Algae are members of a group of predominantly aquatic photosynthetic organisms of the

kingdom Protista. Algae have many types of life cycles, and they range in size from
microscopic Micromonas species to giant kelps that reach 60 metres (200 feet) in length.
Their photosynthetic pigments are more varied than those of plants, and their cells have
features not found among plants and animals

General characteristics of algae

Algal cells are eukaryotic. For instance, algae can photosynthesize like plants, and they
possess specialized structures and cell organelle like centrioles and flagella, found only in
animals.

 Algae are photosynthetic organisms

 Algae can be either unicellular or multicellular organisms
 Algae lack a well-defined body, so, structures like roots, stems or leaves are absent
 Algae are found where there is adequate moisture.
 Reproduction in algae occurs in both asexual and sexual forms. Asexual reproduction
occurs by spore formation.
 Algae are free-living, although some can form a symbiotic relationship with other
organisms

Types of Algae

There are many types of algae. However, these are some of the more prominent types:

1.Red Algae

Also called Rhodophyta, it is a distinctive species found in marine as well as freshwater

ecosystems. The pigments phycocyanin and phycoerythrin are responsible for the
characteristic red colouration of the algae. Other pigment that provide green colouration
(such as chlorophyll a) are present. However, they lack chlorophyll b or beta-carotene.

2.Green Algae

It is a large, informal grouping of algae having the primary photosynthetic pigments

chlorophyll a and b, along with auxiliary pigments such as xanthophylls and beta carotene.
Higher organisms use green algae to conduct photosynthesis for them. Other species of green
algae have a symbiotic relationship with other organisms. Members are unicellular,
multicellular, colonial and flagellates. Prominent examples of green algae include Spirogyra,
Ulothrix, Volvox, etc.

3. Blue-Green Algae

In the past, blue-green algae were one of the most well-known types of algae. However, since
blue-green algae are prokaryotes, they are not currently included under algae (because all
algae are classified as eukaryotic organisms).They are also called cyanobacteria, these
organisms live in moist or aquatic environments just like other algae. These include dams,
rivers, reservoirs, creeks, lakes and oceans. This class of bacteria obtains energy through the
process of photosynthesis. Ecologically, some species of blue-green algae are significant to
the environment as it fixes the nitrogen in the soil. Hence, these are also called nitrogen-
fixing bacteria. E.g. Nostoc, Anabaena

However, other types of blue-green algae can be toxic to human beings. They can either be
neurotoxic (affects the respiratory or nervous system, causing paralysis) or hepatotoxic
(causes the liver to fail). Moreover, some can act as indicators of environmental health,
signalling the extent of pollution.

Examples of Algae

Prominent examples of algae include:

 Ulothrix
 Fucus
 Porphyra
 Spirogyra

DIATOMS

A diatom is any member of a large group comprising several genera of algae, specifically microalgae,
found in the oceans, waterways and soils of the world. Living diatoms make up a significant portion
of the Earth's biomass: they generate about 20 to 50 percent of the oxygen produced on the planet
each year. Diatoms are unicellular organisms they occur either as solitary cells or in colonies, which
can take the shape of ribbons, fans, zigzags, or stars. Individual cells range in size from 2 to 200
micrometers. In the presence of adequate nutrients and sunlight, an assemblage of living diatoms
doubles approximately every 24 hours by asexual multiple fission; the maximum life span of
individual cells is about six days. Diatoms have two distinct shapes: a few (centric diatoms) are
radially symmetric, while most (pennate diatoms) are broadly bilaterally symmetric. A unique
feature of diatom anatomy is that they are surrounded by a cell wall made of silica (hydrated silicon
dioxide), called a frustule

LICHENS

A lichen is a composite organism that arises from algae or cyanobacteria living among
filaments of multiple fungi species in a mutualistic relationship.

Lichens are found abundantly growing in various places like on rocks, walls, gravestones, on
roofs, tree barks, soil, etc. Therefore, they are called the group of terrestrial organisms.

These terrestrial organisms require a fresh environment with adequate air for their growth and
development. Other than the rocks, lichens are found on gravestones, on walls and in many
other environmental conditions. In particular events, these organisms are also observed on
tiny branchlets, flat leaf-like structures, a powder-like appearance and in various other forms.

Characteristics of Lichens:

1. Lichens are a group of plants of composite thalloid nature, formed by the association of
algae and fungi.

2. The algal partner-produces carbohydrate through photosynthesis is utilised by both of them

and the fungal partner serves the function of absorption and retention of water.

3. Based on the morphological structure of thalli, they are of three types crustose, foliose and
fruticose.

4. Lichen reproduces by all the three means – vegetative, asexual, and sexual.

a) Vegetative reproduction: It takes place by fragmentation, decaying of older parts, by

soredia and isidia.
(b) Asexual reproduction: By the formation of oidia.

(c) Sexual reproduction: By the formation of ascospores or basidiospores. Only fungal

component is involved in sexual reproduction.

5. The growth of lichen is very slow, they can survive in adverse conditions with high
temperature and dry condition.

Classification of Lichens

There are various other types of lichens. Based on their certain special features, they are
classified into different types.

Based on their growth

1. Crustose Lichens

Crustose lichens are flat, thin and without any distinct lobes. They are usually found closely
attached to stones, rocks, barks and the trunk of trees. Haematomma puniceum and Graphic
scripta are the best examples of crustose lichens.

2. Foliose Lichens

The foliose lichens are more attractive compared to other types of lichens. They are flat
shaped, broad, smooth and leaf-like structures, which often resemble crinkled and twisted
leaves. It holds a distinct upper and a lower surface. This type of lichens is generally found
attached to rocks and twigs with the help of the rhizoid. Cetraria, Cluiudhuria, Parmelia and
Xanthoria are a few examples of foliose lichens.

3. Fruticose Lichens

These are the most important types of lichens, which are thin and freely branched. The
fruticose lichens constitute larger and attractive growths standing out from the branches of
trees, foliage and rocks. Cladonia, Ramalina and Usnea are the common examples of
fruticose lichens.
Based on their habitat:

1. Lignicolous. These types of lichens live in the woods.

2. Corticolous- These types of lichens live on the bark of trees.
3. Saxicolous- These types of lichens live on stones or rocks.
4. Marine. These types of lichens are found growing on the siliceous rocks, near the
shores of the sea.
5. Freshwater. These types of lichens are found growing on the hard siliceous rocks,
especially around the freshwater.
6. Terricolous- These types of lichens are found growing on the soil, therefore also
called the terrestrial lichens.

Reproduction in Lichens:

Lichen reproduces by all the three means, vegetative, asexual, and sexual.

I. Vegetative Reproduction

(a) Fragmentation:

It takes place by accidental injury where the thallus may be broken into fragments and each
part is capable of growing normally into a thallus.

II. Asexual Reproduction:

1. Soredium:

These are small grayish white, bud-like outgrowths developed on the upper cortex of the
thallus. They are composed of one.or few algal cells loosely enveloped by fungal hyphae.
They are detached from the thallus by rain or wind and on germination they develop new
thalli.

2. Isidium:

These are small stalked simple or branched, grayish- black, coral-like outgrowths, developed
on the upper surface of the thallus. The isidium has an outer cortical layer continuous with
the upper cortex of the mother thallus which encloses the same algal and fungal elements as
the mother

3. Pycniospore:

Some lichen develops pycniospore or spermatium inside the flask-shaped pycnidium.

They usually behave as gametes, but in certain condition they germinate and develop fungal
hyphae. These fungal hyphae, when in contact with the appropriate algal partner, develop into
a new lichen thallus

III. Sexual Reproduction:

Only fungal partner of the lichen reproduces sexually and forms fruit bodies on the thallus.
The nature of sexual reproduction in ascolichen is like that of the members of Ascomycotina,
whereas in Basidiolichen is like that of Basidiomycotina members

Some uses of lichens are:

(i) As Food:

As fodder

As medicine