Nalanda copper plate), Ashvamedha-parakrama i.e. whose might
was demonstrated by the horse-sacrifice (coin), Vikram i.e. prowess

62 Ancient India
(coin), Sarva-raj-ochchhetta i.e. uprooter of all kings (coin) etc. (only

Gupta ruler whose title was Sarva-raj-ochechhetta)
• Gold Coins (Dinars): Garud type, Dhanurdhari i.e. Archer type, Axe
Notes type, Ashvamedha type, Vyaghrahanana i.e. Tiger killing types,
Veenavadan i.e. flute playing type.
• Samudragupta was a Vaishnavite.
• Meghavarma, king of Sri Lanka sent an embassy to Samudragupta
for his permission to build a monastery for Buddhist pilgrims at
Bodh Gaya.
Chandragupta II “Vikramaditya” (380-414 AD)
• According to ‘Devi Chandraguptam’ (Vishakhadatta) Samudragupta
was succeeded by Ramagupta. It seems Ramagupta ruled for a
very short period. He was ‘the only Gupta ruler to issue copper
coins’.
• Chandragupta II succeeded in killing Ramagupta. He extended
the limits of empire by matrimonial alliances (with the Nagas &
Vakatakas) and conquests (Western India).
• He issued the silver coins in the memory of victory over Sakas.
He was the first Gupta ruler to issue silver coins and adopted the
titles Sakari & Vikramaditya. Ujjain seems to have been made the
second capital by Chandragupta II.
• Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien visited India during his regime.
• Mehrauli Iron Pillar inscription says that the king defeated the
confederacy of Vangas and Vahikas (Bulkh).
• Navaratna of Chandragupta II were:
a) Kalidasa
b) Amarsinh (Amarsinhkosha)
c) Dhanavantri (Navanitakam-medicine text)
d) Varahmihira (Panch Sidhantaka, Vrihatsamhit, Vrihat Jataka,
Laghu lataka)
e) Vararuchi (Vartika-a comment on Ashtadhyayi)
f) Ghatakarna
g) Kshapranak
h) Velabhatt
i) Shanku
Kumargupta I (415-455 AD)
• Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta I.
Kumargupta took the titles like Mahindraditya, Mahendra Sinh and
Ashvamedha Mahendrah
• Kumaragupta was the worshipper of god Kartikeya. He founded
the Nalanda Mahavihara which developed into a great centre of
learning.
• Pushyamitra invaded Gupta region during the reign of Kumargupta I.
Skandagupta (455-467 AD)
• Skandagupta was the last great ruler of the Gupta dynasty. During
his reign the Gupta Empire was invaded by the Huns.
• He succeeded in defeating the Huns. Success in repelling the
Huns seems to have been celebrated by the assumption of the title
‘Vikramaditya’ (Bhitari Pillar Inscription).
• The continuous attacks of the Huns weakened the empire and

Ancient India 63
adversely affected its economy. The gold coinage of Skandagupta

bears testimony to this. The decline of the empire began soon after
his death.
• Titles taken were Vikramaditya and Kramaditya (coins), Param Notes
Bhagavat (coins), Sharkropama (Kahaum Pillar Inscription),
Devaraja (Arya Manjushri Mula Kalpa) etc.
Guptan Inscriptions
Rulers Inscriptions Character
Prayaga/Allahabad Stone Pillar Prasasti
Samudragupta Eran Stone Pillar Prasasti
Nalanda Copper Plate Royal Charter
Chandragupta II Mehrauli Iron Pillar Prasasti
Junagarh Rock Prasasti
Skandagupta Bhitari Pillar Prasasti
Indore Stone Pillar Royal Charter
Buddhagupta Paharpur copper Plate Royal Charter
Administration
• Guptan administration was highly decentralized. For the first time
the post of officers became hereditary. There were instances for the
first time that one officer was given more than one post
• The district and local officials were not appointed by the centre but
at the provincial level. The officers were paid salary in cash.
• The Gupta king took exalted titles like the Maharajadhiraja, Samrat,
Ekadhiraja, Chakravartin befitting their large empire and imperial
status.
• The practice of appointing the crown prince (Kumara) came in
vogue. The Gupta kings were assisted by a council of ministers
• The Kumaramatyas formed the chief cadre for recruiting high
officials under the Guptas. It was from them the Mantris, Senapati,

Mahadandanayaka (Minister of Justice) and Sandhivigrahika
(Minister of peace and war) were generally chosen.
• The important Bhuktis (i.e. provinces) of Gupta period were:
Magadha, Barddhaman, Pundra Vardhana, Teerbhukti (Northern
Bihar), Eastern Malwa, Western Malwa & Saurashtra.
• The city committee was comprised of the local representatives. It
was during the Gupta rule that the village headmen became more
important than before.
• The Gupta military organization was feudal by character. For the
first time civil and criminal law were clearly defined and demarcated.
• The army was to be fed by the people whenever it passed through
the countryside. This tax was called Senabhakta.
• The villagers were also subjected to forced labor called vishti for
serving royal army and officials. The Gupta period also experienced
an excess of land grants (Agarhara grants, Devagrahara grants).
Society
• The Varna system begins to get modified owing to the proliferation
of castes. A large number of foreigners had been assimilated into
the Indian society primarily as Kshatriyas. The assimilated tribes
were absorbed into the Shudra Varna. Guilds of craftsmen were

64 Ancient India
often transformed into castes as a result of the decline of trade and

of urban centers and the localized character of the crafts.
• The social position of the Shudras seems to have improved in this
Notes period. Shudras were permitted to listen to the Epics and Puranas
and also worship a new god called Krishna.
• The social position of Vaishyas declined during this period due to
decline in trade.
• From around the 3rd century onwards, the practice of untouchability
appears to have intensified. Katyayana a smriti writer of the Gupta
period was the first to use the expression “asprasya” to denote
untouchable.
• The position of women deteriorated further. Polygamy was common.
Early marriages were advocated and often pre-puberty marriages.
• Meghdoot of Kalidasa informs about the Devdasi system in Mahakal
in Ujjain. Kalidas also inform about the “purdah” prevalent among
the elite class woman.
• The first example of Sati appears in Gupta time in 510 AD in Eran in
Madhya Pradesh (Bhanugupta’s Eran Inscription – 510 AD).
• Vaishnavism became very popular. The gods were activated by their
unions with the respective consorts. Thus Laxmi got her association
with Vishnu and Parvati got her association with Shiva.
• This was the period of evolution of Vajraynism and Buddhist tantric
cults.
Economy
• Land survey is evident from the Poona plates of Prabhavati Gupta
and many other inscriptions. An officer named Pustapala maintained
records of all land transactions in the district.
• The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins in ancient India
but not as pure as Kushanas. The Guptas also issued good number
of silver coins for local exchange.
• The Gupta copper coins are very few as compared to Kushanas
which show that use of money was not the medium of exchange for
the common people.
• The increase in land grants resulted in the oppression of peasants.
This period also witnessed imposition of forced labor and various
new taxes.
• Gupta period witnessed decline in long distance Indo-Roman trade.
The trade with South-East Asia got an impetus.
• The ports of the East coast were Tamralipti, Ghantashala and
Kandura. Tamrlipti was the most important port. The ports on the
western coast were located at Bharoach, Chaul, Kalyan and Cambay.
• The institution of slavery tended to become weak during this period.
Culture
• During the Gupta period the idol worship came into vogue as a
result the practice of free standing temples started for the first time.
• The Nagara Style of architecture evolved during this period. The
temples with shikhar and garbha griha (shrine room) in which the
image of the god was placed began during this period.
• The examples of temple during this period are Dasavatara temple
of Deogarh (Jhansi distric, UP), Siva temple of Bhumra (Nagod,
MP), Vishnu and Kankali temple (Tigawa, MP), Parvati temple of

Ancient India 65
Nanchana-Kuthwa (Panna district, MP), Shiva temple of Khoh

(Satna, Panna, MP), Krishna brick temple of Bhittargaon (Kanpur,
UP), Laxman temple of Sirpur (Raipur, MP), Vishnu temple and
Varah temple of Eran (MP). Notes
• The art of paintings and rock cut caves architecture also reached
to the finest level. The example of these are rock cut caves at
Ajanta, Ellora (in Maharashtra) and Bagh (in Madhya Pradesh). The
frescoes of the Ajanta caves are the masterpieces of the paintings
of this age.
• The examples of Stupas of this period are Mirpur khas (Sindh),
Dhammekh (Saranath) and Ratnagiri (Orissa).
• The centres of the Gandhara sculptures declined and their places
were taken by Benaras, Patliputra and Mathura. For the first time
we get images of Vishnu, Shiva and other Gods.
• Among the best specimen of the images of Buddha is a seated
Buddha image of Sarnath which depicts the Buddha preaching the
Dhamma.
• Of the Brahmanical images perhaps the most impressive is the
Great Boar (Varah) carved in relief at the entrance of a cave at
Udayagiri.
Literature
• Some of the old religious books (viz. Vayu Purana, Vishnu Purana,
Matsya Puran, Ramayan and Mahabharata, Manu Smriti) were re-
written.
• Narada Smriti, Parashara Smriti, Bhrihaspati Smriti and Katyayana
Smriti were written in this period.
• The six philosophies of Hinduism were compiled during this period.
Philosophy Founder
Nyaya Gautama
Vaisheshika Kanada
Samkhya Kapila
Yoga Patanjali

Mimansa Jaimini
Vedanta Badrayana
• Buddhist texts Abhidharma Kosha by Dignaga and Vishudhimagga
by Buddhghosa were written during this period.
Writing Writer
Aryabhatiyan Aryabhatt
Surya Siddhanta Aryabhatt
Brahmasiddhanta Bhramagupta
Panchasiddhantaka Varahamihara
Vrihad Samhita Varahamihara
Meghdootam Kalidas
Raghuvansam Kalidas
Kumar Sambhava Kalidas
Ritu Samhar Kalidas (first poetry)
Abhijyanshakutalam Kalidas
Malvikagnimitram Kalidas (first drama)
Kiratarjuniya Bharavi
Mrichchkatika Sudraka
Mudra Rakshasa Vishaka Dutta
Panchtantra Vishnu Sharma
Kamasutra Vatsayana

66 Ancient India
Notes & Updates...


Ancient India 67
Chapter
09 Post Guptan Period Notes
• With the decline of Guptas various regional kingdom came up. It was
also the time when the epicenter of culture and civilization shifted
to Deccan and the southern part of the country where the powerful
kingdoms like Chalukyas and Pallavas came into prominence.
The Huns (500-530 AD)
• Huns were primitive pastoralists. They roamed in the Steppe in
search of pasture & water. From the Oxus the white Huns came
into Afghanistan, destroyed the local power and began to pour into
India in 458 AD.
• Skandagupta who was ruling in Northern India defeated them
effectively.
• When the Gupta Empire’s resistance collapsed then Huns occupied
the areas up to Central India.
• There were two powerful Hun rulers Toramana & his son Mihirkula.
They ruled during 500-530 AD. Mihirkula, a Shaivite, was a
persecutor of Buddhism.
• In 530 AD, the Huns were uprooted by Yashodarmana of Mandsaur.
Pushyabhuti or Vardhana dynasty
• Pushyabhuti were the feudatories of the Guptas but they assumed
independence after the Hun invasions. The Pushyabhuti or
Vardhana dynasty was founded at Thaneswar.
• The first important ruler of the dynasty was PrabhakaraVardhana
(580-605 AD). PrabhakaraVardhana was succeeded by his eldest
son RajaVardhana (605-606 AD).

HarshaVardhana (606-647 AD)
• RajaVardhana’s younger brother HarshaVardhana ascended
throne in 606 A.D and from this year started the Harsha Era.
• Harsha unified Kannauj with Thaneswar and made it his new capital.
• Harsha conquered Magadha and Shashanka’s empire. He defeated
Dhruvasena II, the ruler of Vallabhi. Harsha married his daughter to
him which was an important diplomatic achievement of Harsha.
• The course of Harsha’s conquests suffered a serious setback on his
expedition towards the Deccan. Pulkeshin II of Chalukya dynasty
of Vatapi/Vadami inflicted a decisive defeat on him at the bank of
Narmada. The Chalukya records describe Harsha as the lord of
whole of Northern country (Sakalottara- Patheshvara).
Do You Know?
Harsha maintained diplomatic relation with China. In 641 AD, He sent
an envoy to Tai-Tsung, the Tang Emperor of China. Three Chinese
missons subsequently visited his court. Hiuen-Tsang, the celebrated
Chinese pilgrim, visited India during Harsha’s reign. He spent about
eight years (635-643 AD) in the dominions of Harsha.

68 Ancient India
• Hiuen-Tsang mentions two most celebrated events of Harsha’s

reign. The assemblies at Kannauj and Prayaga. The Kannauj
Assembly (643 AD) was held in honour of Hiuen-Tsang and to
Notes popularize Mahayana sect of Buddhism.
• The Prayaga Assembly was held in 643-644 AD. In Prayaga,
HarshaVardhana used to celebrate religious festivals at the end of
every five years, at the confluence of the Ganges, the Yamuna &
the Saraswati. It is said that this was the beginning of Kumbha fair.
• HarshaVardhana was a Shaiva by faith, but he showed equal
respect to other sects. Hiuen-Tsang portrays him as a liberal
Buddhist (Mahayana) who also honoured gods of others sects.
• According to Hiuen-Tsang, Nalanda University, meant for Buddhist
monks, was maintained by the revenue from 200 villages granted
by HarshaVardhana.
• He died in 647 AD; Harsha does not appear to have any heir to his
throne which was usurped after his death by his minister named
Arunashva.
Do You Know?
Harsha wrote three Sanskrit plays- Nagananda, Ratnavali &
Priyandarsika. Harsha gathered around him a circle of learned men,
of whom Banabhatta, the author of Harshacharita (an important
historical work narrating the incidents of the earlier part of Harsha’s
reign) and Kadambari (a poetical novel of great literary merit) and
Bhartrihari, the author of Niti Shataka, Shringar Shataka & Vairagya
Shatak (jointly called Shatakatrayi) are the well known.
THE STATES IN SOUTH INDIA

Chalukyas of Badami (543-755 AD)
• Pulakesin I founded the Chalukya dynasty in 543 AD. Chalukyas
established their capital at Vatapi or Badami in district of Bijapur in
Karnataka.
Do You Know?
Pulakesin II (609-42 AD) was able to check Harsha’s design to
conquer Deccan. Aihole inscription is a eulogy written by his court
poet Ravikirti.
• He sent an ambassador to Persian King Khusrau II in 625 AD and

also received one from him. The Chinese pilgrim Huin-Tsang visited
his kingdom.
• Pulakesin II made his brother Vishnu Vardhan as the viceroy of the
Andhara country where he later started a dynastic rule.
Concept Builder
Chalukyas began the Vesara style or Deccan style in the building
of structural temples, which reached culmination, however, only
under the Rashtrakutas and the Hoyasalas.
• In 757 AD, Chalukyas were overthrown by their feudatories, the

Rashtrakutas.

Ancient India 69
Pallavas of Kanchi (575 – 897 AD)

• Simha Vishnu (555 to 590 A.D) was the founder of Pallava dynasty.
• Both Chalukyas and Pallavas tried to establish their supremacy
over land between Krishna and Tungabhadra. Notes
Do You Know?
Pallava ruler Mahendra Varman I was a great builder, poet and
musician. He professed Jainism for some time but became a
Shivaite under the influence of Appar. He wrote various texts like
Mativilas, Vichitra Charita and Gunabhadra.
• Pallava king Narsimhavarman (630-668 AD) occupied Chalukyan

capital Vatapi in about 642 AD and assumed the title Vatapikonda
i.e. conqueror of Vatapi.
• Pallavas were instrumental in spreading Indian culture in South-East
Asia. Till the 8th Century AD Pallavan influence was predominant
in Cambodia.
Concept Builder
Pallavas were the orthodox Brahmanical Hindus and their capital
was Kanchi.

70 Ancient India
Notes & Updates...


Ancient India 71
Chapter
The Early History of

10 South India Notes
The Megalith Culture

• The Neolithic phase of South India was highlighted by the use of
polished stone axe and blade tools and was succeeded by the
Megalithic cultures (1200 BC–300 BC).
• Megaliths were tomb spots consisting of burials or graves covered
with huge (mega) stones. They were, in most cases, located outside
the settlement area.
• These Megalith burials have yielded the first iron objects from south
India. The use of Black and Red ware pottery was also a distinctive
feature of the Megalithic people.
• Prominent sites that have yielded Megalith graves include
Brahmagiri, Maski, (Karnataka), Adichallanur (Tamilnadu) and
Junapani near Nagpur (Maharastra). Identical iron tools have been
found universally from all the Megalith graves. These artifacts
alongwith the food grains such as wheat, rice etc. found at various
megalithic sites indicate that the megalithic people followed agro-
pastoral and hunting activities. The Megalithic period in South India
was followed by the Sangam age.
The Sangam Age
• The term Sangam refers to an assembly or “meeting together”
of Tamil poets. Traditionally, three Sangams or assemblies are
believed to have been convened one after the other. All the three
Sangams took place at different places under the patronage of the
Pandya kings of Madurai.
• Poems within the Sangam literature were composed on two broader

themes of love and war. It was later put together in eight collections
called Ettutogai. This literature is believed to have been composed
between 300 BC and 300 AD.
• Tamilaham stretches between the hills of Tirupati and the tip of
Kanyakumari. It was divided amongst large number of chieftains
and the chieftainship was hereditary. The important chieftains who
dominated Tamil region during Sangam Age were the Cholas with
their capital at Uraiyur, the Cheras with their capital at Vanji (near
Karur) and Pandyas with their capital at Madurai.
• The Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras had several subordinate chiefs.
Tribute from the subordinate chiefs along with plunder was the main
sources of revenue. There were frequent conflicts between the
Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. It gave large scope to the Sangam
poets to compose poems on war.
• The whole Tamilaham was divided into five tinais or eco-zones i.e
zones based on their economic resources. These were: kurinji (hilly
region); palai (arid zone); mullai (pastoral tracts); marudam (wet
lands); and neital (seacoast).
• People in different tinais had their own modes of subsistence. In
kurinji it was hunting and gathering; in palai, where people could

72 Ancient India
not produce anything they took to raiding and plundering; in mullai

people practiced animal husbandry; in marudam it was plough
agriculture; and in neital people took to fishing and salt making.
Notes • Though the concept of Varna was known, social classes in the
Sangam period were not marked by higher or lower rankings as in
North India. For example, Brahmanas were present in the society
and they performed Vedic ceremonies and sacrifices and also acted
as advisers to the chief but they enjoyed no special privileges.
• The rich lived in well decorated brick houses and wore costly clothes
whereas the poor lived in mud huts and had scanty clothes to wear.
War heroes occupied a special position in society and memorial
stones called nadukal or virukkal were raised in honour of those
who died in fighting and were worshipped as godlings.
• Women in the Sangam period appear to have been educated.
Women are also engaged in various economic activities such as
paddy plantation, cattle rearing, basket-making, spinning etc.
However, the cruel practice of Sati was prevalent in Tamil society
and it was known as tippayadal. But it was not obligatory as there
are references to widows present in society. However their position
was miserable as they were prohibited to decorate themselves or
participate in any form of amusement.
• The people were engaged in various economic activities such as
agriculture, crafts and trade. Paddy was the most important crop. It
formed the main part of peoples’ diet and also served as a medium
of barter exchange for inland trade. The chiefs wherever possible,
encouraged agricultural activities by making tanks and dams. The
Chola king Karikala of the Sangam age is credited with constructing
a dam on the river Kaveri. It is considered to be the earliest dam in
the country.
• Among the crafts, the most important was of spinning and weaving
of cotton as well as silk. Salt manufacture was another important
activity. The most important feature of the Sangam economy was
flourishing trade with the Roman world. It is confirmed by the

recovery of a large number of Roman gold coins in south India.
• Vanji, identified with the present day Karur in Tamil Nadu, an
important centre of trade and craft. Muziris i.e Cranganore on the
south-west coast was the foremost port of the Cheras. Madurai,
the capital of the Pandyas, is described in the Sangam poems as
a large city.
The Sangam Literature
• According to Tamil tradition the three Sangams were held at Ten
Madurai, Kapatpuram and Madurai. The first Sangam was attended
by gods and sages but all its works have perished. The second
Sangam was attended by several poets and produced many works
but only Tolkappiyam the early Tamil grammar written by Tolkapiyar
the disciple of Agastya has survived of this vast literature; only a
fraction remains.
• Ettuttokai (the eight anthologies) and Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls) are
the two major groups of texts included in the corpus. Others are,
apart from Tolakappiyam (which deals with Tamil grammar of Aham
(love) and Puram (war), Patinenkilkanakku or the eighteen didactical

Ancient India 73
texts and Silappadigaram and Manimekalai the twin epics.

• The eight anthologies are follows:
1. Aingurunuru: compiled by Kilar. It consists of 500 erotic poems.
2. Agananuru: compied by Rudrasarman. It consists of love poems Notes
too.
3. Narrinai: 400 short poems, depicting love.
4. Kurutogai: 400 poems in eulogy of king.
5. Purananuru: 400 poems in eulogy of king.
6. Kalittogai: 150 love poems.
7. Paripadal: 150 love poems.
8. Paripadal: 24 poems in praise of gods.
9. Padidrupatta: A collection of 8 poems in eulogy of Chera king.
• Murugarrupavai - Compiled by Nakkirar, Sirupanarrupavai
- Compiled by Nattattanar, Madurai Kkanji - Compiled by
Mangudimarudan Pattinappalali.
• Perumbanarryppadai - Eighteen minor works- (kilkanakku): The
age prior to the Pallavas witnessed the composition of most of the
eighteen kilkanakku works. The most important work of this group is
the Kural by Tiruvalluvar. It is known as the Bible of the Tamil land.
The Naladiyar, the Palamoli by Araiyar and the Acarakkovai are
some of the notable books of this group.
The Epics
• The epics Silappadigaram and Mainmekalai belong to the early
centuries of the Christian era. Ilango Adigal and Sattnar are the
authors of these two epics. There is reference in the Silappadikalam
to the Ceylonese king Gajabahu, being present on the occasion of
the installation of a temple to Kannagi, the Goddess of chastity, by
Senguttuvan. In this book the love story of Kovalan and Madhavi a
dancer had been depicted. Mainmekalai is a Buddhist text. It is the
story of the daughter of Kovalan and one of the aims of the book is
to expound the excellence of the Buddhist religion.

• The Devotional poems: We get Vaishnava, Saiva, Jaina and
Buddhist texts of this period. Among the Vaishnavite Alvars
Nadmuni is greatly revered. Twelve Vaishnavite Alvars put their
hymns together and styled them. Nalayiram Nammalvar wote
Tiruvaymoli which is highly revered by the Vaishnavas. Andal was
a famous Vaishnava saint. She worte Trupparai which is touching
in its simplicity and fervour. The Shaiva Bhakti saints also produced
a mass of literature. Sambandar, Sundarar and Narukkarasar
were some of the great Shaiva saints. They composed Tevaram
a famous Shaiva text. Manikkavasagar wrote Tiruvasagam. The
Jivaka Cintamani is one of the famous Jaina texts of this time. It
was composed by a Jaina ascetic Tevar.

Ravi Kumar Yadav

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History: Ancient India

Alternative Learning Systems Limited

• The Middle Palaeolithic Industries are mainly based upon flakes.

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The Mesolithic Age: Hunters and Herders

• The characteristic tools of the Mesolithic Age are microliths. The

• The Mesolithic culture continued to be important roughly from 9000

The Neolithic Age: Food Producers

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as Maski and Tinnevelly. The important factor which decided the

• Some Neolithic sites found on the northern spurs of the Vindhyas

• In the north-west, the Kashmiri Neolithic culture was distinguished

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• The Neolithic settlers were the earliest farming communities.

THE AGE OF METALS

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02 Indus Valley Civilization Notes

• Indus Valley Civilization is earliest known urban culture of the Indian

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Easternmost Site Alamgirpur (Meerut District)

Northernmost Site Gumla (Jammu and Kashmir)

Southernmost Site Malavana (Surat District)

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Important Sites and their geographical location

SOCIETY AND POLITY

• No temples have been found at any Harappan site. We have no

practice of fire cult at Lothal in Gujarat in the later phase but no

Town Planning and Houses

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• The Harappans had commercial links with Afghanistan and Iran.

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• Unlike the Egyptians and Mesopotamians, the Harappans did not

excavated by Sir John Marshall. It was made entirely of burnt

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03 Rig Vedic Age Notes

• The Harrapan cities began to decline around 1900 BC and around

• The knowledge was passed through one generation to the other

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• With time the Aryans advanced in technology and lifestyle. The

of difference was distinguishing between the Arya-varna and the

RIG VEDIC LIFE

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• Women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual

• The Indo-Aryans, while sharing the ancient Iranian veneration for

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