LEARNING

OUTCOMES
Describe structure of a flower

Explain the dev elopment of

gametophytes in plants

Explain and differentiate the

types of pollination

Explain the process of double

fertilization
LEARNING
OUTCOMES
Explain the two types of seed
germination

Describe primary growth and

the types of tissues involved

Describe secondary growth

and the types of tissues
involved
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
★ Many plant are able to propagate themselves using
asexual reproduction – cloning themselves
★ Definition: Asexual reproduction
 Is the production of new individuals / offspring whose
genes all come from one parent
 Without fusion of egg and sperm (does not involve
fertilization between male and female gametes)
 It relies entirely on mitotic cell division
★ All progeny are genetically identical to parent and to
each other.
★ The production of offspring from single parents and
occurs without genetic recombination and resulting in a
clone
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
★ Types of asexual reproduction in plants:

 Apomixis (some citruses, certain grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass,

and dandelions)

 Natural vegetative propagation

 Artificial vegetative propagation

 Sporulation (moss, fern)

 Binary fission (algae)

MECHANISMS OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
APOMIXIS
 Definition: Apomixis is a form of asexual reproduction in
plant in which seeds are produced without pollination or
fertilization
 A diploid cell in the ovule gives rise to an embryo.
 The ovules mature into seeds, which are dispersed.
 The advantage of apomixis over other methods of asexual
reproduction is that
 The seeds and fruits produced by apomixis can be
dispersed by methods associated with sexual
reproduction
 E.g., some citruses, certain grasses (such as Kentucky
bluegrass), and dandelions
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
 Definition: A form of asexual reproduction in plant in which new plants
are produced from vegetative parts of parent plants

 In vegetative reproduction no embryo is produced

 Vegetative propagation can occurs through

 Fragmentation, & regeneration of a plant part (e.g. stem, leaves) to

grow into a whole new plant

 Growth of specialised vegetative (non-sexual) plant parts (e.g.:

bulbs, runners, and tubers)
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

 Mechanism: Fragmentation

 Separation of a parent plant into parts that develop into whole

plants.

 Common form of vegetative reproduction.

 Root system of a single parent gives rise to many adventitious

shoots that become separate shoot systems.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
 Vegetative propagation can occur naturally or artificially

 Fragmentation happens naturally when small parts of

a plant fall off onto the soil and begin to grow into a
new plant

o An example of fragmentation occurs in liverwort

plants, whose small stems or leaves are often broken
off by animals or wind and then grow into clones of
the parent plant when they land in the soil

 Fragmentation happens artificially through human

activities

o E.g., a gardener taking a cutting (stem or leaves) from

a plant
VEGETATIVE STRUCTURES
 Vegetative parts involved in propagation are:

Bulbs Rhizome Corm

Runner /
stolon Tap root Suckers

Stem tubers & Leaves Stem

Root tubers
VEGETATIVE STRUCTURES
Bulbs = Thick and short underground Rhizome = Horizontal underground
stems for food storage stems for food storage
★ E.g.: Tulips, onions  E.g.: Ginger

Stem segments Shoots

Roots

(Netherlands Flower Bulb Information

Center, n.d.)
 VEGETATIVE STRUCTURES
Runners/stolon = horizontal stems Tap roots = Swollen food-storing
that grow along the surface of the tap roots
ground
★ E.g. Carrot
★ E.g.: Strawberries
VEGETATIVE STRUCTURES
Tubers = Enlarged/ swollen ends of horizontal underground
★ stems (stem tubers)
★ adventitious roots (root tubers)
★ E.g.: Potato (stem tubers)
Yam, sweet potato, cassava (root tubers)

Seed Stem
potato
Root tuber swollen
adventitious root

Developing
tuber
VEGETATIVE STRUCTURES
Corm = Vertical underground stem Leaves = have buds at the edge
of leaves
★ E.g. Cocoyam
★ E.g. Bryophyllum

Leaf buds

Longitudinal section the corm of a crocus.

The thick, short stem surrounded by the
fibrous remains of old leaf-bases. The
remains of corms of three preceding
seasons are shown below the present one.
VEGETATIVE STRUCTURES
Suckers = Young shoots that arise from underground stem / root

★ E.g. Banana, sugar cane, pineapple

(FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF

THE UNITED NATIONS, n.d.)
MECHANISMS OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
ARTIFICIALVEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
 Artificial vegetative propagation occurs as
a result of human activities
 The common methods of artificial
vegetative propagation include:
o Cuttings
o Layering
o Grafting
o Micro-propagation / Test tube
cloning (by tissue culture method)
 Why Bother?

Advantages to artificial vegetative propagation:

1. Plants that grow from seed are not always exactly the same as their
parents.
2. Takes less time to artificially propagate.
3. Can create seedless fruits.
4. Grafting can be used to generate higher levels of fruit and nut
production.
METHODS OF ARTIFICIAL VEGETATIVE
PROPAGATION
★ Cutting
o A vegetative part (e.g. stem, root or leaf) of a plant is cut and planted in
the soil, along with some nutrients. This cut part will develops into a new
plant
o E.g., Stem cuttings : Sugar cane, Duranta, Colues, rose, china-rose
Root cuttings : Tamarind, lemon
Leaf cuttings : Peperomia, Begonia, African violets

Root cutting
Stem cutting (Gardening Know How, n.d.)
Leaf cutting
METHODS OF ARTIFICIAL VEGETATIVE
PROPAGATION
★ Micro-propagation / Test tube cloning
★ Regenerate genetically engineered plant through / using tissue and
cell culture technique
★ A small piece of tissue is excised from a plant and is grown in a
nutrient medium under aseptic conditions
★ The tissue proliferates into an undifferentiated mass called the callus
(can be kept and multiplied for an unlimited period)
METHODS OF ARTIFICIAL VEGETATIVE
PROPAGATION
★ Micro- propagation / Test tube cloning
★ When small portions of the callus tissue are transferred to another
medium with specific hormones, the differentiation of plantlets is induced
★ The plantlets are transplanted in pots or soil and raised to maturity
★ By this method an indefinite number of plants can be obtained from a
small mass of parental tissue
★ E.g. Orchids
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

Advantages Disadvantages
For propagation of plant that More susceptible to diseases as
produce little or no viable the entire plant may get affected as
seeds there is no genetic variation

To provide consistent quality

No new varieties can be produced
without variation

Helps plant spread

Enables survival following damage

to parent tree (disease, burning,
felling)
 COMPARISONS OF ASEXUAL & SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

Require two unisexual parents
Number of
Single parent involved only (one male and one female) or
organisms involved
hermaphrodites

Gametes (sperm for male, and

Involvement of sex
Gametes are not produced ovum/ egg for female) are produced
cells
by the parents

Gametes are produced by meiosis

Cell division Mitosis only
and zygote develops by mitosis

Genetic variation of Offspring are genetically Offspring show genetic variation,

offspring/ progeny identical to the parent not identical to parents

Number of Large number of offprints are Comparatively the number produced

offspring/ progeny produced in a very short time is less