E

ELECTRICAL
T

TESTER SPECIAL

Insulation assessment
of motors through
partial discharge testing
and analysis
By Markus Soeller and Alexander
Gorbunov
ISSUE 003 / 2021 EXTRACT

Extract article from Electrical Tester Issue I003 - Copyright 2021 Megger limited.

ARTICLE TITLE 1
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Read the full Electrical Tester magazines here
Issue 1
Contents
Integration of EVs with the electric grid......7
Geek Challenge 2....................................15
Motor insulation test voltages..................17
Lesser-known facts about TTR testing that
are affecting your results..........................23
DC testing of vacuum integrity in MV
switchgear...............................................30
Monitoring TT low-voltage distribution
systems....................................................37
Professional development........................41
A kit for earth testing...............................42
Have you ever heard of the Alexanderson
alternator?...............................................45
A bird’s-eye view of the rise of transformer
electrical, dielectric testing.......................47
Testing ROCOF protection........................52
Global conferences..................................55
Meeting the challenge of cable testing in
Bolivia......................................................56
The missing link in motor condition
monitoring...............................................59
POWERED BY... Ken Petroff......................65
Protection testing the primary way...........66
Are your electrical workers
up to par?................................................70
Questions and answers - IEC61850..........72
Read all about it.......................................74
2
Issue 2
Contents
Grid energy storage ................................. 7
Instantaneous torque as a predictive
maintenance tool.................................... 17
Geek Challenge II The solution............... 26
On-line testing of circuit breakers............ 29
Partial discharge: an interview with the
experts.................................................... 38
A toolbox approach to fault location in LV
power cables.......................................... 43
Geek Challenge III ................................. 49
HVDC transmission – in 1904!................ 50
Testing parallel resistances....................... 52
The high stakes of ignoring the mechanical
health integrity of a transformer............. 58
POWERED BY… Julie Pettit...................... 67
End-to-end testing for line differential
protection............................................... 69
Training and Education
in the COVID Era..................................... 76
Excitation voltage options for PD
investigations on MV cables.................... 78
Book club............................................... 85
Keeping a watchful eye on transformers.87
Maximizing security of supply at Höchst
industrial park......................................... 95
Static and dynamic resistance testing of
transformer tap changers...................... 101
Training opportunities and challenges:.. 110
Issue 3
Contents
Virtual testing of protection relays is real!.7
Geek Challenge III - The solution.............25
Testing high speed DC circuit breakers
..............................................................27
Electrical hot spot inspection and
preventative maintenance.......................33
ELECTROPEDIA – The IEC vocabulary
..............................................................39
POWERED BY
… Isobel Fraser-Underhill....................45
Insulation drying and oil processing of
in-service transformers............................47
VLF testing on motors and generators
..............................................................57
IEC 60255 1xx: Protection relay functional
standards for all......................................63
What is a knee point?.............................71
BOOK CLUB Part 1 .................................77
Insulation assessment of motors
through partial discharge testing and
analysis...................................................79
Surge and lightning arresters..................89
BOOK CLUB Part 2 .................................97
The IEEE GPECOM conference................99
Diagnostic testing of bushings..............107
The wrong call for contactors................114
Understanding generator restricted
earth fault (REF) protection and testing.......
............................................................117
Read all about it! .................................125
Q&A: Partial discharge..........................126
Motor inrush current.............................129
The importance of IEC 61850 in
relation to the smart grid......................135
Crossword corner.................................143
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Letter from the Editor
Jill Duplessis

Dear readers,

I am very excited to bring you this latest issue of Electrical Tester magazine!

Before we begin, I’d like to recognise the excellent contributions from our
esteemed, non-Megger colleagues: Cedric Harispuru, Greg Steeves, Xicai Zhao,
Ersan Kabalci, Murty Yalla, Thierry Bardou, and Volker Leitloff. Thank you all!
Our ET readers are avid consumers of electrical testing content and are well-
served by having such varied voices discussing so many topics. Many years
ago, as a young engineer, I was tasked with leading the development of a
transformer field processing guide. What I would have given to have had Greg’s
article on this subject to aid me in sorting all of the approaches!

I also extend praises to my many Megger colleagues for their exceptional

articles. The process of producing such high quality content can be arduous and
is nothing short of a labour of love and care for our readers, who we hope will
be helped by their contributions.

As for such aforementioned topics, I’d like to highlight the article by Stan Zurek
and Dave Milner titled “What is a Knee Point?”. I commissioned this piece
as a dedication to my newly retired line manager, Jeremy Hewlett, and Stan
and Dave produced it beautifully. Jeremy was always one to emphasise the
importance of paying attention to ‘fundamental knowledge’ and I wanted to
honour that legacy in this article. Indeed, “what is a knee point?” was one of
his favourite examples! So whichever corner of the world this issue finds you,
Jeremy, this article is for you!

ET magazine is evolving and expanding, and to that end this issue features our
own Assistant Editor and Designer, Izzy Fraser-Underhill talking about her work
and life in our “Powered By” article. This is a great way to find out more about
her, and why she has my vote for President of the World! Furthermore, I’d like
to introduce you to my newest Assistant Editor for Copy, Léonie Alvey, who has
helped me proof and edit the articles in this issue and will continue to do so
going forward.

And finally, I am honoured to deliver a welcome message from Megger’s Group

Director, Andrew Dodds, which you can read on the next page. Andrew’s
extensive knowledge about the world of electrical testing is truly inspiring to me
and hopefully you’ll get a feel as to why.

My warmest regards to you all and enjoy this issue!

Jill

Letter from the full edition of ET I003

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Insulation
assessment of
motors through
partial discharge
testing and
analysis
By Markus Soeller and
Alexander Gorbunov

ARTICLE TITLE 5
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Stator winding insulation systems in motors are resistant
to the effects of partial discharge (PD) which makes them
very different from the insulation systems used in almost
all other applications where the ideal operating state is
PD-free. Stator insulation can typically tolerate PD activity
for many years without it leading to failure.
Because stator insulation systems are designed to operate
in a PD environment, there are currently no standards
that define acceptance criteria for PD activity in rotating
machinery. PD testing on rotating machines is therefore
a matter of trending measured results and comparing
them with available reference data. Nevertheless, defects
in stator insulation cause specific types of PD activity
and this makes PD analysis the ideal tool for condition
assessment of generators and large motors.
Proper choice of the frequency band allows PD patterns
(ϕ-q-n patterns) to be acquired that offer reasonable
coverage of the entire winding while minimising the
effects of interference from external noise sources.
This article discusses the inherent resistance to PD of
the epoxy-mica insulation systems used in rotating
machines and the importance of choosing an appropriate
bandwidth for PD measurements. It then reviews typical
failure modes for stator winding insulation and the PD
patterns that they produce.
Epoxy-mica insulation systems
The stator winding insulation in rotating machines
is usually formed of mica tapes or flakes, and, in
modern machines, epoxy resin is the usual choice for
impregnating the mica layers. For large generators, the
traditional resin-rich impregnation is most often used
and, for large motors in particular, vacuum impregnation
of the entire stator coil has become increasingly popular
in recent decades.
In most applications, epoxy resin exhibits ‘treeing’
when subjected to PD activity, which ultimately leads
to electrical breakdown. In rotating machines, however,
the large number of mica barriers means that the
formation of trees is stopped after a very short distance.
Subsequently, treeing in the resin can continue only
slowly on the surface of the mica barrier until it reaches
the corner of the barrier, when it can grow further in the
direction of the electric field. Turning now to the mica,
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INSULATION ASSESSMENT OF MOTORS THROUGH PARTIAL DISCHARGE TESTING AND ANALYSIS
this has a microscopic structure such that a multitude of
small areas delaminate as the stator is heat cycled. If the
streamer inception field strength is reached locally, these
small areas of delamination support PD, which means
that even healthy new insulation will show PD activity.
The epoxy-mica insulation system is, for the most part,
stable in the presence of PD but, on the other hand, all of
the degradation processes associated with this insulation
system result in PD. This makes PD measurement an
ideal tool for assessing the condition of a stator winding
with the proviso that because even a new machine may
show PD activity, determining only the level of PD is
insufficient.
Practical PD measurements for motors
In practice, PD measurements on motors are carried out
with the machine off-line. In addition to looking at the
amplitude of the PD, testing also includes analysis of the
PD patterns which, as we will see, helps to determine the
root cause of any issues detected. While useful on their
own, the value of PD tests is further enhanced if they
are combined with loss factor measurements and other
dielectric tests.
As has already been mentioned, a complicating factor
for PD testing of motors is the lack of standards defining
acceptance criteria. This situation often leads to lengthy
discussions between the owners and manufacturers of
machines when test reports are submitted, even when
the reports relate to factory tests. In relation to this, it is
important to bear in mind that, as was explained earlier
in this article, even new machines will exhibit PD activity
and, in most cases, this is not an indicator of problems.
To perform off-line PD tests, the machine must be
taken out of service and isolated. The stator windings
are then energised from a high-voltage source, which
should ideally be PD-free. If it is not, the results will be
a combination of PD from the voltage source and PD
from the motor, and it may be impossible to separate
the two components. If the high-voltage source does
exhibit significant PD, it should be used in conjunction
with a filter. When carrying out the test, it is important
to remember that the measurement conditions differ
from those present when the machine is in operation. For
example, the conductors will be cold; the environmental
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40 – 800 kHz (IEC60270) 2 – 20 MHz 20 – 200 MHz

1215697 Counts 110843 Counts 2270 Counts

„ 1200 kW – 6600 V asynchronous motor „ Off-line PD measurement, 60 s PD pattern

with internal neutral connection acquisition (coupling capacitor)
„ New VPI impregnated stator winding „ Same test object and test voltage,
different band pass filters
Figure 1: Three tests on the same motor

„ 800 kW – 6600 V asynchronous motor

with internal neutral connection
„ Off-line PD measurement (conventional
„ Internal PD activity in the main circuit acc. IEC 60270)
insulation (ground wall)
„ Available signal up to 5.5 MHz

Figure 2: Frequency spectrum for PD test

conditions – in particular, the relative humidity – may be
different; and the electric field distribution within the
machine will be different, as the test is carried out with a
single-phase voltage source.
The results obtained are either compared with factory
acceptance or historical test results. This procedure
provides invaluable insights into the condition of the
stator windings and, if a PD analyser capable of capturing
synchronised PD patterns is used, it can also provide
useful information about the type of fault a machine may
be experiencing.
Choosing PD measurement frequency
and bandwidth
The choice of measurement frequency and bandwidth is
critically important if reliably informative PD test results
are to be obtained. To understand these factors, it is
useful to briefly review the way in which PD signals are

INSULATION ASSESSMENT OF MOTORS THROUGH PARTIAL DISCHARGE TESTING AND

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Figure 3: Defect locations in stator bars

produced. Almost invariably, they start as a gas discharge
in a void in the insulation, simply because the breakdown
strength of the gas in the void is lower than that of the
surrounding dielectric material. In the void, an electron
avalanche occurs, which is, in effect, a high frequency
current impulse with a very short rise time. In nitrogen,
which is the major constituent of air, the rise time is
typically around 1 ns, which corresponds to a range of
frequencies up to 350 MHz.
This description, however, applies only to the pulse at its
source. By the time it has reached the terminals where
the test instrument is connected, the characteristics of
the pulse will have been substantially modified by high-
frequency effects that include attenuation, reflection,
resonance, dispersion, and radiation. This means that
there are no easy rules for choosing the best frequency
and bandwidth for making PD measurements. Lower
frequencies and bandwidths are more prone to HF noise
but tend to yield PD signals with a larger amplitude and
allow PD to be detected over the entire winding. Higher
frequencies are less affected by noise but may provide
only partial coverage of the winding. Some of these
effects can be seen in Figure 1, which shows the results
from three tests on the same motor, using different
frequencies and bandwidths.
A helpful aid to determining the best frequency and
bandwidth for analysing PD tests on a specific motor is
to examine the frequency spectrum of the PD signals
produced – an example of which is shown in Figure 2.
By examining the spectrum, it is possible to choose
a combination of bandwidth and frequency that will
provide results with a good signal-to-noise ratio and will
not be unduly influenced by external noise.
Before looking at some actual test results and showing
how they can be used to classify types of failure, it is
important to mention calibration. All PD measurements
are relative, and calibration is, therefore, essential to
compensate for the attenuation and other characteristics
of the test circuit. Calibration, which should be performed
for every motor being tested and every time the test set
up is changed significantly, involves injecting a test pulse
of defined magnitude and adjusting the response of the
PD instrument accordingly.
Strictly (according to IEC60270, which provides guidance
on PD testing in general), calibration is only valid
when using a bandpass filter at frequencies up to 1
MHz. However, PDIX instruments also support quasi-
integration, which is effective at higher frequencies.
Failure types and locations
The majority of failures in stator insulation systems fall
into the following categories:
„ Internal discharge activity caused by:
n Delamination of main insulation
or conductor binding
n Micro voids

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INSULATION ASSESSMENT OF MOTORS THROUGH PARTIAL DISCHARGE TESTING AND ANALYSIS

Symmetrical electrode configuration
„ Multiple voids of different sizes
„ Increased test voltage
„ Voltage shaped clusters (line type pattern)
„ Void and surface discharge
Figure 4: Void discharges
n Thermal ageing
„ End winding (overhang) discharge caused by:
n Surface discharge due to contamination
n Bar-to-bar activity
n Vibration
„ Slot discharge caused by:
n Wedge problems
n Inadequate impregnation
„ Slot exit discharge caused by field grading problems
„ External high frequency disturbances
As can be seen in Figure 3, most failures occur at the
stator bar. The electrical field strength is highest at the
corners, so the insulation in these areas are particularly
vulnerable. Potential problems include delamination at
the inner conductor and delamination within the tape
layers.
The different failure modes are readily recognisable from
the unique PD signatures they produce, as the following
examples show.
Voids
A typical void (indicated by the red arrow) is shown in
the micrograph at the bottom right of Figure 4. When
exposed to a sufficiently strong electric field, the gases in
INSULATION ASSESSMENT OF MOTORS THROUGH PARTIAL DISCHARGE TESTING AND
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these voids become ionised. This leads to discharges that
produce PD impulses, which can be measured.
When the PD pattern resulting from the presence of
voids is examined, typical line patterns are seen. The
screen capture at the upper left in Figure 4 is an example
showing a pattern that indicates the likely presence
of seven individual voids. Over time, as the PD activity
progresses, there is more carbonisation in the voids, and
the availability of free electrons increases. The line pattern
then changes into a more distributed pattern. The screen
capture at the top centre of Figure 4 shows a mixture of
void discharges that have progressed to produce the thin
almost-vertical lines and surface discharge, indicated by
the humped parts of the pattern.
Conductor binding delamination
tFigure 5 illustrates delamination close to the inner
conductor and it can be seen that the PD pattern shows
asymmetrical partial discharge activity with the highest
amplitude in the positive half-cycle of the applied voltage.
In bipolar mode (left hand screen capture), the PD activity
for the first half cycle is shown below the x-axis. Unipolar
mode (right hand screen capture) shows the activity in
the same relative phase position but entirely above the
x-axis. This pattern of high PD activity in the positive half
cycle of
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„ Main pattern properties:

„ Asymmetrical pulse distribution for both cycles
„ Dominant positive cycle
„ Delamination at inner conductor circuit
„ Normal ageing: frequent load cycling
(e.g. pump storage stations)

Figure 5: Conductor binding delamination

Asymmetrical electrode configuration

„ Predominantly in the negative half cycle

„ Often typical triangular pattern
„ Strongly load dependent due to magnetic forces
„ Delamination at the slot corona prevention layer
„ Consequent high Ozone (O3) generation
causing ‘collateral damage’

Figure 6: Slot discharge at machine bars

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INSULATION ASSESSMENT OF MOTORS THROUGH PARTIAL DISCHARGE TESTING AND ANALYSIS
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Symmetrical electrode configuration

„ Similar pattern for both half cycles „ Cross-coupling of adjacent phase

„ Equal polarities and amplitudes „ Main insulation delaminations/voids
„ Often typical triangular pattern

Figure 7: Thermally aged main insulation

Contaminated overhang

„ Similar, often triangular, PD pattern „ Contaminated or moist insulation surface

for both half cycles (90°/270°)
„ Insufficient spacing between windings
„ Strongly voltage dependent discharge magnitude
„ Insufficient grading by the semi-conductive layer

Figure 8: End winding surface discharge

the applied voltage and lower activity in the negative half
cycle is very typical for conductor binding delamination.
Slot discharge at machine bars
Figure 6 illustrates a defect in the outer area of the
insulation. It can be seen that, compared with Figure 5,
the PD pattern is reversed, with PD activity being at its
highest in the negative half cycle of the applied voltage.
The bipolar pattern, which this time is on the right, clearly
shows that the PD in the negative half cycle starts close
to the zero crossing of the applied voltage and forms
a trianglar shape. For this type of determination to be
made, it is essential that the phase relationship between
the applied voltage and the pattern display is correct.
Hence, the synchronisation signal from the coupler is as

INSULATION ASSESSMENT OF MOTORS THROUGH PARTIAL DISCHARGE TESTING AND

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Defect mechanism with vacuum impregnation systems

„ Thermal stress causes „ Discharge level: 10 – 50 nC

surface cracks
„ Gap grows due to the PD
„ Initial state: surface discharge ‘consuming’ insulation

Figure 9: Slot-exit PD activity – initial stage

important as the PD signal itself. This type of PD activity seen in the bottom right-hand photograph, where the
often produces ozone, and the longer the PD activity is white powder is again visible.
allowed to continue, the more damage this ozone will
cause. Slot-exit PD activity
Thermally aged main insulation The last example in this article concerns slot-exit PD
activity, and Figure 9 shows the initial phase of this.
Figure 7 shows a typical PD pattern for thermally aged
The activity has started at the point marked ‘A’ in the
main insulation. This pattern is symmetrical because the
photograph. At this time, the semiconductor tape is
PD activity occurs in the middle of the insulation layers
only partially destroyed, and the PD plot exhibits an
– in the tape layers – and is neither close to conductors
asymmetrical pattern with higher activity in the negative
nor to ground potential. The level of PD activity and the
half cycle of the applied voltage. Later, surface discharge
number of PD pulses is substantially the same in the
starts between the semiconductor tape and the inner
positive and negative half cycles. The right-hand screen
part of the stator bar. Ultimately, after a few months or a
capture in this figure demonstrates how useful high-
year, the condition develops to the point where the tape
resolution voltage measurement can be, as it reveals that
is eaten away completely, and the situation changes to
harmonics can have a strong influence on the PD pattern,
that shown in Figure 10.
in this case producing vertical striations.
The PD pattern is now different because there are
End winding surface discharge floating potentials. The pressure finger discharges directly
to the conductor, as illustrated in the upper left-hand
Figure 8 illustrates end winding surface discharge. The diagram in Figure 10. This floating activity affects the
white powder that can be seen in the photograph PD pattern so that it becomes flatter but with a much
at the top centre is either dust or the result of ozone greater amplitude than at the previous stage – typically
action, and it leads to surface discharge. At first sight 100 to 200 nanocoulombs (nC) compared with just a few
the PD pattern looks quite similar to that in Figure 7, nanocoulombs.
but closer inspection reveals that it is shifted a little to
the right, so that the maximum PD activity coincides
with the maximum applied voltage. This is because
surface discharge, which is due to contaminated or moist
insulating surfaces, is strongly voltage dependent. Surface
discharge can also occur when there is insufficient
spacing between interphases. An example of this can be

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INSULATION ASSESSMENT OF MOTORS THROUGH PARTIAL DISCHARGE TESTING AND ANALYSIS
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Figure 9: Slot-exit PD activity – initial stage

Defect mechanism with global vacuum impregnation

„ Loss of dielectric strength to ground potential

„ Discharge to the pressure finger, plate or stator core
„ Final stage: floating potential discharge
„ Strong discharge amplitude Qp > 100 nC

Figure 10: Slot-exit PD activity – final stage

Summary
These off-line measurements provide dependable
We have seen that stator winding systems are PD
verification of insulation condition in machines at every
resistant and can tolerate PD activity for many years
stage in their life cycle: after manufacturing, during
without this leading to failure. Nevertheless, dielectric
the first months of operation and during subsequent
assessments are just as important as vibration
maintenance outages. Further, they are an excellent
measurement when it comes to ensuring the future
guide to the need for repairs to maintain machine
reliability of rotating machines. PD detection and
performance and reliability. PD testing is a practical
analysis can make an important contribution to these
solution for practical problems and, used appropriately, it
assessments, but it is necessary to trend the results and
can lead to big savings and big reductions in unplanned
compare them with available reference data because
downtime.
there are currently no defined acceptance criteria for PD
testing.

To ensure that PD testing gives the best possible results,

careful attention must be given to frequency and
bandwidth selection, to calibration, and to the use of
recommended measurement circuits. Provided that this
is done, analysis of the phase-resolved partial discharge
pattern will give invaluable information about the type or
types of partial discharge within a machine and locations
involved.

INSULATION ASSESSMENT OF MOTORS THROUGH PARTIAL DISCHARGE TESTING AND

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Electrical Tester team
Jill Duplessis
Editor
Jill Duplessis is the Global Technical
Marketing Manager for Megger. Her
focus is on content strategy and content
development for marketing and business
segment initiatives. Jill is editor of Megger’s
Electrical Tester magazine. She is the
primary author of Megger’s Transformer
Life Management (TLM) bulletin series
and author of many articles, papers and
a book titled Electrical Field Tests for the
Life Management of Transformers. Prior to
her move to Megger, Jill was Director of
Power Programs for a start-up company
in Washington D.C., where she was
responsible for developing, testing and
deploying new applications of (intensity
modulated) optical monitoring systems for
transmission and distribution utilities. Before
14 ARTICLE TITLE
this, she gained over 17 years of experience
in the condition assessment of substation
assets, first as a Principal Engineer at Doble
Engineering Company and following as a
Primary Manager and Regional Application
Specialist, Transformers, for OMICRON
electronics USA. She has prior electric
utility work experience (with Florida Power
Corporation, now part of Duke Energy,
and Georgia Power Company), where she
enjoyed an exposure to a wide breadth of
engineering functions. Jill received a BSEE
degree from Georgia Institute of Technology
in 1991 and completed extensive master
studies in electrical power engineering at
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY.
Isobel Fraser-Underhill
Designer and Assistant Editor
The Group Graphic designer for Megger,
Isobel graduated University of Kent in
2005 with BA Hons in Visual design and
Advertising, working within the design
industry for over 15 years in various B2B
and B2C companies. Isobel joined Megger
in July 2013 focusing on the companies
Visual Identity and Creative operations.
Isobel has been the Designer and Assistant
Editor of the Electrical Tester publication
since 2013.

Léonie Alvey
Assistant Editor
Prior to working as the Group Content
Editor for Megger, Léonie graduated from
Swansea University in 2010 with BA Hons
in Egyptology and Classical Civilisations.
Shortly after this time, she began a career
writing, editing and proofreading for PR
agencies, magazines, web content and
sales content across a wide range of
industries, both B2B and B2C. Since joining
Megger in 2016, Léonie has concentrated
on improving the quality of written work
across all sectors of the business while also
growing and maintaining Megger’s global
LinkedIn channel.
Editorial contributors
Keith Wilson
Technical Copywriter/Editorial
Contributor
Keith is a qualified electrical engineer with
experience in designing and commissioning
control systems, principally for mechanical
handling and process plant. He is a lifelong
member of the Institution of Engineering
and Technology and is now a well-known
technical author.
Oana Baetica
Copywriter/Editorial Contributor
Oana is an experienced technical
content contributor. She holds an MA
in Communication and PR, speaks five
languages and is currently studying for a
PhD in Linguistics.
The rights of the individuals
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Tester to be identified as
authors of their respective
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with the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act 1988.
© Copyright Megger.
All rights reserved. No
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Tester, please email
electricaltester@Megger.
com, with a brief outline of
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ARTICLE TITLE 15
ELECTRICAL
TESTER SPECIAL

ELECTRICAL TESTER MAGAZINE I003 2021 - EXTRACT

The rights of the individuals attributed in Electrical Tester to be identified as authors of their respective articles has been asserted by them in accordance with
the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. © Copyright Megger. All rights reserved. No part of Electrical Tester may be reproduced in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photo-copying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Megger.